Chapter 2

SOCIOLOGY: RESEARCH AND

METHODS

Sociology, 15th Edition, Global Edition, Pearson Education © 2015

Sociology: Research and Methods

Learning Objectives
• LO 2.1 Explain how scientific evidence often challenges
common sense.
• LO 2.2 Describe sociology's three research orientations.
• LO 2.3 Identify the importance of gender in sociological
research.
• LO 2.4 Discuss the importance of ethics to sociological
research.
• LO 2.5 Explain why a researcher might choose each of
sociology's research methods.
• LO 2.6 Illustrate the use of inductive and deductive
logical thought.
• LO 2.7 Recall the ten important steps in carrying out
sociological research.

Sociology, 15th Edition, Global Edition, Pearson Education © 2015

Sociological Investigation: The Power of
Society
• Do we simply
“decide” our
future?

Sociology, 15th Edition, Global Edition, Pearson Education © 2015

“Seeing the world sociologically and
asking questions are basic to
sociological investigation. As we look
for answers, we need to realize that
there are various kinds of truth.”

Sociology, 15th Edition, Global Edition, Pearson Education © 2015

Basics of Sociological Investigation

Sociological
investigation
starts with two Questions and
simple answers lead us Let's take a look
requirements: to different kinds at some of these.
• Apply the sociological of truths.
perspective.
• Be curious and ask
questions.

LO 2.1 Explain how scientific evidence

often challenges common sense.

Sociology, 15th Edition, Global Edition, Pearson Education © 2015

Sociological Imagination

• People's “truths”
differ the world
over, and we often
encounter “facts”
at odds with our
own.
This Peace Corps volunteer on a
small island in the South Pacific
learned a crucial lesson—that other
people often see things in a different
way.

Sociology, 15th Edition, Global Edition, Pearson Education © 2015

Sociological Imagination: Common Sense
vs. Scientific Evidence
True or false?
•“Poor people are far more likely than rich people
to break the law.”
•“The US is a middle-class society in which most
people are more or less equal.”
•“Most poor people don't want to work.”
•“Gender differences in the behavior are just
'human nature.' ”
•“People change as they grow old, losing interests
as they focus on their health.”
• “Most people marry because they are in love.”

Sociology, 15th Edition, Global Edition, Pearson Education © 2015

Criteria for Sociological Investigation

• Objectivity
• Meaningful communication
• Balance between
objectivity and personal
feelings

LO 2.2 Describe sociology's three

research orientations.

Sociology, 15th Edition, Global Edition, Pearson Education © 2015

Three Frameworks for Sociological
Investigation

Positivist sociology
• The study of society based on systematic observation of social
behavior

Interpretive sociology
• The study of society that focuses on the meanings people attach
to their social world

Critical sociology
• The study of society that focuses on the need for change

Sociology, 15th Edition, Global Edition, Pearson Education © 2015

Seeing Sociology in Everyday Life
Three Useful (and Simple) Descriptive Statistics

• Mode: Value that

occurs most often
in a series of
Sociologists numbers
use three • Mean: Arithmetic
different average of a
series of numbers
descriptive • Median: Value that
statistics to occurs midway in
report averages. a series of
numbers arranged
from lowest to
highest

Sociology, 15th Edition, Global Edition, Pearson Education © 2015

Descriptive Statistics: What Is…?

Concept

• Mental construct that represents

some aspect of the world in a
simplified form

Sociology, 15th Edition, Global Edition, Pearson Education © 2015

Descriptive Statistics: What Is…?

Sociology, 15th Edition, Global Edition, Pearson Education © 2015

Positivist Sociology: Operationalizing a
Variable

For a measurement to be useful,

it must be reliable and valid.
Validity: Actually
Reliability: measuring
Consistency in exactly what you
measurement intend to
measure

Sociology, 15th Edition, Global Edition, Pearson Education © 2015

Relationships among Variables: Causation

Sociology, 15th Edition, Global Edition, Pearson Education © 2015

Correlation Does Not Mean Causation

Sociology, 15th Edition, Global Edition, Pearson Education © 2015

Sociology, 15th Edition, Global Edition, Pearson Education © 2015
Sociology, 15th Edition, Global Edition, Pearson Education © 2015
The Ideals of Objectivity

Objectivity
• Personal neutrality in conducting research

Value-free research
• Sociologists as dispassionate and detached (Weber)

Replication
• Repetition of research by other investigators
• Limit distortion caused by personal values

Sociology, 15th Edition, Global Edition, Pearson Education © 2015

Limitations of Scientific Sociology

Sociology, 15th Edition, Global Edition, Pearson Education © 2015

Interpretive Sociology: The Importance of
Meaning

Interpretive Sociology
Proper focus of
sociology is
interpretation- Key lay in Verstehen
understanding meaning (Weber)
that people create in
their everyday lives

Sociology, 15th Edition, Global Edition, Pearson Education © 2015

Positivist versus Interpretive Sociology
Positivist
• Focuses on actions
• Claims objective reality
exists
• Favors quantitative data
• Best suited for laboratory-
based research
Interpretive
• Focuses on understanding of
actions
• Counters that reality is subjective
• Favors qualitative data
• Often uses personal interviews
and field research
Sociology, 15th Edition, Global Edition, Pearson Education © 2015
Critical Sociology: The Importance of
Change

Critical Sociology
Developed in
Rejects the Posits the point
reaction to
idea that of sociology is
perceived
society exists in not just to
limitations of
natural system research but
positivist
with fixed order also to change
sociology
it (Marx)

Sociology, 15th Edition, Global Edition, Pearson Education © 2015

Sociology, 15th Edition, Global Edition, Pearson Education © 2015
 Gender and Research
Androcentricity

Gynocentricity
Gender shapes

several ways
research in

(Eichler)
Overgeneralizing

Gender blindness

Double standards

Interference

LO 2.3 Identify the importance of gender in

sociological research.

Sociology, 15th Edition, Global Edition, Pearson Education © 2015

Do You Know?

• If you ask only male

subjects about their attitudes
or actions, you may be able
to support conclusions about
“men” but not more
generally about “people.”

• What would a research have

to do to ensure that
research data support
conclusions about all of
society?

Sociology, 15th Edition, Global Edition, Pearson Education © 2015

Ethical Guidelines for Research

The American Sociological Association

guidelines for conducting research:
• Technical competence and fair-mindedness
• Full inclusion and disclosure
• Protection of subjects
• Informed consent
• Funding source disclosure
• Cultural sensitivity

LO 2.4 Discuss the importance of ethics to sociological research.

Sociology, 15th Edition, Global Edition, Pearson Education © 2015
Studying the Lives of Hispanics

Marin and Marin (1991)

identified guidelines for
conducting research with
Hispanic people
• Be careful with terms.
• Be aware of cultural
differences.
• Anticipate family
dynamics.
• Take your time.
• Think about personal
space.

Sociology, 15th Edition, Global Edition, Pearson Education © 2015

Sociological Research Methods: What Is…?

LO 2.5 Explain why a researcher might choose each of

sociology's research methods.

Sociology, 15th Edition, Global Edition, Pearson Education © 2015

Steps in the Ideal Experiment

Specify
Measure the
dependent/independe
dependent variable.
nt variables.

Re-measure
Expose dependent
dependent variable to
variable to
see if predicted
independent variable.
change took place.

If no change, modify
hypothesis and re-
test.

Sociology, 15th Edition, Global Edition, Pearson Education © 2015

Experiments: What Is…?

Sociology, 15th Edition, Global Edition, Pearson Education © 2015

“Stanford County Prison” Experiment
• Zimbardo's research helps
explain why violence is a
common element in our
society's prisons.

• His work demonstrates the

dangers and required ethics in
sociological investigation.

Sociology, 15th Edition, Global Edition, Pearson Education © 2015

Sociological Research Methods:
Experimental Control

Sociology, 15th Edition, Global Edition, Pearson Education © 2015

Sociological Research Methods: Survey
Research

Survey Research
Population Sample Random
• People who are • Part of the sample
the focus of the population • Drawn sample
research representing the from population so
whole every element has
an equal chance
of selection

Sociology, 15th Edition, Global Edition, Pearson Education © 2015

 Focus groups are a type of survey in
which a small number of people
representing a target population are
asked for their opinion about some issue
or product.
Here a sociology professor asks students
to evaluate textbooks for use in her
introductory class.

Sociology, 15th Edition, Global Edition, Pearson Education © 2015

Sociological Research Methods:
Questionnaires

Closed-Ended and Open-Ended

Closed: A series Open: Free

of fixed responses; response;
easy to analyze broadens
but narrows range responses; harder
of responses to analyze

Sociology, 15th Edition, Global Edition, Pearson Education © 2015

Sociological Research Methods: What Is…?

LO 2.5 Explain why a researcher

might choose each of sociology's
research methods.

Sociology, 15th Edition, Global Edition, Pearson Education © 2015

Sociological Research Methods: Existing
Data Use

Sociology, 15th Edition, Global Edition, Pearson Education © 2015

Interplay Between Theory and Method

Inductive logical
thought
• Transforms specific
observations into general
theory
• “Increases” from specific to
general
Deductive logical thought
• Transforms general theory into
specific hypotheses suitable for
testing
• “Decreases” from general to
specific

LO 2.6 Illustrate the use of inductive

and deductive logical thought.

Sociology, 15th Edition, Global Edition, Pearson Education © 2015

Deductive and Inductive Logical Thought

Sociology, 15th Edition, Global Edition, Pearson Education © 2015

Putting It All Together: Ten Steps In
Sociological Investigation

Assess
Select and Review the Develop key
requirements
define topic literature questions to ask
for study

Select a
Consider ethical Interpret the
research Collect the data
issues findings
methodology

State Publish the

conclusions findings

LO 2.7 Recall the ten important steps in carrying out sociological

research. Sociology, 15th Edition, Global Edition, Pearson Education © 2015