Linking Biomechanical Workload and Organizational Practices to Burnout and

Satisfaction
Author(s): Jennifer C. Cullen, Barbara A. Silverstein and Michael P. Foley
Source: Journal of Business and Psychology , Sep., 2008, Vol. 23, No. 1/2 (Sep., 2008), pp.
63-71
Published by: Springer

Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/27753889

JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide
range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and
facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.

Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at
https://about.jstor.org/terms

Springer is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Journal of
Business and Psychology

This content downloaded from

86.59.13.237 on Fri, 05 Nov 2021 07:21:17 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 J Bus Psychol (2008) 23:63-71
DOI 10.1007/sl0869-008-9079-8
Linking Biomechanical Workload and Organizational Practices
to Burnout and Satisfaction
Jennifer C. Cullen Barbara A. Silverstein
Michael P. Foley
Published online: 9 April 2008
? Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2008
Abstract We found support for several hypotheses link
ing work practices to employee outcomes: reducing
biomechanical workload is associated with decreased
burnout via perceptions that job demands are less threat
ening; lower demands are associated with higher job
satisfaction primarily through decreases in burnout;
employers who include employees in decision making
processes have employees with lower levels of burnout and
higher satisfaction; and having a disability management
program is associated with having employees who report
less job-related burnout. This study demonstrates the
importance of programs that increase perceived organiza
tional support and the importance of job design strategies
that take into account physical workload.
Keywords Workload Job demands Burnout
Satisfaction Organizational support
The data used in this study came from a larger study assessing
management practices associated with "healthy workplaces"
conducted by the SHARP Program within the Washington State
Department of Labor and Industries (Connon et al. 2001). A previous
version of this paper was presented at the International conference,
Work, Stress, and Health, co-sponsored by the National Institute of
Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) and the American
Psychological Association (APA), in Miami, Fl, March 2006.
J. C. Cullen B. A. Silverstein M. P. Foley
Safety & Health Assessment & Research for Prevention
(SHARP), Washington State Department of Labor and
Industries, Olympia, WA 98540-4810, USA
J. C. Cullen (El)
Employment Office, 609 9th Street, County of Sacramento,
Sacramento, CA 95814, USA
e-mail: jennifer.c.cullen@gmail.com
This content downloaded from
86.59.13.237 on Fri, 05 Nov 2021 07:21:17 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
Introduction
In recent years, researchers have begun recognizing the
importance of considering psychosocial factors when
examining the etiology of musculoskeletal disorders and
considering the ergonomic design of work environments
(e.g., Hughes et al. 1997; Krause et al. 2004; Nicholas
et al. 2005). Less research, however, has addressed the
ways in which the physical load of a job contributes to
employees' psychological experiences of their work. For
example, how do workers' perceptions of the ergonomic
design of their tasks and environment influence whether
employees view their jobs as psychologically demanding?
Does feeling like the environment has been designed to
minimize physical health risks have any effect on workers'
perceptions of their work as being satisfying? How does
the overall culture of the organization and management's
approach to handling work-related injuries and illness
influence how satisfied workers are with their jobs?
Our study addresses this gap in the literature by pro
viding empirical evidence for the relationships between
physical workload and workplace organization with indi
vidual employee outcomes. Specifically, we tested the
hypothesis that reductions to biomechanical workload will
result in decreased job burnout primarily due to the per
ception that job demands are less threatening and more
manageable. We also examined whether perceptions of job
demands as being more manageable will be associated with
higher job satisfaction due to the decreases in job burnout.
We explored whether employees who report that their work
environment makes them feel valued and respected report
lower levels of job burnout with higher levels of job sat
isfaction. Finally, we tested the supposition that employers
with active disability management techniques will have
employees who report lower levels of job burnout.
Springer
 64 J Bus Psychol (2008) 23:63-71

Despite the identification of various physical and time workers are given to complete tasks, interpersonal
chemical hazards in the workplace, and methods to control conflict, supervisory responsibility, role ambiguity and
those hazards, work-related injury and illness rates have conflict, and skill underutilization (e.g., Fogarty et al.
remained high (Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) (2006). 1999; Schaubroeck and Fink 1998). It is expected that the
For example, the BLS found in their Survey of Occupa degree of control a worker exercises over their job can
tional Injuries and Illnesses that nonfatal workplace injury facilitate or hinder their ability to cope with the psycho
and illnesses occurred at a rate of 4.6 cases per 100 logical and physical demands of the job.
equivalent full-time workers among private industry Several researchers have documented evidence showing
employers in 2005, down from 6.1 in 2000. Moreover, the that demanding jobs can be detrimental for employee
decline of heavy physical labor in most workplaces over health and well-being, including increased exhaustion,
the past few decades, together with the persistence of high hypertension, and cardiovascular disease (e.g., Belkic et al.
rates of injury and illness, has led researchers to focus on a 2000; Karasek and Theorell 1990; Schnall et al. 2000).
range of factors which include the physical load of work Other research has demonstrated how a lack of a safe work
and the psychosocial elements of the workplace (e.g., environment can result in negative consequences for
Huang et al. 2004). Some of the more common psycho employers above and beyond just costs directly associated
social factors that have been researched include the with injury and illness. For example, Harrell (1999) found
psychological demands of the job (e.g., Bernard et al. that workers who perceive a high risk of occupational
1994; Petersen et al. 1998), the degree of discretion the injury are more likely to report that they would not be
worker exercises over how the job is performed (e.g., staying with the company. There has been much less
Arvidsson et al. 2006; Koehoorn et al. 2006), and the level research, however, on the effects of interventions designed
of social support the worker derives from the work envi to reduce the physical load of work and the effects on how
ronment (e.g., Aasa et al. 2005). employees perceive their job demands and subsequent
reports of health.
Job Demands, Burnout, and Satisfaction Job burnout is a "prolonged response to chronic inter
personal Stressors on the job" (Maslach 2006, p. 37). In
There has been an abundant amount of research linking contrast to acute stress reactions, job burnout is fairly
employee perceptions of psychological job demands to stable over time and is cumulative in nature, such that it
stress and dissatisfaction at work (e.g., Gelsema et al. results from ongoing occupational Stressors. National data
2005). In fact, research has shown that from one-fourth to in the United States show that 26% of workers are "often"
one-third of workers in the United States report high levels or "very often" burned out or stressed by their jobs and
of stress on the job (Rossi et al. 2006). According to 36% report "often" or "very often" feeling used up at the
Webster and Bergman (1999), "many employees experi end of their workday (Bond et al. 1998). Maslach et al.
ence stress as a normal part of their jobs, [and] some (2001) report that job burnout is associated with higher job
employees experience stress more severely than others, to dissatisfaction, low organizational commitment, and higher
an extent that they become ill and need time away from absenteeism and turnover. Maslach (2006) reviewed six of
work. BLS classifies such occurrences of occupational the more prominent situational factors that are associated
stress as 'neurotic reaction to stress'" (p. 38). The median with job burnout: work overload, lack of control, insuffi
absence from work for these stress-related cases in 1997 cient rewards, coworker relations, lack of fairness, and
was 23 days, more than four times the median absence for value conflicts. Moreover, it is primarily through burnout
all nonfatal occupational injuries and illnesses. Further that these situational factors are thought to affect other
more, just less than 50% of the occupational stress cases individual and organizational outcomes.
involved 31 or more lost workdays, compared to 19% of all Researchers have demonstrated associations between
injuries and illnesses (Webster and Bergman 1999). job demands and employee burnout (e.g., Demerouti et al.
A particularly well-known example of this approach 2001), between job demands and risk for musculoskeletal
linking job demands to stress is the "Job Strain Model" discomfort (e.g., Bernard et al. 1994; Petersen et al. 1998),
(Karasek and Theorell 1990). One main dimension of the between demands and burnout (e.g., Bakker et al. 2005),
model is job control. Job control represents such elements and between burnout and satisfaction (e.g., Martinussen
as the degree of learning, creativity, skill level, task vari and Richardsen 2006). These associations, considered
ety, and worker authority to decide how the job is done and together with Maslach's (2006) suggestion that a mediation
at what pace. Another main dimension of this model is job model best depicts the association between situational
demands, which represent the psychological stress sub factors, job burnout, and outcomes, served as the basis for
jected to workers by the demands of the job. Job demands the current study. We examined whether employees who
include factors such as work pace, workload, the amount of report that their employers have done all they can to reduce

Springer

This content downloaded from

86.59.13.237 on Fri, 05 Nov 2021 07:21:17 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 J Bus Psychol (2008) 23:63-71
Fig. 1 Conceptual model
linking ergonomic and
organizational work practices to
employee burnout and
satisfaction
Biomechanical
Job Demands
Workload
biomechanical workload perceive job demands as being
less threatening. Moreover, it may be through this decrease
in job demands that a reduced biomechanical workload will
also lessen employee-reported emotional and physical job
burnout. Finally, and consistent with Maslach (2006), we
examined whether higher perceived job demands would be
associated with decreased job satisfaction primarily due to
the higher levels of job burnout (see Fig. 1).
Hypothesis 1 Job demands will mediate the relationship
between biomechanical workload and job burnout; higher
biomechanical workload will be associated with higher
perceived job demands and higher job demands will be
associated with greater levels of job burnout.
Hypothesis 2 Job burnout will mediate the relationship
between job demands and job satisfaction; higher job
demands will be associated with greater job burnout and
higher job burnout will be associated with decreased levels
of job satisfaction.
Organizational Support
There exists a substantial amount of research on the rela
tionship between perceived organizational support and
employee outcomes (Eisenberger et al. 2001; Habeck et al.
1998; Shannon et al. 1997). For example, Eisenberger
et al. (2001) demonstrated how perceived organizational
support is associated with increased affective commitment
to the organization via increased positive moods at work.
The authors suggest that perceived organizational support
conveys to employees the organization's positive valuation
of their work and care for their well-being, thereby creating
more positive moods in the employees. Moreover, it has
been suggested that perceived organizational support may
provide employees with the means necessary to reduce
aversive physical, psychological, and behavioral reactions
(e.g., strain) to Stressors through the availability of financial
This content downloaded from
86.59.13.237 on Fri, 05 Nov 2021 07:21:17 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
65
People-Oriented
Culture
Job
Job Burnout
Satisfaction
Disability
Management
and emotional support (George et al. 1993; Jain and Sinha
2005). Finally, other researchers have demonstrated the
positive impact that organizational support can have on
employees' overall well-being and positive mental health
(Jain and Sinha 2005; Leather et al. 1998).
Along the same lines, research shows that "company
paternalism," used to describe activities such as encouraging
long-term career commitment from employees and estab
lishing a long-term disability plan, is typically found in
worksites that experience a lower lost-time frequency rate
associated with work-related injuries/illness (e.g., Shannon
et al. 1996). Some researchers have even noted links
between trust in supervisors and perceptions of manage
ment's safety values with perceptions of whether the
environment is safe and actual risk-taking behaviors (e.g.,
Watson et al. 2005). Other researchers have suggested that
disability management programs and other favorable human
resources practices can affect both the disability rates in a
company and the healthcare costs (e.g., Habeck et al. 1998;
Lewin and Schecter 1991). Lower disability rates and health
care costs can be reflective of a company's culture.
Consistent with this stream of research, we examined
the relationships between disability management programs,
the company culture, and employee quality of work life.
Specifically, we evaluated whether employees who report
that their employer has active return to work policies for
injured and/or ill workers will actually report less work
related burnout. This can be contrasted with employees
who will report higher levels of job-related burnout when
they perceive that their employer is ineffective at managing
work-related disability. Moreover, employers who dem
onstrate respect and value for employees, by establishing a
culture that includes them in the decision making process
and instills in them a sense of trust will yield a workforce
that is generally less emotionally and physically exhausted
by work and more affectively pleased with their current job
situation (see Fig. 1).
Springer
 66 J Bus Psychol (2008) 23:63-71

Hypothesis 3 Having an active disability management Questionnaire. An example item is, "I have enough time to
program will be associated with lower levels of job get the job done" (a = .63). Respondents were asked to
burnout. rate the extent to which they agreed or disagreed with each
item by marking their response according to a four-point
Hypothesis 4 Establishing a people-oriented culture will
Likert type scale where 1 = "strongly disagree" and
be associated with lower levels of job burnout and higher
4 = "strongly agree."
levels of job satisfaction.
Job Burnout. Burnout was assessed through two items
developed primarily for this study (a = .77). One item
asked about mental exhaustion and the other asked about
Method
physical exhaustion. For example, participants were asked
to indicate, "how often [they are] mentally exhausted after
Participants
work" by marking their response on a four-point scale that
ranges from 1 = "never" to 4 = "always."
The food processing industry has one of the highest work
Job Satisfaction. Job satisfaction was assessed using
related injury and illness rates in Washington State. In 1999,
three items adapted from Karasek's (1985) Job Content
the Washington state workers' compensation (WC) claims
Questionnaire. The three questions asked respondents how
rate for the food processing industry was 17.5 per 100 full
satisfied they are with the job, if they would recommend
time equivalents (FTE), which is 66% above the rate for all
the job to someone else, and whether they would decide to
other industries combined (Connon et al. 2001). Data for
take the job again if they were currently looking (a = .76).
this research came from a larger study assessing manage
Respondents indicated the extent to which they were sat
ment practices associated with "healthy workplaces" in a
isfied, would recommend, and would take the job by
select group of different industries. The data presented here
marking their response on a four-point scale where
were collected through paper-pencil surveys distributed to
1 = "not at all" and 4 = "very."
employees during site visits to 19 food processing plants
Disability Management. Six items adapted from Amick
throughout the State of Washington. It was a convenience
et al. (2000) were used to assess disability management.
sample drawn during the business day when the plants were
An example item is, "Someone from the company contacts
in full production. Thus, the participants consisted of indi
the worker shortly after an injury or illness to express
viduals who were able to temporarily leave the production
concern and offer assistance" (a = .80). Respondents
line and made available to us by the management at each
indicated the extent to which they agreed or disagreed with
site. Although the companies varied in size, attempts were
each item by marking their response on a five-point scale
made to survey at least 10% of the workers present at the
ranging from 1 = "strongly disagree" to 5 = "strongly
time of the visit, resulting in a final sample size of 159
workers from 17 different work sites. The full version of the
agree ".
People-oriented Culture. People-oriented culture was
questionnaire consisted of 47 different questions. The
assessed using four items adapted from Habeck et al.
questions selected for the survey came from a mix of
(1998). An example item is, "The company involves
measures developed by and used widely in the occupational
employees in plans and decisions made" (a = .85).
safety and health literature as well some questions devel
Respondents indicated the extent to which they agreed or
oped primarily for the purposes of this study.
disagreed with each of them items by marking their
response on a four-point scale ranging from 1 = "strongly
Measures disagree" to 5 = "strongly agree."

Scale scores for each construct were created by computing Analyses

the mean of the items making up each scale.
Biomechanical Workload. Biomechanical workload was
assessed using two questions adapted from Habeck et al.
(1998) (a = .77). Respondents were asked to rate the
extent to which their jobs are designed "to reduce heavy
lifting" and "to reduce repetitive movement" using a five
point Likert type scale where 1 = "never (0%)" and
5 = "always (100%)." Higher scores reflect a reduced
biomechanical workload.
Job Demands. Job demands were measured using five
items adapted from Karasek's (1985) Job Content
We used hierarchical linear regression and the Baron and
Kenny (1986) four-step process for establishing mediation
to test hypotheses 1 and 2. Baron and Kenny suggest that
mediation occurs when (1) the independent variable sig
nificantly affects the mediator, (2) the independent variable
significantly affects the dependent variable in the absence
of the mediator, (3) the mediator significantly and uniquely
affects the dependent variable, and (4) the effect of the
independent variable on the dependent variable shrinks or
goes to zero when the mediator is added to the model. If the

Springer

This content downloaded from

86.59.13.237 on Fri, 05 Nov 2021 07:21:17 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 J Bus Psychol (2008) 23:63-71 67
effect of the independent variable (IV) on the dependent
variable (DV) goes to zero when the mediator is added then
full mediation has been demonstrated; however, if the
effect simply shrinks in the presence of the mediator then
partial mediation is occurring. We used simple linear
regression to test hypotheses 3 and 4.
Results
Means, standard deviations, internal consistencies, and
intercorrelations for all study variables are listed in
Table 1. The final sample consisted of 91 men and 63
women (five participants did not report gender). The
majority of the respondents self-identified as Caucasian
(50%), followed by Hispanic/Latino (30%). The mean age
for the respondents was 37.5 years old (median = 37.0).
When asked how long they had worked for their current
employer, the average response was 6.56 years
(median = 3.00).
Using hierarchical linear regression, we found support
for the two mediation hypotheses. To test for Hypothesis 1
regarding the mediating effect of job demands, we first
looked for significant relationships between biomechanical
workload (IV) and job demands (Mediator) and between
job demands and job burnout (DV). With significant cor
relations for both relationships, R = ?.28, p < .05 and
R = .34, p < .05, respectively, we continued with con
ducting the hierarchical regression. Step 1 of the model
was to regress biomechanical workload on job burnout.
Biomechanical workload accounted for a small but sig
nificant portion of the variance in job burnout, R2 = .04,
F = 5.47, p < .05, ? = -.19. The second step in testing
for mediation was to add job demands to the model. The
addition of job demands to the model resulted in an addi
tional 8% of the variance in burnout being explained, with
job demands accounting for a significant portion of the
unique variance in job burnout, AR2 ? .12, F = 13.97,
p < .001, ? = .30, p < .001. Moreover, when job demands
(the mediator) was added to the model, the unique variance
Table 1 Means, standard deviations, coefficient alpha reliabilities, and intercorrelations between study variables
Mean SD 1 2 3 4 5 6
1. Biomechanical workload 2.86 1.11 (.77)
2. Job demands 2.72 .53 -.28** (.63)
3. Job burnout 2.25 .73 -.17* .34** (.77)
4. Job satisfaction 2.99 .65 .30** -.20* -.36** (.76)
5. Disability management 3.49 .70 .27** -.15 -.31** .27** (.80)
6. People-oriented culture 3.32 .93 .33** -.32** -.33** .44** .51** (.85)
Note. ** p < .01. Coefficient alpha internal consistencies are shown in parentheses. Higher scores on biomechanical workload reflect a lo
workload level
This content downloaded from
86.59.13.237 on Fri, 05 Nov 2021 07:21:17 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
in job burnout being explained by biomechanical workload
dropped below the p < .05 criteria for significance, sug
gesting that job demands fully mediates the relationship
between biomechanical workload and job burnout (see
Table 2).
To test for Hypothesis 2 regarding the mediating effect
of job burnout, we first looked for significant relationships
between job demands (IV) and job burnout (Mediator) and
between job burnout and job satisfaction (DV). With sig
nificant correlations for both relationships, R = .34,
p < .05 and R = ?.36, p < .05, respectively, we continued
with conducting the hierarchical regression. Step 1 of the
model was to regress job demands on job satisfaction.
Job demands accounted for a significant portion of the
variance in job satisfaction, R2 = .04, F = 6.09, p < .05,
? = ?.20. The second step was to add job burnout to the
model. The addition of job burnout resulted in an addi
tional 10% of the variance in job satisfaction being
explained by the model, with job burnout accounting for a
significant portion of the unique variance in job satisfac
tion, AR2 = .13, F = 16.61, p < .001, ? = -.33,
p < .001. Moreover, when job burnout (the mediator) was
added to the model, the unique variance in job satisfaction
being explained by job demands dropped below the
p < .05 criteria for significance, suggesting that job burn
out fully mediates the relationship between job demands
and job satisfaction (see Table 3).
Using multiple linear regression, we found support for
Hypothesis 3; active return to work policies are associated
with lower levels of job burnout, R2 = .10, F = 16.46,
p < .001, ? = ?.31). Hypothesis 4 was also supported;
having a people-oriented culture is associated both with
decreased job burnout (R2 = -.11, F = 19.22, p < .001,
? = ?.33) and increased job satisfaction (R2 = .19,
F = 35.99, p < .001, ? = .44). Despite not being one of the
a priori hypotheses, it is important to note that there was a
strong and positive correlation between return to work
policies and having a people-oriented culture (R = .51,
p < .05). Specifically, those companies with active dis
ability management programs also tended to have a work
Springer
 68 J Bus Psychol (2008) 23:63-71

Table 2 Regression analyses for hypothesis 1: Job demands mediate demands are also more likely to report decreased satis
the relationship between biomechanical workload and job burnout faction with their job, primarily due to increased job
? AR2 F Change related burnout. Therefore, this relationship between a
workers' biomechanical workload and their psychological
Step 1 .04* 5.47 experiences of work demonstrates for employers the
Biomechanical workload ?.19*
importance of ergonomic practices that address heavy
Step 2 .08** 13.97 lifting and repetitive movements not just for the threat they
Biomechanical workload ?.11
pose to the physical well-being of workers, but also for the
Job demands .30**
implications that physical load has on workers' psycho
logical health
Note. * p < .05; ** p < .01. N = 151. Dependent and affective
variable = reactions
Job to their job.
In addition
burnout. All standardized Beta weights are from the second to these
step connections
of the between employees'
regression analysis. Overall R2 = .12*, p < .05. The relationship
biomechanical workload and their psychosocial experi
between biomechanical workload and job burnout drops to zero when
job demands are added to the model, indicating ences
fullof work, we alsoHigher
mediation. found support for the hypothesis
that having
scores on biomechanical workload reflect a lower an activelevel
workload disability management program is
associated with employees reporting lower levels of job
burnout (Hypothesis 3). The association between work
practices concerning injured workers who want to return to
Table 3 Regression analyses for hypothesis 2:work
Job burnout
and mediates
the levels of emotional and physical exhaustion
the relationship between job demands and job satisfaction
reported by those employees currently at work highlights
? AR2 F Change
the importance of disability management programs not just
for rehabilitation, but also as a means of primary preven
Step 1 .04* 6.09
Job demands ?.20* tion. Employees who see the employer as taking care of
their "fallen" colleagues tend to report being less emo
Step 2 .10** 16.61
Job demands ?.09 tionally and physically drained by their work, and are thus
Job burnout -.33** in a healthier place at work. This can be contrasted with
employees who do not perceive the employer as doing all
Note. * p < .05; ** p < .01. N = 154. Dependent variable that=can
Jobbe done to get an employee back to work fol
satisfaction. All standardized Beta weights are from the second step of
lowing an injury or illness; these employees tend to report
the regression analysis. Overall R2 = .13*, p < .05. The relationship
between job demands and job satisfaction drops to zero that whenthey
jobare more burned out at work and may thus
burnout is added to the model, indicating full mediation be more prone to succumbing to an injury or illness
themselves.
The hypothesis that concerns the relationships between
culture that generated in employees a sense of value having and
a people-oriented culture and employees' reports of
participation. job burnout and job satisfaction was also supported
(Hypothesis 4). Those employees who work in an organi
zation that includes them in the decision making process
Discussion and demonstrates to them a value for their well-being
experience more positive affective reactions to work and
This study addresses an important gap in the literature on are in a better position to deal with the emotional and
occupational safety and health by demonstrating how a physical demands of the job. Having both an active dis
reduced biomechanical workload can result in positive ability management program and a people-oriented culture
employee outcomes concerning the quality of work life. may actually reflect a larger organizational climate that
Specifically, we found support for the hypothesis that job conveys to employees the sense that they are a valued asset
demands fully explain the relationship between biome to the company and that their safety and health are of
chanical workload and job burnout (Hypothesis 1). The utmost concern to the organization. Consistent with Ha
higher workers' biomechanical workload, the more job beck et al. (1998), these aspects of organizational support
burnout they experience, primarily via increased levels of are likely reflective of one small yet important piece of a
perceived job demands. We also found support for the larger system which demonstrates concern and value for
hypothesis that job burnout fully explains the relationship employees' well-being. This was demonstrated in the
between job demands and job satisfaction (Hypothesis 2). strong correlation between having an active disability
This finding is consistent with the contention made by management program and employees' reports of the
Maslach (2006) that job burnout is best represented in a overall organizational culture as being one of mutual value
mediation model. Workers who report high levels of job and respect.

^ Springer

This content downloaded from

86.59.13.237 on Fri, 05 Nov 2021 07:21:17 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 J Bus Psychol (2008) 23:63-71 69
Practical Implications
It is estimated that between 60 and 90% of visits to health
care professionals are for stress-related disorders and that
people with high job stress and depression actually have
health care costs 2.5 times that of people who do not
(Monat and Lazarus 1991). Moreover, worker's compen
sation costs are still growing, and many of these claims
may be attributed to job stress. Thus, it is estimated that the
financial costs of stress disorders for the United States
economy is $150 billion annually (Spielbergeret al. 2003),
due to the costs associated with absenteeism, job dissatis
faction, litigations for stress disabilities, job burnout, and
decreased productivity, to name a few.
A 1998 report from the Bureau of National Affairs
indicated that 50% of employee absenteeism could have
been avoided if proper attention was paid to the physical
and emotional needs of employees (Monat and Lazarus
1991). The organizational implications for the present
study are optimistic. The results suggest a clear direction of
focus for practitioners who wish to heighten job satisfac
tion and decrease job-related burnout experienced by their
employees. Employees who feel that their job is overly
demanding and not structured optimally to protect workers'
physical well-being are more likely to report higher burn
out and thus less job satisfaction than their less drained
counterparts. Having organizational policies and programs
that support employees and demonstrate a value for their
health safety can help to alleviate feelings of job burnout
and dissatisfaction.
Limitations
Although the study findings extend and refine previous
literature, it is appropriate to recognize some potential
limitations. First, although the model is conceptualized in
terms of causes and effects, cross-sectional, correlational
data do not warrant strong causal inferences concerning the
hypotheses. Longitudinal designs would allow more con
clusive inferences concerning the precedence of the
relationships depicted in the model. Moreover, a reliance
on self-report data raises concerns over possible social
desirability and common rater and method bias, particu
larly for item and measurement context effects (e.g.,
Podsakoff et al. 2003). However, given the conclusions by
Spector (1987), that method variance might well be more
of a problem with single items or poorly designed scales,
we are confident that this does not account for the rela
tionships demonstrated in this study.
Second, the sample size was limited in that the overall
size was 159 respondents. Although this value is small
enough to raise concerns about the representativeness of
the sample, because the data were collected from 17
This content downloaded from
86.59.13.237 on Fri, 05 Nov 2021 07:21:17 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
different companies across the industry, we feel that the
concerns over generalizeability have been substantially
reduced. In order to increase our confidence that the results
would generalize, we randomly split the sample into two
small groups (~78 participants in each) and reran the
analyses. We found support for all hypotheses in both
samples, with the exception of Hypothesis 3 for one of the
samples. Therefore, additional research is needed to
determine if this result generalizes to the industry as a
whole. Additionally, the low sample size prevented us from
using structural equation modeling to (1) demonstrate
model fit and (2) test alternative models. This does limit
our ability to rule out other plausible relationships between
the constructs, especially when it comes to the mediation
effects. However, the theoretical foundation that served as
the basis for our hypotheses increases our confidence in the
relationships depicted.
Third, due to concerns over survey length, we were
limited in the number of items we could include on the
survey. This resulted in two of the constructs (i.e., bio
mechanical overload and job burnout) being assessed by
just two items and one of the constructs (i.e., job satis
faction) assessed by just three items. Although this is not
ideal for adequate measurement, we are confident that the
small number of items used to measure biomechanical
workload, burnout, and satisfaction adequately tapped
those constructs given the limits we were dealing with.
Finally, the nature of this sample potentially limits the
applicability of the findings to other occupational settings.
We collected data from 17 different companies within one
industry. Future studies predicated on this model should
seek replication in a different industry.
In conclusion, due to the expense of work withdrawal
behaviors, high turnover, and absenteeism (just a few of the
factors that have been associated with high stress and low
satisfying jobs), attending to the biomechanical workload
for employees becomes not just an issue of reducing injury,
but also an issue of maintaining a qualified and experienced
workforce.
This study reveals the importance of employer-spon
sored programs that demonstrate organizational support of
employees and job design strategies that take into account
employees' physical workload. We found support for each
of these as predictors in employees' experiences of their
work as being either healthy and satisfying or threatening
and dissatisfying. Therefore, an employer looking to ensure
that their workers do not feel drained by but rather satisfied
with their job should develop a culture that includes
employees in the decision making process and conveys to
them a message that each one is valued and will be pro
tected from the hazards of the work itself. Moreover, future
research should move beyond focusing just on the physical
aspects of the work environment or the psychosocial
Springer

aspects of the work environment. Rather, future research
should continue to explore the effect that ergonomic and
other job design interventions have on promoting the
psychological work experiences of employees.
References
Aasa, U., Barnekow-Bergkvist, M., Angquist, K. A., & Brulin, C.
(2005). Relationships between work-related factors and disorders
in the neck-shoulder and low-back region among female and
male ambulance personnel. Journal of Occupational Health, 47,
481-489.
Arvidsson, I., Arvidsson, A., Axmon, M., Hansson, G. A., Johansson,
C. R., & Skerfving, S. (2006). Musculoskeletal disorders among
female and male air traffic controllers performing identical and
demanding computer work. Ergonomics, 49, 1052-1067.
Amick, B. C, III., Lerner, D., Rogers, W. H., Rooney, T., & Katz, J. N.
(2000). A review of work-related health outcome measures and
their uses, and recommended measures. Spine, 25, 3152-3160.
Bakker, A. B., Demerouti, E., & Euwema, M. C. (2005). Job
resources buffer the impact of job demands on burnout. Journal
of Occupational Health Psychology, 10, 170-180.
Baron, R. M., & Kenny, D. A. (1986). The moderator-mediator
variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual,
strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality
and Social Psychology, 51, 1173-1182.
Belkic, K., Landsbergis, P. A., Schnall, P., Baker, D., Theorell, T.,
Siegrist, J., et al. (2000). Psychosocial factors: Review of the
empirical data among men. Occupational Medicine: State-of
the-Art Reviews, 15, 24-46.
Bernard, B., Sauter, S., Fine, L., Petersen, M., & Hales, T. (1994). Job
task and psychosocial risk factors for work-related musculoskel
etal disorders among newspaper employees. Scandinavian
Journal of Work, Environment and Health, 20, 417-426.
Bond, J. T., Galinsky, E., & Swanberg, J. E. (1998). The 1997
National study of the changing workforce, families and work
institute. New York: Families and Work Institute.
Bureau of Labor Statistics (2006). Industry injury and illness data.
Retrieved November 29, 2006, from http://www.bls.gov/iif/
oshsum.htm#05Summary%20NeWs%20Release
Connon, C, Cohen, M., Silverstein, B., Foley, M., Curwick, C,
Howard, N., Sjostrom, T., Bonauto, D., & Whittaker, S. (2001).
Healthy workplaces: Food processing industry final report
(Tech. Rep. No. 67-2-2001). Olympia: Safety & Health
Assessment & Research for Prevention, Washington State
Department of Labor and Industries.
Demerouti, E., Bakker, A. B., de Jonge, J., Janssen, P. P., &
Schaufeli, W. B. (2001). Burnout and engagement at work as a
function of demands and control. Scandinavian Journal of Work,
Environment and Health, 27, 279-286.
Eisenberger, R., Armeli, S., Rexwinkel, B., Lynch, P. D., & Rhoades,
L. (2001). Reciprocation of perceived organizational support.
Journal of Applied Psychology, 86, 42-51.
Fogarty, G. J., Machin, M. A., Albion, M. J., Sutherland, L. F., Lalor,
G. I., & Revitt, S. (1999). Predicting occupational strain and job
satisfaction: The role of stress, coping, personality, and affec
tivity variables. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 54, 429-452.
Gelsema, T. I., van der Doef, M, Maes, S., Akerboom, S., &
Verhoeven, C. (2005). Job stress in the nursing profession: The
influence of organizational and environmental conditions and job
characteristics. International Journal of Stress Management, 12,
222-240.
Springer
This content downloaded from
86.59.13.237 on Fri, 05 Nov 2021 07:21:17 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
70 J Bus Psychol (2008) 23:63-71
George, J. M., Reed, T. F., Ballard, K. A., Colin, J., & Fielding, J.
(1993). Contact with AIDS patients as a source of work-related
distress: Effects of organizational social support. Academy of
Management Journal, 36, 157-171.
Habeck, R. V., Hunt, H. A., & VanTol, B. (1998). Workplace factors
associated with preventing and managing work disability.
Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin, 42, 98-144.
Harrell, W. A. (1999). Perceived risk of work-related injury and
intentions to change employment. Psychological Reports, 84,
273-276.
Huang, Y., Chen, P. Y., Krauss, A. D., & Rogers, D. A. (2004). Quality
of the execution of corporate safety policies and employee safety
outcomes: Assessing the moderating role of supervisor safety
support and the mediating role of employee safety control.
Journal of Business and Psychology, 18, 483-506.
Hughes, R. E., Silverstein, B. A., & Evanoff, B. A. (1997). Risk factors
for work-related musculoskeletal disorders in an aluminum
smelter. American Journal of Industrial Medicine, 32, 66-75.
Jain, A. K., & Sinha, A. K. (2005). General health in organizations:
relative relevance of emotional intelligence, trust, and organiza
tional support. International Journal of Stress Management, 12,
257-273.
Karasek, R. (1985). Job content questionnaire and user's guide.
Lowell, MA: University of Massachusetts.
Karasek, R., & Theoreil, T. (1990). Healthy work: Stress, produc
tivity, and the reconstruction of working life. Basic Books, Inc:
New York.
Koehoorn, M., Demers, P. A., Hertzman, C, Village, J., & Kennedy,
S. M. (2006). Work organization and musculoskeletal injuries
among a cohort of health care workers. Scandinavian Journal of
Work, Environment and Health, 32, 285-293.
Krause, N., Rugulies, R., Ragland, D. R., & Syme, S. L. (2004).
Physical workload, ergonomic problems, and incidence of low
back injury: A 7.5-year prospective study of San Francisco
transit operators. American Journal of Industrial Medicine, 46,
570-585.
Leather, P., Lawrence, C, Beale, D., & Cox, T. (1998). Exposure to
occupational violence and buffering effect of intra-organiza
tional support. Work and Stress, 12, 161-178.
Lewin, D., & Schecter, S. M. (1991). Four factors lower disability
rates. Personnel Journal, 70, 99-103.
Martinussen, M., & Richardsen, A. M. (2006). Air traffic controller
burnout: Survey responses regarding job demands job resources
and health. Aviation Space and Environmental Medicine, 77,
422-428.
Maslach, C. (2006). Understanding job burnout. In A. M. Rossi, P. L.
Perrewe, & S. L. Sauter (Eds.), Stress and quality of working life
(pp. ix-xi). Greenwich, CT: Information Age Publishing.
Maslach, C, Schaufeli, W. B., & Leiter, M. P. (2001). Job burnout.
Annual Review of Psychology, 52, 397-422.
Monat, A. & Lazarus, R. S. (Eds.). (1991). Stress and coping: An
anthology. New York: Columbia University Press.
Nicholas, R. A., Feuerstein, M., & Suchday, S. (2005). Workstyle and
upper-extremity symptoms: A biobehavioral perspective. Jour
nal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 47, 352-361.
Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., & Podsakoff, N. P. (2003).
Common method biases in behavioral research: A critical review
of the literature and recommended remedies. Journal of Applied
Psychology, 88, 879-903.
Rossi, A. M., Perrewe, P. L., Sauter, S. L., & Jex, S. M. (2006).
Foreword. In A. M. Rossi, P. L. Perrewe, & S. L. Sauter (Eds.),
Stress and quality of working life (pp. ix-xi). Greenwich, CT:
Information Age Publishing.
Schaubroeck, J., & Fink, L. S. (1998). Facilitating and inhibiting
effects of job control and social support on stress outcomes and
J Bus Psychol (2008) 23:63-71 71

role behavior: A contingency model. Journal of Organizational
Behavior, 19, 167-195.
Schnall, P., Belkic, K., Lansdbergis, P. A., & Baker, D. (2000). The
workplace and cardiovascular disease. Occupational Medicine:
State-of-the-Art Reviews, 15, 1-5.
Shannon, H. S., Mayr, J., & Haynes, T. (1997). Overview of the
relationship between organizational and workplace factors and
injury rates. Safety Science, 26, 201-217.
Shannon, H. S., Walters, V., Lewchuk, W., Richardson, J., Moran, L.
A., Haines, T., et al. (1996). Workplace organizational correlates
of lost-time accident rates in manufacturing. American Journal
of Industrial Medicine, 29, 258-268.
Spector, P. E. (1987). Method variance as an artifact in self-reported
affect and perceptions at work: Myth or significant problem?
Journal of Applied Psychology, 72, 438-443.
Spielberger, C. D., Vagg, P. R., & Wasala, C. F. (2003). Occupational
stress: Job pressures and lack of support. In J. C. Quick, & L. E.
Tetrick (Eds.), Handbook of occupational health psychology (pp.
185-200). American Psychological Association, Washington: DC.
Watson, G. W., Scott, D., Bishop, J., & Turnbeaugh, T. (2005).
Dimensions of interpersonal relationships and safety in the steel
industry. Journal of Business and Psychology, 19, 303-318.
Webster, T., & Bergman, B. (1999). Occupational stress: Counts and
rates. In compensation and working conditions. Retrieved March
21, 2006, from http://www.bls.gov/opub/cwc/archive/falll999
brief4.pdf

Springer

This content downloaded from

86.59.13.237 on Fri, 05 Nov 2021 07:21:17 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms