Summary:

This chapter has entailed what the researcher intends to investigate, starting
from introduction. 1he researcher analyzed the factors responsible for drug
abuse. The statement of the problem gives a focus on the goals that are stated.
The scope and delimitation of the study goes further to explain or highlight the
research area that can only be covered. The objectives of the research stated
what will be achieved at the end of the study, it is goal oriented and it emphasis
the practical out come.
Furthermore, there are research questions, assumption and hypothesis. The
research question seems to provide answers in the course of the study.
Assumptions are statements which the researcher believed to be factual but
cannot be proved.
Hypotheses are those intelligent guesses which were suggested as answers to
the problem by the researcher. The significance of the study pointed out the
importance of the research and how the answer to the question of the research
problem can influence educational theory or practice.
Finally, the study contained definition of terms or concepts, thus, their meaning
in this research may be different from their usual meaning.

CHAPTER TWO:

Review of Related Literature

2.1 Introduction:

The researcher attempts to examine various theories of social problems as they are

related t0 the concept of drug abuse. The concept of drug abuse is another
important area under discussion as well as adolescent drug use and educational

performance.

The drug use that may lead to abuse is going to be analyzed by the researcher;

signs of drug abuse are also part of the area under survey. It is with careful survey

that the researcher intends to dwell on the implication of drug abuse on the

education of the adolescent and the society at large.

2.2 Concept of Drug Abuse:

Scholars like Robert K. Merton (1957), Edwin H. Sutherland (1937), and Emile

Durkheim (1897) has advanced explanations on drug use and abuse among the

adolescents and other social problems. In Nigeria the popular explanation is based

on the idea that deviant behavior relating to drug abuse 1s a product of social

problem, which if not adequately restrained will deprive the adolescent a befitting

future Olurumtinehin (1988).

Durkheim (1897) says that, anomie (lack of usual social or ethical standard in an

People individual) is something projected by personal and social disorganization.

-are confused when values of the society are broken down. Under normal

Circumstances prescriptive and prospective are clear, but in times of trouble people

end to find themselves in difficult situations, making distinction between good and

bad aspects of the society therefore becomes difficult.

Merton (1957) sees behavior like self medication and drug abuse as a result of

social structure, anomie or formlessness. He argues that Formlessness is as a result

of Society s disagreement between society's emphasis on reaching certain goals

and the availability of widely accepted means of reaching these goals. He

maintains that deviants learn the goals encouraged by the society in order to move

the society forward. This theory has the advantage of analyzing deviant behaviors

such as drug abuse, school dropouts, Juvenile delinquency, alcoholism and looking

forward for prospective rehabilitation.

Edwin Sutherland (1939) assumes that deviant behavior occurs when the situation

appropriate for it exists. The theory stressed that deviant behaviors such as drug

abuse are acquired through the process of interaction and communication just as

other behavior patterns. This explains that drug abuse as a social problem is

imbibed through interaction with those who have already incorporated the negative

values of the act.

The concept of drug abuse according to Abdulhameed (2003) is the indiscriminate

use of any substance to drive primarily pleasurable effects and not for therapeutic

medical) benefit. These drugs usually alter the mood of the user and producing

False feeling of wellbeing, hallucination and Euphoria. Drugs commonly abused

include kola nut, Tobacco, Coffee, Marijuana, Cocaine, Cigarettes, Heroin and

Valium.

Kofi Anan (2000) regretted that "drug menace is a global problem with staggering

economic and social cost. He stressed that the huge amount of money generated by

drug trafficking fueled the culture of corruption and violence which tears the fabric

of the civil society.

Drug use tends to begin at early stage Survey of rural blacks in America reported

the usage of alcohol, tobacco, marijuana, and agarittes by the age of ten and

cocaine by the age of ten and cocaine by the age eleven. Okwunabua (1989).

The American psychology Association (A.P.A.) (1980) sees substance abuse as a

pattern of pathological use resulting in Impairment in physical, social and

Occupational functioning and lasting for at least one month A pattern of

Pathological use involves use for pleasure and avoidance of pains and disregard for

delirious effect (temporary or permanent madness) on health.

The world Health Organization (1980) said that "Drug dependence is a State of

physical or psychic dependence on drug arising in a person following

administration drugs on periodic or continuous basis. This is the type of abuse that

is characterized by the need for marked increased amount of substance to achieve

desirable effects and development of dysphonic reaction following cessation or

Abduction in intake of the substance" Drug addiction marks the zenith of drug

dependence behavior with the life of the user pre-occupied with finding the

substance. Each day has its unique withdrawal syndrome which will be

psychological or physical in nature.

Bible (Genesis 9:20-21 Revised Standard Version) viewed drug abuse as having

been with us right from time, starting with the Biblical Noah who planted a

vineyard and distilled wine from it, drank and became drunk.

Blum (1967) confirmed that the mind-altering act (drug abuse) have been

employed for many years in many cultures for over four thousand years man has

cultivated

South Opium, poppies m Asia, which have been eaten smoked, and drank.

American Indians chewed coca leaves throughout their history for its stimulating

effects The Bolivians and Peruvians for many years have been known to chew

plant to increase their stamina. Different ethnic groups in Nigeria have long history

now and when they started producing and consuming alcoholic beverages which

still traditionally maintained.

Hongo M. (2001) said "No one can become a drug user or abuser without practical

experience with a particular drug, All of us have used one drug or another, whether
prescribed or not for one reason or the other. The simple reason 1s that we did not

learn to continue the use in order to let it become habitual. Drug use and abuse is a

behavior, like all human behaviors are learned. Drug abuse is a socially learned

behavior that is not only purposive but also functional.

Abdulhameed (2000) pointed out that "drug has been a socially learned behavior.

All human beings regardless of age are liable to learn it. The simple fact is that the

However, purpose of drug apply to all of us as well as its functional aspects

circumstances under which a child, adolescents, young or adult will learn the

behavior cannot be the same.

Floyd P. and Garret (2002)'sees drug abuse as a complex behavioral syndrome that

includes pathological salience, obsession with obtaining and using the drugs. In

other words drug abuse simply means prolonged, excessive and harmful use

despite adverse consequences and the mental defense mechanism of denials,

rationalization, minimization and justification.

The American Psychiatric Association and Diagnostic and statistical manta

diagnostic and statistical manual (D.M.S) (2002) defined drug abuse as a

maladaptive pattern of substance used leading to Clinical Significant impairment

or distress as manifested by three or more of the following occurring at anytime in

twelve months period. Viz:-

Persistent desire or unsuccessful effort to cut down or control substance use.

 Substance is often taken in larger amount or over a long period than intended

great deal of time is spent on activities necessary to obtain substance (e.g.

driving long distances, visiting multiple Doctors).

 Important social recreational or Occupational activities are given up or

reduced because of substance abuse.

 Continued substance use despite knowledge of persistent or recurrent

pathological, physical problems caused or exuberated by the use of

substance.

 The international classifications for diseases (2002) criteria for substance

abuse are as follows.

 Difficulty in control use from the onset, termination or level of use.

 A strong desire or sense of compulsion to take substance.

 Progressive neglect of alternative pleasures or interest because of

psychoactive substance use.

 Persisting with substance use despite clear evidence of harmful

consequences,
 depressive mood/state consequent to heavy use or drug related impairment

of cognitive functioning evidence of tolerance such that increased doses of

psychoactive substance that are required in order to achieve effects

originally produced by lower doses.

 Psychoactive withdrawal-state when substance use has ceased or been

reduced as evidence by the characteristics withdrawal syndrome for the

substance (or use the same or closely related substance) with the intention of

avoiding or relieving withdrawal syndrome.

 Peter Mulhill (1992) viewed drug use as the intentional and non therapeutic

use of any psychoactive (mind affecting) substance including alcohol, that

adversely affects the well being of the user It is otherwise known as

inappropriate use of therapeutic drugs.

 Steadman's Medical Dictionary (2002) Viewed drug abuse as a chronic or

habitual use of any chemical substance to alter state of the body or mind for

other than medically warranted purpose. The United States has the highest

substance abuse rate than any other industrialized nation. Government

statistics (1997) showed that thirty six percent (36%) of United States

population has tried Marijuana, cocaine or illicit drugs. By compares seventy

 one percent (71%) of the population have smoked cigarettes, eighty two

percent (8296) tried alcoholic beverages.

Wikipedia (2002) said that “Drugs area considered illegal when diverted from

proper use. People take drugs for many reasons as peer pressure, relief of stress

increase of energy, to relax, to relieve pain, to escape reality, to feel more self

esteem and for recreation They may take stimulants to keep alert, cocaine for the

excitement it produces Other drugs that are easily abused are marijuana, heroine,

anabolic.

Steroids, phenacyline, gamahydroxybutyrate,, diazepam, alcohol (beer, brandy,

wine, gin) codeme, vicotine.

Levits (1974) opined that most psychologist classified drugs according to

molecular structure activity relationships. Chemists do the same so that they can

most effectively or efficiently direct research aimed at synthesizing new drugs.

However, classification according to molecular structure is not always satisfactory

for researchers who are interested in behavior Classification systems through

arbitrary purposes are very useful his is because all drugs have many actions for

example cocaine is a stimulant but it is a Euphoriant. Heroine is classified as a

narcotic. Different kinds of drugs can produce similar behavior, for example an
intoxicant (alcohol or marijuana), a sedative and tranquilizer may appear to cause

sleep on an individual under one circumstance (for instance at bedtime), The same

drug to another person may appear to produce stimulation at a different setting

(e.g. party time) A drug which activated behavior under certain circumstances may

express it under another.

Fink Asdin (1970) made his classification of drugs according to clinical utility.

Fink

(1970) made his classification of drugs by means of Electroencephalograph

(E.E.G)

The one this research pays attention to is Javiks (1967) who states as follows:

A. Psychothepeutic drugs: Drugs used in the treatment of psychological and

PSychiatnc disorders

b. Psychogenic drugs: These produce changes in mood, thinking and behavior they

are marjuana, pascalline, and psilocybin

C. Sedative and Hypnotics Produce general depression in low doses and sleep in

larger doses. They are used clinically to treat anxiety, stress and insomnia.

d. Stimulants This elevates mode, 1ncreased confidence, increased alertness as

well as prevent fatigue, they are kola nuts, nicotine, caffeine and cocaine

e. Analgesic, anesthetic and paralytics:

 i. Analgesic relieves pain; they include aspirin, marijuana, Bendimidazole

synthetic opiate, morphine.

ii. Paralytic drugs produce muscular paralysis eg curare, galamine, and

Succinylcholine.

iii. General anesthetic leads to total loss of consciousness: it also blocks nerves

e.g. cocaine and procaine

iv. Neuro-humours: has to do with chemical reaction within the central nervous

System

2.3 Adolescent Drug use and Educational Performance.

A number of researchers have examined the association between drug use and the

measures of educational attainment and commitment among adolescents. The

Measures of educational outcome have rarely involved direct measures of school

performance such as school grade or examination performance. More often these

Studies use direct measures such as truancy and early school leaving. Issues of

confidentiality and privacy preclude access to information on school performance

in external examination. The variety and indirectness of the measures of

educational performance makes comparison more difficult.

Resnick et al (1997) reported that high level of school connectedness were

associated with less frequent cannabis use whereas a low grade point (average) is
associated with marijuana use m U.S.A. National sample of twelve thousand one

hundred and eighteen (12,148) adolescents.

Crooks et al (1998) reported that among the one thousand six hundred and eighty

seven Colombian adolescents those who were classified with school likely us

Canabis swaim, Bates and Shavez (1989) reported that High school student's

adjustment accessed by ratings of how much young persans liked school and how

well they performed was associated with lower rate of substance use among

adolescents”.

Jones and Heaven (1998) in an Australian study of one hundred and ninety nine

high

School students aged twelve (12) to sixteen (16) years found that young people

who were heavily involved in using cannabis had more negative attitudes towards

school attendance than those who were not involved".

Lifrak, Novins and Mitchell (1998) reported that correlation between cannabis use

and scholastic competence for boys in a sample of two hundred and seventy one

(271), seventh and eighth grade more, reported a significant association between

poor school performance and cannabis use. In a sample of one thousand four

hundred and sixty four American Indians adolescents, the association persisted

after adjustment for anti social behaviors, peer affiliation and substance use.
Synskey et al (1999) found that young people in Australian school/students,

drug/alcohol survey (research) reported that young people who were away from

school the day before the research (survey) was conducted had higher rate of

cannabis use than those who attended school that day. Similarly Furgerson,

Lynskey and Howard (1995) found that truancy was more common among drug

users in a sample of nearly one thousand Newzealand children Studied from birth

to the age of sixteen (16) years. They found seventy five percent (75%) of those

who are reported as truants have used drugs compared with only 8.7 percent of

those reported not as truants.

Finally Swaim et'al (1997) reported that life time rates of drug users were almost

twice as high among school dropouts as among thOse who were still attending

school. In a related development, Mensach and Kandell (1988) examined the

relationship between educational achievement and cannabis use in U.S.A National

longitudinal survey of young adults. Using retrospective cannabis, found out that

high school graduates reported, significantly more use of cannabis during

adolescent years than by college graduates, even after controlling for demographic

factors and differences’ in academic activities, self-esteem and delinquency The

value of the study was compromised by a reliance on retrospective report of

cannabis reliability and validity of which have questioned Brewen et' al (1993).

Analysis of retrospective data from the national commodity study by Kesiler,

Fostser and Saunder (1995) reported that substance use by adolescents is

associated with increased risk of leaving school, especially those with early

disorder, were two to three times more likely to leave school before graduating and

two to zero times more likely not to enter school. The authors concluded that:

“Early psychiatric disorders have adverse consequences rough greater educational

failure and its effects on individuals who experience them and a broader

consequences on the society in which these individuals live. A cost accounting of

this and others may lead to the conclusion that we cannot afford the opportunity to

develop early intervention and treatment to prevent these costly effects for the

society and its citizens.

2.4 Why People Abuse Drugs

Ichongo (2001) reported that "many attempts have been made by scholars all over

the world to identify the causes of drug abuse. Some of the factors commonly

border on the individual and the soc1al environments some of these factors are:-

a) Peer group Pressure this happens to be the most studied area in drug use,

results all over the world showed that adolescents start drug use through

friends pressure. The continuation of drug use is attributed to the following:

  Young people lack self identity, and seek to establish such with peers which

require collective compliance for approval within the group.

 They are generally rebellious and find outlet for sub behavior within peers.

 Delinquent children have been found to use drugs more often than nona

children.

b) Personality factors Individuals with personality problems arising from social

conditions like-

 Lack of parental care

 Broken home or divorce

 Dissatisfaction with relations uprooting from familiar environment and

unemployment.

These have been found to abuse drugs more frequently than those who have nc

experienced similar conditions.

c) Emotional and Psychological stress: Such as frustration, anxiety, joblessness

and economic depression as well as social disorganization.

d) The urge for success m a competitive environment. Some sportsmen and

women abuse drugs in order to enhance their performance.

e) Occupational predisposition certain jobs or professions encourage then

members/workers to abuse drugs For instance the bar man has access to
 alcohol, health personnel such as Doctors, Nurses, Pharmacist have access to

orthodox drugs

f) Availability of psychoactive drugs this is also known as community variable.

If drugs are available and there are no restrictions to consumption, people

will invariably abuse them. So many drugs are available in chemist and

streets nobody questions the age of the buyers and users. In U.S. there is a

law that forbids the sale of liquor and drugs to children less than eighteen

years (18 years). This limits the amount available and accessible to

adolescents.

g) Family System variables: this factor dwells on the defects of the family or

family inadequacies that could lead to drug abuse as follows:

 Family norms and values

 Initiation of children into drug use 1s common in families where parents and

siblings use drugs. It makes the substance available.

 Children of absentee parents: Parents who pay more attention to their work

and businesses more than their children, such children are prone to seek the

needed love on drugs.

 Children of divorced parents are more likely to abuse drugs because of

pressure exacted on them as a result of the divorce.

  Under and over socialization of children can also lead to drug abuse. This is

seen as obtained in copyright families who adopt Western life at the

detriment of their tradition.

2.5 Drug Uses that May Lead to Abuse

Drugs that are not harmful to life could either be prescribed by Doctors,

pharmacists or by Physicians. Beacon (1956) noted that No fewer than ten

percents0%) of those who drink alcohol become alcoholics and heron the most

famous drug of addiction. Many entrap only about one and half of those who try

it’.

Chein et al (1964) reported that people who use drugs of whatever classification

are capable of living a normal life and never progress to abuse. The fear is that any

drug experience that IS pleasurable set the stage for expected use.

a. Traditional use-this is the oldest form of drug use, in Nigeria kola, coffee and

tobacco are widely used and culturally accepted Cultural drug use 1s a non deviant

and is generally practiced by older people. This is not withstanding there is high

probability of use leading to abuse.

b. Medical/iatrogenic use: This has to do with the use of drugs as a result of an

illment It is usually prescribed by a physician or a Doctor. In fact such drugs have a

high propensity to abuse The tendency to abuse prescribed drugs is little to the
narcotic base drugs which induces euphoric effects in patients Some patients get

too fond of certain prescribed drugs, they go from one Doctor to another to get

more and bigger doses to achieve an effect.

C. Instrumental use: Drug use for enhancing better performance in human activity,

could be in sex, sports, studies and work. Drug use for such purposes are usually

stimulant, e.g. Kola nuts, coffee, cannabis and cocaine.

d. Recreational use: Drugs are often used recreationally for sheer pleasure,

curiosity as a result of peer pressure as well as the need to elevate one’s spirit at

social occasion, most adolescent practice recreational use of drugs. Cannabis is one

of the recreational drugs used by students; it is the most frequently used illicit drug

among adolescents.

2.6 Signs of Drug Abuse

1. Drug abuse leads to personal health and social problems in the family and the

entire community. The identification of the signs which indicates that someone is

indulging n drug abuse is therefore instrumental to need help before the situation

gets out of hand. The signs of drug abuse are as follows:-

a) Possession of drug related paraphernalia such as pipes, rolling

papers, Syringes, needles, and small decongestant bottles.

 b) Possession of drug peculiar plants, butts, seeds or lighters, matches in

clothing pocket.

c) Odor of drug, smell of incense or other cover-up Scents

2. Identification with drug culture

a) Drug related magazines, slogans on clothing

b) Increased absenteeism or tardiness

c) Chronic dishonesty, lying, cheating and stealing

d) Trouble with the police

e) Change of friends, evasiveness or avoidance of talking about new ones.

f) Increasing and inappropriate anger, hostility and irritability

g) Reduced motivation in things formally of interest, self discipline, or self

esteem and sense of responsibility when several of these signs correlate

highly, one cannot be mistaken to intervene or seek professional help for the

victim. There is no specific time for starting the behavior" Lazarus (2001).

2.7 Effects Of Drug Abuse On Education Of The Adolescents.

The developmental and environmental issues involving children exposed to drugs

have a direct effect on the field of education. Children from substance abusing

backgrounds are considered "at risk The term" At Risk" indicates that these

children have the potential to be referred for special service due to some learning
impairments the risk associated with these children relates to possible cognitive

damage, possible developmental delay from damage incurred due to the home

environment Colleens Meado (1996).

Abdulhameed (2003) reported that "teenagers use drugs to change the way they

feel, either to feel better or to feel different, either to cope with or escape from

some of the difficulties they may experience in their lives. The aftermaths of drug

action especially on the adolescents are as follows:

 It heightens the rate of dropouts from school as they hardly maintain a

mental equilibrium with those who do not use drugs

 It may lead to serious injury and suicide

 There is also loss of control and crime.

1. Moses U. (2001) reported that school dropouts are another effect of drug

abuse on the education of the adolescents. Most drug users may not graduate

from school. The tendency towards violence or crime will be high if

majority of the dropouts are young and healthy, their productive gains for

self and society are compromised, such a society will suffer perennial

shortage of work force.

2. Criminality: Abusers are able to be fired from the places of work because of

impaired occupational malfunctioning or absenteeism. The money they earn

 is not enough for their daily cost needed to maintain the habit consequently

they resort to looting and financial irregularity.

3. Violence: violence is usually associated with drug abuse. Substance abuse

leads to a number of violence committed n or schools by adolescents. Drug

can facilitate Violence times of war Armed robbers and cultism present a

good profile of Violence committed in our schools, they are ranked high

(armmed robbers) among abusers. They terrorized innocent students and

extort money to cope with their drug taking behavior Ukeh (1997) reported

that "the adverse effect of drug abuse is that it portends for the Community

and the society orphans, widows" The worst disease of our time is accident

in working places or on the road as a result of drug abuse.

Divorce Robins et al (1970) studied long term adjustment of Marijuana user; they

found that user’s had increased difficulty in adjusting to society compared to non

users. Users were less likely to have graduated from school, were less faithful to

their spouses and had more illegitimate children.

Marijuana user drinks more alcohol than non users did which indicates that the

relationship between marijuana and alcohol is complex. The crumbling marijuana

institution by drug User behavior is challenging to the precepts of all religion.

Children suffer the most in the very act of divorce. Divorce exacts severe pressure

the children and can sometimes result into pathological vulnerabilities.

Similarly prostitution and destitution may also come as a result of family

disintegration. Female children of as young as thirteen may be forced into

prostitution to fend for them some times for other member of such broken families.

Marijuana user drinks more alcohol than non users did which indicates that the

relationship between marijuana and alcohol is complex. The crumbling marital

institution by drug user behavior is a challenge to the precepts of all religions.

Children suffer the most in the very act of divorce. Divorce exacts severe pressure

on the children and can sometimes result into pathological vulnerabilities.

Similarly prostitution and destitution may also come as a result of family units

Female children of as young as thirteen may be forced into prostitution to fend for

themselves. Some times for other member of such broken families. Such children

have also chances of engaging early in drug abuse. They are also unfortunate

products or this cankerworm called "drugs".