OBJECTIONS:
Introduction
ORIGIN OF LIFE
1. THEORY OF SPECIAL CREATIONS
 The theory of special creation is proposed that life
on earth is created by a supernatural power, the
GOD. According to the Christian belief, God has
created the universe, planet, animal, plant and
human in six natural days. Similar beliefs are also
been proposed by other religion as well.
OBJECTIONS:
 It was purely based on religious belief.
 There were no experimental evidences to support
the assumptions.
 The age of different fossils proves that living
organism appear on earth in different time frame.
2. THEORY OF SPONTANEOUS GENERATIONS
The theory of spontaneous generation or abiogenesis
assumes that non-living material in a spontaneous
manner give rise to life. There are several observations
supporting this theory, which are as follows:
 Hair of horse tail dipped in the water gives rise to
horsehair worm, Gordius.
 Fly larvae develops on rotten meat.
 Nile River warmed with sun.
 Van Helmont claimed that he can produce mice
from the dirty shirt and handful of wheat grains
kept in dark cupboard in 3 weeks.
OBJECTIONS:
 Theory of spontaneous generation was criticized
by Lazzaro Spallanzani, Francisco Redi and Louis
Pasteur. These great scientists performed well
designed scientific experiments to disprove the
theory of spontaneous generations.
3. THEORY OF CATASTROPHISM
1 condition of the primitive earth is different from
This is the extension of the theory of special creation.
This theory assumes that life is originated by the
creation and it is followed by catastrophe due to
geographical disturbances. Each catastrophe destroyed
the life completely whereas each creation forms life
different from the previous one. Hence, each round of
catastrophe/creation is responsible for evolvement of
different types of organisms on earth.
 The criticism of the current theory is same as
previous one, Non-scientific experiment to support
the hypothesis and mostly be based on imaginary
concepts.
4. THEORY OF COSMOZOIC
The theory assumes that life was present in the form of
resistant spores and appeared on earth from other
planet. Since the condition of earth was supporting the
life, these spores grew and evolved into different
organisms. This theory was also known as “theory of
panspermia or spore theory”. But no mechanism is
known about the transfer of spores from other planet or
whether these spores could survive the journey in
space.
OBJECTIONS:
 The absence of life forms on any planet except
earth and no details about the spores, its origin and
mechanism of crossing interplanetary space and
reaching earth.
5. THEORY OF ETERNITY OF LIFE
This theory assumes that life had no beginning or
end. It believes that life has ever been in existence
and it will continue to be so ever. It further
believes that there is no question of origin of life as
it has any beginning or end. The theory is also
known as steady state theory.
OBJECTIONS:
The main objection against the proposed theory
that it could not be able to explain; evidences
support that initially earth forms and then life
appeared on it. Where life exist before the
formation of earth?
6. MODERN THEORY
The modern theory is also known as “chemical
theory” or theory of primary abiogenesis. The
the present conditions which do not permit
abiogenesis.
 Spontaneous generation of life under the present
environment is not possible.
 Earth’s atmosphere ~1 billion years is very
different from the current conditions.
 Primitive earth’s atmosphere was reducing in  Inheritance of useful variations
nature.  Formation of new Species
 Under these conditions, the chemical molecules
(inorganic molecules) react with each other OBJECTIONS:
through a series of reactions to form organic  Evidences to support the theory of natural
substances and other complex biomolecules. selection:
 The solar energy and UV radiation provided the  Artificial Selection
energy for the chemical reactions  2Mimicry and Protective coloration
OBJECTIONS:  Correlation of nectarines and proboscis
Evidences Against the theory of natural
Formation of HCN, HCHO etc. selection:
Formation of Glycine  Perpetuation of Vestigial Organs 2. No
STEPS PROPOSED IN THE ORIGIN OF LIFE: explanation for variation
 Formation of Inorganic molecules  Distinction between continuous and
 Spontaneous formation of monomeric organic discontinuous variations
compounds  Disapproval of Pangenesis theory of Darwin
 Spontaneous formation of complex organic
compounds
 Spontaneous formation of molecular aggregates 5.
Formation of eobionts or protocells
 Formation of first cells
FEATURES OF THE EARLIEST
ORGANISMS
They are composed of one or more cells, they
carry out metabolism and transfer energy with
ATP, and they encode hereditary information
in DNA. But species are also highly diverse,
ranging from bacteria and amoebas to blue
2 whales and sequoia trees. Coral reefs, such as
7. THEORY OF EVOLUTION
the one pictured here, are microcosms of
The theory of natural selection was proposed by
diversity, comprising many life-forms and
Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace in their
sheltering an enormous array of life.
common publication. Both of them conducted
scientific data collection from individual
population survey. Charles Darwin travelled for
5yrs expedition around the world on the ship
H.M.S Beagle. During this journey, he made
observation of several animals and plants. He
keenly observed the similarities among organisms
and draw evolutionary relationship. In addition,
economist Thomas Malthus’s report on workers
recognized that competition between species leads
to the struggle for existence. Considering
Wallace’s view and Malthus observations of
The earliest evidence for life on Earth arises
workers led Charles Darwin to propose the theory
among the oldest rocks still preserved on the
of natural selection in his book “Origin of
planet. The earliest known life forms on Earth
Species”. The theory of natural selection is based
are putative fossilized microorganisms found
on following points:
in hydrothermal vent precipitates. The
 Rapid Multiplication
microfossils of microorganisms
 Limited natural resources
permineralized in the old Australian Apex
 Struggle for existence
chert rocks.
 Variation
 Natural Selection
 FEATURES OF THE EARLIEST  internal membranes
ORGANISMS  true, membrane-bound nucleus
Bacteria  complex DNA molecule
 contain vesicles and vacuoles which function in
 Earliest evidence of life appears in microfossils storage and transport
 dating from ~3.5 billion years ago
 Characteristics of earliest life forms
 small (1-2 nanometers)
 single-celled
 no external appendages
 little internal structure
 no nucleus
 resembled today’s bacteria Cyanobacteria-like organisms
 in group called prokaryotes ("before 3  The first multicellular organisms were simple, soft
nucleus")Bacteria organisms lacking bone, shell or other hard body
 divided into two groups parts; they are not well preserved in the fossil
 archaebacteria record.
 eubacteria

Prokaryotic cells First Plants

 Non-vascular plants
 first appeared ~ 3.5 billion years ago  Don't have roots instead they have rhizoids
 "before nucleus"  Don’t have true leaves
 small, ~1/10th size of eukaryotic cells  Dissolved nutrients and water move through
 lack true, membrane bound nucleus diffusion and osmosis
 surrounded by plasma membrane
 lack true, membrane bound organelles First Animals
 less complex than eukaryotic  Multicellular
 contain a simple DNA molecule  No organs or body systems
 Cellular digestion- no mouth, no stomach, no
Eukaryotic Cells anus
 first appeared ~ 1.5 billion years ago  Heterotrophic
 "true nucleus"  Asymmetry
 larger than prokaryotic
 rapidly evolved to produce diverse life forms that
inhabit earth today
 complex interiors


complex interior organization
extensive compartmentalization EXTINCTION 4
 many membrane bound organelles,
Local extinction:

 a species is no longer found in a portion of its

range

Ecological extinction:
 so, few members of a population are left that it  Effects that cause or reward a loss in genetic
can no longer serve its purpose in the ecosystem diversity can increase the chances of extinction of
a species.
Biological extinction: Predation, competition, and disease

 Introduction of new competitor species are

 a species is no longer found anywhere on earth also a factor in extinction and often accompany
habitat degradation, as well.

What are endangered, threatened, and rare species?  Sometimes these new competitors are
predators and directly affect prey species, while at
Endangered: other times they may merely out-compete

 a species in danger of becoming extinct over

vulnerable species for limited resources.
Coextension
all or most of its natural range
Threatened:
 Refers to the loss of a species due to the
 a species in danger of becoming endangered in extinction of another; for example, the extinction
the near future of parasitic insects following the loss of its hosts
Rare:

 species that are limited in their distribution.

(Unnatural Causes)

Genetic pollution
Causes of Extinction
 Genetic pollution is undesirable and
(Natural Disaster) uncontrolled gene flow into wild populations.

Genetics and demographic phenomena  Genetic pollution, genetic contamination or

Population genetics and demographic phenomena genetic swamping happens when original set of
affect the evolution, and therefore the risk of extinction
of species. Limited geographic range is the most
important determinant of genus extinction at

naturally evolved (wild) region specific genes/

gene pool of wild animals and plants become
hybridized with domesticated and feral varieties or
with the genes of other nonnative wild species or
background rates but becomes increasingly irrelevant subspecies from neighboring or far away regions.
as mass
Habitat degradation

 It is currently the main anthropogenic cause of

species extinctions.

 The main cause of habitat degradation

worldwide is agriculture, with urban sprawl,
logging, mining and some fishing practices close
behind.
extinction arises.  The degradation of species’ habitat may alter
the fitness landscape to such an extent that the
species is no longer able to survive and becomes
extinct.

Global warming
 Our climate is changing, both naturally and
due to human exploitation.
 There is already undeniable evidence that
animals, birds and plants are being affected by
climate change and global warming in both their
distribution and behaviour.
 Unless greenhouse gas emissions are severely
reduced, climate change could cause a quarter of
land animals, birdlife and plants to become extinct.
5 periods of mass extinction in the history
Ordovician-Silurian extinction - 444 million years ago
 Two events occurred that killed off 27% of all
families, 57% of all genera and 60% to 70% of all
species
 the second-largest of the five major extinctions
in Earth's history in terms of percentage of genera
that became extinct.
 In May 2020, studies suggested the cause of
the mass extinction was due to global warming,
related to volcanism, and anoxia, and not due, as
considered earlier, to cooling and glaciation.
Late Devonian extinction - 383-359 million years ago
 a prolonged series of extinctions eliminated
about 19% of all families, 50% of all genera and at
least 70% of all species.
 In several pulses across the Devonian, ocean
oxygen levels dropped precipitously, which dealt
serious blows to conodonts and ancient shelled
relatives of squid and octopuses called goniatites.
 many reef-building creatures died out,
including a major group of sea sponges called the
stromatoporoids.
Permian-Triassic extinction - 252 million years
ago
 Earth's largest extinction killed 57% of all
families, 83% of all genera and 90% to 96% of all
species (53% of marine families, 84% of marine
genera, about 96% of all marine species and an
estimated 70% of land species, including insects).
 The highly successful marine arthropod, the
trilobite, became extinct.
 The evidence regarding plants is less clear, but
new taxa became dominant after the extinction.
5  The "Great Dying" had enormous evolutionary
significance: on land, it ended the primacy of early
synapsids.
 The recovery of vertebrates took 30 million
years, but the vacant niches created the
opportunity for archosaurs to become ascendant. In
the seas, the percentage of animals that were
sessile dropped from 67% to 50%.
 The whole late Permian was a difficult time
for at least marine life, even before the "Great
Dying".
Triassic-Jurassic extinction - 201 million years ago
 About 23% of all families, 48% of all genera
(20% of marine families and 55% of marine
genera) and 70% to 75% of all species became
extinct.
 Most non-dinosaurian archosaurs, most
therapsids, and most of the large amphibians were
eliminated, leaving dinosaurs with little terrestrial
competition.
 Non-dinosaurian archosaurs continued to
dominate aquatic environments, while
nonarchosaurian diapsids continued to dominate
marine environments.

 The Temnospondyl lineage of large

amphibians also survived until the Cretaceous in
Australia.
6

Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction - 66 million years

ago

 About 17% of all families, 50% of all genera

and 75% of all species became extinct

 In the seas all the ammonites, plesiosaurs and

mosasaurs disappeared and the percentage of
sessile animals (those unable to move about) was
reduced to about 33%.

 All non-avian dinosaurs became extinct during

that time.

 The boundary event was severe with a

significant amount of variability in the rate of
extinction between and among different clades.

 Mammals and birds, the latter descended from

theropod dinosaurs, emerged as dominant large

land animals.