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Source waters of the Pacific Equatorial Undercurrent

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 JOURNAL OF GEOPHYSICAL RESEARCH, VOL. 99, NO. C12, PAGES 25,063-25,080, DECEMBER 15, 1994

The western equatorial Pacific: A water mass crossroads

Rana A. Fine
Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, University of Miami, Miami, Florida

RogerLukasandFrederickM. Bingham
1
Department of Oceanography, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu

Mark J. Warner and Richard H. Gammon

School of Oceanography, University of Washington, Seattle

Abstract. The western equatorial Pacific is a crossroadsfor thermocline and

intermediate waters formed at higher latitudes. The role of the equatorward flowing,
low-latitude western boundary currents (LLWBCs) in advecting well-ventilated (with
respect to atmospheric gases), higher-latitude waters varies with density. At densities
<26.5 •r0 the Mindanao Current (MC) (Wyrtki, 1961; Masuzawa, 1969) advectsrecently
ventilated water observed as tracer maxima predominantly from the North Pacific
subtropical gyre (tropical water is <3 years old and the remnant subtropical mode
water is <5 years); it branches into the southern Celebes Sea feeding the Indonesian
throughflowand toward the east north of the equator. Between 26.5 and 26.8 •r0 the
MC advects predominantly North Pacific Intermediate Water (having a component that
is <20 years old) mainly into the southern Celebes Sea; there is also some indication of
a tracer maximum extending eastward north of the equator. However, below 26.8 •r0,
South Pacific water massesappear to be stronger, so that they are the major ventilation
sourcefor the western equatorialregion, includingthe CelebesSea. At 27.2 •r0 the
New Guinea Coastal Undercurrent advects Antarctic Intermediate Water (having a
component that is <25 years) into a background of older water. The presence of
subtropicalmode water in the western tropical North Pacific and Celebes Sea is
attributed to an equatorward LLWBC in the North Pacific (and suggestsa reason for
the absenceof 18ø water in the tropical North Atlantic). The absenceof a LLWBC in
the North Atlantic highlightsa basic difference between the circulation of the two
oceans, which may be due to the different ways they import and export water. At the
western boundary in the North Atlantic, warm water is imported and cold water is
exported as part of the global thermohaline circulation, whereas at the western
boundaryin the North Pacific, warm water (above 26.8 •r0) is mainly exported to the
Indian Ocean via the Indonesian throughflow and cold water is imported.

Introduction hemisphereand waters that flow into the equatorial system

The western equatorial Pacific Ocean plays an important
role in the development of El Nifio-Southern Oscillation
(ENSO) events [cf. Webster and Lukas, 1992], and it may be
a key component of the global thermohaline circulation by
its involvement in the Pacific-to-Indian Ocean throughflow
[e.g., Gordon, 1986; Godfrey et al., 1993]. The low-latitude
western boundary currents (LLWBCs) supply waters of
middle- and high-latitude origin into the western equatorial
Pacific. Some of the water masses are subsequently trans-
ported through the Indonesian Archipelago, which has a
large impact on the heat and massbalances[e.g., Piola and
Gordon, 1984; Gordon, 1986; Toole et al., 1988]. The LLW-
BCs also supply waters that crossthe equator into the other
1Nowat Department
of Physics,
University
of NorthCarolina
at
Wilmington.
Copyright 1994 by the American Geophysical Union.
Paper number 94JC02277.
0148-0227/94/94 JC-02277505.00
of counter and undercurrents; these are transported long
distanceseastward [e.g., Fine et al., 1987; Tsuchiya et al.,
1989; Toggweiler et al., 1991]. In these regards, a better
descriptionand understandingof this region is important for
understandingthe ocean's role in the global climate system.
The LLWBCs in the upper ocean are distinguishedfrom
midlatitude western boundary currents by their direct asso-
ciation with the wind-driven equatorial circulation. They are
an important contributor to the equatorial and global heat
and mass budgets because of their high temperatures and
transports. The LLWBCs offer the potential for substantial
water massmodificationthrough enhanceddiapycnal mixing
in these strong boundary currents and epipycnal mixing at
their confluence.
In the upper waters of the Pacific Ocean the LLWBCs are
found equatorward of 15ø latitude, and they consist of the
Mindanao Current (MC) in the North Pacific (NP), the New
Guinea Coastal Current (NGCC) (which reverses with the
monsoon), and the New Guinea Coastal Undercurrent
(NGCUC) in the South Pacific (SP) (Figure la). Reid's [1961]

25,063
25,064 FINE ET AL.' WESTERN EQUATORIAL PACIFIC AS CROSSROADS

I
20N I
• KUROS,,,HIO
wl½ i
1ON
/

- - '•' NSCC

,',,,•
SEC•
EQ UC-
......................
x •SEC•
! New'iGuinea .... • SSCC
Banda
Se•,

10S
, _ .... .......
-%/;......... ...................

---•lw ....
20 S
120 E 130 E 140 E 150 E 160 E

Figure la. Map of the westerntropicalPacificOceanshowingthe majorgeographicnamesand surface

to intermediatedepth currents,includingKuroshioCurrent, Mindanao Current (MC), North Equatorial
Current (NEC), North EquatorialCountercurrent(NECC), New Guinea CoastalCurrent (NGCC), South
Equatorial Current (SEC), and East AustraliaCurrent (EAC). The subsurfacecurrentsare New Guinea
Coastal Undercurrent (NGCUC), Equatorial Undercurrent (EUC), Northern and Southern Subsurface
Countercurrents(NSCC and SSCC), Mindanao Undercurrent (MUC), and Great Barrier Reef Undercur-
rent (GBRUC). The Mindanao Eddy (ME) and Halmahera Eddy (HE) are also indicated. Solid lines
indicatesurfaceflow, thick dashedlinesindicatethermoclineflow, and thin dashedlinesindicateAntarctic
Intermediate Water (AAIW) flow. The inset showsthe Vitiaz Strait east of New Guinea at 5øS, 148øE.

map of geostrophicflow (0/1000 dbar) showssimilar patterns
to those depicted in Figure la. Sparse observationssuggest
the possible existence of a Mindanao Undercurrent [e.g.,
Wyrtki, 1961; Lukas et al., 1991; Hu et al., 1994]. The
equatorward flowing currents close the interior Sverdrup
circulation [cf. Kessler and Taft, 1987] to form two tropical
gyres spanningthe Pacific basin, one entirely in the northern
hemisphereand the other spanningthe equatorbut primarily
in the southern hemisphere. The North Equatorial Counter-
current (NECC) forms the boundary between these two
gyres at the surface; in the thermocline the boundary is
found north of the equator within the Equatorial Undercur-
rent (EUC). The explanation for this difference is that
ageostrophic wind-driven flows in the near-surface layer
cross the Sverdrup boundary and are compensatedby geo-
strophic flows in the opposite direction. This is one of the
reasonsthese two wind-driven gyres are "leaky," and water
masspropertiesin the LLWBCs can be traced to ventilation
at middle and high latitudes.
The major upper ocean zonal flows supplyingthe western
boundary are the South Equatorial Current (SEC) and the
North Equatorial Current (NEC) (Figure la). In the NP the
NEC splits as it encountersthe Philippines[cf. Toole et al.,
1990], separating near 12øN into a northwestward flowing
current (the Kuroshio) and the southwardflowing MC. In the
SP the SEC bifurcates near 15øSinto the equatorward Great
Barrier Reef Undercurrent [Church and Boland, 1983],
which flows into the NGCUC [Tsuchiya et al., 1989] and the
southward flowing East Australia Current. Convergence of
the strong equatorward flows in the western equatorial
Pacificis compensatedby strongeastwardflows that are part
of the equatorialcirculation, suchas the NECC, and by the
loss of waters to the Indian Ocean via the Indonesian
throughflow [e.g., Schott, 1939; Wyrtki, 1961]. Also, the
westward flowing SEC north of Papua New Guinea reverses
during the northwest monsoon [Schott, 1939]. Below the
surface(between23.5 and 26.5 rr0),at about3ølatitudethere
are also the eastward flowing Northern Subsurface Counter-
current(NSCC) and east of 155øEthe Southern"
Subsurface
Countercurrent (SSCC). These currents are sometimesob-
servedto mergewith the NECC and EUC [e.g., Toole et al.,
1988]. Gouriou and Toole [1993] show that the velocity axes
of these eastward flowing currents are associatedwith me-
ridional property gradients, rather than extrema.
Schott [1939] delineatedthe MC from historical ship drift.
The strong southward flow of the MC along the coast
extends offshore about 100 km; it narrows to the south [e.g.,
Lukas et al., 1991]. Wyrtki [1961] shows that the current
extendsto a depth of about 600 m. Geostrophictransportsof
from 8 to 35 Sv (dependingon reference level, latitude, and
time) have been estimated for the MC [e.g., Wyrtki, 1961;
Cannon, 1970;Nitani, 1972; Toole et al., 1988;Lukas et al.,
1991].The flow in the MC varies with the season,responding
to local changesin the wind [Wyrtki, 1961] and probably to
remote changesthrough the impact of Rossby waves at the
Philippine coast.
The existence of a quasi-permanenteddy was first recog-
nized by Takahashi [1959] and was named the Mindanao
 FINE ET AL.: WESTERN EQUATORIAL
Figure lb. Map showing the station locations for Western Equatorial Pacific Ocean Circulation Study
(WEPOCS) III (June-July 1988) as small dots, 10øN trans-Pacific (TP10N) section (February-May 1989)
as a solid line, CO2 expedition along 170øW(April-May 1988)as solid squaresand along 165øE(May 1987)
as open squares, a meridional section along 165øE, and the western end of longitudinal section (TEW) at
about 12øS(June-July 1987) as circled dots.
Eddy (ME) (Figure la) by Wyrtki [1961]. The ME is associ-
ated with the southward turning of NEC waters at the coast
of the Philippines and their subsequentflow to the east in the
NECC. The Halmahera Eddy (HE) also appears in the maps
of Takahashi [1959] and was named by Wyrtki [1961]. It is
well developed only during the summer monsoon, when SP
water from the SEC recurves into the NECC.
Vertical sections near the New Guinea coast along 133.5øE
and 137øE [Masuzawa, 1968] show the shallow eastward and
southeastward flowing Northwest Monsoon Current. It
overlies the strong northwestward flow of the NGCUC
[Lindstrom et al., 1987]. The NGCUC originates along the
northeastern coast of Australia as the Great Barrier
Undercurrent at a typical depth of 300-900 m. Lindstrom et
al. [1990], using hydrographic and current meter measure-
ments, find a strong equatorward mass transport of 8-14 Sv
through the Vitiaz Strait with a much smaller transport
through St. George's Channel [Butt and Lindstrom, 1994]
(Figure la).
Middle- and high-latitude water masses from the NP and
SP are transported into the western equatorial Pacific by the
LLWBCs. Both Wyrtki [1961] and Cannon [1970] identify
the salinity extrema of NP Tropical Water (NPTW) and NP
Intermediate Water (NPIW) in the MC. Reid's [1965] map of
salinity on 125 cL/t level (about 26.8 tr0) also shows low-
salinity water of NP origin adjacent to the eastern Mindanao
Coast and extending eastward in the equatorial region.
Tsuchiya et al. [1989] identify SP water massescarried by
the NGCUC between 25.25 and 26.4 tr0 as tropical water and
pycnocline waters of SP origin. They conclude that SP water
transported by the NGCUC is the major contributor to the
EUC at its origin. Tsuchiya [1991] shows the importance of
the NGCUC as the pathway of Antarctic Intermediate Water
(AAIW) into the NP.
PACIFIC AS CROSSROADS 25,065
Most of the water masses carried by the LLWBCs in the
western equatorial Pacific have been identified using tradi-
tional hydrographic tracers, such as salinity, oxygen, and
nutrients. Here several anthropogenic tracers with different
characteristics and source functions are used to identify an
additional water mass of NP origin in the MC. The tracers
also are used to deduce the circulation in this region through
their integration over "short timescale" flow fluctuations.
The objectives of this study of thermocline and intermediate
water massesare to identify their sources and fates, estimate
the time since ventilation (with respect to atmospheric gases)
at the source regions, and define the role of LLWBCs in
Reef transporting them into the region. The western equatorial
Pacific Ocean presents a serious challenge to our descriptive
abilities because of strong temporal variability, complex
current systems, complicated topography, nonlinear dynam-
ics, the confluence of many different water masses, and the
superpositionof wind-driven and thermohaline forced circu-
lations.
The Data
Several data sets from the western equatorial Pacific will
be used (Figure lb). The Western Equatorial Pacific Ocean
Circulation Study (WEPOCS) III expedition in June-July
1988 surveyed the region between 124øE and 143øE, 12øN
and 5øS[see Lukas et al., 1991]. The survey concentrated on
the MC along the western boundary, where five sections of
closely spaced stations were made. In addition, stations
continued into the Celebes Sea. Hydrographic/oxygen/
nutrient, chlorofluorocarbon (CFC), and tritium data were
collected. A total of 117 conductivity-temperature-depth
(CTD) stations were occupied, (at stations 24-117, depths
exceeded 1500 m). Tritium samples were analyzed from 30
stations [Ostlund, 1990].
25,066 FINE ET AL.: WESTERN EQUATORIAL
3O . I_ . ! , I .. [
• 25
m 20
,•.
m 10
o 5
.
0 ' ' ' ' I
34.0
Figure 2. Potential temperature(in degreesCelsius)versussalinity (in precise salinity units) for the
WEPOCS III bottle data (dots). The conductivity-temperature-depth(CTD) profiles from four WEPOCS
III stations are superimposedas follows: station 19 (7øN, 143øE), station 96 in the MC (10øN, 126øE),
station 34 in the Celebes Sea (5øN, 126øE), and station 17 in the NGCUC (3øS, 143øE). Also included is
station 316 from the 24øN section (June 1985) (24øN, 138ø35'E) [Roemmich et al., 1990].
The CFC and corresponding hydrographic data used in
this paper are from several cruises in addition to WEPOCS
III (Figure lb). At 76 of the WEPOCS III stations, samples
were analyzed for two CFCs, CFC-11 and CFC-12. A
serious contamination problem caused high blanks for
CFC- 11 and CFC- 12 of 0.03 pmol/kg and mediocreprecision.
For stations 1-26 the precision for CFC-11 and CFC-12 was
3%, improving for the remainder of the stationsfor CFC-11
to 1% and for CFC-12 to 2.5%. Along a 10øN trans-Pacific
(TP10N) section in February-May 1989, CFC and hydro-
graphic data were collected [Woods Hole Oceanographic
Institution, 1991]. The Niskin bottles used on TP10N were
severely contaminated with CFCs during shipping,produc-
ing large and variable blank problems. The precision for
CFC-11 was 0.05 pmol/kg and for CFC-12, 0.02 pmol/kg. In
addition, data from several National Oceanic and Atmo-
spheric Administration (NOAA) cruises are used, including
the CO2 expedition along 170øW in April-May 1988 and
along 165øEin May 1987, a meridional section along 165øE,
and the western end of longitudinal section (TEW) at about
12øS in June-July 1987. A detailed discussion of these
NOAA data are presented by Wisegarver et al. [1993]. For
the NOAA expeditions in 1987-1988 the CFC-11 and CFC-12
precision was 1% or 0.005 pmol/kg, whichever is larger.
Hydrographic Data
Temperature-salinity (theta-S) relationships are used to
provide a framework for examining the sources for water
massesin the western equatorial Pacific. Theta-S curves are
presented from four WEPOCS III CTD stations (Figure 2);
one of them is located in the MC, one in the eastern portion
of the WEPOCS III cruise track, and one in the NGCUC.
The fourth, station 34 located at the southern end of Mind-
anao, is used to represent the Celebes Sea. The thermocline
and intermediate waters (to 26.8 •r0) at the southernend of
Mindanao derive directly from the MC and have properties
similar to those that flow southward in the Makassar
PACIFIC AS CROSSROADS
I , • , J I 24øN, [ [
' ' ' ' I ' ' ' '
34.5 35.0 35.5
Salinity (psu)
feedingthe throughflow [Bingham and Lukas, 1994;R. Fine,
personal communication, 1994]; whereas the Celebes Sea
stationson the west coast of Mindanao have propertiesinter-
mediate between the MC and station 19 (7øN, 143øE). These
watersare derived more from local mixing and do not appearto
directly flow into the Makassar Straits [Bingham and Lukas,
1994]. Also included in Figure 2 is a station from the western
part of the NP subtropicalgyre [Roemmich et al., 1990].
Between 25ø and 5øC, at the few stations located in the SP
within the NGCUC, the salinity is consistently higher than at
NP stations (Figure 2). There is significant variability and
interleaving centered at the salinity maximum (about 20øC)
and minimum (9ø-8øC) waters. They indicate that there is
considerable mixing of water masses from different source
regions. A source of low-salinity water is the oxygen mini-
mum zone of the eastern tropical Pacific; these waters are
carried westward by the southernpart of the NEC [Cannon,
1966]. In the NP, highest salinity waters are in the MC and in
the western subtropical gyre. Between 18ø and 12øC, the
theta-S properties in the MC are strikingly similar to those in
the NP western subtropical gyre. Similarities in the theta-S
curves suggestthat most of the mixing of the thermocline
water occurs between NP western subtropical gyre water
carried by the MC and water from the eastern tropical
Pacific, rather than with water directly from the SP.
The upper salinity maxima (20ø-25øC)(Figure 2) are asso-
ciated with NP and SP Tropical Water (NPTW and SPTW).
The SPTW is observed to a more limited extent than the
NPTW in the WEPOCS III data. The SPTW salinity maxi-
mum is also found at a greater density (24.8 rr0) than NPTW
(24.0 o-0) and has lower oxygen. Wyrtki [1956] attributes
double-salinity maxima in the region north of Halmahera as
indicating the presence of both NPTW and SPTW. Ffield
and Gordon [ 1992] show the SPTW does not spread into the
Banda Sea, although recent observations by Gordon et al.
Straits [1994] show SPTW in the Halmahera Sea.
 FINE ET AL' WESTERN EQUATORIAL PACIFIC AS CROSSROADS 25,067

37 54 36 60 34 61 63 65 70 94 97 117

0 v y v v v v v v v v. v v

100

200 . ß ß . •;•-'
0.8.

300 ø ø 0.4
.
400 ' '
. .

soo ß ' ß

600

700

8OO I I I I I I I I

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000

Distance [km]
Figure 3a. Section of CFC-l I (in picomolesper kilogram) versus depth (in meters) for stations along the
eastern Mindanao Coast into the Celebes Sea; bottom horizontal axis is distance (in kilometers) along
WEPOCS III track from station 37. Dots show discrete bottle locations, which usually extend to 1000 m.
Contour interval changesfrom 0.2 pmol/kg above 0.2 pmol/kg to 0.02 pmol/kg below.

Wyrtki [1956, 1961] identifies two low-salinity intermediate
water massesin the western equatorial Pacific and within the
Indonesian Seas, the one of northern hemisphere origin
being warmer (9ø-8øC)than the southern(5øC).Bingham and
Lukas [1994], using WEPOCS III data, identified NPIW
intruding southward in the MC. The salinity minimum of
NPIW is well defined as the MC enters the southern Celebes
Sea (Figure 2). Eastward of the MC, the low-salinity, 9ø-8øC
water appears to have been modified by mixing with water
from the eastern tropical Pacific and SP. Below 8øC, the
influence of SP intermediate waters appears to dominate.
Tsuchiya [1991] used data from the WEPOCS I and II cruises
to show that the deeper part of the NGCUC, which carries
AAIW, does not feed the EUC. Rather, AAIW flows east-
ward in the NSCC and northward along the eastern Mind-
anao Coast, in agreement with the earlier work of Masuzawa
[1972], who traces it to 13øN. Also Reid's [1965] map on 80
cL/t (about 27.2 tr0) showshigh-oxygenwaters of SP origin
reaching to nearly 30øN in the western NP, suggestingthat
there is northward flow of AAIW alongthe western boundary.
Tracer Data
Bomb tritium and the CFCs have different
used to provide the large-scale background. The high tracer
concentrationsalong the northeastern part of the Mindanao
Coast (Figures 3a and 3b) suggest,as will be shown below,
advection by the MC of waters of _,2ddie-and high-latitude
origin. Concentrations generally decrease with increasing
depth and from 10øNsouthwardinto the CelebesSea. There is
a well-defined subsurfacemaximum lying between 23.5 and
25.6 tr0. More detailedcontouringin that densityrange shows
that there are two CFC subsurface maxima, one usually
centeredat 24.0 tr0, the otherat 25.4 tr0.There is a well-defined
salinitymaximum (Figure 3c) correspondingto the upper CFC
maximum, yet none correspondingto the lower.
Along 7øN the subsurface CFC maxima are best developed
along the coast (Figure 4). This pattern, again, suggeststhat
the MC is the source of the high CFCs in the upper waters.
The maxima probably get obliterated in the interior by
mixing. The CFC-11 contours and isopycnals shoal in the
seaward direction from the boundary.
The meridional section along 143øE (Figure 5) shows
highest CFC-11 concentrations in the upper waters in the
NP, although the values are lower than observed along the
source func- eastern Mindanao Coast. Concentrations do not decrease

tions in space and time. Bomb tritium entered the oceans in
the high northern latitudes in a mid-1960spulse and thus is a
powerful tracer for sorting out the NP versus SP origin of
water masses. On the other hand, the CFCs are fairly well
mixed in the atmosphere, currently having about a 5%
hemisphericgradient favoring the northern hemisphere[e.g.,
Warner, 1988]. The CFCs are gases that enter the oceans
according to their solubility; concentrations are thus higher
in colder surface waters.
Sections of the more soluble of the two CFCs, CFC-11, are
monotonically into the SP, because of the presence of
several eastward flowing currents. Generally, the shallow
contours appear to be rising in the direction of the SP, and
the deep contours appear to be deepening. There is the
impression that CFC-11 concentrations are higher in the
thermocline waters of the NP as compared with the SP,
while the reverse is the case in the intermediate waters.
The plot of CFC-11 versus tr0 (Figure 6a) allows a more
direct comparison of the spatial variation in CFC concentra-
tionsin the WEPOCS III data. Above about 26.8 tr0 the CFC
25,068 FINE ET AL.' WESTERN EQUATORIAL PACIFIC AS CROSSROADS

37 54 • 60 • 61 63 65 70 94 97 117
21 V V • V V V V V V V V v

\ ß

22
ß
ß
ß
ß

ß
ß
ß ß

(0 23
ß

I---
I
24
ß

E
1::)325

26

i i i i i i i i i

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000

Distance [km]
Figure 3b. Section of CFC-11 (in picomolesper kilogram) versus tr0 for stationsalong the eastern
Mindanao Coast into the Celebes Sea; bottom horizontal axis is distance (in kilometers) along WEPOCS
III track from station 37. Dots show discrete bottle locations. The ocean surface is indicated by a dashed
curve. Contour interval is 0.2 pmol/kg above 0.2 pmol/kg; the 0.02 pmol/kg contour is also included.

concentrations clearly are higher in the MC, while below positivelycorrelated,with the data below 24.0 tr0fallingintO
26.8 tr0, they are higherin the NGCUC. Similarly, the plot of two clusters. Because of the very low tritium values in the
CFC-11 versus tritium (Figure 6b) provides information in SP, the cluster with the steepest slope is composed of
terms of NP versus SP origin. Tritium and CFC-11 are stationsthat lie along 143øEsouth of IøN, and in the upper

37 54 36 60 34 61 63 65 70 94 97 117

21 " V VI V iV V ¾ V I V I V I

22
ß ß .

34.6

o3 23
• '•' 34.8
!--! 24 34.8
.-,--_..,,•J'
=l
!:)325

,
• --•4.8
26 • ' ß34.6
,

27 ß

ß
ß

i i i i i i i i i i

0 100 2OO 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000

Distance [krn]
Figure 3c. Sectionof salinityversustr0 for stationsalongthe easternMindanaoCoastinto the Celebes
Sea; bottom horizontal axis is distance (in kilometers) along WEPOCS III track from station 37.
 FINE ET AL.' WESTERN EQUATORIAL PACIFIC AS CROSSROADS 25,069

707172 74 76 78 79 81 82/24 23 22 21 20 19
21 VVV V V V V V V V V V V

'•'-:--•----:•.• .., ..,._--•"••' ' ß

: ß
ß

22

(1323

I"- 24
I

27

142 E

Longitude
Figure4. Sectionof CFC-11(in picomoles per kilogram)versus•r0for WEPOCSIII stationsalong7øN;
bottomhorizontalaxisis longitudein degreeseast.The surfaceis indicatedby a dashedcurve. Contour
interval is 0.2 pmol/kgabove0.2 pmol/kg;the 0.02 pmol/kgcontouris also included.

thermoclineit also is composedof stationsfrom the southern NP group. As pointed out by Van Scoy et al. [1991], waters
part of the HE (3øN, 131øE).The cluster of data with the less in the eastern tropical NP are not well ventilated, because
steepslopeare waters of NP origin. Water carried from the they lie in the shadow zone. Properties of the southern
eastern tropical Pacific has the lowest tritium values in the Celebes Sea station are similar to those of the MC.

16 15 13 12 11 10 9 7 5 4 3 2 1
V V V V V V
21 v v v v v v v
ß

22 ß * ß
ß

ß ß
• 23 1.

•T 24

._1•2,5

1
ß ß o
26
• . ' - 0.8--
ß , -
• 0.6 _

27 ,, ß

•-- I ' , •9 '02

• , I '
' I

s 2 0 2 4 6 N

Latitude
Figure5. Sectionof CFC-11 (in picomolesper kilogram)versus•r0 for WEPOCSIII stationsalong
143øE;bottomhorizontalaxisis latitudein degrees.The surfaceis indicatedby a dashedcurve.Contour
intervalis 0.2 pmol/kgabove0.2 pmol/kg;the 0.02 pmol/kgcontouris alsoincluded.
25,070 FINE ET AL.' WESTERN EQUATORIAL PACIFIC AS CROSSROADS

O.O 0.5 •.O J.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 •ol inity

•3
33 34 35 36
Pofenfiol Temperofure
t5 20 25 30
24

NGC Celebes Sea

i,i ß

7øN,

MC

27

•8 [50

Figure 6a. CFC-11 (in picomolesper kilogram) versus

for all of the WEPOCS III data. Profiles from four WEPOCS
III stations are superimposed as solid curves as follows:
station 1 (7øN, 143øE), station 117 in the MC (12øN, 126øE), 200 ' ' '
station 34 in the Celebes Sea (5øN, 126øE), and station 16 in 0 20 40 6o 80 i00
the NGCUC (2ø30'S, 143øE). F II (%)

Figure 7. The conductivity-temperature-depth (CTD) sa-

Maps of Properties on Density Surfaces
Maps of tracer concentrationswere prepared by cubic
spline interpolation of the bottle data. To correct for time
differences in these cruises, the recent average annual in-
crease in CFC concentration
1987 CFC-11 concentrations.
used to provide information on the ventilation characteris-
tics of the water masses in the western equatorial Pacific.
The CFC derived ages are considered an upper bound,
because of the effects of mixing with older waters. Tritium
will be used to evaluate the relative age and strength of the
NP source. Differences in the ventilation
0.0 i.0 •.0
2.5 ......... , ..........
2.0
linity and potential temperature versus pressure curves
(solid curves) and percent saturation for CFC-11 [Warner
and Weiss, 1985] (relative to the atmosphereof 242 ppt for
marine airs measured during WEPOCS III) versus pressure
(dots) for WEPOCS III station 22 (7øN, 137øE).
of about 5% was added to the
Both the CFCs and tritium are
be related to the characteristics of the LLWBCs that carry
the water massesinto the equatorial Pacific and the relative
distancesfrom the water mass formation regions.
Mixed and Barrier Layer
In the western equatorial Pacific, above the thermocline
characteristics will
(dt/dz > 0.05øC/m) there is generally a shallow mixed layer
(30 m) [Lukas and Lindstrom, 1991]; additionally, there is
3.0 4.0 5.0 often a deeper isothermal layer (dt/dz -< 0.025 ø C/m)
ß............................ (Figure 7). The densityjump at the base of the shallow mixed
layer is due to a halocline; this layer between the base of the
mixed layer and the bottom of the isothermal layer is
referred to by Lukas and Lindstrom [ 1991] as a barrier layer.
ß
The barrier layer is advected from the east [Lukas and
ß

Lindstrom, 1991] and is maintained by subduction of salty

o.-'.
1.5 "2' ' central equatorial Pacific mixed layer water below the rela-
tively fresh mixed layer associatedwith heavy precipitation
in the western equatorial Pacific [Shinoda, 1993].
The relative saturations within the mixed and barrier
" M layers can be used to estimate age since formation. At the
time of (and for the few years prior to) the WEPOCS III
expedition the atmospheric concentrations of the two CFCs

0 5 . øE
0.0 "•" '" ..............................
'.........
had been increasing at a rate of about 5% per year. The
CFC-11 percent saturations relative to the present atmo-
spherein the mixed and barrier layer mostly exceed 97%. It
is estimatedthat the exchangetime with the atmospherefor
waters in the warm pool mixed and barrier layer is several
Figure 6b. CFC- 11 (picomolesper kilogram) versustritium
months.
(TU81N) [Ostlund, 1990] for all of the WEPOCS III data.
Profilesfrom four WEPOCS III stationsare superimposedas
North Pacific Tropical Water (NPTW)
solid curves as follows: station 1 (7øN, 143øE),station 116 in
the MC (12øN, 126øE), station 34 in the Celebes Sea (5øN, The shallow, subsurface CFC extrema of NPTW lies
126øE), and station 13 in the NGCUC (IøS, 143øE). between 100 and 150 m on 24.0 rr0. The winter outcrop is
 FINE ET AL.: WESTERN EQUATORIAL PACIFIC AS CROSSROADS 25,071

20N

. _•_ ......... • •.8 • •.8 I0

ß "'5.
•,. •.4(-: • ••.5• •.6•

'' " '

I0

:.....:..:•.:...•.•.;..•....:•..:....•::...:.::::..•:.•:.::..:•....::•:::•:..::•..•..
......... ,I.6 ' 20 S
120 E 130 140 150 160 170 180 E 170 W

Figure 8a. Map of CFC-11 (in picomoles per kilogram) in the western equatorial Pacific on 24.0 rr0.
Contour interval is 0.1 pmol/kg.

about 20øN and 140øE-160øW; there salinity exceeds 35.2
precise salinity units (psu) [Tsuchiya, 1968]. The CFC-11
concentrationsincrease from the equator northward (Figure
8a). Waters with high CFC-11 concentrations are probably
carried westward from the outcrop region by the NEC; some
feed into the MC, where they exceed 1.65 pmol/kg. High
concentrations extend into the southern Celebes Sea. The
same concentration patterns hold for tritium, salinity [see
Lukas et al., 1991; Ffield and Gordon, 1992], and oxygen
[Wyrtki, 1956]. There are also fairly high CFC-11 concentra-
tions offshore of the MC in the ME.
The CFC-11 concentrations decrease to a minimum be-
tween 3øN and IøS (this includes the HE), where they are
probably influenced by flow from the SEC. There are fairly
high CFC-11 concentrations and salinities from the SP
feeding the NGCUC. However, they decrease by the time
the water is transported northwestward to 143øE. Tsuchiya
et al. [1989] find that as far north as 2øN, the SPTW from the
NGCUC (that mainly lies at 24.8 rr0)is transportedeastward
by the EUC.
The additional time dependent information from the tran-
sient tracers is used to estimate elapsed time since NPTW
was ventilated with respect to atmospheric gases. For
NPTW the percent saturation is used. From other observa-
tions [Warner, 1988] it is known that NPTW at its source is
generally in equilibrium with the atmosphere (100% satu-
rated with respect to the present atmosphere). Considering
the recent rate of atmospheric increase (5%/year), if this
water mass had not mixed and was in equilibrium with the
atmosphere, then the 85% saturations observed in the MC
(Figure 8b) would suggestan age of 3 years. However, after
leaving the source region there is mixing with surrounding
older water, thus the saturations probably provide an upper
bound or older estimate for the age. The most recently
ventilated waters are found north of 10øN, closer to where
NPTW outcrops. These waters are carried by the MC into
the southern Celebes Sea and extend eastward north of the
equator. The oldest waters are observed in the western part
of the region near the equator. The oldest waters are less
than 6-7 years, even considering the CFC hemispheric
gradient of about 5%. The WEPOCS tracers confirm the role
of the MC in transporting recently ventilated NPTW, its
subsequent flow into the southern part of the Celebes Sea
[e.g., Ffield and Gordon, 1992], and its extension eastward
as a maximum north of the equator.
Subtropical Mode Water (STMW)
The highest occurrence of subsurface CFC and tritium
maxima in the WEPOCS data lie between 25.4 and 25.6 rr0.
The CFC maxima are strongest in the northern part of the
MC (Figure 9a), this is also where the highest oxygen levels
are observed [see Lukas et al., 1991]. At these densities
there is no vertical extremum in salinity (Figure 3c). Tsuch-
iya [1968] noticed high-oxygen water with a NP origin in the
MC at 200 and 300 cL/t and that this water is carried
eastward in the NECC. Yet when discussingthe 240 cL/t
(25.6 rr0) surface, he [Tsuchiya, 1982] suggeststhat circula-
tion of STMW remains limited to the interior of the western
NP subtropical gyre. Lukas et al. [1991] suggest that the
California Current could be the source of this water. Nitani
[1972] finds that the T-S curve between 100 and 200 m north
of Halmahera Island can be explained by overlapping of
western NP Central Water and equatorial water. On the
basis of theta-S, potential vorticity, tritium (Figure 9b), and
CFCs (Figure 9a and 9c) the water mass coincident with the
tracer extrema can be traced to the western NP subtropical
gyre. According to Warner [1988], the CFC extrema (Figure
10) along the 24øN section to the west of 170øW, which lie
above 25.8 rr0, correspondto STMW. The CFC extrema in
the MC are remnants of STMW from the western subtropical
gyre. There appear to be no prior references in the literature
of the influence of STMW in the western equatorial Pacific
and Indonesian Seas.
The STMW is formed on the warm side of the Kuroshio
25,072 FINE ET AL.: WESTERN EQUATORIAL PACIFIC AS CROSSROADS

20 N

Figure 8b. Map of percent saturationfor CFC-11 (relative to the atmosphereof 242 ppt for marine airs
measuredduring WEPOCS III) on 24.0 rr0. Contour interval is 10%.

front [e.g., Bingham, 1992] and spreads throughout the
northwestern subtropical gyre [Masuzawa, 1972]. As a result
of its convective origin [e.g., Suga et al., 1989], in the
density range of STMW there are pools of low potential
vorticity in the western subtropical gyre [Talley, 1988], and
they are also associated with the greatest cooling in the
North Pacific [Talley, 1984]. To calculate potential vorticity,
the 2-dbar WEPOCS III CTD data were vertically smoothed
with a Gaussianfilter of 10-dbar half-width and subsampled
at 4-dbarintervals.The Brunt-Vaisala
frequency(N 2) is gravity.
calculatedfor each 4-dbar sampleby differencingthe density
8 dbar above and below the sample point. At the same time
the dominant relative vorticity component (Ov/Ox) was cal-
culated from 8-dbar acoustic Doppler current profiler
(ADCP) data. Each quantity was interpolated onto density
surfaces and onto a 1/4ø horizontal grid. The potential
vorticity q is calculated at each grid node as
q = N2*(Ov/Ox
+ f)/g
with f being the Coriolis parameter and g the acceleration of
A signatureof STMW in the MC can be seenby examining

20 N

ß
2.0-•
1.8 ,

_.i ...... x•__•. ..... '-_A._

_,,._,.e .. .,_................. I0

ß ' ' •1.4 .

•. • ,-':• .• ---.... . ß <• .

; """'" .. .
,-,'-.•'" :•'-"•':"
"••,,..._..NL'•.
".':.x ..-'"• I0

I
- )'""•"•••:•'•••••••••:.•
120 E
'-'-""'-"'-""""""" '•'••""
130
,.
140
.'
. .••:;'.:..'•-..-
150 160
> ß•
170 180 E
, 20 S
170 W

Figure 9a. Map of CFC-11 (in picomolesper kilogram)in the layer 25.4-25.6 rr0. Contourintervalis 0.2
pmol/kg.
 FINE ET AL.: WESTERN EQUATORIAL PACIFIC AS CROSSROADS 25,073

20 N

ß ' •'---3.0 --• • '

:•.:"<•, ,, • -,-....:• -.• . . . .. , o

, ,, ....
'"iiiiiiii ,'• '

...........
•.....•............-•........................•.;.•...7.:.::...
.......•......:......-....... , ß

, '. 2OS
120 E 130 140 150 160 170 180 E 170 W

Figure 9b. Map of tritium (TU81N) [Ostlund, 1990] in the layer 25.4-25.6 tr0. Starred stations were
measuredfrom samplestaken during WEPOCS I (June-July 1985), circled stations during WEPOCS III.
Contour interval is 0.5 TU81N.

the potentialvorticityin a sectionalong8øN (Figure 11). vertical potential vorticity structure, whereas the low poten-
What is striking are the intense vertical minima that stand
out at 25.5-25.6 tr0; they are advected within the higher
potential vorticity of the MC. The couple of stations(93 and
94) closest to the coast have a steep vertical density struc-
ture, which leads to noise in the potential vorticity. Cores of
water mass properties like CFCs may be continuous along
the coast, whereas cores of low potential vorticity would
probably not be continuousowing to a dissipativesublayer
at the inshore edge of the MC [e.g., Pedlosky, 1991]. The
coastal stationsare probably too noisy to use to interpret the
tial vorticity signalat 25.5-25.6 tr0 at stations90 and 91 is
most likely to be the signature of STMW. These stations are
at the outer edge of the MC (as measured by ADCP) (E.
Firing, personal communication, 1994).
Bingharn's [1992] map of the formation density of STMW
shows it increases in the eastward direction. His map,
together with the WEPOCS III potential vorticity distribu-
tion, suggestthat the STMW in the MC probably was formed
in the eastern part of the source region. Perhaps it was
formed east of 150øE and recirculated on the outer edge of

20N

5ø.N..' 50 N•..... 70

ß ß

:•::.i.•_
• d• •_.•,• : ' O .O

."-"-"-•'•
••••"••••••:• ' " , '• 2'0S
120 E 130 140 150 160 170 180 E 170 W

Figure 9c. Map of percent saturationfor CFC-11 (relative to the atmosphereof 242 ppt for marine airs
measuredduringWEPOCS III) in the layer 25.4-25.6 tr0. Contourinterval is 10%.
25,074 FINE ET AL.' WESTERN EQUATORIAL PACIFIC AS CROSSROADS

I+ I I I I served in the MC and the NEC (Figure 9a); this layer also
24.8 + has the highest oxygen and tritium (Figure 9b). Tritium
25.0 • + ++ +
values in the MC also are similar to those in the NP western
+

25.2
+
+ subtropical gyre [cf. Van $coy et al., 1991]. At these
+ +
+++
+ ++ + ++
++
+
densities, waters with high tracer concentrations are carried
25.4 +
+ + -•- + ++ + + by the MC into the southern Celebes Sea and eastward north
+ .t4-+ +
+ +
+ ++
25.6 +
++ +
+ +
+ + of the equator. In contrast, waters with the lowest tracer
+
concentrations are entering the region from the SP in the
25.8

26.0
+ +%
+++
+ ++++
+++ +

NGCUC. In the central tropical SP the CFC-11 concentra-

+ +
26.2
I I
140E 160
Longttude
Figure 10. Potential density at the location of subsurface
CFC-11 concentration maximum along 24øN plotted against
longitude, taken from Warner [1988].
the subtropical gyre in the NEC before being entrained into
the MC. The STMW layers are different from those shal-
lower, in that they are ventilated convectively in the western
subtropical gyre, rather than by Ekman layer convergencein
the central gyre. They circulate in the subtropicalgyre in a
western shadow zone as described by Talley [1985]. In such
a zone the potential vorticity is uniform, except in the region
of direct ventilation. Theory [Talley, 1985] and observations
[Talley, 1988] show that this zone of uniform potential
vorticity is largest for the densestisopycnalswhich outcrop
in the subtropical gyre, i.e., is the densest STMW layers.
Thus the STMW has been subjectedto dissipationof poten-
tial vorticity along its flow path since leaving the surface
(according to $uga et al. [1989], the STMW stads dissipate
within 2 years) and has had a change in latitude. These would
tend to reduce the thickness to the thin (<25 m) stads
observed in the northern MC (Figure 11). It is likely that any
potential vorticity minima associated with STMW in the MC
would be remnants of these densest STMW layers.
The potential vorticity minima in the northern MC (Figure
11) are coincident with the strongest CFC maxima. In the
layer 25.4-25.6 rr0, highest CFC-11 concentrationsare ob-
+ ++++++
+ tions are still lower than at similar latitudes in the NP.
+
I
+
I I In the layer 25.4-25.6 tr0, CFC saturationsexceeding65%
180 160 140w are observed in the MC (Figure 9c). The 65% saturations
suggestthat the water has a component that is <7 years old.
Where the CFC maxima lie along 24øN to the east of 140øE,
the saturations were 80-95% [Warner, 1988]. Using CFC
saturations, Warner [1988] estimates the mean age of the
STMW along 24øN as 3 years and the minimum age as 1 year.
Using apparent oxygen utilizations, $uga et al. [1989] esti-
mate the STMW at 23øN, 137øEto have an age of 1 year. The
latitude of 24øN is about 10ø south of the source region
[Bingham, 1992]. Thus it is likely that STMWs at their
source regions are equilibrating with the atmosphere. They
are, however, mixing with waters of lower saturations in the
interior. This, again, makes the 7-year age for STMW in the
MC an upper or older bound estimate.
North Pacific Intermediate Water (NPIW)
In the western equatorial Pacific the salinity minimum of
NPIW lies at 26.5 tr0 [Binghamand Lukas, 1994](Figure 3c).
Lukas et al. [1991] point out that the lower part of NPIW is
sheared off by the intrusion of AAIW into this region.
According to Wyrtki [ 1961], NPIW carried by the MC flows
into the Indonesian Seas. The presence of high tritium (> 1.0
TU81N) in the MC and extending into the Celebes Sea
(Figure 12a) also suggeststhat there is equatorward trans-
port in the MC, even at these densities. In agreement with
Bingham and Lukas [1994] the Celebes Sea appearsto be the
dominant sink for the waters in the MC at these densities.
Tritium values are slightly elevated seaward of the MC,
possibly due to recirculation in the ME. They are also

94 93 92 91 90 87 86 85 84 83
25

25.2

25.4

25.6

25.8

26
1•7 ' ' ' 1•.8 ' ' 1:•9 ' 130

Longitude (øE)
lO

Figure 11. Section ofpotential

vorticity
10 1 (17- per
meter
persecond) versus tr0forWEPOCS III stations
along 8øN; areas with <3 x 10- m- s are shaded. See text for details on calculation of potential
vorticity.
 FINE ET AL.' WESTERN EQUATORIAL PACIFIC AS CROSSROADS 25,075

20N

I0

..... © '

ß .6 i o

.......
. . ß..... .
ß

• '. 20s
120 E 130 140 150 160 170 180 E 170 W

Figure 12a. Map of tritium (TU81N) [Ostlund,1990]on 26.5 tr0. Starredstationswere measuredfrom
samplestaken duringWEPOCS I (June-July1985),circledstationsduringWEPOCS III. Contourinterval
is 0.5 TU81N.

elevated in an eastward extending tongue north of the
equator, though these waters are probably diluted by mixing
during their short loop into the Celebes Sea [Lukas et al.,
1991; Bingham and Lukas, 1994]. The ADCP velocities at
this density from WEPOCS III along 143øE show eastward
flow of the NSCC between 1øand 3øN [Bingham and Lukas,
1994]. North and south of the NSCC, there is westward flow
coincident with the low tritium, and Bingham and Lukas
[1994] find water of SP origin south of the NSCC. The
absence of tritium in the SP waters does not mean these
waters are older than those in the MC. It means they are of
southern hemisphere origin, because there was relatively
little bomb tritium delivered into the SP. Decay-corrected
tritium values were essentially unchanged at the few over-
lappingstationsduringthe 3 years between WEPOCS I and
III.
The map of CFC-11 on 26.5 tr0 shows there are equally
high concentrationsin the SP waters that feed the NGCUC
as compared with the MC (Figure 12b), also a maximum
extending eastward north of the equator. The CFC ratios
(Figure 12c) suggestthe waters from the SP have a compo-
nent in the NGCUC that is (13 years old. In the MC at these

20N

0.6
0.4
IO
0.2
0 . 0.2
ß

0.4

io

20S
120 E 130 140 150 160 170 180 E 170 W

Figure 12b. Map of CFC-11 (in picomolesper kilogram)on 26.5 tr0. Contourintervalis 0.2 pmol/kg.
25,076 FINE ET AL.' WESTERN EQUATORIAL PACIFIC AS CROSSROADS

20N

IO

22
22

18

"0
io

18

ß .4:3
- 2os
12o E 130 140 150 160 170 180 E 170 W

Figure 12c. Map on 26.5 (:re of the apparent age in years, derived from the ratio of CFC-11/CFC-12.

densitiesthe waters have a componentthat is <20 years old.
The ages are consistent with the comparable distance from
the source region of NPIW, which is much farther from its
source than SP mode waters that lie at this density [McCart-
ney, 1982] and are hypothesized by Toggweiler et al. [1991]
to feed into the EUC.
Antarctic Intermediate Water (AAIW)
On the 27.2-•r0 surface in the region north of 7ø-8øN,
except for the MC, the low CFC-11 (Figure 13) and oxygen
concentrationsare similar to those in the tropics farther east.
Highest CFC-11 and oxygen [Reid, 1965] concentrations
emanate from the SP via the NGCUC [Tsuchiya, 1991]. The
map of CFC-11 concentrations supports Tsuchiya's [1991]
two pathways for AAIW after crossingthe equator, which
are eastward flow in the NSCC and northward flow along the
eastern Mindanao Coast. Presumably, the Mindanao Under-
current [Hu et al., 1994]has a role in the northward transport
of these SP waters along the Mindanao Coast [Masuzawa,
1972]. Intermediate water from the eastern tropical Pacific
flowing westward below the EUC in the Equatorial Interme-
diate Current have close to blank CFC-11 concentrations.
They appear to merge somewhere between 143ø and 165øE
with the westward flowing AAIW, which has elevated
CFC-11 concentrations. An additional sink for AAIW ap-
pears to be the throughflow, based upon the elevated

20N

IO
0.OI

•.03
ß o

<

0.01
IO

'. ' 20S

120E 130 140 150 160 170 180 E 170 W

Figure 13. Map of CFC-11 (picomolesper kilogram) on 27.2 •r0. Contour interval is 0.02 pmol/kg.
 FINE ET AL.: WESTERN EQUATORIAL PACIFIC AS CROSSROADS 25,077

CFC-11 concentrations in the Celebes Sea. The CFC ratios region is close to where the water masses are formed, and
suggestthe AAIW in the MC has a component that is <40 the wind-driven currents remain relatively strong at these
years old and has a component in the NGCUC that is <25 shallow densities. Under most conditions one might expect
years old. At these levels the CFC ratio dating technique is to observe more NP water in the region, because the western
about at its limit analytically, given the relatively high blanks recirculation of the NP subtropical gyre is stronger than that
of these CFC data. of the SP [cf. Tsuchiya, 1982]. At the density of STMW
(Figure 9b), as compared with the shallower NPTW (Figure
8b), there appears to be a greater age difference between
Discussion
waters in the MC as compared with those in the Celebes Sea
The LLWBCs make the western tropical Pacific a water and NECC/NSCC. The weakening with increasing depth of
mass crossroads by linking the middle and high latitudes both the MC and the NECC/NSCC probably contributes to
with the equatorial region, with the opposite hemisphere at these differences, although the effects of mixing on the CFC
some densities, and with the Indian Ocean via the Indone- derived age also may be important.
sian throughflow. The linkages are subject to variability, There are several reasons why the SP is the ventilation
because the equatorial region undergoes considerable fluc- sourcefor the entire region at and below 26.8 •r0, including
tuations on many timescales. This naturally raises the ques- the Celebes Sea. Bingham and Lukas [1994] suggest that
tion of the representativenessof the WEPOCS III observa- AAIW crossesthe equator (whereas NPIW does not) for the
tions, especially since the measurements were made in following reasons: there may be more AAIW formed, NPIW
between the extremes of the 1986-1987 ENSO and the 1988 has a northern outlet in the Indonesian Seas, or there are
cold event. According to the updated sea level transport differences in the large-scale wind forcing of the NP and SP.
index used by Lukas [1988], the MC may have been anom- There are other considerations suggestingthe lower thermo-
alously strong from 1986 through mid-1988 (compared with cline and intermediate water masses formed in the SP are
the 14-year mean) and then weakened during the cold event. stronger than those of the NP. Regular renewal of water
This is consistent with the findings of Lukas et al. [1991] that massesat these densities (>26.8 •r0) in the NP does not
the upper ocean currents during summer 1988closely resem- apparently occur. Furthermore, the NP currents, which
bled the long-term ship drift climatology. Along 137øE,using advect water from the source regions on shallower surfaces,
data spanning1967 through 1988, Qiu and Joyce [1992] find are relatively weakenedbelow 26.8 cr0. On the other hand, at
the NEC and NECC shift about 1ø southward during ENSO these densities there is still northwestward flow of AAIW in
years, while the northern boundary of the NEC shifts the NGCUC [Tsuchiya, 1991]. It is not clear whether the
northward about 2ø. They also find transport increases of transport of AAIW by the NGCUC will change seasonallyor
about 35% and 25% of the mean for the NECC and NEC, in ENSO years. The ventilation sources and tracer ages
respectively, during ENSO years. In addition, during sum- deduced from the WEPOCS III data may not be represen-
mer months both the NEC and NECC have larger transports tative of the mean in the upper waters, when consideringthe
than the mean, although the seasonalamplitudes are consid- seasonal and ENSO variability typically observed in this
erably smaller than the interannual variability. region. If anything, at the time of WEPOCS III coming off
The current displacementsand amplitude changes could the 1986-1987 ENSO the NP may be favored as a source.
affect the representativeness of the WEPOCS III data in Except by recourse to model simulationsof tracer displace-
terms of water masses found and the ventilation sources and ments caused by seasonal and interannual variations of the
ages. Nevertheless, the water massesidentified above agree circulation, the authors are unable to address the issue of the
well with earlier observations and are not anomalous. Fur- representativeness of the WEPOCS III data quantitatively.
thermore, the likely reason STMW has not been identified in The discovery of STMW in the WEPOCS III data high-
the MC prior to this work is that it does not have extrema in lights a basic difference in the circulation between the NP
salinity or oxygen, though oxygen concentrations are ele- and the North Atlantic (NA) oceans. The STMW is carried
vated. In the present study the detailed WEPOCS III survey by the MC into the western equatorial NP, whereas the 18ø
identified STMW by the extrema in transient tracers and water is not found in the western equatorial NA. The
potential vorticity. climatology of Molinari and Johns [1994] for the NA shows
During the summer of 1988, water mass displacements a more broadly based recirculation of NEC water into the
could have been anomalous, as these displacements inte- NECC occurring over a large area, rather than one mainly
grate the velocity anomalies; also, the currents themselves confined to the western boundary. This recirculation is
were displaced. For example, it is conceivable that STMW probably weak, because as others have pointed out, in the
or NPIW may have been found farther south than normal NA subtropicalgyre, water is mostly confined to the region
along the eastern Mindanao Coast. These displacements north of 15øN [e.g., Thiele et al., 1986], whereas in the
could be related to the question of why the dominant central and eastern equatorial NP the presence of subtropi-
ventilation source switchesfrom the NP for the upper waters cal gyre water has been observed using the tritium distribu-
to the SP for waters below 26.8 cr0. tion [Fine et al., 1987]. The difference between the two
Waters lighter than 26.8 •r0 that are formed in the middle oceans could be related to the presence or absence of an
and high latitudes of the NP dominate the western tropical equatorward LLWBC. On the basis of sverdrup transports a
NP and southern Celebes Sea. The band between 3øN and weaker LLWBC would be expected in the NA as compared
løS is a mixing zone where waters from both hemispheres with the NP owing to the difference in the width of the
are found. On both of the shallow surfaces examined above oceans.

(24.0 and 25.4-25.6 or0),western NP subtropicalgyre water Models can be used to provide a dynamical framework for
massesare the source for the high tracer concentrationsthat the difference between the way the NP and NA transfer
spread throughout most of the WEPOCS region. The study water from the subtropical gyre to the equator [e.g., Ped-
25,078 FINE ET AL.: WESTERN EQUATORIAL
losky, 1991; McCreary and Lu, 1994]. McCreary and Lu
[1994] postulate an equatorward LLWBC as part of the
shallow subtropical circulation cell. They use a ventilation
model with western and equatorial boundary layers at-
tached. The subtropical circulation cell consistsof upwelling
in the tropics, northward Ekman transport of surface waters
from the equator, downwelling within the subtropical gyre,
and subsurface return flow to the tropics. The subsurface
pathway that water takes to get from the subtropics to the
tropics depends critically on the location of an internally
determined streamline. This streamline divides the active
subtropical gyre from an eastern shadow zone. If this
streamline reaches the western boundary before it reaches
the equator, then there is some latitude where the equator-
ward transport of subtropical water occurs entirely in the
western boundary current, otherwise some of it occurs in the
interior, as in the NA.
It is also possible that the absence in the NA of a strong
equatorward LLWBC correspondingto the MC in the NP is
related to the approximately 13-Sv [e.g., Schmitz and Mc-
Cartney, 1993] return flow in the western NA of the warm
water route of the global thermohaline circulation. The NA
and NP import and export water differently. In the NA,
water is cooled to form NADW and exported to the SA,
whereas in the western NP the export of thermocline and
intermediatewaters (<26.8 tr0) via the Indonesianseasto the
Indian Ocean is part of the global thermohaline circulation
[Gordon, 1986]. The western boundary return flow to the NP
from the SP is water at least as dense as 26.8 tr0, basically
remnant SAMW and AAIW along with deep and bottom
waters. This is in contrast to the western NA, where the
northward return flow is AAIW and those waters that are
warmer.
Consistent with this view of the shallow componentof the
thermohaline circulation, Qiu and Joyce [1992] hypothesized
the NSCC to be a thermohaline-driven, upper ocean flow
compensatingfor the intermediate level northwestward flow
of high silica water from the SP along the western boundary
of the equatorial Pacific. They suggestthat west of the start
of the EUC, thermohaline circulations driven by inflows
from the SP are important for the NSCC.
Conclusions
1. The LLWBCs of the western tropical Pacific play an
important role in the circulation by advecting well-ventilated
thermocline and intermediate waters from middle and high
latitudes into the equatorial region and the southernCelebes
Sea. The roles of the MC and NGCUC change at different
densities as described herein.
2. Above 26.8 tr0 the MC advectspredominantlyNPTW,
remnant STMW, and NPIW equatorward. Their sinks are
the throughflow via the southern Celebes Sea, also extending
eastward as tracer maxima north of the equator. The major
sink for NPIW is the Celebes Sea (and ultimately the
Indonesian throughflow) as found by Bingham and Lukas
[1994], though some NPIW appears to flow back to the east
after considerable dilution. In the MC these water masses
are observed as CFC and tritium extrema; STMW is also a
potential vorticity minimum. On the basis of CFC-11 satu-
rations, NPTW in the MC is <3 years old, and the remnant
STMW is <5 years. On the basis of CFC ratios, NPIW in the
MC is <20 years old. The NP is the ventilation source at
PACIFIC AS CROSSROADS
these densities for several reasons. (1) The NP subtropical
gyre western recirculation is stronger than the SP. (2) The
NP wind-driven currents are still fairly strong. (3) The
WEPOCS region is closer to the water mass source regions
of the western NP subtropical gyre than to the source
regions for the SP water masses. The immediate fate of SP
subtropical gyre waters from the NGCUC is mainly to
recirculate back eastward south of 3øN.
3. At and below 26.8 tr0 the NGCUC advects AAIW
northward into a background of older water. The fate of
AAIW is northward flow along the eastern Mindanao Coast,
into the Celebes Sea, and eastward flow north of the equator
as discussedby Tsuchiya [1991]. On the basis of CFC ratios
in the NGCUC, AAIW has a component that is <25 years
old. At and below 26.8 tr0 the SP is the ventilation sourcefor
the region, including the Celebes Sea, for several reasons
that are related to the relative strength of the SP lower
thermocline and intermediate water masses as compared
with the NP. (1) There appears to be no regular renewal of
water massesat these densities in the NP subpolar region.
(2) The NP currents, which advect water from the NP source
regions on shallower surfaces, are weak at these densities.
On the other hand, at these densities there is still significant
northwestward flow in the NGCUC [Tsuchiya, 1991].
4. An outstanding issue is the relative contribution to the
throughflow by waters which are of NP versus SP origin.
Gordon [1986] and Ffield and Gordon [1992] find a predom-
inant NP source for the thermocline waters within most of
the Indonesian Seas, a conclusion also reached by Fine
[1985] using tritium data. On the other hand, Godfrey et al.
[1993] argue dynamically that the main source for the
throughflow is water supplied indirectly from the SP, i.e.,
water that crosses into the NP and is altered while recircu-
lating in the NP tropical gyre (NECC/EUC, NEC). On the
basis of water mass properties in the WEPOCS data it is
possibleto rationalize these two seeminglyextreme views by
considering that the MC is composed of an admixture of
waters that were originally ventilated in both the NP and the
SP. In this rationalization the NP waters (NPTW, STMW,
and NPIW) that feed directly into the MC are modified
somewhat by mixing with waters derived indirectly from the
SP, the latter have been altered within the tropical NP. This
is partially supported by the results of WifjSels[1993] and
Bingham and Lukas [1994]. The latter identify a distinct
water mass, Tropical Pacific Intermediate Water, associated
with the NP tropical gyre. Also, this argument can be used as
a step toward reconciling the 5-Sv (0-300 m) throughflow
based on tritium data [Fine, 1985] with some of the more
recent ones that are higher (e.g., as summarized by Meyers
et al. [1994]). If the 5 Sv based on the tritium data represent
only those waters of direct NP origin, then that leaves the
rest of the throughflow (even consideringonly the upper 300
m) as direct or altered SP water. It seems apparent that the
contribution to the throughflow directly from the western SP
is small [e.g., Tsuchiya et al., 1989]; thus most of the
remaining through-flow transport, perhaps over 5 Sv, is
likely coming from altered SP water via the MC.
5. Using the CFC percent saturations, it is estimated that
the exchange time with the atmosphere for waters in the
warm pool mixed and barrier layer is several months.
6. The discovery of STMW in the WEPOCS III data
highlights a basic difference in the circulation between the
NP and NA oceans. The absencein the NA of a correspond-
 FINE ET AL.: WESTERN EQUATORIAL
ing equatorwardLLWBC suggestsa reasonwhy 18øwater is
not observed in the western equatorial NA. The absenceof
an equatorward LLWBC in the NA may be due to a basic
difference between the way the two oceans import and
export water as part of the global thermohaline circulation.
In the western tropical NA there is the northward flow of
warm water, compensatingthe export of cold waters to the
SA. In the western tropical NP the export of warm water
(above 26.8 tr0) is mainly to the Indian Ocean via the
Indonesianthroughflowand cold water is imported.
Acknowledgments. We thank Kevin Sullivan, Dave Wisegarver,
and Fred Menzia for the CFC analyses,the Tritium Laboratory
under the direction of Gote Ostlund for tritium data, William Johns
for discussions about the differences in circulation between
upper layers of the NA and NP, and Eric Lindstrom for discussions
about water propertiesfeedingthe throughflow.All of the authors
acknowledgethe support of National Science Foundation grant
OCE87-16509,and Rana Fine also acknowledgesOCE92-07237and
OCE93-02936.
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