Republic of the Philippines

University of Eastern Philippines

University Town‚ Northern Samar
College of Engineering

ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

ECE 312a
(INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS)

MODULE 3

Kenneth Bryan F. Abaigar‚ REE‚ RME‚ MAME

Course Instructor
Electrical Engineering Faculty
kbabaigar@gmail.com
09264050019
 MODULE 3

OVERVIEW

Industrial Electronics is the branch of electronics that deals with power electronic
devices such as thyristors‚ SCR’s‚ semiconductors etc. to put it simply‚ industrial
electronics refers to equipment‚ tools and processes that involve electrical equipment
in an industrial setting.

This course covers filtered power supply‚ voltage multiplier‚ voltage

regulators‚ polyphase rectifier‚ SCR’s‚ UJT‚ PUT‚ TRIAC‚ DIAC and other
thyristors‚ transducers‚ interfacing techniques and introduction to robotics.

Learning Objectives
At the end of the module‚ you should be able to:
1. know polyphase rectifier
2. know what is SCR
3. determine the difference between UJT and PUT
4. determine the difference between TRIAC and DIAC

Lesson 1 – Polyphase rectifier

What is a Polyphase Rectifier?

A rectifier which utilizes two or more diodes (usually three), each of which
operates during an equal fraction of an alternating-current cycle to achieve an output
current which varies less than that in an ordinary half-wave or full-wave rectifier.
Three phase Half Wave Rectifier
A three phase half wave rectifier, as the name implies, consists of a three phase
transformer. Given below is a star connected secondary three phase transformer
with three diodes connected to the three phases. As shown in the figure, the neutral
point ‘NTRL’ of the secondary is considered as the earth for the circuit and is given
as the negative terminal for the load.
How does it work?
The input and the output
wave forms for the circuit above is
shown below. For each one-third of
the cycle, each diode conducts. At
the instant when one diode out of
three is conducting, the other two
are left inactive, at that instant their
cathodes becomes positive with
respect to the anodes. This
process repeats for each of the
three diodes.
The voltage between the
cathode and ‘NTRL’ (dc voltage
Vdc) will have a value between the
peak value of alternating voltages
per phase Vsm and half this value
½ Vsm.
The arrangement shown
above is practiced only if 3 phase
supply is available. Like in single
phase circuits, there is not a single
point at which the rectified voltage
will drop to zero, even without a smoothing arrangement. The voltage ripples are
also small when compared to single phase circuits and the frequency of ac supply is
three times more when compared with the former. If smoothing is needed, it can be
obtained easily. The circuit will need a zig-zag secondary if dc saturation of
transformer core which is caused by the flow of direct current of each diode, is to be
avoided.
Three Phase Full Wave Rectifier
A three phase full wave rectifier can also be called a six wave half wave
rectifier. As shown in the figure below the diodes D1 to D6 will conduct only for ⅙th
of the period, with a period of pi/3.
 As shown in the output wave form, the fluctuation of dc voltage is less in a
three phase circuit. The variation lies between the maximum alternation voltage and
86.6% of this, with the average value being 0.955 times the maximum value.
Six diodes are used for the making of this full wave rectifier. As so, it may
pose some problems and may also be advantageous in some cases. If we need a
smoother output, the use of six diodes may be seen as an advantage. But the use of
six diodes complicates the circuit and each diode operates for a shorter cycle. Also,
since no more than six are used, the circuit is cost effective, as long as it is
compared with the comparative increase in the output of the rectifier.
Transformer Winding Connections
As told earlier, out of the six diodes, only one diode conducts at a particular
instant. Thus, the current flows only through one phase of the transformer
secondaries and primaries, at a particular instant. There will be a line- to-line current
flow, with the transformer primary is being connected in delta connection. But when
the primaries are in star connection, two of three phases are virtually open circuited
at every instant. Thus for a three phase full wave rectifier, star connection is not
practical.
For any polyphase rectifier, the neutral point must be provided by connecting
the secondary windings of the transformer as it is considered as the negative
terminal of the dc output circuit.
Rectifier Design Factors
When designing a rectifier, the following factors are to be considered to
determine the number of phases.
1. To create minimum amount of harmonics generated in the output circuit, the
number of phases in the rectifier circuit should be high.
2. For good transformer utilization factor (TUF), the number of pages in the rectifier
should be low.
3. For low voltage regulation the number of pages in the rectifier should be low.
4. For high power factor the number of pages in the rectifier should be low.

Lesson 2 - SILICON CONTROLLED RECTIFIER (SCR)

What is SCR?
The term SCR stands for silicon controlled rectifier which is one of the most
important members of the thyristor family. It is more popular than the other Thyristors
like TRIAC, SCS, DIAC, etc. that some people even use the words Thyristor and
SCR interchangeably. So next time when someone says just “Thyristor” in general,
then they are referring to the SCR.
SCRs are constructed from silicon and are most commonly used for
converting AC current to DC current (rectification), hence the name Silicon controlled
rectifier. They are also used in other applications such as regulation of power,
inversion, etc. The SCRs have an ability to handle high value of current and Voltage
hence they are used in most of the industrial applications.
SCR Symbol
The Symbol of the SCR will be similar to that of the diode,
additionally; it has a gate terminal as shown below. The SCR is a
unidirectional device that allows the current to flow in one direction
and opposes it in another direction. SCR has three terminals
namely Anode (A), Cathode (K) and gate (G), it can be turned ON
or OFF by controlling the biasing conditions or the gate input.
Again the Thyristor symbol and SCR symbol are the same.
Now that we know how an SCR/Thyristor can be represented in a circuit diagram,
let’s look into the SCR Construction and Working to understand more about it.
Construction of SCR
The SCR is a four-layered semiconductor device that forms NPNP or PNPN
structure, which eventually forms three junctions J1, J2, and J3. Among the three
terminals of the SCR, the Anode is a positive electrode, it will be on the P-layer and
Cathode is a negative electrode, it will be on the N-layer of the SCR, the Gate acts
as a control terminal of the SCR. The SCR Construction image is shown below.

The outer P and N layers where the two electrodes are placed
will be heavily doped and the middle P and N layers will be lightly
doped, the gate terminal will be connected to the P-layer in the
middle. The SCRs are constructed with three different types, planar
type, Mesa type, and Press pack type.
How SCR works?
To understand the SCR working principle we have to look into the different
ways it can operate. Depending on the polarity of the voltage applied and the gate
pulse given to the SCR, it can operate in three different modes such as Forward
Blocking mode, Forward Conduction mode and Reverse Blocking mode.
Now, let’s understand the Thyristor working by taking a look at each of the
operating modes with its circuit diagram.
1. Forward Blocking Mode
In this mode of operation, the positive voltage is
applied to the anode and the negative voltage applied
to the cathode, there will not be any pulse applied to the
gate, it will be kept in the open state. Once the voltage
is applied, the junctions J1 and J3 will be forward biased and the junction J2 will be
reverse biased. Since J2 is reverse biased the width of the depletion region
increases and it acts as an obstacle for conduction, so only a small amount of
current will be flowing from J1 to J3.
When the voltage applied to the SCR is increased and if it reaches the
breakdown voltage of the SCR, the junction J2 gets depleted due to avalanche
breakdown. Once the Avalanche breakdown occurs the current will start flowing
through the SCR. In this mode of operation, the SCR is forward biased, but, there
will not be any current flow.
2. Forward Conduction Mode
The Forward Conduction Mode is the only mode
at which the SCR will be in the ON state and will be
conducting. We can make the SCR conduct in two
different ways, one we can increase the applied
forward bias voltage beyond the breakdown voltage or
else we can apply a positive voltage to the gate
terminal.
When we increase the Applied forward bias
voltage between the anode and cathode the junction
J2 will be depleted due to the avalanche breakdown and the SCR will start
conducting. We are not able to do this for all the applications and this method of
activating the SCR will eventually reduce the lifetime of the SCR.
If you want to use the SCR for low voltage applications, you can apply a
positive voltage to the gate of the SCR. The applied positive voltage will help the
SCR to move to the conduction state. During this mode of operation, the SCR will be
operating in forward bias and current will be flowing through it.
3. Reverse Blocking Mode
In the reverse blocking mode, the positive
voltage is applied to the Cathode (-) and the Negative
voltage is given to the Anode (+), There will not be any
pulse given to the gate, it will be kept as an open circuit.
During this mode of operation, the Junctions J1 and J3
will be reverse biased and the junction J2 will be
forward biased. Since the junctions J1 and J3 are
reverse biased there will not be any current flowing
through the SCR. Although there will be a small
leakage current flowing due to the drift charge carriers
in the forward-biased Junction J2, it is not enough to turn on the SCR.
Different Types of SCRs and Packages
There are many types of SCR based on the specification and application. We
have already discussed about the popular SCRs like BT151, 2P4M, TYN608, etc.
The SCRs are available in different kinds of packages that can be used for different
kinds of applications. The SCRs are available in the following packages Different
Types of SCRs and Packages
a. Discrete Plastic: The discrete Plastic package is a commonly known type of
SCRs that has three pins attached to a plastic-covered semiconductor
material. These SCRs are of planar type construction and they are the
cheapest type of SCR when compared to other packages. They are available
up to 25A and 1000V applications, they can be easily mounted on any type of
circuit with a large number of other components.
b. Plastic Module: The Plastic module shares the similar features of the Discrete
Plastic package, it also contains more than one device and available in the
current range up to 100A. Using these modules will give a circuit a better
finishing because they can be mounted to the boards with bolting the heatsink
to the circuit board.
c. Stud Base: The stud base device will be having a screwed base, it shares the
dual advantage of low thermal resistance and ease of mounting. They are
available between the current range of 5 to 150 A and a full range of voltage.
The only disadvantage it possesses is that it cannot be easily isolated from
the heat sink
d. Flat Base: The Flat base shares the same features of the stud base SCR, the
additional advantage is that they are being isolated from the heatsink by a thin
layer of insulation. They are available in the current range between 10 to
400A.
e. Press Pack: The press pack SCRs are used for high current applications of
200A or above and applications with higher voltage exceeding 1200V. The
SCR structure and the electrodes are packed within a ceramic envelop that
provides the required isolation between the anode and cathode. Both the
surface is clamped to the heat sink; hence they offer better electrical contact
resistance and minimum thermal resistance.
f.
Lesson 3 - UNI-JUNCTION TRANSISTOR
What is UJT?
Uni-junction transistor is also known as double-base diode
because it is a 2-layered, 3-terminal solid-state switching device. It
has only one junction so it is called as a uni-junction device. The
unique characteristic feature of this device is such that when it is
triggered, the emitter current increases until it is restricted by an
emitter power supply. Owing to its low cost, it can be used in a
wide range of applications including oscillators, pulse generators
and trigger circuits, etc. It is a low-power absorbing device and can
be operated under normal conditions.
1. Original Uni-junction transistor or UJT is a simple device in which a bar of N-
type semiconductor material into which P-type material is diffused;
somewhere along its length defining the device parameter as intrinsic
standoff. The 2N2646 is the most commonly used version of UJT. UJTs are
very popular in switching circuits and are never used as amplifiers. As far as
 Applications of UJT are concerned, they can be used as relaxation oscillators,
phase controls, timing circuits and trigger devices for SCRs and triacs.
2. Complimentary Uni-junction transistor or CUJT is a bar of P-type
semiconductor material into which N-type material is diffused somewhere
along its length defining the device parameter as intrinsic standoff. The
2N6114 is one version of CUJT.
3. Programmable Uni-junction transistor or PUT is a close relative of thyristor;
just like thyristor, it consists of four P-N layers and has anode and cathode
placed at first and last layers. The N-type layer near the anode is known as
anode gate. It is inexpensive in production.
Among these three transistors, this article talks about UJT transistor’s working
features and its construction in brief.
Construction of UJT
UJT is a three-terminal, single-junction, two-layered device, and it is similar to a
thyristor compare to a transistor. It has a high-impedance off state and low-
impedance on state quite similar to a thyristor. From off state to an on state,
switching is caused by conductivity modulation and not by a bipolar transistor action.
The silicon bar has two Ohmic contacts designated as base1 and base2, as
shown in the fig. The function of the base and the emitter are different from the base
and emitter of a bipolar transistor.

T h e e m i t t e r i s

when the emitter is open-circuited is called an inter-base resistance. The emitter

junction is usually situated closer to the base B2 than the base B1. So the device is
not symmetrical, because symmetrical unit does not provide electrical characteristics
to most of the applications.
The symbol for uni-junction transistor is shown in the fig. When the device is
forward-biased, it is active or is in the conducting state. The emitter is drawn at an
angle to the vertical line which represents the N-type material slab and the arrow
head points in the direction of conventional current.
Operation of a UJT
This transistor operation starts by making the emitter supply voltage to zero,
and its emitter diode is reverse biased with the intrinsic stand-off voltage. If VB is the
voltage of the emitter diode, then the total reverse bias voltage is VA + VB = Ƞ VBB
+ VB. For silicon VB = 0.7 V, If VE gets slowly increases to the point where VE = Ƞ
VBB, then IE will be reduced to zero. Therefore, on each side of the diode, equal
voltages result no current flow through it, neither in reverse bias nor in forward bias.
When the emitter supply voltage is
increased rapidly, then the diode
becomes forward-biased and
exceeds the total reverse bias
voltage (Ƞ VBB + VB). This emitter
voltage value VE is called the peak-
point voltage and is denoted by VP.
When VE = VP, emitter current IE
flows through the RB1 to the ground, that is, B1. This is the minimum current
required for triggering the UJT. This is called the peak-point emitter current and is
denoted by IP. Ip is inversely proportional to the Inter-base voltage, VBB.
Now when the emitter diode starts conducting, charge carriers are injected
into the RB region of the bar. As the resistance of a semiconductor material depends
upon doping, the resistance of RB decreases due to additional charge carriers.
Then the voltage drop across RB also decreases, with the decrease in
resistance because the emitter diode is heavily forward biased. This in turn results in
larger forward current, and as a result charge carriers are injected and it will cause
the reduction in the resistance of the RB region. Thus, the emitter current goes on
increasing until the emitter power supply is in limited range.
VA decreases with the increase in emitter current, and UJT have the negative
resistance characteristic. The base 2 is used for applying external voltage VBB
across it. The terminals E and B1 are the active terminals. UJT usually gets triggered
by applying a positive pulse to the emitter, and it can be turned off by applying a
negative trigger pulse.

Lesson 4 - PROGRAMMABLE UJT (PUT)

What is PUT?
Programmable unijunction transistor or PUT is a close relative of the thyristor
family. It has a four layered construction just like the thyristors and have three
terminals named anode(A), cathode(K) and gate(G) again like the thyristors. Yet
some authors call it a programmable UJT just because its characteristics and
parameters have much similarity to that of the unijunction transistor. It is called
programmable because the parameters like intrinsic standoff ratio (η), peak
voltage(Vp) etc can be programmed with the help of two external resistors. In a UJT,
the parameters like Vp, η etc are fixed and we cannot change it. The main
application of programmable UJT are relaxation oscillators,thyristor firing, pulse
circuits and timing circuits. ON Semiconductor® is the only manufacturer of PUT
now. 2N6027 is the most common type number and it is available in the TO-92
plastic package. The internal block diagram and circuit symbol of PUT are shown
below.
 From the above figure, you can see that the
PUT has a four layered construction. Topmost
P-layer is called the anode (A). The N-layer
next to the anode is called the gate (G). The P-
layer next to the gate is left alone. The bottom
most N-layer is called cathode (K). Ohmic
contacts are made on the anode, cathode and
gate layers for external connection.
PUT Characteristics
PUT characteristics is essentially a plot between the anode voltage Va and
anode current Ia of the PUT. The typical biasing diagram and characteristics plot of a
PUT is shown below.

Typically, the anode of the PUT is connected to a positive voltage and the
cathode is connected to the ground. The gate is connected to the junction of the two
external resistor R1 and R2 which forms a voltage divider network. It is the value of
these two resistors that determines the intrinsic standoff ratio(η) and peak voltage
(Vp) of the PUT.
When the anode to cathode voltage (Va)is increased the anode current will
also get increased and the junction behaves like a typical P-N junction. But the Va
cannot be increased beyond a particular point. At this point sufficient number of
charges are injected and the junction starts to saturate. Beyond this point the anode
current (Ia) increases and the anode voltage (Va) decreases. This is equal to a
negative resistance scenario and this negative resistance region in the PUT
characteristic is used in relaxation oscillators. When the anode voltage (Va) is
reduced to a particular level called “Valley Point”, the device becomes fully saturated
and no more decrease in Va is possible. There after the device behaves like a fully
saturated P-N junction.
Peak voltage (Vp): It is the anode to cathode voltage after which the PUT jumps into
the negative resistance region. The peak voltage Vp will be usually one diode drop
(0.7V) plus the gate to cathode voltage (Vg). Peak voltage can be expressed using
the equation:
Vp = 0.7V + Vg = 0.7V + VR1 = 0.7V + ηVbb.Where η is the intrinsic standoff ratio
and Vbb is the total voltage across the external resistor network.
Intrinsic standoff ratio (η): Intrinsic standoff ratio of a PUT is the ratio of the
external resistor R1 to the sum of R1 and R2. It helps us to predict how much
voltage will be dropped across the gate and cathode for a given Vbb. The intrinsic
standoff ratio can be expressed using the equation:
η = R1/(R1+R2).
PUT Relaxation Oscillator
Relaxation oscillator is of course the most common application of a
programmable UJT. PUT relaxation oscillator can be used for generating a wide
range of saw tooth wave forms. It is called a relaxation oscillator because the timing
interval is started by the gradual charging of a capacitor and the timing interval is
terminated by the sudden discharge of the same capacitor. The circuit diagram of a
PUT relaxation oscillator is shown below.
PUT relaxation oscillator circuitResistors R1 and
R2 set the peak voltage (Vp) and intrinsic standoff
ratio (η) of the PUT. Resistor Rk limits cathode current
of the PUT. Resistor R and capacitor C sets the
frequency of the oscillator. When the supply voltage
Vbb is applied, the capacitor C starts charging through
resistor R. When the voltage across the capacitor
exceeds the peak voltage (Vp) the PUT goes into
negative resistance mode and this creates a low
resistance path from anode(A) to cathode(K). The
capacitor discharges through this path. When the voltage across the capacitor is
below valley point voltage (Vv) the PUT reverts to its initial condition and there will be
no more discharge path for the capacitor. The capacitor starts to charge again and
the cycle is repeated. This series of charging and discharging results in a sawtooth
waveform across the capacitor as shown in the figure below.
PUT relaxation oscillator output waveformThe frequency of oscillation of a PUT
relaxation oscillator can be expressed by the following equation:
F = 1/ (RC ln(1/(1-η)).Where F is the frequency, η is the intrinsic standoff ratio, R is
the resistance and C is the capacitance.

Lesson 5 – DIAC and TRIAC

What is DIAC?
A DIAC is a bi-directional semiconductor switch that can be turned on in both
forward and reverse polarities above a certain voltage: it is often used to provide
defined switching for a triac. A DIAC is a full-wave or bi-directional semiconductor
switch that can be turned on in both forward and reverse polarities.
The name DIAC comes from the words DIode AC switch. The DIAC is an
electronics component that is widely used to assist even triggering of a TRIAC when
used in AC switches and as a result they are often found in light dimmers such as
those used in domestic lighting. These electronic components are also widely used
in starter circuits for fluorescent lamps.
Although the term is not often seen, DIACs may also be called symmetrical
trigger diodes - a term resulting from the symmetry of their characteristic curve.
DIACs come in a variety of formats. As discrete
components they may be contained in small leaded packages,
they can be obtained in surface mount packages, in large
packages that bolt to a chassis, or a variety of other packages.
As they are often used as a DIAC TRIAC combination, they are
often integrated into the same die as a TRIAC.
The DIAC symbol used to depict this electronic
component in circuit diagrams can be remembered as a
combination of what may appear to be two diodes in parallel
with each other but connected in opposite directions.
Owing to the fact that DIACs are bi-direction devices the terminals cannot be
labelled as anode and cathode as they are for a diode. Instead they may be labelled
as A1 and A2 or MT1 and MT2, where MT stands for "Main Terminal."
DIAC Operation
DIAC circuits use the fact that a DIAC only conducts current only after a
certain breakdown voltage has been exceeded. The actual breakdown voltage will
depend upon the specification for the particular component type.
When the DIAC breakdown voltage occurs, the resistance of the component
decreases abruptly and this leads to a sharp decrease in the voltage drop across the
DIAC, and a corresponding increase in current. The DIAC will remain in its
conducing state until the current flow through it drops below a particular value known
as the holding current. When the current falls below the holding current, the DIAC
switches back to its high resistance, or non-conducting state.
DIACs are widely used in AC applications and it is found that the device is
"reset" to its non-conducting state, each time the voltage on the cycle falls so that the
current falls below the holding current. As the behaviour of the device is
approximately equal in both directions, it can provide a method of providing equal
switching for both halves of an AC cycle, e.g. for TRIACs
Most DIACs have a breakdown voltage of around 30 volts, although the exact
specifications will depend upon the particular type of device. Interestingly their
behaviour is somewhat similar to that of a neon lamp, although they offer a far more
precise switch on voltage and thereby provide a far better degree of switching
equalisation.

DIACStructure
The DIAC can be fabricated as either a two layer
or a five-layer structure. In the three-layer structure the
switching occurs when the junction that is reverse biased
experiences reverse breakdown. The three-layer version
of the device is the more common and can have a break-
over voltage of around 30 V. Operation is almost
symmetrical owing to the symmetry of the device.
A five layer DIAC structure is also available. This
does not act in quite the same manner, although it produces an I-V curve that is very
similar to the three-layer version. It can be considered as two break-over diodes
connected back to back.
For most applications a three-layer version of the DIAC is used. It provides
sufficient improvement in switching characteristics. For some applications thefive-
layer device may be used.
DIAC Applications
One of the major uses of DIACs within TRIAC circuits. TRIACs do not fire
symmetrically as a result of slight differences between the two halves of the device.
The non-symmetrical firing and resulting waveforms give rise to the
generation of unwanted harmonics – the less symmetrical the waveform the greater
the level of harmonic generation.
To resolve the issues resulting from the non-symmetrical operation, a DIAC is
often placed in series with the gate. This device helps make the switching more even
for both halves of the cycle. This results from the fact that the DIAC switching
characteristic is far more even than that of the TRIAC.
Since the DIAC prevents any gate current flowing until the trigger voltage has
reached a certain voltage in either direction, this makes the firing point of the TRIAC
more even in both directions. In view of their usefulness, DIACs may often be built
into the gate terminal of a TRIAC.
DIACs are a widely used electronic component. The chief application of
DIACs is for use in conjunction with TRIACs to equalise their switching
characteristics. By equalising the switching characteristics of these TRIACs, the level
of harmonics generated when switching AC signals can be reduced. Despite this, for
large applications, two thyristors are generally used. Nevertheless, the DIAC / TRIAC
combination is very useful for lower power applications including light dimmers, etc.
TRIAC
What is TRIAC?
TRIAC (Triode for AC) is the semiconductor device widely used in power
control and switching applications. It finds applications in switching, phase control,
chopper designs, brilliance control in lamps, speed control in fans, motors etc. The
power control system is designed to control the distribution level of AC or DC. Such
power control systems can be used to switch power to appliances manually or when
temperature or light levels go beyond a preset level.
TRIAC is equivalent to two SCRs connected in inverse parallel with the gates
connected together. As a result, the TRIAC functions as a Bidirectional switch to
pass the current in both directions once the gate is triggered. TRIAC is a three
terminal device with a Main terminal1 ( MT1), Main terminal 2( MT2) and a Gate. The
MT1 and MT2 terminals are used to connect the Phase and Neutral lines while the
Gate is used to feed the triggering pulse. The Gate can be triggered either by a
positive voltage or negative voltage. When the MT2 terminal gets a positive voltage
with respect to the MT1 terminal and the Gate gets a positive trigger, then the left
SCR of the TRIAC triggers and circuit completes. But if the polarity of the voltage at
the MT2 and MT1 terminals is reversed and a negative pulse is applied to the Gate,
then the right SCR of Triac conducts. When the Gate current is removed, the TRIAC
switches off. So a minimum holding current Ih must be maintained at the gate to
keep the TRIAC conducting.
Triggering a TRIAC
Usually 4 modes of triggering are possible in TRIAC:
A positive voltage at MT2 and a positive pulse at the
gate
A positive voltage at MT2 and a negative pulse at the
gate
A negative voltage at MT2 and positive pulse at the
gate
A negative voltage at MT2 and a negative pulse at the
gate
Factors Affecting Working of TRIAC
Unlike SCRs, TRIACS require proper optimization for its proper functioning.
Triacs have inherent drawbacks like Rate effect, Backlash effect etc. So designing of
Triac based circuits need proper care.
Rate Effect Severely Affects the Working of TRIAC
There is an internal capacitance exists between the MT1 and MT2 terminals
of the Triac. If the MT1 terminal is supplied with a sharply increasing voltage, then it
results in the gate voltage break through. This triggers the Triac unnecessarily. This
phenomenon is called Rate effect. The Rate effect usually occurs due to the
Transients in the mains and also due to high inrush current when heavy inductive
loads switch on. This can be reduced by connecting an R-C network between the
MT1 and MT2 terminals.

Backlash Effect is Severe in Lamp Dimmer Circuits:

Back lash effect is the severe Control Hysteresis that develops in the lamp
control or speed control circuits using a Potentiometer to control the Gate current.
When the resistance of the potentiometer increases to maximum, the brightness of
the lamp reduces to minimum. When the pot is turned back, the lamp never turns on
until the resistance of the pot decreases to minimum. The reason for this is the
discharging of the capacitor in the Triac. The lamp dimmer circuits use a Diac to give
triggering pulse to the gate. So when the capacitor inside the Triac discharges
through the Diac, the Back lash effect develops. This can be rectified by using a
Resistor in series with the Diac or by adding a capacitor between the Gate and the
MT1 terminal of Triac.
Effect of RFI on TRIAC
Radio Frequency Interference severely affects the functioning of Triacs. When
the Triac switches on the load, the load current increases sharply from zero to a high
value depending on the supply voltage and resistance of the load. This result in the
generation of pulses of RFI. The strength of RFI is proportional to the wire
connecting the load with the Triac. An LC-RFI suppressor will rectify this defect.
Working of TRIAC
A simple application circuit of TRIAC is shown.
Generally, TRIAC has three terminals M1, M2 and
gate. A TRIAC, lamp load and a supply voltage are
connected in series. When supply is ON at positive
cycle then the current flows through lamp, resistors
and DIAC (provided a triggering pulses are provided
at pin 1 of opto coupler resulting in pin 4 and 6 start
conducting) gate and reaches the supply and then
only lamp glows for that half cycle directly through
the M2 and M1 terminal of the TRIAC. In negative
half cycle the same thing repeats. Thus the lamp
glows in both the cycles in a controlled manner
depending upon the triggering pulses at the opto
isolator as seen on the graph. If this is given to a motor instead of lamp the power is
controlled resulting in speed control.
Applications of TRIAC:
TRIACs are used in numerous applications such as light dimmers, speed
controls for electric fans and other electric motors and in the modern computerized
control circuits of numerous household small and major appliances. They can be
used both into AC and DC circuits however the original design was to replace the
utilization of two SCRs in AC circuits.There are two families of TRIACs, which are
mainly used for application purpose, they are BT136, BT139.

Lesson 6 - TRANSDUCER
What is a Transducer?
An electrical transducer is a device which is capable of converting physical
quantities into a proportional electrical quantity such as voltage or electric current.
Hence it converts any quantity to be measured into a usable electrical signal. This
physical quantity which is to be measured can be pressure, level, temperature,
displacement etc. The output which is obtained from the transducer is in the
electrical form and is equivalent to the measured quantity. For example, a
temperature transducer will convert temperature to an equivalent electrical potential.
This output signal can be used to control the physical quantity or display it.
Instrumentation is the heart of industrial applications. Instrumentation is the
art and science of measuring and controlling different variables such as flow, level,
temperature, angle, displacement etc. A basic instrumentation system consists of
various devices. One of these various devices is a transducer. A transducer plays a
very important role in any instrumentation system.
Note that any device which is able convert one form of energy into another
form is called as a transducer. For example, even a speaker can be called as a
transducer as it converts electrical signal to pressure waves (sound). But an
electrical transducer will convert a physical quantity to an electrical one.
Types of Transducer
There are of many different types of transducer, they can be classified based on
various criteria as:
Types of Transducer based on Quantity to be Measured
 Temperature transducers (e.g. a thermocouple)
 Pressure transducers (e.g. a diaphragm)
 Displacement transducers (e.g. LVDT)
 Oscillator transducer
 Flow transducers
 Inductive Transducer
Types of Transducer based on the Principle of Operation
 Photovoltaic (e.g. a solar cell)
 Piezoelectric transducer
 Chemical
 Mutual induction
 Electromagnetic
 Hall effect
 Photoconductors
Types of Transducer based on Whether an External Power Source is required or not
 Active Transducer
Active transducers are those which do not require any power source for their
operation. They work on the energy conversion principle. They produce an electrical
signal proportional to the input (physical quantity). For example, a thermocouple is
an active transducer.
 Passive Transducers
Transducers which require an external power source for their operation is
called as a passive transducer. They produce an output signal in the form of some
variation in resistance, capacitance or any other electrical parameter, which than has
to be converted to an equivalent current or voltage signal. For example, a photocell
(LDR) is a passive transducer which will vary the resistance of the cell when light
falls on it. This change in resistance is converted to proportional signal with the help
of a bridge circuit. Hence a photocell can be used to measure the intensity of light.

Above shown is a figure of a bonded strain gauge

which is a passive transducer used to measure stress
or pressure. As the stress on the strain gauge
increases or decreases the strain gauge bends or
compresses causing the resistance of the wire bonded
on it to increase or decrease. The change in resistance
which is equivalent to the change in stress is measured
with the help of a bridge. Hence stress is measured.
Suggested readings
Power electronics books‚ published articles

References
Kaushik R. et al 2002. The power electronics handbook
Alley, Charles; Atwood, Kenneth (1973). Electronic Engineering