J Sci Educ Technol (2011) 20:729–742
DOI 10.1007/s10956-010-9266-z
A Comparison of Different Conceptual Change Pedagogies
Employed Within the Topic of ‘‘Sound Propagation’’
Muammer Çalik • Murat Okur • Neil Taylor
Published online: 17 November 2010
Ó Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2010
Abstract The purpose of this study was to compare dif-
ferent conceptual change methods within a topic on ‘sound
propagation’. The study was conducted with 80 grade 5
students (aged 11–12 year old) drawn from four cohort
classes in an elementary school on the north coast of Black
Sea Region in Turkey. While one class was assigned as a
control group, the others formed experimental groups (one
with a conceptual change text, one with analogies pre-
sented as computer animations and one with a combination
of conceptual change text, analogies and computer ani-
mations). A questionnaire with 10 two-tier questions was
administered as a pretest a week before the teaching
intervention, and the same test was re-administered
immediately after the intervention as a post-test. The
questionnaire was also employed as a delayed post-test
3 weeks after the teaching intervention. The experimental
groups performed significantly better in the post-test that
the control group (p \ 0.05). Within the experimental
groups, the group exposed to a combination of the con-
ceptual change text, analogies and computer animations
performed best on the post-test and the delayed post-test
(p \ 0.05). Overall the study indicated that the intervention
M. Çalik (&)
Department of Primary Teacher Education, Fatih Faculty
of Education, Karadeniz Technical University, Trabzon, Turkey
e-mail: muammer38@hotmail.com; muammer38@ktu.edu.tr
M. Okur
Department of Science Education, Fatih Faculty of Education,
Karadeniz Technical University, Trabzon, Turkey
N. Taylor
School of Education, University of New England, Arimidale,
NSW, Australia
that employed the entire suite of conceptual change peda-
gogies produced the best learning outcomes.
Keywords Science education
Conceptual change

Alternative conception
Sound propagation
Introduction
The constructivist view of learning has played a significant
role in science education for a number of decades (e.g.
Fensham 1992; Niaz 2008). It incorporates four essential
features: elicitation of prior knowledge, creation of cog-
nitive dissonance, application of new knowledge, and
reflection on learning (e.g. Baviskar et al. 2009). Eliciting
prior knowledge is first step in this sequence, and has been
well documented in the literature. Prior knowledge may not
be in accord with the scientific view and has been referred
to in a number of ways in the literature, e.g. ‘alternative
frameworks or conceptions’, ‘children science’, ‘alterna-
tive science’, or ‘misconception’ (e.g. Çalık and Ayas
2005; Fensham et al. 1994; Gökdere and Çalık 2010).
Students’ alternative conceptions have been recorded for
most topics within school science e.g. heat and temperature
(e.g. Frederik et al. 1999; Havu-Nuutinen 2007), force and
motion (e.g. Rowlands et al. 2007; Özsevgeç 2006), energy
(e.g. Ametller and Pinto 2002; Hapkiewicz 1992; Hırça
et al. 2008), mechanics (Clement 1987; Oliva 2003),
electricity and magnetism (e.g. Choi and Chang 2004;
Demirci and Çirkinoğlu 2004), sound and sound propaga-
tion (e.g. Eshach and Schwartz 2006; Hrepic 1998; Merino
1998), light/light source (e.g. Çepni 2009), liquid pressure
(Sahin et al. 2009) and mass and weight (Hapkiewicz 1992;
Moore and Harrison 2004).
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The focus of this research is sound propagation and
although children experience sound perpetually in the
daily lives and as such as a topic it has significant rele-
vance, in learning the science of sound many alternative
conceptions can be developed. In fact, several studies
have focused on students’ alternative conceptions in this
area (e.g. Beaty 2001; Eshach and Schwartz 2006; Hrepic
1998; Lautrey and Mazens 2004; Menchen and Thompson
2004; Merino 1998; Periago et al. 2009), their mental
models (e.g. Coombs 2007; Hrepic 2002, 2004; Hrepic
et al. 2002; Lautrey and Mazens 2004), analysis of text-
books (Chambliss 2001), a curriculum design framework
for science education based on the history of science
(McColl 2003), growth within Vygotsky’s zone of prox-
imal development (Jones et al. 1998), and student rea-
soning (Lautrey and Mazens 2004; Mazens and Lautrey
2003; Wittmann et al. 2003). The role of the science
teacher is to identify these alternative conceptions and
where possible move the students towards an under-
standing of the scientific view.
There are a number of pedagogical tools that teachers
can use to help achieve this. These include the use of
analogies, computed based learning, conceptual change
texts, and so on. Within the topic of sound various authors
have used different approach to achieve conceptual change
in the topic of sound, for example, the learning cycle
(Barman et al. 1996), problem based learning and know-
want-learn (KWL) (Yurd and Olgun 2008), computer-
based learning (Salgut 2007), hands-on activities (Mueller
et al. 2004), worksheets based on 5E model (Sağlam 2006).
All of these studies reported that the use of conceptual
change methods was more effective in remedying the stu-
dents’ alternative conceptions than traditional approaches.
However, none of the studies has focused on whether the
teaching intervention helped students to retain their new
conceptions in the long-term, as none of them included a
delayed post test. The present study addresses this issue by
examining the longer term retention of conceptual change.
Furthermore, the study employs a quasi-experimental
design to compare the effectiveness of different pedagogies
e.g. analogies and conceptual change texts, used separately
and in combination as recommended by Çalık et al. (2009).
The following section provides a brief review of the liter-
ature that supports this study.
Literature Framework
Scott et al. (1992) have identified two main groupings of
strategies aimed at promoting conceptual change and a
better understanding of science. One grouping is based
upon cognitive conflict and the resolution of conflicting
perspectives. The second grouping is of strategies which
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build on learners’ existing ideas and extend them. Duit
(1994) has referred to these groupings as, respectively
representing discontinuous and continuous pathways
towards conceptual change. The section that follows will
examine different pedagogical techniques from these two
categories that were employed in this study.
Analogy and Computer Animation
In order to achieve conceptual change in science students
are often required to compare ‘new scientific knowledge’
with the alternative conception they already hold. With
analogies, students make connections between abstract
scientific concepts and familiar concrete experiences or
objects. Coll et al. (2005) suggest that analogies work
because students map the shared attributes of the analogue
to the target domain (Duit 1991). Using analogies is now
ubiquitous in the science classroom (e.g. Brown 1993;
Dagher 1995), and avoids students perceiving that their
own ideas are undervalued (Chiu and Lin 2002; Taylor and
Coll 1997) as there is no direct cognitive conflict involved
(Clement 1983; Glynn 1989). There are some significant
advantages in using analogies, e.g. increasing in students’
enthusiasms, making the unfamiliar familiar, making
abstract concepts concrete; taking into account students’
pre-existing knowledge, however, analogies may have
disadvantages if they are used without appropriate plan-
ning. Therefore, analogies should be used with caution and
viewed as a ‘double-edged sword’ (e.g. Harrison and Coll
2007).
Computer animations can also be used to help students
visualize abstract concepts or sub-microscopic phenomena
(Russell et al. 1997), because animations help students to
imagine how complex/abstract dynamic processes take
place at the sub-microscopic level (e.g. Sanger and
Greenbowe 1997). When an animation is played, students
can monitor the representations of several dynamic physi-
cal processes (Burke et al. 1998). As with analogies,
animations help make abstract concepts or phenomena
‘concrete’, improve students’ creative thinking, and
enhance students’ enthusiasms and engagement with the
learning of science (e.g. Çalık et al. 2010b; Özsevgeç 2010;
Tasker and Dalton 2006). The most significant difference
between an analogy and a computer animation is that the
animation is created digitally on a computer. In other
words, analogies may be converted into computer anima-
tions using a computer and generating motion. The authors
here purpose the use of analogies and animations (1) to
make abstract concepts or phenomena ‘concrete’, (2) to
create an interactive learning environment, (3) to foster
individual learning, (4) to boost engagement with the
learning of science.
J Sci Educ Technol (2011) 20:729–742
Conceptual Change Texts
Conceptual change texts offer more cost- and time-
effective strategies by incorporating common alternative
conceptions and comparing these with scientific evidence
to produce cognitive conflict. In this way conceptual
change texts aim to move the learner towards the consen-
sual scientific view (e.g. Hynd 2001). Several studies have
reported that conceptual change texts are efficient in
achieving conceptual change (e.g. Dole 2000; Murphy
2001). Other researchers suggest that conceptual change
texts should be used in conjunction with other strategies
e.g. group learning situations (e.g. Guzzetti et al. 1997) or
whole-class discussions (Guzzetti et al. 1997) to produce
better student understandings. The authors here propose
that the use of conceptual change texts is potentially
appealing because of its economy and ease of use. Also,
conceptual change texts not only consist of concise sum-
maries that present and compare alternative and scientific
conceptualizations, but are also time-efficient when used
within a crowded curriculum (Palmer 2003).
The Aim of This Study
The aim of this study is to compare different conceptual
change methods with each other and with current teaching
methods within the ‘sound propagation’ topic of a ‘light
and sound’ unit. The following four research questions
guide this study:
1. At which level does a conceptual change text influence
students’ conceptual change of ‘sound propagation’
concepts?
2. At which level does analogy/computer animation
influence students’ conceptual change of ‘sound prop-
agation’ concepts?
3. Is there any significant difference between the use
of conceptual change methods separately or in
combination?
4. Do conceptual change methods enhance students’
retention of their newly developed conceptions?
Methodology
The Context of the Study
The Turkish education system involves an 8-year basic
education cycle catering for the 6–14 year-old age group. It
is compulsory and free in public schools. This system aims
to provide children with basic knowledge and improve
731
their physical, mental and moral development in accor-
dance with national objectives. At this level, students are
introduced with several courses: Knowledge of life, Turkish
language, Visual arts, Social science, Science and tech-
nology, Physical education, Culture of Religion and Ethics
and so forth. In grade 4 they begin a Science and Tech-
nology Course taught by elementary school teachers. In
grade 5, the students undertake the following topics within
the ‘Light and Sound’ unit: ‘Sound cannot travel through
space’, ‘Sound propagates at different mediums or mat-
ters’, ‘Can sound propagation be prevented?’ and ‘Record
voice and listen’.
Participants
Within a non-equivalent pretest–posttest control group
design (Robson 1998), the study was conducted with 80
grade 5 students (aged 11–12 year old) drawn from four
cohort classes in an elementary school on the north coast of
Black Sea Region in Turkey. The students under investi-
gation had similar educational and socio-economic back-
grounds. Since all elementary school teachers were keen on
participating in the study, the three experimental groups,
each comprising 20 students (one with a conceptual change
text, one with analogies and their converted computer
animations and one with a combination of conceptual
change text, analogies and animations) and a control group
(20 students) were randomly assigned to them. All of the
teachers had similar educational backgrounds and teaching
experience. The researchers introduced the intervention
materials to the teachers in the experimental groups and
illustrated their practical applications 1 week before the
teaching intervention. Furthermore, one of the researchers
participated in each intervention and observed how the
teachers carried them out.
Data Collection
A questionnaire with 10 two-tier questions (see
‘‘Appendix 1’’) was used in the study to identify stu-
dents’ conceptions of ‘sound propagation’. The instru-
ment was developed based on related literature and
students’ reported conceptions. For example, interview
questions used by Eshach and Schwartz (2006) were
changed into two-tier questions. To confirm content
validity, a science educator and a physics educator
examined the questionnaire and confirmed its appropri-
ateness in relation to student level, readability and
understandability. Further, the questionnaire was pilot-
tested with twenty-six grade 6 students taught the same
topic in the previous year. The alpha reliability
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Table 1 Characteristics of the questionnaire
Objective(s)
To compare sound propagation at phase
of solid with that of gases
To compare sound propagation at phase
of liquid with that of gases
To compare sound propagation at phase
of gases with that of space (vacuum)
medium
To compare sound propagation at phase
of solid with that of liquid
To investigate whether sound can travel
through vacuum/space
To comprehend where sound propagation
occurs rapidly (solid–liquid-gases-
vacuum/space)
imported into SPSS 13.0. Results of the pre-, post- and
Number of item
delayed post-test tests were compared using a Repeated
Measures Design and One-Way ANOVA. Repeated
Item 1 and Item 6 measures designs allow researchers to monitor how the
students’ behaviours or conceptions change over time in
Item 2 and Item 7 the much shorter-term case of the teaching intervention.
In this Repeated Measures Design, the independent vari-
Item 3
able is the teaching intervention, and the measurement of
the dependent variable as pre-, post- and delayed post-test
Item 9 scores—acting as repeated measures—is the dependent
variable. Furthermore, as a Repeated Measure Design
Item 4 and Item 8 may not test the effect of each teaching intervention on
the students’ conceptions in pre-, post- and delayed post-
Item 5 and Item 10 tests. At that point a one-way ANOVA was employed to
test for differences among pre-, post- and delayed post-
test scores within each experimental group and the control
group.

coefficient (KR20) for the pilot study was 0.75, whilst

that for the main study was 0.76. The instrument was
administered as a pre-test a week before the intervention,
and the same test was re-administered as a post-test
immediately after the intervention. Also, the same test
was employed as a delayed post-test 3 weeks after
intervention (see Table 1 for characteristics of the ques-
tionnaire). Since official language in each schooling stage
in Turkey is Turkish, the instrument and teaching design
were administered in Turkish. Then, they were translated
into English by the first two researchers of the current
study who are bilingual. Later, a native English speaker
and science educator who are also third author of the
current study examined them for grammar and clarity.
Data Analysis
Teaching Design
Each teaching session lasted a two class period (80 min)
(see Appendixes 1, 2, 3, 4 and Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5). The
teaching design for each group is outlined in Table 2.
Even though some analogical teaching strategies such as
bridging analogy (Brown and Clement 1989), teaching with
analogies (Glynn 1989), General Model of Analogy
Teaching (Zeitoun 1984) and FAR Guide (Treagust et al.
1998) have generally been used in science education liter-
ature, we preferred the FAR Guide to improve the related
analogies due to the following reasons. Firstly, the FAR
Guide directly enables students to map elements of the
source and target analogues (see Appendix 4 and Table 2).
For example, the following question was planned to

Before grading the student responses, two of the authors,

who are bilingual, examined draft data superficially and
thematically and created the following criteria: Correct
Choice with Sound Understanding (CSU) (8 points), No
Choice with Sound Understanding (NSU) (7 points),
Incorrect Choice with Sound Understanding (ISU) (6
points), Correct Choice with Alternative Conception
(CAC) (5 points), Correct Choice (CC) (4 points), No
Choice with Alternative Conception (NAC) (3 points),
Incorrect Choice with Alternative Conception (IAC) (2
points), Incorrect Choice (IC) (1 point) and No response
or Irrelevant Responses (NR) (zero point). Then, two of
the authors labelled the student responses separately.
Inter-rater consistency was very high, approximately 90%,
for most items. All disagreements were resolved by
negotiation. Finally, each student score was computed and Fig. 1 Cargo animation for Group A

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Fig. 2 Cargo animation for Group B
Fig. 3 Cargo animation for Group C
Fig. 4 Cargo animation for case of ‘No Student’
733
Fig. 5 A comparison animation of all cases
stimulate this mapping i.e. ‘Now please compare each case
with each other by taking into account ‘sound propagation’
concept’. Secondly, the FAR Guide not only helps the
teachers consider less operations or steps during the lesson
but also enhances the likelihood that teachers will recognize
and relinquish unsuccessful analogies (Treagust et al.
1998).
Results
From the pre-test scores, a minority of the students’
responses for all items, except for item 4 (60%) and item
8 (25%) in E3, in both the experimental and control
groups fell into CSU category whilst almost none of them
was considered NSU or ISU. Also, a larger proportion of
the students’ responses to the pre-test for the remaining
items were in the CAC or IAC or CC category in regard
to type of group. In the post-test, percentages of the
students’ responses categorized under CSU were virtually
the same for the CG and E1 groups for item 2 (10%),
item 6 (15%), item 7 (20% for the CG and 15% for the
E1), item 8 (20%), item 9 (20%) and item 10 (20% for
the CG and 25% for the E1) whilst most of the students’
responses in the experimental groups fell into this cate-
gory for item 1 (60% for the E1, 85% for the E2, and
95% for the E3), item 3 (75% for the E1, 90% for the
E2, and 70% for the E3) and item 5 (60% for the
E1, 85% for the E2 and the E3). Moreover, a larger
proportion of the students’ responses in the E2 and E3
groups were classified under CSU after the teaching
intervention. In the delayed post-test, majority of the
students’ responses in the E2 and E3 groups were cate-
gorized as CSU. Interestingly, there was an increase in
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Table 2 An outline of the teaching design in each group

Type of group Teacher’s role Students’ role

Control group The teacher asked some curious questions, i.e. how does The students answered these questions using their pre-
sound propagate? Is there any medium where sound existing knowledge
propagation does not take place? to activate the students’ The students carried out hands-on activities such as hitting
pre-existing knowledge two rocks with each other in air medium and in water
Teacher got the students to engage in hands-on activities medium and then listening their sounds, hitting their
such as hitting two rocks with each other in air and in hands to the table and listening its sound, and using
water and then listening their sounds, hitting their hands stethoscope to listen sounds of their hearts. They
to the table and listening its sound, and using stethoscope explained what they observed as a whole-class discussion
to listen sounds of their hearts They took notes scientific explanations given by the teacher
After the students articulated their observations, the teacher
actively presented scientific explanations and required the
students to take notes
Experiment 1 (with The teacher got the students to watch some clips from The students answered these questions using their pre-
conceptual change Starwars film where related heroes can hear sounds of existing knowledge
text) explosions, collisions, space shuttle’s engine at space. The students read conceptual change text (see Appendix 2)
Then, the teacher asked the students about their pre- carefully through 10 min
existing ideas using prompt questions ‘where does sound
propagate rapidly (solid–liquid-gases-vacuum/space)? The teacher and the students interactively discussed all
Can sound travel through space (vacuum)? alternative conceptions as a whole-class discussion
The teacher handed conceptual change text out (see Some of the students attempted to persuade their peers to
Appendix 2) and gave 10 min to read it change their alternative conceptions towards scientific
one
The teacher and the students interactively discussed all
alternative conceptions as a whole-class discussion The students transferred their newly structured knowledge
to different questions
The teacher persuaded the students to change their
alternative conceptions towards scientific one
The teacher asked the students to transfer their newly
structured knowledge to different questions such as ‘how
do astronauts communicate with each other in space’,
‘When we act up at home, our neighbours generally bump
radiators to warn us. Could you explain this by means of
sound propagation?’
Experiment 2 (with The teacher asked the students about their pre-existing ideas The students answered these questions using their pre-
analogy and using prompt questions ‘Does a man learn train’s moving existing knowledge
animation) without seeing it? Please explain your reason’, ‘What The students conducted cargo analogy activity (see
does idiom ‘Many hands make light works’ mean?’ Appendix 3) and examined animations converted from
The teacher handed out worksheet incorporating in the cargo analogy to capture ‘sound propagation’ in cases
directions of cargo analogy activity (see Appendix 3) and of solid, liquid, gases and vacuum (space) (see Figs. 1, 2,
asked them to conduct it by tracking the given directions 3, 4, 5)
The teachers allowed the students to examine animations The teacher and the students interactively discussed all
converted from the cargo analogy activity (see Figs. 1, 2, generated knowledge domains as a whole-class discussion
3, 4, 5) The students watched some clips from Starwars film and
In this process, the teacher sought to clarify parts of the addressed what was wrong in the film
analogy students did not understand, but refrained from The students transferred their newly structured knowledge
giving any clues to the answers to different questions
The teacher and the students interactively discussed all
generated knowledge domains as a whole-class discussion
The teacher got the students to watch some clips from
Starwars where related heroes can hear sounds of
explosions, collisions, space shuttle’s engine at space.
Then, the teacher created an interactive discussion
environment on what was wrong in Starwars film
The teacher confirmed/refuted students’ generated
knowledge domain and presented scientific explanation
The teacher argued where analogy broke down by help of
analogical mapping (shared and unshared domains
between analogue and target) (see Appendix 4)
The teacher asked the students to transfer their newly
structured knowledge to different questions such as ‘how
do astronauts communicate with each other in space’,
‘When we act up at home, our neighbours generally bump
radiators to warn us. Could you explain this by means of
sound propagation?

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Table 2 continued
Type of group Teacher’s role Students’ role

Experiment 3 (with a The teacher asked the students about their pre-existing ideas The students answered these questions using their pre-
combination of using prompt questions ‘Does a man learn train’s moving existing knowledge
conceptual change without seeing it? Please explain your reason’, ‘What The students conducted cargo analogy activity (See
text, analogy and does idiom ‘Many hands make light works’ mean?’ Appendix 3) and examined animations converted from
animations) The teacher handed out worksheet incorporating in the cargo analogy to capture ‘sound propagation’ in cases
directions of cargo analogy activity and asked them of solid, liquid, gases and vacuum (space) (see Figs. 1, 2,
to conduct it by tracking the given directions 3, 4, 5)
(See Appendix 3) The teacher and the students interactively discussed all
The teachers allowed the students to examine animations generated knowledge domains as a whole-class discussion
converted from the foregoing analogy (see Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, The students watched some clips from Starwars film and
5). In this process, the teacher sought to clarify parts of addressed what was wrong in the film
the analogy students did not understand, but refrained
from giving any clues to the answers The students read conceptual change text carefully through
10 min
The teacher and the students interactively discussed all
generated knowledge domains as a whole-class discussion The teacher and the students interactively discussed all
alternative conceptions as a whole-class discussion
The teacher got the students to watch some clips from
Starwars film where related heroes can hear sounds of Some of the students attempted to persuade their peers to
explosions, collisions, space shuttle’s engine at space. change their alternative conceptions towards scientific
Then, the teacher created an interactive discussion one
environment on what was wrong in Starwars film The students transferred their newly structured knowledge
The teacher confirmed/disconfirmed students’ generated to different questions
knowledge domain and presented scientific explanation
The teacher argued where analogy broke down by help of
analogical mapping (shared and unshared domains
between analogue and target) (see Appendix 4)
Then, the teacher asked the students some questions ‘where
does sound propagate rapidly (solid–liquid-gases-
vacuum/space)? Can sound travel through space
(vacuum)?
The teacher handed conceptual change text out and gave
10 min to read it
The teacher and the students interactively discussed all
alternative conceptions as a whole-class discussion
The teacher persuaded the students to change their
alternative conceptions towards scientific one
The teacher asked the students to transfer their newly
structured knowledge to different questions such as ‘how
do astronauts communicate with each other in space’,
‘When we act up at home, our neighbours generally bump
radiators to warn us. Could you explain this by means of
sound propagation?

the students’ labelled responses as CSU over time for
item 1 (30%), item 2 (15%), item 4 (25%), and item 5
(40%) in CG, and for item 2 (20%), item 4 (50%) and
item 5 (65%) in E1, and item 3 (90%) and item 4 (95%)
in E3 whilst there was as expected a decrease for rest of
the items.
As indicated by Table 3, there were significant differ-
ences amongst pre-, post- and delayed post-test scores
(p \ 0.05) and amongst groups and factor (p \ 0.05).
As can be seen from Table 4, there were significant
difference between CG and E2 (p \ 0.05), and between
CG and E3 (p \ 0.05) in favour of E2 and E3 whilst there
was no statistical difference between CG and E1
(p [ 0.05).
Results of one-way ANOVA showed significant dif-
ferences amongst pre-, post- and delayed post-test for CG
(Sum of Squares: 2166,433; df: 2; Mean Square:
1083,217; F: 4,309; p \ 0.05), E1 (Sum of Squares:
7147,233; df: 2; Mean Square: 3573,617; F: 25,649;
p \ 0.05), E2 (Sum of Squares: 14764,233; df: 2; Mean
Square: 7382,117; F: 72,467; p \ 0.05) and E3 (Sum
of Squares: 19182,033; df: 2; Mean Square: 9591,017;
F: 90,949; p \ 0.05).
As indicated in Table 5, there is a statistically significant
difference between the pre-test and post-test in each group,
and between the pre-test and delayed post-test scores
(p \ 0.05) in each experimental group in favour of the
post-test and delayed post-test scores. However, there are

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Table 3 Results of repeated

Effect Value F Sig.
measure design
Factor (pre-, post- and delayed post-tests) Pillai’s Traca .844 203,329a .000
Wilks’ Lambda .156 203,329a .000
Hotelling’s Trace 5,422 203,329a .000
Roy’s Largest Root 5,422 203,329a .000
Factor (pre-, post- and delayed post-tests) * groups Pillai’s Traca .493 8,283 .000
a a
Exact statistic Wilks’ Lambda .547 8,803 .000
b
The statistic is an upper Hotelling’s Trace .756 9,319 .000
bound on F that yields a lower Roy’s Largest Root .642 16,276b .000
bound on the significance level

Table 4 Results of multiple comparisons (post-hoc tests) Table 5 Results of multiple comparisons for CG, E1, E2, and E3
(I) Group (J) Groups Mean Difference (I-J) Std. error Sig. Group (I) Tests (J) Tests Mean Std. Sig.
difference error
CG E1 -7,2000 3,24251 .127 (I-J)
E2 -21,7833 3,24251 .000
CG Pre-Test Post-Test -14,450* 5,013 .015
E3 -27,0333 3,24251 .000
Delayed Test -9,650 5,013 .141
E1 CG 7,2000 3,24251 .127
Post-Test Pre-Test 14,450* 5,013 .015
E2 -14,5833 3,24251 .000
Delayed Test 4,800 5,013 .607
E3 -19,8333 3,24251 .000
Delayed Test Pre-Test 9,650 5,013 .141
E2 CG 21,7833 3,24251 .000
Post-Test -4,800 5,013 .607
E1 14,5833 3,24251 .000
E1 Pre-Test Post-Test -23,350* 3,732 .000
E3 -5,2500 3,24251 .374
Delayed Test -22,950* 3,732 .000
E3 CG 27,0333 3,24251 .000
Post-Test Pre-Test 23,350* 3,732 .000
E1 19,8333 3,24251 .000
Delayed Test .400 3,732 .994
E2 5,2500 3,24251 .374
Delayed Test Pre-Test 22,950* 3,732 .000
Post-Test -.400 3,732 .994
E2 Pre-Test Post-Test -35,850* 3,191 .000
no statistically significant differences between the post-test Delayed Test -29,900* 3,191 .000
and delayed post-test scores (p [ 0.05) for all groups and Post-Test Pre-Test 35,850* 3,191 .000
between the pre-test and delayed post-test scores in the Delayed Test 5,950 3,191 .158
control group (p [ 0.05). Delayed Test Pre-Test 29,900* 3,191 .000
Post-Test -5,950 3,191 .158
E3 Pre-Test Post-Test -39,450* 3,247 .000
Discussion Delayed Test -36,200* 3,247 .000
Post-Test Pre-Test 39,450* 3,247 .000
After a teaching intervention, it is expected that stu- Delayed Test 3,250 3,247 .579
dents will progress in terms of their conceptual under- Delayed Test Pre-Test 36,200* 3,247 .000
standing of the investigated concepts (Demircioğlu Post-Test -3,250 3,247 .579
et al. 2009; Taber 2001; Teichert and Stacy 2002). In * The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level
the present study the post-test scores indicated that all
groups improved their conceptual understanding. How- post-test scores (see Table 5). Despite the new Turkish
ever, it appeared that for the control group instruction science curricula being based on constructivism, tea-
only temporarily helped the students to improve their cher-centred teaching (didactic teaching) is still very
conceptual understanding and students returned their common (Çalık 2011; Kaya 2008; Widodo et al. 2002)
initial conceptions over time (Taber 2001; Teichert and and many teachers do not implement the new curricula
Stacy 2002). That is, for the control group there was appropriately (Aubusson et al. 1998; Widodo et al.
no significant difference between pre-test and delayed 2002).

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As seen in Table 4, there was no significant difference
between the control group and the experimental group
exposed to a conceptual change text. This indicates that
the conceptual change text was less effective in remedi-
ating alternative conceptions or enhancing conceptual
understanding than were analogies/animations or a com-
bination of analogy, animations and the conceptual
change text. This claim is inconsistent with related liter-
ature which claims that the conceptual change texts are
efficient in moving students’ alternative conceptions
towards scientific ones (e.g. Chambers and Andre 1997;
Çalık et al. 2007). This may have resulted from the
manner and care with which students read the text. Stu-
dents may also find these texts boring and which would
impede their effectiveness (Dole 2000; Huddle et al.
2000). Furthermore, conceptual change texts may not be
as effective as first-hand experience or engagement
(Chambers and Andre 1997).
Analogies and animations appeared to allow the
students to construct better scientific explanations than
did the conceptual change text. Even though the con-
ceptual change text challenged the students’ alternative
conceptions directly, it was not as effective as analogies
and animations at improving their conceptual under-
standing (see Table 4). This may be because analogies
and animations make the unfamiliar familiar. The fact
that the students see familiar features may have
increased their enthusiasms and eliminated their preju-
dices (e.g. Harrison and Coll 2007; Huddle et al. 2000;
Tasker and Dalton 2006). Furthermore, this may be
because analogies and animations provide more realistic
experiences than the conceptual change (Chambers and
Andre 1997).
As seen in Table 4, a combination of different con-
ceptual change methods was the most effective in pro-
ducing conceptual change. This may be because students
have multiple learning styles (e.g. Brinda 2004; Harvey
and Hodges 1999). Since there was no statistically sig-
nificant difference between the post- and delayed post-test
scores in the experimental groups, it seems likely that
each conceptual change method and their combination
resulted in conceptual change stored in the students’
long term memory (e.g. Çalık et al. 2010a; Tsai 1999).
Moreover, although there was a decrease in percentages
of some of the students’ conceptual understanding as
might be expected, there were also some increases in their
conceptual understanding in delayed post-test. This means
that even after the teaching intervention, construction and
reconstruction of knowledge may have continued. Such
737
cases appeared in the CG and E1 but rarely in E3. This
suggests that these teaching interventions created a dis-
equilibrium environment for students and helped them to
re-examine their knowledge to reach equilibrium, possibly
stemming from the teaching of the related topics ‘Can
sound propagation be prevented?’ and ‘Record voice’
after the teaching intervention. This may also come from
structure of the teaching intervention which is not a
unique element for students’ conceptual understanding.
That is, this learning process is very intricate and contains
many factors such as environment, family, motivation,
culture, etc. Therefore, we have little chance to bring
about conceptual change unless a collaborative environ-
ment is generated.
Conclusions and Implications for Practice
The study demonstrated that: (1) all groups showed some
progress in their conceptual understanding after the
teaching (2) instruction with the control group only tem-
porarily helped the students to improve their conceptual
understanding and students returned their initial concep-
tions over time (3) using a conceptual change text was
less effective in remediating alternative conceptions and
enhancing conceptual understanding than was using anal-
ogies/animations or a combination of analogy, animations
and conceptual change text (4) a combination of different
conceptual change methods was the most effective in
eliminating the students’ alternative conceptions (5) each
conceptual change method and the combination used here
resulted in conceptual change being stored in the students’
long term memory.
Even though primary teacher training programs
incorporate some courses on science and technology,
i.e. ‘General Biology-Chemistry-Physics’, ‘Science and
Technology Laboratory I–II’, ‘Science and Technology
Teaching I–II’, all subject matter knowledge is concisely
introduced because of its multidisciplinary feature. Con-
sequently, science and technology courses in grade 4 and
5 should be taught by science teachers. In fact, English
teachers, visual arts teachers and physical education
teachers teach their own courses in grades 4 and 5, but
this is not the case with Science and Technology.
Meanwhile, since a combination of different conceptual
change methods appeared to result in better student
achievement, this claim should be tested in other disci-
plines with other conceptual change methods, and age
groups.
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Appendix 1: Some Examples of Items

in the Questionnaire

Item 1. A man is drilling a hole in the middle of a big empty park. Assume you are standing
far enough away so that you can barely hear the drilling noise. If you put your ear to the
ground, will you hear the drilling
a) better b) worse c) the same d) never
Because…………………………………………………………………………………
Item 2. A boat’s motor can be in or out of the water. Assume that you are in the sea, far
from a boat and that the boat’s motor is in the water. Assume you can hardly hear it when
your head is out of the water. Now, assume that you put your head inside the water (that is,
your ears are under water). Would you be able to hear the boat
a) better b) worse c) the same d) never
Because…………………………………………………………………………………
Item 3. Assume that there is an explosion in sun. How would you be able to hear the
explosion in sun from the world?
a) better b) worse c) the same d) never
Because…………………………………………………………………………………
Item 4. A ringing alarm clock is suspended in the middle of a vacuum bell
as seen from left figure in hand. The clock is not touching the bell’s walls.
Would we still hear the ringing clock if we take the air out of the vacuum
bell?
a) better b) worse c) the same d) never
Because…………………………………………………………………………………
Item 5. Which of the following medium does sound propagate rapidly?
a) Sea water b) Steel oven c) Air d) Space
Because…………………………………………………………………………………………

Appendix 2: Conceptual Change Text

Where does sound propagate rapidly (solid-liquid-gases-

vacuum/space)?

Can sound travel through space (vacuum)?

Mehmet enrolled in Söğütlü Primary School did his
assignments carefully at weekend and looked over pages of
scientific news at a well-known newspaper. During this
reading, he noticed interesting news of dolphins which
propagates sound waves to identify place, distance and size
of their hunts. Further, they can communicate with each
other using sound waves. It is the first time that Mehmet have
just perceived sound propagation in liquid medium since he
assumed that sound could not travel through liquid medium.
Then, he looked for an interesting film in TV Schedule in the
newspaper and decided to watch ‘Starwars’ because Mehmet
likes space films. When Mehmet was watching the Starwars
film, he was impacted from sounds of explosions, collisions,
fighting in space. When Mehmet went to his bed, he was
suddenly confused with a question ‘since there is no particle
in space, how did astronauts hear sounds of explosions,
collisions, space shuttle’s engine at space’. When he was
falling into sleep, he heart sounds of slippers but everybody
was sleeping and all lamps had turned off. He tried to find
source of sound and acquired that this sound was coming
from upstairs neighbours. Even though Mehmet did not hear
their speaking very well, he was able to hear sounds of their
slippers. In the morning, as soon as Mehmet went to the
school, he shared these experiences with his teacher. His
teacher stated that sound cannot travel through space (vac-
uum) since there is no particle. In other words, sound cannot
propagate without particles, unfortunately, film directors
generally disregard these features to enhance enthusiasms of
audience. Also, the teacher pointed out that in the case of the
sounds of slippers, the heart sounds of slippers moving on
solid medium while he did not hear sounds of upstairs
neighbours talking into gases medium. This means that phase
of matter influences sound propagation. The more particles
are located side by side, the more sound propagation occurs

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rapidly. Similarly, sounds of dolphins illustrate how to
happen sound propagation in liquid medium. Finally, his
teacher implied that since distance between particles in
phases of matter is differ from each other, sound propagation
in solid medium is the best in all phases. Then, liquid medium
and gases medium are lined up consecutively. Because there
is no particle in space (vacuum) medium, no sound propa-
gation takes place in space (vacuum).
13) Please explain what happened the number of the
moved textbooks on two desks where there was no
student? Defend your response
14) Do you have any idea about what each case meet in
science? Defend your response
Appendix 4: Analogical Mapping of the Cargo Analogy
and Sound Propagation in Different Cases

Appendix 3: Cargo Analogy Activity Analogue Feature Comparison Target Feature

1) Please divide into three groups (Group A with 10 Moving textbooks hand by Compared Sound propagation
hand from one desk to with
students, Group B with 5 students and Group C with another one
2 students) to visualize the cargo analogy activity Slowly vibrations of the Compared Vibrations of solid
2) Locate two desks in mid of the classroom for each students in Group A with particles
student group—distance between desks should be the Student walking step by Compared Behaviours of liquid
same step in Group B with particles
3) Line up in order of side by side for each student Student walking step by Compared Behaviours of gases
group step faster than do with particles
4) Put twenty textbooks on one of the desks Group B
5) You should move them from one desk to the other No moving textbooks Compared Case of space or vacuum
hand by hand from one with where there is no
within 20 s when time commences. desk to another one particles transferring
6) In each group, the students move all textbooks hand where there is no student sound propagation
by hand The number of student in Compared Particles of solid matter
7) In Group A, during moving the textbooks, the students Group A with where they are located
should also vibrate slowly and record how many side by side
textbooks transferred from one desk to another? The number of student in Compared Particles of liquid matter
8) In Group B, during moving the textbooks, the students Group B with where the distance
between particles is
should walk step by step and record how many higher than that of solid
textbooks transferred from one desk to another? matter
9) In Group C, during moving the textbooks, the The number of student in Compared Particles of gases matter
students should walk step by step faster than do Group C with where the distance
Group B and record how many textbooks transferred between particles is the
highest value in phases of
from one desk to another? matter
10) Please locate again two desks where there is no One desk on the textbooks Compared Source of sound
student and record how many textbooks transferred with
from one desk to another? Empty desk Compared Receiver of sound
11) Please fill in the following chart in regard to the with
number of textbooks you moved Student number per Compared Particles number per
volume with volume (particle density).
That is, even though the
Case Second The number of number of particles in
textbooks you moved phases of matter is the
same, particle density
Group A 20 changes in regard to
Group B 20 phase of matter.
Group C 20 Student Does not Particles because we
compare cannot see them by naked
Two desks where there 20
to eyes
is no student
Moving textbooks hand by Does not Sound propagation because
hand from one desk to compare it is more complex than
12) Now please compare each case with each other by another one to the cargo analogy the
students played
taking into account ‘sound propagation’ concept

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