PROFILE
Large-Scale Shrimp Farming in Coastal Wetlands of
Venezuela, South America: Causes and
Consequences of Land-Use Conflicts
MIRADY SEBASTIANI*
SARA ELENA GONZALEZ
MARIA MERCEDES CASTILLO
PABLO ALVIZU
MARIA ALBERTINA OLIVEIRA
JORGE pI~REZ
ANTONIO QUILICl
MARTIN RADA
MARIA CAROLINA YABER
Departamento de Estudios Ambientales e
Instituto de Recursos Naturales Renovables
Universidad Sim6n Bolivar, Apartado 89000
Caracas, Venezuela
MIGUEL LENTINO
Sociedad Conservacionista Audubon de Venezuela
Apartado Postal 80450
Caracas 1080A, Venezuela
ABSTRACT / In Venezuela, large-scale shrimp farming
began in the 1980s. By 1987, the Ministry of Environment
In Venezuela, projects for large-scale shrimp
farms emerged in the early 1980s. By 1987, 14 pro-
posals were submitted to the Ministry of Environment
and Natural Resources (MARNR: Ministerio del Am-
biente y de los Recursos Naturales Renovables) for
authorization to build such farms (MARNR 1992).
MARNR followed several steps to issue authoriza-
tion. T h e first step was to establish whether the
project was compatible with MARNR's guidelines for
the site's potential land use. Based on this preliminary
screening, a certificate of land-use compliance ("con-
formaci6n de uso') was granted. This certificate was
needed to pursue further steps in the process. After-
ward, MARNR could ask for an environmental ira-
KEY WORDS: Coastalwetlands;Large-scaleshrimpfarming; Land-
use conflicts; Nongovernmentalorganizations; Legal
procedures
*Author to whom correspondenceshould be addressed.
Environmental Management Vol. 18, No. 5, pp. 647-661
and Natural Resources (MARNR) had received 14
proposals for approval. A developer illegally started the
construction of ponds at the Piritu Lagoon in the State of
Anzo~tegui before the authorization process was
completed. This action triggered a land-use conflict. This
study identifies the causes for public protest and
determines the consequences of this conflict for land-use
management. The results show that public protest was
based on the impacts of the partial construction of ponds.
These impacts were related to direct removal of wetlands,
interruption of natural patterns of surface flows, and
alteration of feeding grounds of some bird species with
migratory status. Consequences were identified in relation
to the role that nongovernmental organizations (NGOs)
play in land-use conflicts and the actions that MARNR
could take in the future to prevent and solve similar
situations.
pact assessment (EIA), which had to be reviewed and
approved at MARNR's central office.
Next, MARNR set up guidelines for resource alter-
ation at the selected site to support the authorization.
These guidelines were based on the characteristics o f
the selected site and on the results of the EIA, when-
ever this had been required. Finally, the permission
was granted and the continuity of the project de-
pended on the observance o f the set guidelines.
Among the 14 proposals for large-scale shrimp
farms submitted to MARNR for authorization in
1987, three shrimp farms (A, B, G) were to be located
on the western end of the Piritu Lagoon in the State o f
An zo~tegui ( 10~ 10~ 57" north latitude and
65~176 west longitude) (Figures 1 and
2). This area is part of the coastal system formed by
the Unare River flood plain and the two adjacent la-
goons of the Unare and Piritu (Figure 1). This coastal
system offers suitable conditions for the development
of fry, juvenile fish, and larvae of crustaceans and
9 1994 Springer-Vedag New York Inc.
648 M. Sebastiani and others
Figure 1. The coastal system.
mollusks that are the basis for traditional fishing activ-
ities. It is also inhabited by migratory and resident
bird species.
During the authorization process, shrimp farm A
started the construction with the land-use compliance
certificate but without the approval o f the required
EIA and the p r o p e r project authorization (Figure 2).
T h e alteration o f the selected pond site triggered an
unusually aggressive land-use conflict that signifi-
cantly involved public opinion.
Local fishermen voiced their arguments against
the shrimp farm on the national press. T h e y opposed
shrimp farm A for several reasons (Garnica 1988a):
T h e selected pond site was in an area o f the Piritu
Lagoon that temporarily dries out during the dry sea-
son. In their opinion, such areas could not be pri-
vately owned by law. In addition, the construction had
an impact on the main natural spill channel of the
Unare River toward the Piritu Lagoon (madre vieja).
This channel is considered the most important natu-
rai reservoir for organisms coming from the sea to the
Piritu Lagoon on the wet season. Moreover, once in
operation, the water intake channel would have
blocked the natural water flow from the Unare River
to the Piritu and Unare Lagoon in o r d e r to fill up the
shrimp ponds. In their opinion, this action would
have altered the natural balance of salt and fresh wa-
ter in the lagoons. In turn, this would have reduced
the potential of these waterbodies. Finally, they
pointed out that there was cutting of mangrove in the
construction. On the basis of these arguments, the
fishermen triggered the conflict requesting the inter-
vention of government authorities.
Simultaneously, the Audubon Conservation Soci-
ety of Venezuela got involved in the conflict because
o f their history of research, lobbying, and conserva-
tion activities regarding wetlands. T h e society is inter-
ested in wedands because o f their importance as pro-
ductive ecosystems and habitats for bird species,
especially shorebirds. In their opinion, the land alter-
 Shrimp Farms and Land-Use Conflicts in Venezuela
Figure 2. Shrimp farms at the Piritu Lagoon.
ation caused by shrimp f a r m A had a negative impact
on the habitats of some bird species such as migratory
shorebirds and flamingos (Alvizu and others 1988).
After the public protest, MARNR o r d e r e d the im-
mediate halt of shrimp farm A (Marin 1988). Never-
theless, authorities did not offer a solution to restore
the alteration caused by the construction of the Unare
spill channel. This situation caused an aggressive re-
649
sponse f r o m fishermen, who destroyed a portion of
the constructed levees to restore the water flow to-
wards the Piritu Lagoon (El Nacional 1988).
T h e shrimp farm company, on the other hand,
attributed the conflict to potential issues and tactical
arrangements with fishermen. A c o m p a n y represen-
tative pointed out to the press that their purposes
were to: industrialize shrimp harvesting, decrease the
650 M. S e b a s t i a n i a n d o t h e r s
STEP 'I CHARACTERIZATION OF THE COASTAL SYSTEM
STEP 2 IDENTIFICATION OF THE CHARACTERISTICS
SELECTED SITE FOR SHRIMP PRODUCTION
STEP 3 IDENTIFICATIONOF THE CHANGES AT THE SELECTED
SITE CAUSED BY THE SITING OF THE PONDS
STEP 4 IDENTIFICATION OF THE SPATIAL KNOWLEDGE OF
THE FISHERMEN
STEP 5 IDENTIFICATION OF THE SPATIAL
OF THE RESIDENT AND MIGRATORY BIRDS
STEP 6 CAUSES FOR PUBLIC
Figure 3. Identifying the causes for public protest in the Piritu Lagoon land-use conflict.
drying of the Piritu Lagoon, and offer e m p l o y m e n t to
local fishermen. In his opinion, the activity would not
disturb the fishing reservoir, block the channels or
destroy 1500 ha of m a n g r o v e (Garnica 1988b).
In this p a p e r the following questions about the
conflict are addressed: (1) What were the causes for
public protest? (2) Are there lessons to be learned
f r o m the conflict for land-use m a n a g e m e n t ? O u r fo-
cus here is to search for answers to these questions.
Methodology
Causes of Conflict
T h e first phase o f o u r investigation was carried out
in six steps (Figure 3): T h e first step was to gather
information about the study area and the coastal sys-
tem (Figure 1) with respect to: (1) the relationship
between the water dynamics of the Unare River and
the coastal lagoons and the fishing potential in these
waterbodies; (2) the m a n g r o v e vegetation; and (3) the
bird population.
T h e second step was to find out possible criteria
used by shrimp f a r m A to choose the selected site. T o
do so, it was necessary to assume the position o f a
shrimp f a r m e r in relation to the selection o f an appro-
priate site. T h e ideal conditions were identified based
on Cun (1982) and Snedaker and Getter (1985).
T h e s e were then contrasted with the characteristics o f
D
OF THE _ _ D
D
.l>
PREFERENCE
~7
PROTEST
the study area to identify those that were met at the
selected site.
In the third step, the landscape changes caused by
the siting o f the ponds on the selected site were iden-
tified. A sequential, cartographic and diachronic geo-
graphical analysis was done. T h e starting point for the
retrospective analysis was the photointerpretation o f
the most recent aerial views (1988), which were taken
f r o m a small plane. A comparison with views f r o m
1975 (scale 1:25,000) led to the identification of the
changes that had taken place. T h e photointerpreta-
tion focused on aspects of drainage, vegetation, and
land use. T h e information obtained was verified by
field work, which also allowed an update o f the exist-
ing cartography at a scale of 1:25,000. We will refer to
the 1988 m a p as the 1988 m a p (Figure 4) and to the
1975 m a p as the baseline m a p (Figure 5).
T h e fourth step was to find out why the selected
site was part o f the spatial knowledge o f fishermen
and fisherwomen. It was assumed that every fisher-
m a n and fisherwoman of the coastal system had their
own knowledge about fishing and fishing sites. How-
ever, since they carried out a similar activity, there
could be considerable overlapping a m o n g their indi-
vidual knowledge (Gould and White 1974, Whyte
1970). This knowledge can provide a key to struc-
tures, patterns, and processes of their activity in the
coastal system (Johnston 1983). T h r o u g h interviews,
 Shrimp Farms and Land-Use Conflicts in Venezuela
Figure4. The 1988 map.
the researcher can get this information and represent
it on a m a p showing spatial knowledge, or prefer-
ences, of these land users (Whyte 1970).
Following these ideas, it was decided to interview
fishermen and fisherwomen o f the study area. Alvizu
and others (1988), Cortez (1988), and Padr6n and
Torti (1984) determined that they lived in the towns
of La Cerca and E1 Hatillo and that there was a Fisher-
m e n Association o f the Unare Lagoon, which at the
time was the largest o f the whole coastal system. On
the basis of this information, the head of the associa-
tion was contacted to approach its members. Thus, 20
fishermen were interviewed at the town o f La Cerca in
September 1988 (Figure 1). T h e n u m b e r o f fisher-
m e n interviewed represented 12% o f the total num-
ber of fishermen related to the Unare Lagoon (Pad-
r6n and Torti 1984).
Fishermen were asked questions strictly relating to
their fishing activities in the coastal system: (1) Which
were the fishing sites? (2) Where were the rearing
651
areas of the study area? (3) Which were the sailing
routes? (4) Which fishing strategies were used
t h r o u g h o u t the year?
T h e authors agreed upon these questions in ad-
vance. T h e n they questioned each fisherman individ-
ually through an informal talk instead of using a visi-
ble questionnaire. T h e information collected f r o m the
interviews was t r a n s f o r m e d into a single m a p that will
be referred to as the fishermen's m a p (Figure 6).
T h e fifth step was to find out why the study area
was important for birds. It was assumed that birds
have habitat preferences to carry out their activities.
Birds control, to some extent, the places where they
will carry out their activities, and many do so with
great specificity (O'Connor 1984). "It a p p e a r s that
habitat preferences have a large inherited c o m p o n e n t
u n d e r natural circumstances, but these preferences
are also subjected to some modifications by learning"
(Morse 1980), i.e., in many bird species, once individ-
uals choose a wintering area, they tend to return to it
652 M. Sebastiani and others
Figure 5. The baseline map.
during subsequent years (Diamond and Smith 1973,
McNeil and others 1985a). T h e r e f o r e , a m a p of bird
spatial preferences for the sites in which their activi-
ties take place may show the importance of the study
area.
T o m a p the spatial preference of birds, a field trip
was carried out to gather information about bird spe-
cies, their land-use modalities (feeding sites, nesting
sites, and sleeping sites, which refers to places where
large groups of birds rest during the m o r n i n g or the
afternoon), the specific microhabitat used to carry out
their activities, and their migratory or residential sta-
tus (Perrins and Birkhead 1983). Information was
gathered in localities reported by fishermen and the
A u d u b o n Society and in areas with no previous re-
ports on birds.
In areas with no previous information, the road
between the towns of Nuevo Unare and La Cerca
(Figure 2) was used as a guideline for systematically
establishing bird watching posts. This road passes
t h r o u g h most of the landscapes o f the U n a r e flood-
plain.
On different hours of a day in September 1988,
bird watchers counted how many bird species were
p e r f o r m i n g specific activities on each side of the road
at 1-kna intervals.
We m a p p e d the acquired data to show the location
of bird species and their land-use modalities. We will
refer to this m a p as the birds' m a p (Figure 7). A table
c o m p l e m e n t e d this m a p to show, for each observed
species, its activities and its migratory status (Table 1).
T h e last step was to identify the causes for public
protest by integrating and c o m p a r i n g the information
gathered in the previous steps.
Consequences of the Conflict for
Land-Use Management
In this second phase, we based the investigation on
archival research and personal interviews to identify
the consequences of the conflict in relation to: (1) a
 Shrimp Farms and Land-Use Conflicts in Venezuela 653

EL H ATILLO
r LA CE CARIBBEAN SEA
LAI S L E T A ~ -
L~ < . ~ ..... UNARE RIVER MOUTH
NORTH CHAN
J l ~ ~ r-CANOACHANNEL
UNARE LAGOON
I
!
SOUTH CHANNEL~ f LA CERCA {NET)
I
1
I M A I N Ct
I
/

U N A R E RIVER--/--
i / MADRE

NUEVO U N A R E \'
; %~.,o
/. •
I
\ PIRITU LAGOON
\
I
?///
TO CLARINES \
FISHING SITES:
LA ISLETA, LA CERCA~ THE LAGOONS PAVED ROAD

SAILING ROUTES AND FISHING SITES~

MAIN CHANNEL AND THE UNARE RIVER 0 0.5 "t 2 ~,Km
I I ) ' I I
REARINS AREA=
MADRE VIEJA GRAPHICAL SCALE N

ENTRANCE OF O R G A N I S M S ;
UNARE RIVER MOUTH SOURCE ~ FIELD WORK 1988

Figure 6. The fishermen's map.

reinforcement of the role of nongovernmental orga-
nizations (NGOs) in bringing out environmental is-
sues; (2) the impact on shrimp farm projects within
the coastal system as well as nationwide; and (3) the
impact on g o v e r n m e n t decisions and future proce-
dures in relation to shrimp farms and the environ-
mental m a n a g e m e n t of the coastal system.
Results and Discussion
Characteristics of the Coastal System and
Study Area
Annual water dynamics between Unare River and coastal
lagoons. T h e U n a r e River is the main freshwater
source for the Unare and Piritu lagoons (Figure 4).
T h e Unare Lagoon receives fresh water f r o m the Un-
are River, primarily by the main channel (canal prin-
cipal), which splits into two secondary channels (north
and south) before reaching the lagoon. O k u d a (1965)
pointed out that 83% of the water in the Unare La-
goon comes from the U n a r e River. According to Pa-
dr6n and Torti (1984), the water level o f the lagoon
changes with the seasons. During the rainy season,
from J u n e to August, freshwater f r o m the Unare
River and rainwater fill u p the lagoon. At the end of
the rainy season, September to October, the seaward
river flow is strong enough to break the sandbar that
has formed at the river m o u t h during the dry season
(November to May). T h e opening of the river mouth
causes the water level in the lagoon to d r o p as the
water retained there flows back to the Unare River
through the channels and goes into the sea. T h e water
level in the Unare Lagoon drops below sea level dur-
ing the dry season, and the river flow is not strong
enough to prevent the sandbar f r o m building u p at
the river mouth.
In the Piritu Lagoon, the main annual water influx
comes from the sea. T h e mouth at the eastern end of
the lagoon is kept open artificially all year round by a
654 M. Sebastiani and others

9 EL HATILLO
LA CERCA LA CERCA( AIN CHANNEL CARIBBEAN SEA
LA ISLETA
--UNARE RIVER MOUTH

NORTH CHANNEL
SOUTH CHANNEL :ANOA CHANNEL
I (:LIt
j#' +',I~ ""-- ""
UNARE LAGOON
,...-,.. .+,
(t,)\
"~" ] UNARE
I

NUEVO MADRE
J
I
I 12
\
%
)
/ PIRITU LAGOON
/
/
TO CLARINES
/

LAND USE MODALITIES PAVED ROAD

I NESTING AREAS
0 0.5 "l 2 3Kin
II FEEDING GROUNDS ', r r -, [ t

Ill SLEEPING AREAS

GRAPHICAL SCALE +
!d,-- VISITED LOCALITIES (TABLE "1) SOURCE: FIELD WORK 1988

Figure 7. The birds' map.

breakwater and dredging. In the study area, there are
two spill channels to discharge freshwater from the Un-
are River to the lagoon: a natural spill channel locally
called madre vieja and a man-made channel for boats,
called Canoa channel (carlo Canoa) (Figure 4).
Relationship betweenannual water dynamics andfishing
potential of the lagoons. T h e fishing activities in the la-
goons are related to the annual water dynamics in the
coastal system as follows (Padr6n and Torti 1984,
Cervig6n and G6mez 1986): When the Unare River
mouth opens, some fish species in their larval and
juvenile stages enter the lagoons to complete their
development. Similarly, the white shrimp (Penaeus
schmitti) postlarvae come into the lagoons and stay be-
fore reaching sexual maturity. By the end o f the dry
season (May), the organisms are ready to return to the
sea to complete their life cycle. An open mouth at the
eastern end o f the Piritu Lagoon creates a permanent
exchange of organisms with the sea.
Vegetation. Mangrove is widespread in the study
area (Figure 4). T h e main species are black mangrove
(Avicennia germinans) and white mangrove (Laguncu-
laria racemosa). T h e y are located a r o u n d the lagoons
and on sections of the floodplain. This landscape unit
can be classified as a mangrove wetland (Mitsch and
Gosselink 1986). Inland areas are covered primarily
with thorn bushes (L6pez and Machado I987).
Bird population. According to Morrison and Ross
(1989), "the lagoons of the coastal plains o f north-
central Venezuela provide some o f the most impor-
tant shorebird habitats in the country," and they are
part o f the so-called Central Caribbean ecounit. In
this unit, 10,314 shorebirds, which comprise 43% of
the total observed, were in the Piritu Lagoon, while
1987 individuals, which were 8.3% o f the total, were
in the Unare Lagoon. Most shorebirds o f the Unare
and Piritu lagoons are on "the muddy margins of the
lagoons along the spit/sand barrier separating the la-
 Shrimp Farms and Land-Use Conflicts in Venezuela 655

Table 1. Bird species: Status and land use modalities in the study area a
Use modality by site
Nesting Feeding Sleeping
Common name Scientific name Status (I) (II) (III)
Charadriiformes
Long-billed dowitcher Limnodromus scalopaceus M 1- 7
Greater yellowlegs Tringa melanoleuca M 1- 6
Hudsonian godwlt Limosa haernastica M 7 4
Least sandpiper Calidris minutilla M 3 - 6
Lesser yellowlegs Tringa flavipes M 6 - 7
Sandpipers Calidris sp. R 2 - 7
Semipalmated sandpiper Calidris pusilla M 2
Solitary sandpiper Tringa solitaria M 2 - 3
Spotted sandpiper Actitis macularia R 12 6-7
Stilt sandpiper Micropalama himantopus R 3 - 7
Whimbrel N u m e n i u s phaeopus M 2
Willet Catoptrophorus semipalmatus M 2 - 3
Piping plover Charadrius melodus M 6
Collard Plover Charadrius coUaris M 3
Southern lapwing Vanellu6 chilensis R 2 - 3 - 6 - 7
Common stilt Himantopus himantopus M 3 - 7
Cayenne tern Sterna eurygnatha R 7
Common tern Sterna hirnndo M 3
Gull-billed tern Gelochelidon nilotica M 3 - 7
Large-billed tern Phaetusa simplex M 2 - 3 - 6
Laughing gull Larus atricilla M 2 - 7 4
Yellow-billed tern Sterna superciliari~ M 2 - 6
Black skimmer Rynchops niger R 1- 3
Pelecaniformes
Brown pelican Pelecanus occidentalis R 3 - 7
Neotropic cormorant Phalacrocorax olivaceus R 8 - 11 3 - 7
Magnificent frigatebird Fregata magnificens R 8
Ciconiformes
Great egret Casmerodius albus R 8 - 1i 3 - 7
Reddish egret Dichromanassa r u f escens R 10 - 12 4
Snowy egret Egretta thula R 8- 10 - 11 3 - 6 - 7 4-5
Striated heron Butorides striatus M 7 4
Tricolored heron Hydranasis tricolor R 8
White-necked heron Ardea cocoi R - MI 11 1- 7 4-5
American wood-ibis Mycteria americana R 3
Jabiru J a b i r u mycteria R 2 4
Maguari stork E u x e n u r a maguari R 2
Scarlet ibis Eudocimus tuber R 10 7 4
Anseriformes
Black-bellied whistling duck Dendrocygna autumnalis R 11 3 - 7
Blue-winged teal Anas discors M 3 - 7
White-checked pintail Anas bahamensis R 9 7
Falconiformes
Common black hawk ButeogaUus anthracinus R 3
Osprey Pandion haliaetus R 3
Crested caracara Polyborus plancus M 7
Yellow-headed caracara Milvago chimachima R 1 - 2 - 6 - 7
Passeriformes
Pied water tyrant Fluvicolapica R 2

aLegend: M: migrator, MI: intratropical, R: resident, 1, I1, 11I (see Figure 7). Source: Field work (1988)
656 M. Sebastiani and others
goons from the sea." Birds also use the lagoons in-
tensely during migration. " T h e importance of these
lagoons is underlined by the large numbers o f other
aquatic birds using them, including cormorants, peli-
cans, ducks and flamingos."
Selection of the Site for Shrimp Farm A
According to Cun (1982) and Snedaker and Getter
(1985), the ideal location for a shrimp farm has the
following characteristics: (1) easy access to fresh- or
brackish water of good quality; (2) flat topography;
(3) proximity to natural sources of seed (shrimp post-
larvae) or adult shrimps; (4) areas with no vegetation
cover; (5) good roads for easy distribution of the
product; and (6) lands with low potential for agricul-
ture, tourism, or biological resources.
Shrimp farm A was planned to grow only white
shrimp (Penaeus schmitti) in a total area of 120 ha. For
this purpose, the western end o f the Piritu Lagoon
had several of the characteristics required by this type
of activity (Figure 2): (1) a nearby source of fresh and
brackish water in the Unare River; (2) a source o f
shrimp posttarvae and adult white shrimps in the sea
and the l a g o o n s i t h e Unare River mouth was the nat-
ural path for the postlarvae; and (3) areas of flat to-
pography close to the source of larvae. T h e selected
site was on flat topography. It would have occupied
areas of the Piritu Lagoon that normally would have
dried out during the dry season and would have been
u n d e r shallow water during the rainy season. It also
would have occupied a portion o f the only natural
spill channel of the Unare River (madre vieja) towards
the Piritu Lagoon. Since the selected site was public
land, the shrimp farm company asked the Town
Council (Concejo Municipal) for permission to pro-
pose the new activity on its property.
Landscape Changes Brought about by Siting
Ponds in the Selected Area
Comparing the 1988 map (Figure 4) with the base-
line map (Figure 5), we can identify the following
landscape changes caused by the partial construction
of shrimp farm A: (1) alteration of flat areas o f the
Piritu Lagoon by construction o f the levees, mainly in
shallow waters and on m u d d y shores; (2) obstruction
and alteration of the main natural spill channel of the
Unare River toward the P/ritu Lagoon (madre vieja);
and (3) mangrove deforestation to place the struc-
tures, mainly along the madre vieja.
Alterations o f natural lagoons, related areas, and
natural drainage channels are prohibited in Venezu-
ela by law (Reptlblica de Venezuela 1977). An excep-
tion to this law allows alterations of natural lagoons
and related areas if ownership goes back to 1848 (Re-
ptiblica de Venezuela 1987). Natural lagoons must
have at least a 50-m-wide protected zone around
them. Rivers must also have a protected zone o f 50 m
on each side for navigable rivers and 25 m for non-
navigable ones (Repdblica de Venezuela 1966).
At the time o f the conflict, mangrove cutting was
prohibited by Presidential Decree 110 (Reptiblica de
Venezuela 1974). T h e decree was related to the Law
o f Fishing that prohibits the destruction of aquatic
vegetation and natural formations where fish can
hatch. T h e connection between the decree and this
law allowed legal interpretations that resulted in the
exclusive protection of red mangrove (Rhizophora
mangle) (MARNR 1979). T h e r e f o r e , protection for
mangrove at the selected site was weak due to the
presence of mainly black and white mangrove.
The Fishermen's Map
Fishing in the study area takes place throughout
the year with the fishing sites varying seasonally
(Figure 6): During the dry season, fishing takes place
mainly around the island "La Isleta" because the wa-
ter level drops in the Unare Lagoon, causing fish to
concentrate around the island. Also during this pe-
riod, fishing is intensified upstream of the Unare
River, up to near the town of Clarines (Figure 1).
During the rainy season, fishermen help in clear-
ing the sandbar at the river mouth to accelerate its
natural opening. Once the mouth is open, a continu-
ous flow from tile Unare Lagoon to the sea is estab-
lished through the main channel (canal principal).
Fishermen take advantage o f this strong flow or
chorro to intercept adult fish and shrimps swimming
toward the sea. T h e y place a plastic net held by logs
across the main channel, at the site o f La Cerca. T h e
annual cycle for fishing followed by fishermen agrees
with the existing knowledge about the cycle of aquatic
organisms in the lagoons.
T h e main pieces o f the fishermen's map in the
study area are (Figure 6): (l) the Unare river mouth
(La Boca); (2) the main channel (canal principal),
which is the sailing route between the Unare River
mouth and the town o f La Cerca; (3) La Cerca, which
is the site where a net is set for fishing; (4) the island of
the Unare Lagoon (La Isleta); and (5) the madre vieja,
considered a rearing area for fish, crustaceans and
mollusks. In the fishermen's opinion this spill channel
is essential for the maintenance of the fishing poten-
tial in both lagoons.
 Shrimp Farms and Land-Use Conflicts in Venezuela
The Birds' Map
Bird watching in the study area was carried out at
12 sites (Figure 7). In all, 44 species were identified
and classified according to their migratory status
(Table 1). Among the species identified, 23 were resi-
dents, 20 were migratory and one had both resident
and intratropical migratory status.
T h r e e types o f land-use modalities were ob-
served: nesting, feeding, and sleeping sites (Table 1,
Figure 7). Five of the localities visited (1-7) were feed-
ing grounds for 41 species. Five localities (8-12) were
nesting areas for 11 species, and two localities (4, 5)
were sleeping areas for eight species. Flooded areas
and shallow waters were mostly used as feeding
grounds by 44 observed species. However, resident
species were found in large numbers in the man-
groves. Moreover, the mangroves were particularly
important for nesting since 10 of the 11 species were
using them for this purpose.
Causes for Public Protest
Impact of shrimp farm A on fishing activities. A com-
parison between the 1988 map (Figure 4) and the base-
line map (Figure 5) shows that the partial construction
of the shrimp farm blocked the water at the madre vieja
and eliminated part of it. T h e fishermen's map
(Figure 6) shows that the madre vieja is a rearing area.
As the 1988 map (Figure 4) shows, the water sup-
ply channel was in front of the Unare River mouth.
T h e r e f o r e , once in operation, the water p u m p e d
from the river to the artificial ponds would have
changed the natural flow of organisms. T h e fisher-
men's map (Figure 6) shows that the Unare River
mouth is the entrance for organisms to both lagoons.
Consequently, these organisms would have been
trapped in the water supply channel. T h e alteration
o f the natural route of movement of organisms would
have adversely affected the catch in the lagoons.
Snedaker and Getter's (1985) comments on the na-
ture of mariculture operations are appropriate here:
The current high demand for marine protein has led to the expan-
sion of existing maricultureoperationsand the developmentof new
operations in many parts of the world. As reports becomeavailable,
however, it is apparent that not all marlculture operations are eco-
nomicallyjustifiable, particularlyin terms of the destruction of the
natural resource base. Some of tile more common problems, which
are sometimes overlooked by investors, financial support institu-
tions, and owners/operatorsfall into two distinct, but related catego-
ries: pond sitingand pond management."
These authors also point out that among the major
problems associated with pond siting are "the direct
removal of wetlands" and interruption of "natural
657
patterns of surface flow" (i.e., surface-water runoff,
tidal ingress and egress).
Impact of shrimpfarm A on birds. On the birds' map
(Figure 7), location 6 is on the constructed area of
shrimp farm A. As observed during the field survey,
ten species were using the area as feeding grounds, six
of which had migratory status. If the shrimp farm had
operated at its full capacity (120 ha), it also would have
affected location 7. This location is another feeding
ground for 23 species, nine o f which are migratory
and one has a resident and intratropical status. Some
species reported in these locations were shorebirds.
Morrison and others (1985) point out that birds of this
type that migrate to the South American coast are
found only in a few locations. T h e r e f o r e , the alter-
ation of such locations definitely would have caused
severe damage for the bird population.
T h e results supported the arguments o f the Audu-
bon Conservation Society of Venezuela in the sense
that the coastal system is a reservoir for several bird
species, many of them with migratory status. These
birds are mostly nearctic limicolous, whimbrels, sand-
pipers, and plovers, and nest in the Canadian Arctic
biome and ecotone (McNeil and others 1985a).
McNeil and others (1985a) point out that for these
birds, coastal lagoons and large extensions of flooded
areas and shallow water represent the first place
where they can arrive at the beginning of their flight
over the Caribbean Sea and the West Atlantic Ocean.
Many of these birds stay in northern South America
during the boreal winter; others just stay during the
autumn or spring and then hibernate in Tierra del
Fuego. Some species stay in these coastal areas
throughout the year because some individuals (imma-
ture, lacking the necessary accumulation of premigra-
tory fat, or any hormonal imbalance) stay in the South
during J u n e and July. It should be noted that limi-
colous birds from the Septentrional regions of North
America (such as the greater yellow legs (Tringa mel-
anoleuca) and semipalmated sandpiper (Calidris pu-
silla) stay in the lower latitudes for approximately 70%
of the year (McNeil and others 1985a),
In this coastal system there are species, like the
flamingo (Phoenicopterus tuber) and the blue-winged
teal (Anas discors), that are considered world patri-
mony. T h e r e are also large numbers of migratory and
resident wild ducks. During the northern winter they
concentrate in the coastal lagoons and salt marshes of
Venezuela to avoid the drought in the continental
lowlands (llanos) (Lentino 1988). In a census carried
out by Morrison and others (1985) and McNeil and
others (1985b, 1988), it was found that the n u m b e r of
small sandpipers observed in the lagoons of Tacari-
658 M. Sebastiani and others
gua (east o f the Unare lagoon), Unare, and Pfritu
represent 40% of the birds that arrive at the Venezu-
elan coasts (Lentino 1988).
Consequences of the Conflict for
Land-Use Management
Reinforcement of the role of nongovernmental organi-
zations (NGOs) in bringing out issues in land-use con-
flicts. T h e land-use conflict u n d e r study emerged
because o f the active role o f the fishermen's associa-
tions of the coastal system and o f the Audubon Con-
servation Society o f Venezuela. These NGOs, sup-
ported by the Environmental Act (Rept~blica de
Venezuela 1976), submitted complaints to MARNR's
regional and central offices, demanding legal actions
against shrimp farm A.
T h e national press played an important role in pre-
senting to the public the issues discussed in the con-
flict. Garcia (1992) points out that the printed media is
the most important tool for "critical consciousness-
raising" and "social pressure" in the Venezuelan eco-
logical movement.
T h e aggressive response from fishermen showed
how illegal actions can trigger unwanted responses
from local communities. This type o f response high-
lighted the value o f an environmental impact assess-
ment (EIA) and the need for public consultation dur-
ing the process o f approval of a project.
Since 1992, the role o f NGOs as environmental
watchers has been further stimulated, but not fully
supported, by the recent Presidential Decree on Reg-
ulations of the Environmental Act on Environmental
Impact Studies (Rep6blica de Venezuela 1992a). This
decree states that environmental impact studies are
public documents, but their public review is at the
MARNR's discretion.
Impact of the conflict on shrimp farm projects of the
coastal system. In 1989, the National Procuratorship
r a t i f e d that shrimp farm A did not own the land o f
the selected site (MARNR 1992). T h e selected site was
in an area o f the Piritu Lagoon that temporarily dries
out during the dry season. In Venezuela, natural
waterbodies and related areas during the rainy season
can only be privately owned if there is a document
dating from 1848 stating rights to this land (Rept~blica
de Venezuela 1987). Shrimp farm A did not have
such a document. T h e r e f o r e , the National Procura-
torship ruled that the selected site was illegally occu-
pied. T h e conflict was solved on legal grounds. Paral-
lel to this decision, MARNR did not approve the
environmental impact assessment presented by
shrimp farm A, because o f unsatisfactory identifica-
tion o f effects and related measurements (MARNR
1992).
Shrimp farms B and C were also affected by the
conflict. MARNR temporarily suspended these two
projects to revise their land rights. T h e projects were
halted, although their EIAs had been approved and
their authorizations had been granted. In 1989, the
National Procuratorship decided that part o f the area
to be occupied by shrimp farm B had a similar situa-
tion to that of shrimp farm A and, therefore, its activ-
ities should concentrate only in their own inland ter-
rain (MARNR 1992, Novo 1990). In relation to
shrimp farm C, the National Procuratorship found
out that its suspension was not appropriate because
the land was privately owned and not associated with
the Pfritu Lagoon. At present, shrimp farm C is the
only one in operation.
T h e impact of the conflict is also reflected in the
land-use plan proposed by MARNR for the coastal
fringe of the Anzo~tegui State (Convenio M A R N R -
PEQUIVEN 1992). This plan is u n d e r discussion for
approval. In it, the original areas to be occupied by
shrimp farms A and B are proposed as areas for spe-
cial regulations u n d e r two categories: area for protec-
tion and environmental recovery (Areas de Protec-
ci6n y Recuperaci6n Ambiental) and recreational
park.
T h e first category includes areas for which a miti-
gation or a restoration plan should be established to
minimize environmental problems caused by natural
or anthropic factors (Rep6blica de Venezuela 1983).
T h e second category is to allow expropriation o f land
for recreational purposes (Convenio MARNR-PE-
Q U I V E N 1992). In the plan, the original areas of
shrimp farms A and B are the only locations where
two land-use restrictions overlap. In it, there is no
proposition for new areas for large shrimp farms.
Impact of the conflict on shrimp farm projects nation-
wide. T h e case u n d e r study changed adversely the
perspective of public opinion on large-scale shrimp
farming. This public attitude disturbed businessmen
from other regions with an interest in shrimp farm-
ing. Since 1987, 12 shrimp farm projects have been
approved by MARNR after going through the re-
quired authorization process (MARNR 1992).
Impact of the conflict on governmental actions and proce-
dures. In the authors' opinion, the relevant conse-
quences o f the conflict in relation to governmental
actions and procedures were the following:
1. Establishment o f an auditing program for
shrimp farm activities in the coastal system. For
MARNR the case was challenging. It had to stop
shrimp farm A but it had to support other shrimp
 Shrimp Farms and Land-Use Conflicts in Venezuela
farms like shrimp farm C. T o do so, MARNR estab-
lished an annual auditing program for shrimp farm
C, starting with the construction phase. T h e program
is designed to corroborate the short- and long-term
effects identified in the EIA. It allows a regular acqui-
sition of the real data needed to monitor the compati-
bility o f the activity with the environment. In Venezu-
ela, this was the first experience of an auditing
program (Rojas 1992). We must mention that the new
Decree on Environmental Impact Assessment Proce-
dures (Repdblica de Venezuela 1992a) states that
MARNR can designate an inspector to control a
project during all the required phases, including the
monitoring program after construction.
2. Reinforcement of nationwide regulations for
large-scale shrimp farming. On the basis o f the expe-
rience gained from the conflict, MARNR reinforced
the regulations to authorize shrimp farms. From 1988
to August 1991, MARNR automatically required an
EIA study after a shrimp project had received the
land-use compliance certificate. MARNR also estab-
lished guidelines to advise the p r o p o n e n t on the issues
to consider in such a report.
In 1992, the Decree on EIA was approved (Repdb-
lica de Venezuela 1992a). It specifies that shrimp
farms must have an EIA, which should be prepared
after the land-use compliance certificate has been is-
sued, but before the authorization for alteration of land
resources (Repfiblica de Venezuela 1992a), T h e decree
is reinforced by the new Penal Law of the Environment
(Reptiblica de Venezuela 1992b). This law specifies that
the public officer that authorizes a project without re-
questing the EIA for those projects mentioned in the
decree, will go to prison and pay a fine.
T h e Penal Law of the Environment reinforces
overall MARNR regulations. Consequently, if the
conflict here reviewed were to take place today, the
following actions would be crimes: (a) changes in nat-
ural drainage patterns or riverbeds made without
considering technical standards or the required au-
thorization (an authorization for changes that are not
supported by technical standards or the guidelines
established in the existing land-use plans, is also con-
sidered a crime); (b) illegal occupation o f protected
areas or natural ecosystems for commercial, industrial
or agricutural purposes; and (c) alteration or destruc-
tion of flora and fauna, violating the standards set on
these matters.
T h e Penal Law also establishes that the j u d g e can
act to prevent damage to the environment, to people,
and other negative consequences, based on the given
complaint. T h e s e actions could be: (a) the total, or
partial occupation of the site by MARNR, or of the
659
pollutant sources until the situation is corrected, or
the necessary authorization has been obtained; (b) in-
terruption or prohibition of the activity that has dam-
aged or degraded the environment; (c) confiscation
or elimination of obstacles, objects, or any elements
that obstruct the reasonable use of the aquatic re-
sources, like in marine or coastal areas under special
regulations; or (d) any other measure to avoid further
damage.
3. T h e inconvenience of granting a land-use com-
pliance certificate for a project before considering the
results o f its EIA was made evident. According to the
Administrative Procedures Act (Repflblica de Vene-
zuela 1981), once the land-use compliance certificate
has been granted, the proponent acquires the right to
develop the activity u n d e r certain conditions. This law
also states that a decision taken by a governmental
office may be modified only if the new interpretation
favors the developer. This means, that if shrimp farm
A had acted legally, then MARNR would have faced a
negotiation process to adjust the project to the unsuit-
able selected site. Thus, the EIA would have been
more a tool to establish restrictions to the project,
rather than to prevent the negative impacts caused by
the selection of the site.
This type of risk in land management can still take
place today. Land-use compliance certificates are
mostly based on maps for potential land-use scales of
1:250,000, too small to base decisions at the local level.
However, once the proposed land use is confirmed by
MARNR, the p r o p o n e n t acquires rights to the as-
signed land use. This fact is further enhanced by the
new Decree on EIA, which states that the EIA should
be prepared after the land-use compliance certificate
has been granted, but before the authorization for alter-
ation of land resources. This issue leads to the final
conclusion of this paper: MARNR must revise the pro-
cess of land-use compliance certification to avoid secur-
ing a land-use agreement too early in the process of
authorization. This would avoid a decision that later
might be unsustained by the results of the EIA.
Acknowledgments
T h e authors are grateful to the Audubon Conser-
vation Society of Venezuela and to the Instituto de
Recursos Naturales Renovables of the Universidad
Sim6n Bolivar for partially funding the final report
from the course "Environmental Impact Assessment"
given at the Department of Environmental Studies in
1988. This report was the basis for this paper. T h e
authors are also grateful to the referees, J. Gosselink,
L. Bardwell, and P. Risser, as well as to V. V&squez, V.
660 M, Sebastiani and others
H a a r m a n n , E. H e r r e r a , L. E. Garcia, a n d M. McPher-
son for t h e i r t h o u g h t f u l c o m m e n t s o n a n earlier d r a f t
o f this m a n u s c r i p t ; to S. Garcia a n d L. Malave for the
i n f o r m a t i o n o n the conflict; a n d to N. C e r o n e a n d
M.V. Yfiber for the drawings.
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