General Laboratory Safety

Oct 2021 1
Introduction and Overview
LABORATORIES

 Testing Laboratory is a body that performs

conformity assessment services, known as
“Conformity assessment body”

 A laboratory is a facility that provides

controlled conditions in
which scientific research, experiments,
and measurement may be performed.

Oct 2021 2
 Concept of Hazards and Risk

Oct 2021 3
Hazards vs. Risks
Hazards

 An exposure to an actual or potential cause of loss, in terms of

injury, death, or damage to properties or the environment, for
example, chemical and electrical hazards and hazards associated with
working at height.

 Basically, a hazard can cause harm or adverse effects (to individuals

as health effects or to organizations as property or equipment
losses).

 Sometimes a hazard is referred to as being the actual harm or the

health effect it caused rather than the hazard. For example, the
disease tuberculosis (TB) might be called a hazard by some but in
general the TB-causing bacteria would be considered the "hazard" or
"hazardous biological agent".

Oct 2021 4
Hazards vs. Risks
 Examples of Hazards and Their Effects Workplace
Workplace Example of Example of
Hazard Hazard Harm Caused
Thing Knife Cut
Substance Benzene Leukemia
Material Asbestos Mesothelioma
Source of Shock,
Electricity
Energy electrocution
Condition Wet floor Slips, falls
Metal fume
Process Welding
fever
Hard rock
Practice Silicosis
mining
Source: http://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/hsprograms/hazard_risk.html

Oct 2021 5
Hazards vs. Risks
Risk

 means the combination of the likelihood and

consequence of a specified hazardous event occurring;

Risk = likehood x consequence

Oct 2021 6
Hazards vs. Risks
Example of Risk

 The risk of developing cancer from smoking cigarettes could

be expressed as "cigarette smokers are 12 times more likely to
die of lung cancer than non-smokers".

 Another way of reporting risk is "a certain number, "Y", of

smokers per 100,000 smokers will likely develop lung cancer"
(depending on their age and how many years they have been
smoking).

 These risks are expressed as a probability or likelihood of

developing a disease or getting injured, whereas hazards refer
to the possible consequences (e.g., lung cancer, emphysema
and heart disease from cigarette smoking).
Oct 2021 7
Hazards vs. Risks
Factors that influence the degree of risk include:

 how much a person is exposed to a hazardous thing

or condition,

 how the person is exposed (e.g., breathing in a vapour,

skin contact), and

 how severe are the effects under the conditions of

exposure.

Oct 2021 8
Hazards vs. Risks
Case 1:

 Hazard: electricity.
 Risk: The likelihood that a worker might be electrocuted
because of exposure to electrical wires that is
inadequately insulated.

Oct 2021 9
Hazards vs. Risks
Case 2:

 Hazard: 40kg bag.

 Risk: The likelihood that a worker might suffer back strain
from manually lifting 40kg bags.

Oct 2021 10
 Cause of Accidents

Oct 2021 11
 Accident - Any undesired circumstance which gives rise
to all health or injury; damage to property, products or
environment; production losses; or increased liabilities.

 Someone may elaborate “Accident” to be “A management

error – the result of errors or omissions on the part of
management.”

 Incident - all undesired circumstances & near miss which

have the potential to cause accidents

Oct 2021 12
Oct 2021 Source: Occupational Safety and Health Statistics Bulletin Issue No. 13 ( June 2013 ) Occupational Safety and Health Branch, Labour 13
Department
 Reference: List of Dangerous Occurrence in Schedule 1 of
Occupational Safety and Health Ordinance

Source:
http://www.legislation.gov.hk/blis_pdf.nsf/6799165D2FEE3FA94825755E0033E532/9198BE2222
66C421482575EF0012128E/$FILE/CAP_509_e_b5.pdf

 http://www.legislation.gov.hk/blis_pdf.nsf/6799165D2FEE3FA94825755E0033E532/6B5F63C41
8A3A93E482575EF00120ACC/$FILE/CAP_509_c_b5.pdf

Oct 2021 14
 The DISINTEGRATION of a revolving
vessel, wheel, grindstone or grinding wheel
that is operated by mechanical power.

 The COLLAPSE or failure of a lifting

appliance (except the breakage of chain or
rope slings).

Oct 2021 15
 An EXPLOSION or FIRE that-

(a) causes damage to the structure of any workplace, or to any

plant or substance at a workplace; and

(b) prevents the continuation of ordinary work at the workplace.

Oct 2021 16
 An EXPLOSION of a receiver or
container used for the storage at a
pressure greater than atmospheric
pressure or of any gas or gases (including
air) or any liquid or solid resulting from
the compression of gases.

 A total or partial COLLAPSE of a roof,

wall, floor, structure or foundation of
premises where a workplace is located.

Oct 2021 17
Oct 2021 18
 A total or partial COLLAPSE of any overburden, face, tip
or embankment within a quarry. (Not usually in T&C
industry)

 The OVERTURNING of, or a collision with any object by-

(Not usually in T&C industry)

(a) a bulldozer, dumper, excavator, grader, lorry or shovel loader;

or
(b) a mobile machine used for the handling of any substance in a
quarry.

Oct 2021 19
Oct 2021 Source: Occupational Safety and Health Statistics Bulletin Issue No. 13 ( June 2013 ) Occupational Safety and Health Branch, Labour 20
Department
Oct 2021 Source: Occupational Safety and Health Statistics Bulletin Issue No. 13 ( June 2013 ) Occupational Safety and Health Branch, Labour 21
Department
Oct 2021 Source: Occupational Safety and Health Statistics Bulletin Issue No. 13 ( June 2013 ) Occupational Safety and Health Branch, Labour 22
Department
Oct 2021 Source: Occupational Safety and Health Statistics Bulletin Issue No. 13 ( June 2013 ) Occupational Safety and Health Branch, Labour 23
Department
Oct 2021 Source: Occupational Safety and Health Statistics Bulletin Issue No. 13 ( June 2013 ) Occupational Safety and Health Branch, Labour 24
Department
Cause of Accidents

1. Indirect causes
2. Direct causes

Oct 2021 25
1. Indirect causes

a) Personal factors
 Lack of knowledge/skills, e.g. insufficient training/instructions
 Conflicting motivations, e.g. saving time and effort
 Physical and mental incapacity

b) Source causes
 Lack of preventive maintenance
 Bad management practice

Oct 2021 26
2. Direct causes

a) Unsafe acts
 Any act deviates from a generally recognized safe way of doing a job
and increases the likelihood of an accident
 For example:
 Use of defective equipment
 Horseplay
 Failure to use personal protective equipment properly
b) Unsafe conditions
 Associated with the bad conditions of the working environment
 For example:
 No safety guards
 Protruding objects
 Failure of local exhaust fans

Oct 2021 27
Mechanical Hazards
Cutting
Spring hammer and
tearing

Scratch out the surface coating

Puncturing Shearing
Common
Mechanical
Injury
Hazards

Straining
and Crushing
spraining
Universal Testing Machine
abrasion and pilling testers

Source: Figure 14-1, Goetsch, David L. "Occupational Safety and Health for Technologists, Engineers, and Managers“
Oct 2021 28
 All mechanical hazards explained in last slide can be
reduced by the application of appropriate safeguards.

 The safeguarding is to minimize the risk of accidents of

machine-operator contact. The contact can be
1. All individual making the contact with the machine – usually
the moving part – because of inattention caused by fatigue,
distraction, curiosity, or deliberate chance taking;
2. From the machine via flying hard materials chips, chemical
splashes;
3. Caused by the direct result of a machine malfunction,
including mechanical and electrical failure.
Oct 2021 29
Requirements of safeguards

 Prevent contact
 Be secure and durable
 Protect against falling objects
 Create no new hazard
 Create no interference
 Allow safe maintenance

Oct 2021 30
Types of safeguards

 Point-of-operation guards
 Point-of-operation devices
 Feeding/ejection methods

Oct 2021 31
Point-of-Operation Guards included:
1. Adjustable guards
2. Interlocked guards
3. Fixed guards

Oct 2021 32
Point-of-Operation Devices included:
1. Photoelectric devices
2. Radio-frequency devices
3. Electromechanical devices
4. Pullback devices
5. Restraint devices
6. Safety trip devices
7. Two-hand controls
8. Gates

Oct 2021 33
 Mould and die used to
prepare the specimen in Pull-back
footwear testing device

Oct 2021 34
 Doorbar
Lanyard

Oct 2021 35
 Two-hand control

Oct 2021 36
Feeding and Ejection systems included:
1. Automatic feed
2. Semi-automatic feed
3. Automatic ejection
4. Semi-automatic ejection

Needle detector with automatic feed

Fabric tester with semi-automatic feed

Oct 2021 37
Electrical Hazards

Oct 2021 38
Source of electrical hazards

 Short circuits are one of many potential electrical hazards

that can cause electrical shock.

 Another hazard is water, which considerably decreases

the resistance of materials, including human. (The
resistance of wet skin can be as low as 450 ohms,
whereas dry skin may have an average resistance of
600,000 ohms.

Oct 2021 39
Major causes of electrical shock:
 Contact with a bare wire carrying current.
 Working with electrical equipment that lacks the proper label
for safety inspection
 Electrical equipment that has no been properly grounded.
 Working with electrical equipment on damp floors or other
sources of wetness.
 Static electricity discharge.
 Using metal ladders to work on electrical equipment.
 Working on electrical equipment without ensuring that the
power has been shut off.
 Lightning strikes.

Oct 2021 40
Oct 2021 41
Electrostatic hazards

 Cause minor shock.

 Result from a single discharge or multiple discharges of
static.

Oct 2021 42
Sources of electrostatic discharge

 Briskly rubbing a non-destructive material over a

stationary surface
 Moving large sheets of plastic
 The explosion of organic and metallic dusts
 Conveyor belts may cause static sparks
 Vehicle tires rolling across a road surface
 Friction between a flowing liquid and a solid surface

Oct 2021 43
Arc and Sparks Hazards

 With close proximity of conductors or contact or

conductors to complete a circuit, an arc can jump the air
gap between conductors and ignite combustible gases or
dusts

 When the electric arc is a discharge of static electricity, it

may be called a spark.

 It may involve relatively little or a great deal of power and

is usually discharged into a small space.
Oct 2021 44
Combustible and Explosive Materials

 High current through contaminated liquids may cause the

contaminants to expand rapidly and explode. This
situation is particularly dangerous with contaminated oil-
filled circuit breakers or transformers.

 A poor match between current or polarity and capacitors

can cause an explosion. E.g. overloading the electrical
components

Oct 2021 45
Lightning Hazards

 Static charges from cloud following the path of least

resistance to the earth, involving high voltage and current.

Oct 2021 46
Improper wiring

Improper wiring permits equipment to operate normally

but can result in hazardous conditions.

For example:
 Open Ground
 Reversed polarity

Oct 2021 47
Oct 2021 48
Insulation Failure

 Degradation of insulation can cause a bare wire and

resulting shock to anyone coming in contact with that
wire.

Oct 2021 49
Environmental factors affects the insulation failure:

 Direct sunlight or other sources of ultraviolet

 Sparks or arc from discharging static electricity
 Repeat exposure to elevated temperatures
 Abrasive surfaces
 Animals
 Moisture and humidity

Oct 2021 50
Equipment failure

It can cause electrical shocks.

Common types of equipment failure:

 Wet insulation
 Portable tool defect
 Broken power lines
 Equipment not properly grounded or insulated.

Oct 2021 51
Reduction of electrical hazards

 Electrical system grounding

 Separate equipment grounding
 Ground fault circuit interrupter
 Anti-static materials
 Ionizer & electrostatic neutralizer
 Radioactive neutralizer
 Fuses
 Magnetic circuit breakers / Thermal circuit breakers
 Double insulation
 Isolating the hazard
Oct 2021 52
Radiation hazards
Reference:

Basic Safety Standards’ for Protection against Ionizing

Radiation and For the Safety of Radiation source,
Radiation board
Available from
http://www.info.gov.hk/dh-rhu/english/pdf/BASICSST.pdf

Oct 2021 53
Restricted area – any area to which assess is not controlled
because there is no radioactivity hazard present.

Unrestricted area – any area to which access is not

controlled because there is no radioactivity hazard
present.

Dose – the amount of ionizing radiation absorbed per unit

of mass of part of the body or the whole body.

Oct 2021 54
Personal monitoring devices – devices worn or carried by
an individual to measure radiation does received. Widely
used devices include film badges, pocket chambers, pocket
dosimeters, and film rings

Oct 2021 55
Radiation area – any accessible area in which radiation
hazards exist that could deliver does as follow:
 (1) within one hour, a major portion of the body could receive
more than 5 millirems, or
 (2) within five consecutive days, a major portion of the body
could receive more than 100 millirems

High radiation area – any accessible area, in which radiation

hazards exists, that could deliver a dose in excess of 100
millirems within one hour

Oct 2021 56
Oct 2021 57
 Caution signs shall be required in radiation areas, high
radiation areas, airborne radiation areas, areas containing
radioactive materials, and container in which radioactive
materials are stored or transported.

 On containers, labels should also include

1) Quantity of radioactive material,
2) Kinds of radioactive materials,
3) Date on which the contents were measured.

Oct 2021 58
Evacuation Warning Signal

 Organizations that produce, use, store, or transport

radioactive materials should have a signal-generating
system that can warn of the need for evacuation.

Oct 2021 59
The signal shall be
 A mid-frequency complex sound wave amplitude
modulated at a subsonic frequency.

 The complex sound wave in free space shall have a

fundamental frequency (f1) between 450 and 500Hz
modulated at a subsonic rate between 4 and 5 Hz.

 The signal generator shall not be less than 75 decibels (dB)

at every location where an individual may be present
whose immediate, rapid, and complete evacuation is
essential.

Oct 2021 60
Instructing and Informing Personnel

 All employees must be informed of existing radiation

hazards and where they exist; the extent of the hazards;
and how to protect themselves from the hazards
(precautions and PPE)

 All employees must be advised of any reports of radiation

exposure requested by other employees.

Oct 2021 61
Non-ionizing Radiation

Radiation on the electromagnetic spectrum that has a frequency

of 1015 or less and a wavelength in meters on 3 x10-7 Hz or
less.

This encompasses visible, ultraviolet, infrared, microwave, radio

and AC power frequency.

Radiation at these frequency levels does not have sufficient

energy to shatter atoms and ionize them.

But such radiation can cause blisters and blindness.

Oct 2021 62
Non-ionizing radiation includes:
 Visible radiation
 Ultraviolet radiation
 Infared radiation
 Radio frequency (RF) and microwave (MW) radiation
 Extremely low frequency (ELF)
 Lasers
 Video display terminals (VDTs)

Oct 2021 63
Laser Hazards
Reference:

 Laser safety Guidance Notes for Industry, Display and

Entertainment, 2005 Edition, Electrical and Mechanical
Service Department

Available from
http://www.emsd.gov.hk/emsd/e_download/pps/others/laser
_safety_guidance_notes_2005_eng.pdf

Oct 2021 64
Laser hazards
Laser
- an intense, highly coherent and monochromatic beam of light,
either visible or invisible. Normally this beam is almost parallel
with low angular divergence

- The output from a laser is either in the form of a continuous

beam or as a single pulse or a series of pulses. Lasers are often
referred to as continuous wave (CW) lasers or pulsed lasers
depending on their mode of operation. A laser operated with a
continuous output for a period equal to or greater than 0.25 s
is regarded as a CW laser and pulsed laser delivers its energy
in the form of a single pulse or a train of pulses with pulse
duration less than 0.25 s

Oct 2021 65
Typical lasers used in various applications are:

(a) Gas Lasers

1. Argon (Ar)
2. Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
3. Helium Neon (He-Ne)
4. Krypton (Kr)
5. Excimer

Oct 2021 66
(b) Liquid Lasers
1. Dye

(c) Solid-state Lasers

1. Neodymium-YAG (Nd-YAG)
2. Ruby

(d) Semiconductor (Diode) Lasers

1. Gallium Arsenide (GaAs)
2. Indium Phosphorus (InP)

Oct 2021 67
Potential hazards of Laser:

 Eye damage
 Skin damage

Oct 2021 68
Many lasers have other hazards associated with their operation.
These can include:

(a) high voltage stored in capacitors after the equipment is

switched-off;
(b) high voltage during operation;
(c) toxic chemicals (for dye lasers);
(d) atmospheric contamination arising from:
(i) toxic gases from some laser gas media;
(ii) ozone produced by the electrical discharge;
(iii) hazardous air contaminants from vaporised targets; and
(iv) production of X-rays from high voltage discharge.
(e) associated fire hazards.

Oct 2021 69
Laser Classification:

 Based on IEC 60825-1, laser products are grouped into

four general classes:
 Class 1 (further subdivided into 1 and 1M),
 Class 2 (further subdivided into 2 and 2M) and
 Class 3 (further subdivided into 3R and 3B) for each of
which accessible emission limits (AELs) are specified, and
 Class 4 which covers lasers with outputs in excess of the
specified AELs of Class 3B

Oct 2021 70
Precautions:

 All users should undergo eye examination before

engagement and every 12 months of work.

 Warning labels and tags should be placed on the laser

housing and control panel and must be clearly visible
during operation.

Oct 2021 71
 The laser should only be operated by authorized persons
and should not be left unattended during operation.

 Adequate lighting is desirable during laser operation in

order to minimize the size of pupil.

 All shiny personal items such as watches, rings and

bracelets should be removed during laser operation to
prevent accidental reflection of the laser beam.

Oct 2021 72
 Safety eyewear should be worn for the specified laser
whenever possible.

 Never look into the laser beam or the reflections directly.

 Exposure of the body to direct laser beam should be

avoided.

 Minimize the people in the working area during laser

operations (especially during alignment).

Oct 2021 73
Oct 2021 74
Chemical Hazards
Reference:

Hazards During Chemicals in Use and Safety Guidelines,

Labour Department, 2002 edition
Available from
http://www.labour.gov.hk/eng/public/os/D/Chemicals.pdf

Occupational Health Guidelines for Chemical Hazards

http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/docs/81-123/

Oct 2021 75
What Is a Chemical Hazard?

 It is any substance that can cause harm, primarily to

people. Chemicals of all kinds are stored in the
laboratory/workplaces and can result in serious injuries if
not properly handled. Household items such as bleach can
result in harmful chlorine gas or hydrochloric acid if
carelessly used.

Oct 2021 76
 Chemicals may have immediate, acute effects, as well as
chronic effects, often resulting from long-term exposures.
About 47 000 persons die every year as a result of such
poisoning.

 It can be prevented if chemicals were appropriately

stored and handled. Chronic, low-level exposure to
various chemicals may result in a number of adverse
outcomes, including damage to the nervous and immune
systems, impairment of reproductive function and
development, cancer, and organ-specific damage

Oct 2021 77
 Chemicals can be broken down into hazard classes and
exhibit both physical and health hazards. It is important to
keep in mind, that chemicals can exhibit more than one
hazard or combinations of several hazards.

Oct 2021 78
 Several factors can influence how a chemical will behave
and the hazards the chemical presents, including the
severity of the response:

 Concentration of the chemical.

 Physical state of the chemical (solid, liquid, gas).
 Physical processes involved in using the chemical (cutting,
grinding, heating, cooling, etc.).
 Chemical processes involved in using the chemical (mixing with
other chemicals, purification, distillation, etc.).
 Other processes (improper storage, addition of moisture,
storage in sunlight, refrigeration, etc.).
Oct 2021 79
 General information and safety precautions about specific
hazard classes

 Explosives
 Flammable and Combustible Liquids
 Flammable Solids
 Spontaneously Combustible
 Dangerous When Wet
 Oxidizers and Organic Peroxides
 Peroxide Forming Compounds
 Poisons
 Corrosives

Oct 2021 80
A) Explosives

 A chemical that causes a sudden, almost instantaneous

release of pressure, gas, and heat when subjected to
sudden shock, pressure, or high temperature.

 There are a number of chemicals that can become

unstable and/or potentially explosive over time due to
contamination with air, water, other materials such as
metals, or when the chemical dries out.

Oct 2021 81
 Explosives can result in damage to surrounding materials
(hoods, glassware, windows, people, etc.), generation of
toxic gases, and fires.

Oct 2021 82
Precautions for using potentially explosive compounds:

 Always use the smallest quantity of the chemical possible.

 Always conduct the experiment within a fume hood and use in conjunction
with a properly rated safety shield.

 Be sure to remove any unnecessary equipment and other chemicals

(particularly highly toxic and flammables) away from the immediate work
area.

 Be sure to notify other people in the laboratory what experiment is being

conducted, what the potential hazards are, and when the experiment will
be run.

 Do not use metal or wooden devices when stirring, cutting, scraping, etc.
with potentially explosive compounds. Non-sparking plastic devices should
be used instead.
Oct 2021 83
 Ensure other safety devices such as high temperature controls, water
overflow devices, etc., are used in combination to help minimize any
potential incidents.

 Properly dispose of any hazardous waste and note on the hazardous waste
tag any special precautions that may need to be taken if the chemical is
potentially explosive.

 Always wear appropriate PPE, including the correct gloves, lab coat or
apron, safety goggles used in conjunction with a face shield, and explosion-
proof shields when working with potentially explosive chemicals.

Oct 2021 84
 For storage purposes, always date chemical containers when received and
opened. Pay particular attention to those compounds that must remain
moist or wet so they do not become explosive. Pay particular attention to
any potentially explosive compounds that appear to exhibit the following
signs of contamination:

 Deterioration of the outside of the container.

 Crystalline growth in or outside the container.

 Discoloration of the chemical.

Oct 2021 85
Examples of explosive and potentially explosive chemicals include:

 Compounds containing the functional groups azide, acetylide, diazo,

nitroso, haloamine, peroxide, and ozonide

 Nitrocellulose

 Di- and Tri-nitro compounds

 Peroxide forming compounds

 Picric acid (dry)

 2,4-Dinitrophenylhydrazine (dry)

 Benzoyl peroxide (dry)

Oct 2021 86
B) Flammable and Combustible Liquids

 A flammable liquid as any liquid having a flashpoint

below 100 degrees F (37.8 degrees C), except any
mixture having components with flashpoints of 100
degrees F (37.8 degrees C) or higher, the total of which
make up 99% or more of the total volume of the
mixture.

Oct 2021 87
 Flashpoint is defined as the minimum temperature at
which a liquid gives off enough vapor to ignite in the
presence of an ignition source. The risk of a fire requires
that the temperature be above the flashpoint and the
airborne concentration be in the flammable range above
the Lower Explosive Limit (LEL) and below the Upper
Explosive Limit (UEL).

Oct 2021 88
 Flammable and combustible liquids are one of the most
common types of chemicals used and are an important
component in a number of laboratory processes.

 However, in addition to the flammable hazard, some

flammable liquids also may possess other hazards such as
being toxic and/or corrosive.

Oct 2021 89
Precautions for Handling flammable liquid:

 When using flammable liquids, keep containers away from

open flames; it is best to use heating sources such as
steam baths, water baths, oil baths, and heating mantels.
Never use a heat gun to heat a flammable liquid.

 Any areas using flammables should have a fire

extinguisher present.

Oct 2021 90
 Always keep flammable liquids stored away from oxidizers and away
from heat or ignition sources such as radiators, electric power
panels, etc.

When pouring flammable liquids, it is possible to generate enough

static electricity to cause the flammable liquid to ignite. If possible,
make sure both containers are electrically interconnected to each
other by bonding the containers, and connecting to a ground.

 Always clean up any spills of flammable liquids promptly. Be aware
that flammable vapors are usually heavier than air. For those
chemicals with vapor densities heavier than air, it is possible for the
vapors to travel along floors and, if an ignition source is present,
result in a flashback fire.


Oct 2021 91
 The requirements for use of flammable storage cabinets
are determined by the classification of the flammable
liquids, the quantities kept on hand, the building
construction (fire wall ratings), and the floor of the
building the flammables are being stored on.

 As a general rule of thumb, if you have more than 38

Litres of flammable liquids, including materials in use, then
you should store the flammable liquids in a properly rated
flammable liquid storage cabinet.

Oct 2021 92
 All flammable liquids not in use should be kept in the
flammable liquid storage cabinet. For stand-alone
flammable cabinets (as opposed to cabinets underneath
fume hoods), there are vent holes on each side of the
cabinet (called bung holes) that must have the metal
bungs screwed into place for the cabinet to maintain its
fire rating.

 Venting of flammable cabinets is NOT required, however,

if a flammable cabinet is vented, it must be vented
properly according to the manufacturer’s specifications.

Oct 2021 93
 Typically, proper flammable cabinet ventilation requires
that air be supplied to the cabinet and the air be taken
away via non-combustible pipes.

Oct 2021 94
C) Flammable Solids

 A flammable solid as a “solid, other than a blasting agent

or explosive, that is liable to cause fire through friction,
absorption of moisture, spontaneous chemical change, or
retained heat from manufacturing or processing, or which
can be ignited readily and when ignited, burn so
vigorously and persistently to create a serious hazard.” An
example of a flammable solid is cellulose nitrate.

Oct 2021 95
Precaution for handling flammable solids

 Always keep flammable solids stored away from oxidizers,

and away from heat or ignition sources such as radiators,
electric power panels, etc.

Oct 2021 96
D) Spontaneously Combustible

 Spontaneously combustible materials are also known as

pyrophorics; these chemicals can spontaneously ignite in
the presence of air, some are reactive with water vapor,
and most are reactive with oxygen.

 Two common examples are tert-Butyllithium under

Hexanes and White Phosphorus.

Oct 2021 97
 In addition to the hazard of the spontaneously
combustible chemical itself, many of these chemicals are
also stored under flammable liquids.

 In the event of an accident, such as a bottle being

knocked off a shelf, the chemical can spontaneously
ignite and a fire can occur.

 Extra care must be taken when handling spontaneously

combustible chemicals. When transporting these
chemicals, it is best to use a bottle carrier and carts.

Oct 2021 98
E) Dangerous When Wet

 Dangerous when wet compounds react violently with water

to form toxic vapors and/or flammable gases that can ignite
and cause a fire..

 Attempting to put out a fire involving dangerous when wet

materials with water will only make the situation worse.

 Common examples include sodium metal and potassium

metal.

Oct 2021 99
 It is important to note that any paper toweling, gloves,
etc., that have come into contact with these materials
need to be quenched with water before disposing of in
metal trash cans in order to prevent potential fires.

Oct 2021 100

F) Oxidizers and Organic Peroxides

 an oxidizer as “a chemical other than a blasting agent or

explosive that initiates or promotes combustion in
other materials, thereby causing fire either of itself or
through the release of oxygen or other gases.”

Oct 2021 101

 an organic peroxide as “an organic compound that
contains the bivalent –O-O- structure and which may be
considered to be a structural derivative of hydrogen
peroxide where one or both of the hydrogen atoms have
been replaced by an organic radical.”

 Oxidizers and organic peroxides are a concern for

laboratory safety due to their ability to promote and
enhance the potential for fires in labs.

Oct 2021 102

 Oxidizers can supply the oxygen needed for the fire,
whereas organic peroxides supply both the oxygen and
the fuel source. Both oxidizers and organic peroxides may
become shock sensitive when they dry out, are stored in
sunlight, or due to contamination with other materials,
particularly when contaminated with heavy metals. Most
organic peroxides are also temperature sensitive.

 As with any chemicals, but particularly with oxidizers and

organic peroxides, quantities stored on hand should be
kept to a minimum.

Oct 2021 103

 Laboratory staff should be particularly careful when
handling oxidizers (especially high surface area oxidizers
such as finely divided powders) around organic materials.

 Avoid using metal objects when stirring or removing

oxidizers or organic peroxides from chemical containers.
Plastic or ceramic implements should be used instead.
Laboratory personnel should avoid friction, grinding, and
impact with solid oxidizers and organic peroxides. Glass
stoppers and screw cap lids should always be avoided and
plastic/polyethylene lined bottles and caps should be used
instead.

Oct 2021 104

G) Peroxide Forming Compounds

 Many commonly used chemicals; organic solvents in

particular, can form shock, heat, or friction sensitive
peroxides upon exposure to oxygen. Once peroxides
have formed, an explosion can result during routine
handling, such as twisting the cap off a bottle – if
peroxides are formed in the threads of the cap.
Explosions are more likely when concentrating,
evaporating, or distilling these compounds if they
contain peroxides.

Oct 2021 105

 When these compounds are improperly handled and
stored, a serious fire and explosion hazard exists.

Oct 2021 106

H) Poisons/Toxic

 a substance can damage an organism

 Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) and

other chemical references should be consulted before
beginning the experiment. Some questions to ask before
working with poisonous chemicals:

 Do I need to use the poisonous chemical or can a less toxic

chemical be substituted?

 What are the routes of entry into the body for the poison
(inhalation, ingestion, injection, or skin absorption)?

Oct 2021 107

  What are the signs and symptoms of potential chemical
exposure?

 What are the proper PPE required (type of glove, safety glasses
vs. splash goggles, face shield, etc.)?

 Does the chemical require any special antidote?

 What are the emergency procedures to be followed?

Oct 2021 108

I) Corrosives

- a chemical that causes visible destruction of, or

irreversible alterations in living tissue by chemical
action at the site of contact.

Oct 2021 109

 When working with highly toxic chemicals, you should
not work alone.

 Always wear proper PPE and always wash your hands

with soap and water when finished, even if gloves were
worn.

 Be aware that poisonous mixtures, vapors, and gases can

be formed during an experiment.

 Be sure to research both the reactants and products of

the chemicals you will be working with first.
Oct 2021 110
Material Safety Data Sheets

 An important component of occupational safety and health.

 Intended to provide workers and emergency personnel with

procedures for handling or working with that substance in a
safe manner, and includes information such as physical
data, toxicity, health effects, first aid, reactivity, storage, disposal,
protective equipment, and spill-handling procedures.

 Formats can vary from source to source within a country

depending on national requirements.
Oct 2021 111
Material Safety Data Sheets

 Some useful Websites are:

 http://sigmaaldrich.com/Technical_Library/Technical_Library_Home.html
(registration required)
 http://www.merck.de/
 http://www.fishersci.com/
 http://www.mallbaker.com/
 http://www.lindecanada.com/en/msds/gases/

 Label All Chemicals

 To print chemical labels, please click the link below from Occupational
Safety & Health Council and download the labeling program for labelling
chemicals.
 http://www.oshc.org.hk/

Oct 2021 112

Biological Hazards
 Biological hazards, also known as biohazards, refer
to organisms or organic matters produced by these
organisms that are harmful to human health. These
include parasites, viruses, bacteria, fungi and protein. In
general, there are three major of routes of entry for
these micro-organisms into our body, i.e. through the
respiratory system, transmission through contact with
body fluids of the infected or contact with contaminated
objects. The harmful effects posed to human health by
these biological hazards are mainly of three types -
infections, allergy and poisoning.

Oct 2021 113

Oct 2021 114
 Elimination of the source of contamination is fundamental
to the prevention and control of biological hazards.

 Engineering controls such as

 improvement of ventilation,
 partial isolation of the contamination source,
 installation of negative pressure,
 separate ventilation and air-conditioning system and
 the use of ultraviolet lamps.

Oct 2021 115

 If the contact with biological hazards cannot be prevented,
the operators must use personal protective equipment
(PPE) and adhere strictly to the practice of personal
hygiene.

 The personal protective equipment includes

 masks,
 gloves,
 protective clothing,
 eye shields,
 face shields and
 shoe covers.

Oct 2021 116

 Sterilization is the process using ultra heat or high
pressure to eliminate bacteria, or using biocide to
eliminate microorganisms, including spores in bacteria.

 A complete sterilization process should include

disinfecting the contaminated premises and thorough
cleaning of any residual toxic substances, to ensure that
employees would not be harmed through exposure in the
risk area.

Oct 2021 117

 Effective sterilization depends on the strain and amount
of microorganisms, the level of organic material present,
the properties of the organisms to be eliminated, and the
duration, temperature and concentration of the sterilizing
agent.

 Sterilization must be carried out by following strictly

safety guidelines and taking personal protection to
safeguard the health and safety of employees.

 Hands must be washed thoroughly after taking off any

personal protective equipment.

Oct 2021 118

 Washing hands with liquid soap is the simplest and most
basic method to avoid infection. But it is often neglected.
Wash hands before and after work.

 Wash hands immediately before and after wearing

protective clothing, uniforms or gloves to reduce the
possibility of infection.

Oct 2021 119

Animal Hazard
 Hazards for persons using and handling laboratory animals may
arise from a variety of sources, including
 viruses,
 bacteria,
 fungi,
 parasites,
 ionising and non-ionising radiation,
 hazardous substances,
 toxins,
 carcinogens,
 allergens,
 recombinant DNA techniques,
 anaesthetic gases and
 physical injuries.

Oct 2021 120

 The hazards associated with handling animals can be
loosely placed in three major categories

 physical injuries

 zoonotic diseases

 allergic hazards

Oct 2021 121

A) Physical injuries

 occur from bites and scratches, especially from rodents,

rabbits, dogs and cats.

 The key to prevention of these types of injuries is

proper training of research personnel by the animal
care staff or other qualified individuals.

 Laboratory animals are sometimes unpredictable in

their nature and response
Oct 2021 122
B) Zoonotic diseases

 It can be transmitted from animals to humans.

 Although zoonotic diseases are not common, the

prevention, detection, and eradication of zoonotic
diseases from the animal facility are a primary concern of
the entire animal care staff.

 Remember that tissues as well as the animals can transmit

zoonotic diseases.
Oct 2021 123
C) Allergic hazards

 It associated with breathing or contacting animal dander

or urine allergens (among others).

 The safest policy is to reduce exposure by wearing

protective clothing (such as facemasks, gloves, and a lab
coat) when handling animals.

Oct 2021 124

Personal Protective Equipment
 The Personal Protective Equipment includes protective
clothing, helmets, goggles, or other garments or
equipment designed to protect the wearer's body from
injury.

 The hazards addressed by protective equipment include

physical, electrical, heat, chemicals, biohazards, and
airborne particulate matter. Protective equipment may be
worn for job-related occupational safety and health
purposes.

Oct 2021 125

 The purpose of personal protective equipment is to
reduce employee exposure to hazards when engineering
and administrative controls are not feasible or effective to
reduce these risks to acceptable levels. PPE is needed
when there are hazards present.

 PPE has the serious limitation that it does not eliminate

the hazard at source and may result in employees being
exposed to the hazard if the equipment fails

Oct 2021 126

List of Labour Department Approved PPE

 http://www.labour.gov.hk/eng/faq/oshq9_whole.html

Oct 2021 127

 PPE should be handled with care and stored properly
when not in use. Store it in a dry and clean cabinet. If it is
a small item, such as an eye protector, keep it in a case or
a box. The equipment should be kept clean and
maintained in good condition.

 For this purpose, follow the manufacturer's maintenance

schedule (including the suggested replacement schedule
and service lifetime). Simple maintenance can be carried
out by PPE users who have received training, but more
complicated repairs should only be conducted by
professionals.

Oct 2021 128

Emergency handling & evacuation
 Emergency response procedures should be established
for the staff to follow in the event of a situation
presenting serious and imminent danger. The procedures
should include guidance for the staff explaining when and
how they should stop work and move to a safe location,
or even fully evacuate the workplace.

Oct 2021 129

 Appropriate emergency equipment should be provided
for handling emergency situations. Such equipment
include:

a) fire alarm;
b) fire-fighting equipment, such as fire hose, fire extinguishers,
buckets of dry sand; and
c) first aid facilities, such as first aid kit.

Oct 2021 130

 All emergency equipment should be properly maintained.

 The equipment should be regularly checked for proper

performance. Expired items should be disposed of or
replaced. Location of emergency equipment in the
industrial undertaking should be made known to the staff.

Oct 2021 131

Response to some possible emergency situations

A) Gas leakage
If gas leakage is found in the gas supply line,
(a) isolate the gas supplies by closing the valves of the gas
cylinders or the gas supply systems;
(b) inform all persons in the workplace;
(c) isolate all ignition sources, such as distinguishing flames;
and
(d) evacuate the workplace and call the Fire Services
Department.

Oct 2021 132

B) Fire involving acetylene cylinder
 Any fire involving acetylene cylinder always poses a risk of
cylinder explosion, and should be dealt with by the Fire
Services Department. However, under safe circumstances,
the following initial measures may be suitably adopted:

(a) cool the cylinder by spraying with water only if it is safe

to do so;
(b) close the cylinder valve to control the fire only if it is
safe to do so; and
(c) evacuate the building by activating the fire alarm or by
any other means.

Oct 2021 133

C) Fire Emergency

1. When safe to do so, fire fighting at the incipient stage

may be attempted on small fires by using the
appropriate fire extinguishers, fire blankets or hose reel
nearby.

2. Fire fighting by laboratory personnel must be

discontinued when the fire is out of control.

Oct 2021 134

D) Spillage/leakage of liquid

 Where the spillage/leakage is contained in the enclosed

storage area, the waste can be transferred back into suitable
containers by suitable handheld equipment, such as hand
operated pumps, scoops or shovel.

 If the spillage/leakage quantity is small, it can be covered and

mixed with suitable absorbing materials such as tissue paper,
dry soft sand or vermiculite.

 The resultant slurry should be treated as chemical waste and

transferred to suitable containers for disposal.
Oct 2021 135
 Areas that have been contaminated by chemical
spillage/leakage should be cleaned.

 While water is a suitable solvent for aqueous chemical

and water soluble organic, kerosene or turpentine should
be used for organic chemical that are not soluble in water.

 The waste from the cleanup operation should be treated

and disposed of as chemical waste.

Oct 2021 136

Emergency Evacuation Procedures

If You Hear a Fire Alarm

1. Immediately evacuate the building via the shortest and
safest route. Do not use elevators.
2. If you notice smoke, use the alternative escape route.
3. Test doors with the back of your hand before opening
them. If the door is warm or if you notice smoke, use an
alternative escape route. Check paths for safety before
proceeding and close doors behind you.

Oct 2021 137

4. Crawl low if you have to go through smoke.
5. Go to a safe area or to a pre-assigned exterior area for
your building.
6. If you suspect that someone is missing or trapped,
contact the emergency personnel outside the building.
7. If you are trapped during a fire emergency, close all doors
between you and the fire. Stuff cracks around the doors
to keep out smoke. Wait at a safe window and signal/call
for help. If there is a phone in the room, call the fire
department or 999 and tell them exactly where you are.
8. Stop, Drop and Roll if you clothing catches fire.

Oct 2021 138

If You Discover A Fire

1. Leave the fire area and close the door to the area.
2. Sound the fire alarm.
3. Immediately evacuate the building via the shortest and
safest route. (Proper use of fire extinguishers within
extinguisher limits and by trained individuals is optional
but should not be attempted until building alarm is
actuated and people are evacuated.

Oct 2021 139

4. Do not use elevators. A fire can disrupt the operation of
elevators and trap occupants inside.
5. If you notice smoke, use the alternate escape route.
6. Test doors with the back of your hand before opening
them. If the door is warm or if you notice smoke, use an
alternative escape route. Check paths for safety before
proceeding and close doors behind you.
7. Crawl low if you have to go through smoke.
8. Go to a safe area or to a pre-assigned exterior area for
your building.

Oct 2021 140

9. From the nearest phone in a safe area, call 999.
10. Await emergency response personnel at safe location
and direct them to the scene.
11. If you suspect that someone is missing or trapped,
contact the emergency personnel outside the building.
12. If you are trapped during a fire emergency, close all
doors between you and the fire and stuff cracks around
the doors to keep out smoke. Wait at a safe window and
signal/call for help. If there is a phone in the room, call the
999 and tell them exactly where you are.
13. Stop, Drop and Roll if your clothing catches fire.

Oct 2021 141

Waste Disposal and Management
Hazardous waste in laboratories

 Chemical waste
 Biohazard waste
 Radioactive waste

Oct 2021 142

Chemical Waste Disposal

 Hazardous chemical waste storage and disposal is

regulated by Environmental Protection Department in
Hong Kong

 EPD published:
 Code of practice on the packaging labelling and storage of
chemical wastes
 A Guide to Chemical Waste Control Scheme
 A Guide to Registration of Chemical Waste Producers

Oct 2021 143

Source: http://www.epd.gov.hk/epd/english/environmentinhk/waste/prob_solutions/chemical_wminhk_p.html

Oct 2021 144

Regulations related to Chemical Waste in Hong Kong

 Waste Disposal Ordinance, Laws of Hong Kong Chapter

354
 Waste Disposal (Chemical Waste) (General) Regulation
 Waste Disposal (Permits and Licences) (Fees) Regulation
 Waste Disposal (Appeal Board) Regulation

Oct 2021 145

 Chemical wastes are liquid, semi-solid and solid wastes
which are hazardous in nature or constitute a risk of
pollution to the environment. Indiscriminate disposal of
chemical waste has very serious health, safety and
environmental consequences.

 Release into coastal waters causes damage to local

marine life and accumulation of toxins in sea-food
generally creates a serious health hazard to the
community

Oct 2021 146

Definition of Chemical Waste

 Any substance or thing being scrap material, effluent or an

unwanted substance or by-product arising from the
application of or in the course of any process or trade
activity and which contains any of the substances or
chemicals specified in the schedule of regulation would be
regarded as chemical waste if such substance or chemical
occurs in such form, quantity or concentration so as to
cause pollution or constitute a danger to health or risk of
pollution to the environment.

Oct 2021 147

 The Waste Disposal (Chemical Waste)(General)
Regulation (the Regulation) made under the Waste
Disposal Ordinance (Cap. 354) provides for the control of
chemical waste in Hong Kong.

 Under the Regulation, chemical waste producers are

required to register with the Director of Environmental
Protection Department.

Oct 2021 148

Definition of Chemical Waste Producer

 Any person who produces chemical waste or causes it to

be produced will be defined as a chemical waste producer
and is required to register with the Director of
Environmental Protection Department.

Oct 2021 149

Oct 2021 150
Packaging, Labelling and Storage of Chemical Wastes

 Chemical waste producers should arrange proper packaging,

labelling and storage of chemical waste before transportation to
disposal facilities. The requirements are summarized as follows –

 Chemical waste should be packed and stored in suitable containers in

accordance with specified standards (Section 9).

 Mixing of different types of chemical wastes in a container is not allowed

(Section 10).

 EPD’s approval is required when large containers (capacity in excess of 450

litres) are to be used (Section 11).

Oct 2021 151

  The design and dimensions of labels for the containers and the
particulars to be included on labels are specified in a schedule as
illustrated in Figure 2. The label should be in both English and
Chinese (Section 12).

 The minimum requirements for the area used for storage of

containers, covering the design and location of storage areas
are specified (Sections 13 to 15).

 Display of a warning panel or notice at each storage area is

required (Section 18).

 Storage of waste at the working area is allowed if the total

quantity does not exceed 50 litres (Section 16).

Oct 2021 152

Oct 2021 153
Disposal of Chemical Waste

 The principal duty of a chemical waste producer is to

arrange for proper disposal of his chemical waste.
Disposal includes treatment, reprocessing and recycling of
the waste. Generally, arrangements should be made for
disposal of the waste at a licensed facility. Licensed
facilities can be either a reception point or an on-site or
in-house treatment facility (see Part C below on licensing
of disposal facilities). In the event there is no suitable
disposal facility in Hong Kong, the waste producer will
need to make other arrangements for disposal subject to
the approval of EPD.
Oct 2021 154
 A waste producer is required to provide records or
other information to demonstrate that he has made
arrangements for proper disposal of his chemical waste.
Such information may include details related to waste
production, consignment records or on-site treatment
records where appropriate.

Oct 2021 155

Collection of Chemical Waste and the “Trip Ticket” System

 Waste producers should only engage the services of a “waste collector” to

arrange for the collection and removal of chemical waste. Waste collectors
are persons licensed by EPD to provide such services (see Part C below
for details on licensing of waste collectors). A waste producer can
discharge his duty to arrange for the proper disposal of his waste (under
B.4 above) by consigning his waste to such a waste collector.

Oct 2021 156

 All movements of chemical waste will be monitored. A waste
producer needs to complete in triplicate a form, known as a
“trip-ticket”, before the waste will be accepted for collection
from his premises. The waste producer has to keep one copy
as a record of consignment, and the waste collector will retain
a further copy of the form upon delivery of the waste to a
reception point. The original copy will be retained by the
reception point manager. At each stage, the receipt of a
properly completed trip-ticket is a condition for acceptance of
the waste.

Oct 2021 157

 The steps to be taken by a chemical waste producer are
set out below –
 Record on a trip ticket and its copies all the necessary
particulars and information required.
 Ensure that the waste to be delivered is correctly classified,
described, quantified and labelled.
 Certify on the trip ticket that all the information provided by
him is correct.
 Retain a copy of the trip ticket for at least 12 months following
consignment of the waste.

Oct 2021 158

Oct 2021 159
Radioactive Waste Disposal

 Hazardous Radioactive waste storage and disposal is

regulated by Health Department in Hong Kong

 Radiation Health Unit of Health Dept. published:

 Code of Practice for the Handling, Storage, Packaging,
Transportation and Disposal of Radioactive Waste

Oct 2021 160

Definition of Radioactive wastes

 Radioactive substances or waste material contaminated

by radioactive substances or which, having regard to its
use, may have become so contaminated.

 One description as given by the International Atomic

Energy Agency (IAEA) for legal and regulatory purposes is
that radioactive waste is waste that contains or is
contaminated with, radionuclides at concentrations or
activities greater than clearance levels as established by
the regulatory body.

Oct 2021 161

 Physical Form of Radioactive wastes:

 Liquid Wastes

 Solid Wastes

Oct 2021 162

 Obtaining the approval of the Radiation Board before
disposing of any radioactive waste. When applying for the
approval, the user should provide the Radiation Board
with details of:
 the design of its proposed discharge system
 the activities, volumes and types of radionuclides likely to be
discharged
 the expected frequency of discharge
 any other details that the Radiation Board may require

Oct 2021 163

 Seeking approval from the Radiation Board for any
changes which might affect the safety of the method of
disposal of radioactive waste, with special attention being
paid to:
 modifications to the plumbing system carrying liquid
radioactive effluents
 modification to the extraction system for radioactive gaseous
products
 installation of new inlets for air-conditioning systems or the
construction of buildings or building extensions in the vicinity
of the outlets of extraction systems for radioactive gases

Oct 2021 164

 Reporting to the Radiation Board of any accident or incident
which might have resulted in a discharge of effluent in excess
of the approved maximum activity, or in spillage of radioactive
waste.

 Informing the Radiation Board of any loss or suspected loss of

a radioactive source.

 Maintaining good management procedures and keeping

accurate records of the purchase, use, storage and disposal of
radioactive materials.

 Providing all the necessary equipment for the safe handling and
disposal of all radioactive waste.

Oct 2021 165

 Providing detailed instructions for the handling of all
radioactive waste and ensuring that employees receive,
understand and comply with them.

 Storing all radioactive waste in adequately shielded containers

or in a secure shielded room as appropriate to the nature of
the waste and so as to comply with the dose-rate limitations
specified by the Radiation Board.

 Ensuring that all radioactive waste leaving the working area,

either as gaseous or liquid effluent released to the
environment or sewerage system, does so within the activity
limits specified by the Radiation Board.

Oct 2021 166

 Ensuring that all radioactive waste being transported from
the premises to the place of disposal or storage is packed
and transported so that in the event of an accident, there
will be negligible risk to the public. All packaging and
transportation should comply with the Regulations for
the Safe Transport of Radioactive Material promulgated by
the International Atomic Energy Agency

Oct 2021 167

Handling of Radioactive Wastes

 Clearly defined working areas and adequate contamination and

radiation control are essential components of radioactive
waste management and are required to ensure that waste is
produced and maintained under conditions appropriate to any
subsequent transportation, storage and disposal operation.

 Areas where radioactive materials are handled must be clearly

labelled and demarcated in order to limit personal radiation
exposures and the spread of contamination. A shoe/clothes
change barrier may be required to limit the spread of
contamination. Dedicated hand-washing facilities should always
be provided.

Oct 2021 168

 Suitable radiation/contamination monitoring equipment is also
necessary in order to limit personal radiation exposure and
the spread of contamination.

 The need to segregate radioactive wastes at source is dictated

by subsequent treatment, storage and disposal requirements.
Segregation of wastes by their ‘physical or chemical properties’
may be required if the waste is, for example, to be compacted.
It may be necessary to segregate radioactive wastes by
‘radionuclide half-life’ to avoid long term storage and ‘special
disposal’ of unnecessary large quantities of waste. If possible,
short half-life (<120 days) waste should be decay-stored and
disposed of as normal refuse. This disposal option may not be
applicable if long-lived radionuclides are present in the waste.
Oct 2021 169
 A radiation protection supervisor (RPS) should be
appointed to advise on the handling of radionuclides and
to coordinate the acquisition and disposal of radioactive
materials. The RPS shall be a person who is regularly
working in the area and shall receive suitable training on
radiation protection. The RPS shall also be familiar with
the appropriate guidelines and regulations on
radiotoxicity protection and on the safe handling of
radionuclides.

Oct 2021 170

 It is essential that suitable radionuclide accountancy and
assay systems are employed to determine the
radionuclide activities present in the radioactive wastes.
This is necessary in order to comply with subsequent
transport, storage and disposal requirements. Radioactive
wastes may be assayed at source by indirect
measurements using, for example, hand held
contamination or radiation monitors or by direct
measurements using more sophisticated techniques such
as alpha or gamma spectrometry or liquid scintillation
counting.

Oct 2021 171

 When radioactive waste is moved from one defined
radiation/contamination area to another, via an inactive area, it
should be labelled and monitored for contamination and
radiation levels. The waste package should be supervised at all
times, and should not be left unattended in insecure areas
unless it is suitable for dustbin disposal. Documentation may
be required for complicated movements, and records of the
movements may be required for future reference.

 Radiological protection measures required by the Radiation

Board include monitoring of handling areas and prohibition of
certain activities such as eating, drinking, smoking and the
application of cosmetics.

 -

Oct 2021 172

Storage of Radioactive Wastes

 It shall have signs and labels which clearly identify the purpose
for which the store is used and shall be secured to avoid
unauthorised entry. Appropriate advice to all persons who may
enter it, including fire-fighting personnel, shall be clearly
displayed at the entrance. The store should not be used for the
storage of non-radioactive materials as these may become
inadvertently contaminated.

 The store should be dry to avoid deterioration of the waste

packages and should be ventilated, if necessary, to remove
toxic or radioactive emanation gases. Monitoring facilities
should be provided in order to restrict exposure and the
spread of radioactive contamination.

Oct 2021 173

 Internal and external dose rates should be in line with the
limits specified in the Radiation (Control of Radioactive
Substances) Regulations, and be at all times kept as low as
reasonably achievable (ALARA), social and economic
factors being taken into account.
 Adequate records should be maintained in order to
locate and fully identify the stored radioactive waste, and
ascertain storage requirements.
 It is important that the disposal of decay-stored solid or
liquid waste is adequately controlled by management or
assay procedures in order to prevent the occurrence of
‘unauthorised’ disposals.

Oct 2021 174

Packaging of Radioactive Wastes

 Packaging of radioactive material for transport shall be

secure and so designed that the package can be easily
handled. The outer layer shall be of such material as to
avoid, as far as practicable, the collection and retention of
water and finished so that it may be easily
decontaminated. When a package requires no visible
labelling the outer layer of packaging should be opaque.

Oct 2021 175

 Radioactive wastes to be disposed of shall be packaged in
closed drums, opaque plastic bags or multi-layer bags on
the premises of the user before transport.

Oct 2021 176

Oct 2021 177
Oct 2021 178
Transportation of Radioactive Wastes

 Any transportation of radioactive materials in Hong Kong

shall be accompanied with a valid Removal Permit issued by
the Radiation Board.

 When packages are transported it is essential that they

are labelled as specified in the Regulations, and that
adequate documentation is supplied to the carriers
describing the chemical and physical form of the
radioactive material, its radionuclide activities etc.

Oct 2021 179

 Radiation warning label is not required for packages with
a surface dose-rate of less than 5μSv/h or meeting the
excepted package requirements. However, the inner layer
of packaging should be labelled so that the word
‘Radioactive’, or the appropriate, is visible when the outer
packaging is opened.

 In order to safely move and transport radioactive

materials it is necessary to ensure, by direct monitoring
techniques, that the surface contamination of the package
is less than 0.4Bq/cm2 for beta and gamma emitters, and
less than 0.04Bq/cm2 for alpha emitters

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Disposal of Radioactive Wastes

 Authorisations for the disposal of solid and liquid

radioactive waste are considered on an individual basis,
each case being judged on its merits taking into account
the needs of the disposer, type of waste, disposal route,
destination of the wastes and protection of the
environment and the public.

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 Disposal Options:

 Dust Bin Disposal

 Direct to Landfill

 Disposal to Sewer

Oct 2021 182

Biological Waste Disposal

 According to the guideline from Environmental

Protection Department (EPD), laboratory biological /
clinical wastes are categorized as follows:
 Group 1 – Used contaminated sharps
 Group 2 – Laboratory wastes (also bio-contaminated chemical
wastes)
 Group 3 – Human and animal tissues (also animal carcasses)
 Group 4 – Infectious materials
 Group 5 – Soiled dressings
 Group 6 – Other wastes

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Biological / Clinical Waste Treatments and Disposal

Basic principal:
1. Segregation
2. Packaging
3. Solid and Liquid Biological Waste
4. Others

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 Basic principles for accident
prevention

Oct 2021 185

Identification and Prevention
 The key to preventing accidents is identifying and
eliminating hazards.
 “A hazard is a condition or combination of conditions
that, if left uncorrected, may lead to an accident,
illness, or property damage.”
 Every hazard that can be identified should be corrected.
 Or minimized through the appropriate safeguards.
 Every accident that can be prevented should be prevented.

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OVERVIEW OF HAZARD ANALYSIS
Two approaches to
hazard analysis.

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OVERVIEW OF HAZARD ANALYSIS
 A preliminary hazard analysis (PHA) is conducted
to identify potential hazards and prioritize them
according to the…
 Likelihood of accident/injury being caused by the hazard.
 Severity of injury, illness, or property damage that could result
if the hazard caused an accident.
 A useful practice for early sorting is to place catastrophic
severities together, followed by critical, marginal, and
nuisance hazards, respectively.
 Then, with each item, indicate the probability of occurrence—
considerable, probable, or unlikely.
 Rate the correction of these hazards next by cost—a key step.
Oct 2021 188
PRELIMINARY HAZARD ANALYSIS
 It is not always feasible to wait until all the data are
compiled from a detailed analysis before taking steps to
identify and eliminate hazards.
 As when a new system or piece of equipment is installed, &
management wants it on-line as soon as possible.
• In such cases, a PHA can serve two purposes:
– It can expedite bringing the new system on-line, but
at a substantially reduced risk of injuring workers.
– It can serve as a guide for a future detailed analysis.

Oct 2021 189

PRELIMINARY HAZARD ANALYSIS
Example of a job hazard analysis survey
adapted from one developed by NIOSH

A similar form can be developed for any process

Oct 2021
or operation that may be the focus of a PHA.
190
Cost-Benefit Factors in Hazard Analysis
 Every hazard typically has several remedies—and every
remedy has a corresponding cost & benefit.
 It is important to factor in cost when recommending
corrective action regarding hazards.
 This amounts to listing all potential remedies along with
respective costs, and then estimating the extent to which
each will reduce the hazard (its benefit).

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DETAILED HAZARD ANALYSIS
 In cases where the potential exists for serious injury,
multiple injuries, or catastrophic illness, a detailed hazard
analysis is conducted.
 A number of different methods can be used for conducting
detailed analyses.
 Hazard and operability review (HAZOP)
 Human Error analysis (HEA)
 Risk Analysis
 Technic of operation review (TOR)
 Fault Tree Analysis (FTA)
 Job Safety Analysis (JSA)

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Hazard and Operability Review
 Hazard and operability review (HAZOP) was developed
for use with new processes in the chemical industry.
 It allows problems to be identified before a body of experience
has been developed for a process or system.

 HAZOP consists of forming a team of experienced,

knowledgeable people from backgrounds relating to the
process or system and having team members brainstorm
about potential hazards.

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Hazard and Operability Review
 A HAZOP proceeds in a step-by-step manner.
 Select the process or system to be analyzed.
 Form the team of experts.
 Explain the HAZOP process to all team members.
 Establish goals and timeframes.
 Summarize all input.

Oct 2021 194

Hazard and Operability Review
Example of a form that can be used to help
organize & focus HAZOP brainstorming sessions.

Flow-gate number 1 has been analyzed.

If the flow-gate does not work as intended, there
will be no flow, too little flow, or too much flow.
Each condition results in a specific problem.
Oct 2021 195
Hazard and Operability Review
 HAZOPs predict problems associated with system or
process failures.
 These are technological failures—because human error
is so often a factor in accidents, this weakness must be
addressed.

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Human Error Analysis
 Human error analysis (HEA) is used to predict human
error, not to review what has occurred.
 HEA should be used to identify hazards before they
cause accidents.
 Two approaches to HEA can be effective:
 Observing employees at work and noting hazards.
 The task analysis approach.
 Actually performing job tasks to get a firsthand feel
for hazards.
 It is a good idea to perform it in conjunction with FMEAs
and HAZOPs, to enhance the effectiveness of all three
processes.
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Technic of Operations Review
 Technic of operations review (TOR) allows supervisors &
employees to work together to analyze workplace
accidents, failures, and incidents.
 It answers the question “Why did the system allow this incident to
occur?”
 TOR was originally developed in the early 1970s, but
widescale use did not occur until the early 1990s, when
documentation began to be circulated.
 Because it uses a work sheet, in simple-to-understand terms,
and follows an uncomplicated yes/no decision-making sequence,
it can be used even at the lowest
levels of the firm.

Oct 2021 198

Technic of Operations Review
 TOR is triggered by an incident occurring at a specific
time & place, and involving specific people.

 A weakness of TOR is that it is designed as an after-the-fact

process, triggered by an accident or incident.

 The strength of TOR is involvement of line personnel in the

analysis.

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Technic of Operations Review
 The process proceeds as follows:
 Establish the team of workers present when the accident
incident occurred, supervisor & safety/health professional.
 Conduct a roundtable discussion to establish common
knowledge base among team members.
 Identify one major systematic factor that led to, or played
a significant role in, causing the accident or incident.
 Use the group consensus to respond to a sequence of yes/no
options to identify a number of factors that contributed to the
accident or incident.
 Evaluate identified factors carefully to make sure there
is a team consensus about each.
 Develop corrective or preventive strategies for each factor.

Oct 2021 200

Risk Analysis
 Important questions for safety/health professionals
involved in analyzing the workplace for the purpose of
identifying and overcoming hazards:
 Where are we at risk? Where are we at greatest risk?
 Risk analysis—normally associated with insurance and
investments—can help analyze the workplace, identify
hazards & develop strategies for overcoming these
hazards.
 Risk analysis focuses on two key questions:
 How frequently does a given event occur?.
 How severe are the consequences of a given event?

Oct 2021 201

Risk Analysis
 Risk is decreased by decreasing the frequency and
severity of hazard-related events.
 Historical data on accidents, injuries, and illness show
that the less severe an injury or illness, the more frequently it
is likely to occur.
 Correspondingly, the more severe an injury or illness,
the less frequently it is likely to occur.
 There are many more minor scrapes, bumps, and abrasions
experienced in the workplace than major debilitating injuries such as
amputations or broken bones.

Oct 2021 202

Risk Analysis
 One approach to risk analysis considers both probability
and impact.
 The lowest rating means it is impossible that a given
error will be committed or a given failure will occur.
 The highest rating means it is very likely that a given
error will be committed frequently or a given failure will occur
frequently.
 Severity levels can be rated—likely consequence of an
accident or failure event of that severity.
 The least severe incidents are not likely to cause an injury or
damage property.
 The most severe incidents are almost certain to cause death
or serious property damage.

Oct 2021 203

 THE END.

Oct 2021 204