Wireless Networks

Components of a Communication System

• The receiver reprocessed the signal received from the channel by undoing the signal
modifications made at the transmitter and the channel. The task of the receiver is to extract
the message from the distorted and noisy signal at the channel output. The receiver may
consist of a demodulator, a decoder, a filter, and a de-emphasizer.
• The receiver output is fed to the output transducer, which converts the electrical signal to its
original form.
• Transmitters and receivers are carefully designed to overcome the distortion and noise. The
Goal of Physical layer Communication System is to transmit information accurately and
efficiently(power and spectrum).
• Analog and Digital Signals
• Messages are digital or analog.
– Digital messages are constructed with a finite number of symbols. For example, a
text file is a digital message constructed from 50 symbols, consists of 26 letters, 10
numbers, a space and several punctuation marks. Similarly, a Morse-coded
telegraph is a binary message, implying only two symbols –mark and space.

• -Analog messages are characterized by data whose values vary over a continuous range.
For example, a speech waveform has amplitudes that vary over a continuous range. A
picture is also an analog message.
 Introduction of Networks

• Any collection of devices/ computers connected with each

other by means of communication channels that help the
users to share resources and communicate with other users.

• There are two main types of networks i.e. wired network and
wireless network.
 Types of Networks
• Wired Networks
A network in which, computer devices attached with each
other with the help of wire. The wire is used as medium of
communication for transmitting data from one point of the
network to other point of the network.

• Wireless Networks
A network in which, computer devices communicates with
each other without any wire. The communication medium
between the computer devices is wireless. When a computer
device wants to communicate with another device, the
destination device must lays within the radio range of each
other.
 Wireless Networks
• A wireless LAN or WLAN is a wireless local area network that uses radio waves as its carrier. The
last link with the users is wireless, to give a network connection to all users in a building or
campus. The backbone network usually uses cables
Need: Access computing and communication services, on the move

• PAN: a personal area network is a computer network (CN)

used for communication among computer devices (including telephones and personal digital
assistants) close to one person
Technologies: USB (wired) and Bluetooth (wireless)

• LAN: a local area network is a CN covering a small geographic area, like a home, office, or
group of buildings
Technologies: Ethernet (wired) or Wi-Fi (Wireless Fidelity) (wireless)

MAN: Metropolitan Area Networks are large CNs usually spanning a city
Technologies: Ethernet (wired) or WiMAX (wireless)

• WAN: Wide Area Network is a CN that covers a broad area, e.g., cross metropolitan, regional,
or national boundaries
• Examples: Internet
• Wireless Technologies: EDGE(Enhanced Data rate for Global Evolution), GPRS, GSM.
 Wireless networks
• Access computing/communication services, on the move

• Cellular Networks
– traditional base station infrastructure systems

• Wireless LANs
– infrastructure as well as ad-hoc networks possible
– very flexible within the reception area
– low bandwidth compared to wired networks (1-10 Mbit/s)

• Ad hoc Networks
– useful when infrastructure not available, impractical, or expensive
– military applications, rescue, home networking

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 8

 Some mobile devices

Tablets
Palm-sized

Laptop computers Net–enabled mobile phones

 Limitations of the mobile environment
 Limitations of the Wireless Network
 limited communication bandwidth
 frequent disconnections
 heterogeneity of fragmented networks

 Limitations Imposed by Mobility

 route breakages
 lack of mobility awareness by system/applications

 Limitations of the Mobile Device

 short battery lifetime
 limited capacities
Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 10
 Wireless v/s Wired networks
• Regulations of frequencies
– Limited availability, coordination is required
– useful frequencies are almost all occupied
• Bandwidth and delays
– Low transmission rates
• few Kbits/s to some Mbit/s.
– Higher delays
• several hundred milliseconds
– Higher loss rates
• susceptible to interference, e.g., engines, lightning
• Always shared medium
– Lower security, simpler active attacking
– radio interface accessible for everyone
– Fake base stations can attract calls from mobile phones
– secure access mechanisms important
Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 11
• Wireless Personal Area Network (WPAN)
Personal area network is used for communication between
computer devices close to one person . Some of the personal
area networks are zigbee, Bluetooth, sensor networks.

• Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)

In local area network the users communicate with each other
in local coverage area i.e. building or a campus. WLANs are
the substitute of the conventional wired LANs. They are
implemented in mobile devices like laptop, PDAs, Mobile Cell
phones etc
• Wireless Wide Area Network (WWAN)
Wireless wide area network cover geographically larger area
than local area network. The wide area networks almost
consist of one or two local area networks. Examples of WWAN
are Satellite Systems, Paging Networks, 2G and 3G Mobile
Cellular.
The wireless LAN connects to a wired LAN

• There is a need of an access point that bridges wireless LAN traffic into the wired
LAN.
• The access point (AP) can also act as a repeater for wireless nodes, effectively
doubling the maximum possible distance between nodes.
Complete Wireless Networks

• The physical size of the network is determined by the maximum reliable

propagation range of the radio signals.
• Referred to as ad hoc networks
• Are self-organizing networks without any centralized control
• Suited for temporary situations such as meetings and conferences.
 Infrastructure vs. Adhoc Networks
infrastructure
network
AP: Access Point
AP

AP wired network
AP

ad-hoc network

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 16

Source: Schiller
 Difference Between Wired and
Wireless
Ethernet LAN Wireless LAN
B
A B C
A C

• If both A and C sense the channel to be idle at the same

time, they send at the same time.
• Collision can be detected at sender in Ethernet.
• Half-duplex radios in wireless cannot detect collision at
sender.

Sridhar Iyer IIT Bombay 17

 Ad-Hoc Networks

• An ad-Hoc Network is a combination of more than two

devices equipped with wireless communications and
capabilities of networking. It allows anywhere, anytime
computing. This setup is adaptive and self-organizing. It
supports both peer-to-peer communication and peer-to-
remote communication.
 Ad-Hoc Networks

• An Ad hoc network can be divided into homogeneous

network (all devices are identical, have same features and
capabilities) and heterogeneous network (neither devices are
identical nor have same capabilities) on the basis of nodes. As
if all mobiles or computers like nodes are connected, then
network is homogenous otherwise heterogeneous.
 Ad-Hoc Networks
• In adhoc networks, node A communicates with B in the
channel. This makes a single-hop network means there is only
direct communication between server and client no other
node is there. One other type of network is there i.e multi-
hop network which is used when channel is not available. One
intermediate node should be there which acts as router (like
node C in figure ), for routing the packets.
 Types of Wireless Networks

• Fixed infrastructure-based Networks:- Cellular Networks

• Infrastructure-less Networks:- Adhoc Networks

 Fixed Infrastructure-Based Networks
• Single hop wireless connectivity to the wired world
– Space divided into cells
– A base station is responsible to communicate with hosts in
its cell
– Mobile hosts can change cells while communicating
– Hand-off occurs when a mobile host starts communicating
via a new base station
 Fixed Infrastructure-Based Networks

• Multi-Hop Wireless
- May need to traverse multiple links to reach destination
- Mobility causes route changes
 Fixed Infrastructure-Based Networks
• This network is fixed infrastructure based. Wiring is there
between equipments. This network can be implemented on
areas where access points can be easily placed.

• Communication is done using fixed access points. Cellular

network is the example of this type of network. Centralized
routing is done mainly. High cost of maintenance is required.
 Infrastructure-less Networks

• All nodes are mobile and can be arranged in any manner

anytime. No dedicated access points, routers etc are needed.
It has good speed, convenient in deployment and has
relatively low cost. Distributed routing is used mainly.

• Due to mobility, frequency path breaks. Time synchronization

is difficult to achieve. It needs less maintenance then other.
Nodes may be heterogeneous or homogeneous.
 Different Types of Wireless Networks

Infrastructure-based Infrastructure-less
Single hop Base station connected No wired network; one
to larger wired network node coordinates the
(e.g., WiFi wireless transmissions of the
LAN, and cellular others (e.g., Bluetooth,
telephony networks) and ad hoc 802.11)
Multi-hop Base station exists, but No base station exists,
some nodes must relay and some nodes must
through other nodes relay through others
(e.g., wireless sensor (e.g., mobile ad hoc
networks, and wireless networks, vehicular ad
mesh networks hoc networks)
26
Typical office network
Comparisons between Cellular and Ad Hoc Wireless
Networks
Cellular Networks Ad Hoc Wireless Networks
Fixed infrastructure-based Infrastructure less
Guaranteed bandwidth (designed for Shared radio channel (more suitable for
voice traffic) best-effort data traffic)
Centralized routing Distributed routing
Fixed, pre-located cell sites and No base station, rapid deployment
base station
Seamless connectivity (low call drops Frequent path breaks due to mobility
during handoffs)
High cost and time of deployment Quick and cost-effective deployment
Static backbone network topology Highly dynamic network topologies

Easier to employ bandwidth Bandwidth reservation requires complex

reservation medium access control protocols 28
Comparisons between Cellular and Ad Hoc Wireless
Networks
Cellular Networks Ad Hoc Wireless Networks
Application domains include mainly Application domains include battlefields,
civilian and commercial sectors emergency search and rescue
operations, and collaborative computing
High cost of network maintenance Self-organization and maintenance
(backup power source, staffing, etc.) properties are built into the network
Relatively caring environment and Hostile environment (noise, losses)
stable connectivity and irregular connectivity
Major goals of routing and call Main aim of routing is to find paths with
admission are to maximize the call minimum overhead and also quick
acceptance ratio and minimize the call reconfiguration of broken paths
drop ratio
Detailed planning before base Ad hoc networks automatically
station changes formed

29
Problems for both Infrastructure and Ad hoc Mode

• Communication is only possible between nodes which are

directly in range of each other.

• If nodes move out of range of the access point (Infrastructure

Mode) OR nodes are not in direct range of each other (Ad Hoc
Mode) then communication is not possible.
 Applications of Ad Hoc Wireless Networks

 Military applications
• Adhoc wireless networks is useful in establishing communication in a
battle field.
 Collaborative and Distributed Computing
• A group of people in a conference can share data in ad hoc networks.
• Streaming of multimedia objects among the participating nodes.
 Emergency Operations
• Ad hoc wireless networks are useful in emergency operations such as
search and rescue, and crowd control.
• Telemedicine
• During accident in a rural area, MANET can be set up to provide video
conference assistance for medical treatments/operations
• Education
• In remote areas, MANET can provide a temporary Internet for children
and students
 Categories of Ad-Hoc Wireless Networks

• Ad-Hoc network can be categorized in to Static Ad-Hoc

Network (SANET) and Mobile Ad-Hoc Network (MANET)

• Static Ad-Hoc Networks:

In static Ad-Hoc networks the geographic location of the
nodes or the stations are fixed. There is no mobility in the
nodes of the networks, that’s why they are known as static
Ad-Hoc networks.
 Mobile Ad-Hoc Networks

1. A number of mobile wireless nodes

to form a network without any
support from any fixed access point.
2. All nodes can be communicated from
each other.
3. Source node will send message to
the destination node If they are
within the communication range.
4. If not, source node will send
message to the destination node via
the intermediate node (relay node).
5. Mobile Ad-Hoc network topology is
dynamic that can change rapidly
because the nodes move freely and
can organize themselves randomly.
 Types of Mobile Ad-Hoc Network

• 1. Vehicular Ad-Ho Networks VANET’s

• 2. Intelligent Vehicular Ad-Hoc Networks ( I VANET’s)
• 3. Internet Based Mobile Ad-Hoc Networks (iMANET’s)
 Architecture Perspective
Wireless Networks
• WAN – Wide Area Network
– Ranged up to 2500 eters, GSM, GPRS, …
• LAN – Local Area Network
– Ranged up to 100 meters, 802.11 , …
• PAN – Personal Area Network
– Low-power, short-range network
– Ranged up to 10 meters
– Bluetooth, IR, …

35
Personal Area Network Local Area Network Wide Area Network
1-20 Mbps 11-54 Mbps 9-144 Kbps

Three Wireless Internets

WAN Topology

37
 LAN Topology

CSC1720 – Introduction to
All copyrights reserved by C.C. Cheung 2003. 38
Internet
 PAN Topology

Wireless PAN module

C.C. Cheung 2003. 39

 Wavelength
• Frequency is directly related to wavelength, often represented by the Greek word
lambda . The wavelength is the distance in space required to complete a full cycle
of a frequency. The wavelength of a sound is the inverse of its frequency. The
formula is:
• wavelength = speed of sound/frequency wavelength and frequency of light are
closely related. The higher the frequency, the shorter the wavelength.
• Light moves with a speed c = 3 x 108 m/s.

• We denote wavelength by
• For example, radio station KUGN broadcasts at a frequency of 590 KHz.
What is the wavelength of the radio waves?
• wavelength
= c/frequency
= (3 x 108 m/s)/(590 x 103 Hz)
= (3 x 108)/(0.590 x 106) m
~ 5 x 102 m
= 500 m.
 Frequency
• The number of cycles per unit of time is called the frequency. For convenience,
frequency is most often measured in cycles per second (cps) or the interchangeable
Hertz (Hz) (60 cps = 60 Hz. 1000 Hz is often referred to as 1 kHz (kilohertz).
• The range of human hearing in the young is approximately 20 Hz to 20 kHz—the
higher number tends to decrease with age (as do many other things). It may be
quite normal for a 60-year-old to hear a maximum of 16,000 Hz.
• It is believed that many whales and dolphins can create and perceive sounds in the
175 kHz range. Bats use slightly lower frequencies for their echo-location system.

• We denote frequency by

• Frequency is measured in Hertz = Hz = 1/seconds.

 Bandwidth
• Bandwidth has several related meanings:
• Bandwidth (signal processing) or analog bandwidth, frequency bandwidth or radio
bandwidth: a measure of the width of a range of frequencies, ie. difference
between the upper and lower frequencies in a continuous set of frequencies,
measured in hertz which may sometimes refer to passband bandwidth.
• Bandwidth (computing), the rate of data transfer, bit rate or throughput, measured
in bits per second (bit/s)

•
• For analog signals, it is the difference between the highest and lowest frequency
components, measured in hertz (cycles per second). For example, a modem with a
bandwidth of 56 kilobits per second (Kbps) can transmit a maximum of about
56,000 bits of digital data in one second.

• Effective bandwidth = Message size / Total latency

• Total latency = Sender overhead + Time of flight + Transmission time + Receiver
overhead
Wireless Communication
 Why Wireless Communication?
• Freedom from wires
• – No cost of installing wires or rewiring
• – No bunches of wires running here and there
• – “Auto magical” instantaneous communications without physical connection
setup, e.g., Bluetooth,WiFi
• Global Coverage
• – Communications can reach where wiring is infeasible or costly, e.g., rural areas,
old buildings, battlefield, vehicles, outer space (through Communication Satellites)
• Stay Connected
• – Roaming allows flexibility to stay connected anywhere and any time
• – Rapidly growing market attests to public need for mobility and uninterrupted
access
•
• Flexibility
• – Services reach you wherever you go (Mobility).
• E.g, you don’t have to go to your lab to check your mail – Connect to multiple
devices simultaneously (no physical connection required)
• Increasing dependence on telecommunication services for business and personal
reasons consumers and businesses are willing to pay for it

• Basic Mantra: Stay connected – anywhere, anytime.

 What is Wireless Communication?

• Transmitting/receiving voice and data using electromagnetic waves in open

space The information from sender to receiver is carrier over a well-
defined frequency band (channel)

• Each channel has a fixed frequency bandwidth and Capacity (bit-rate)

• Different channels can be used to transmit information in parallel and

independently.
 Types of Wireless Communication

• Mobile
• Cellular Phones (GSM / cdma2000.1x)
• Portable
• IEEE 802.11b (WiFi)
• Fixed
• IEEE 802.16 (WirelessMAN)
 Typical Frequencies

• FM Radio ~ 80 MHz
• TV Broadcast ~ 200 MHz
• GSM Phones ~ 900 MHz – 18 GHZ
• GPS ~ 1.2 GHz
• Bluetooth ~ 2.4 GHz( License Free Band)
• WiFi ~ 2.4 GHz ( License Free Band)
Allocation of bands by TRAI(Telecom Regulatory Authority of India)
 Challenges
• Challenges(1)
• Efficient Hardware
• – Low power Transmitters, Receivers
• – Low Power Signal Processing Tools
• Efficient use of finite radio spectrum
• – Cellular frequency reuse, medium access control protocols,…having MIMO (Multiple Input
and Multiple output transmitter and receiver antennas)
• Integrated services
• – voice, data, multimedia over a single network
• – service differentiation, priorities, resource sharing,...
• Challenges (2)

• Network support for user mobility (mobile Scenarios) – location identification,

handover,...
• Maintaining quality of service over unreliable links
• Connectivity and coverage (internetworking)
• Cost efficiency

• Challenges (3)
• Fading
• Multipath
• Higher probability of data corruption – Hence, need for stronger channel codes
• Need for stronger Security mechanisms – privacy, authentication,…
 Types of Wireless Transmissions
• Radio wave Transmission
• Radio waves in general have long distance communication capabilities, easily penetrate
buildings. The frequency of radio waves can take values from 300 GHz to 3 kHz.
• Radio waves are widely used as envelope signals on radio communication and wavelength
channel to observe astronomical objects.
• – Problems:
• frequency-dependent
• relative low bandwidth for data communication
• tightly licensed by the governments

• Microwave Transmission
• Gives a high S/N ratio, relatively inexpensive
• microwaves are defined to have frequencies ranging from 300 GHz to only 300 MHz.
• Micro waves in general have short distance communication capabilities.
• Microwaves are also used in RADARs, astronomy, navigation and spectroscopy.
• – Problems:
• don’t pass through buildings well
• weather and frequency-dependent
• Infrared and Millimeter Waves Transmission
• – Widely used for short-range communication
• – Unable to pass through solid objects
• – Used for indoor wireless LANs, not for outdoors

• Lightwave Transmission
• – Unguided optical signal, such as laser
• – Connect two LANs in two buildings via laser mounted on their roof
• – Unidirectional, easy to install, don’t require license
• – Problems:
• unable to penetrate rain or thick fog
• laser beam can be easily diverted by turbulent air
 Applications I

• Vehicles
– transmission of news, road condition, weather, music via Digital Audio
Broadcasting (DAB)
– personal communication using GSM
– position via GPS
– local ad-hoc network with vehicles close-by to prevent accidents, guidance
system, redundancy
– vehicle data (e.g., from buses, high-speed trains) can be transmitted in advance
for maintenance
• Emergencies
– early transmission of patient data to the hospital, current status, first diagnosis
– replacement of a fixed infrastructure in case of earthquakes, hurricanes, fire,
crisis, war, ... etc
 Applications II

• Travelling salesmen
– direct access to customer files stored in a central location
– consistent databases for all agents
– mobile office
• Replacement of fixed networks
– remote sensors, e.g., weather, earth activities
– flexibility for trade shows
– LANs in historic buildings
• Entertainment, education, ...
– outdoor Internet access
– intelligent travel guide with up-to-date location dependent information
– ad-hoc networks for multi user games
 Location dependent services

• Location aware services

– what services, e.g., printer, fax, phone, server etc. exist in the local
environment
• Follow-on services
– automatic call-forwarding, transmission of the actual workspace to the current
location
• Information services
– „push“: e.g., current special offers in the supermarket
– „pull“: e.g., where is the Black Forrest Cherry Cake?
• Support services
– caches, intermediate results, state information etc. „follow“ the mobile device
through the fixed network
• Privacy
– who should gain knowledge about the location
Typical application: road traffic

UMTS, WLAN,
DAB, GSM,
TETRA, ...

Personal Travel Assistant,

DAB, PDA, laptop,
GSM, UMTS, WLAN,
Bluetooth, ...

1.4.1
 Mobile devices
Pager PDA Laptop
• receive only • simple graphical displays • fully functional
• tiny displays • character recognition • standard applications
• simple text • simplified WWW
messages

Sensors,
embedded
controllers

Mobile phones Palmtop

• voice, data • tiny keyboard
• simple text displays • simple versions
of standard applications

performance
 Wireless networks in comparison to fixed networks
• Higher loss-rates due to interference
– emissions of, e.g., engines, lightning
• Restrictive regulations of frequencies
– frequencies have to be coordinated, useful frequencies are almost all occupied
• Low transmission rates
– local some Mbit/s, regional currently, e.g., 9.6kbit/s with GSM
• Higher delays, higher jitter
– connection setup time with GSM in the second range, several hundred
milliseconds for other wireless systems
Delay: Is the amount of time data(signal) takes to reach the destination. Now a higher delay
generally means congestion of some sort of breaking of the communication link.

Jitter: Is the variation of delay time. This happens when a system is not in deterministic state
eg. Video Streaming suffers from jitter a lot because the size of data transferred is quite large
and hence no way of saying how long it might take to transfer.

• Lower security, simpler active attacking

– radio interface accessible for everyone, base station can be simulated, thus
attracting calls from mobile phones
• Always shared medium
– secure access mechanisms important
 Influence of mobile communication to the
layer model
Application layer – service location
– new applications, multimedia
– adaptive applications
– congestion and flow control
Transport layer
– quality of service
– addressing, routing,
Network layer device location
– hand-over
– authentication
Data link layer – media access
– multiplexing
– media access control
– encryption
Physical layer – modulation
– interference
– attenuation
– frequency
 Simplified Reference Model
• The base station consists of a radio transceiver (sender and receiver) and an
interworking unit connecting the wireless link with the fixed link. The
communication partner of the PDA, a conventional computer, is shown on the right-
hand side.
• Underneath each network element (such as PDA, interworking unit, computer)
the figure shows the protocol stack implemented in the system according to the
reference model. End-systems, such as the PDA and computer in the example,
need a full protocol stack comprising the application layer, transport layer, network
layer, data link layer, and physical layer.
 Overlay Networks - the global goal
integration of heterogeneous fixed and
mobile networks with varying
transmission characteristics

regional
vertical
hand-over
metropolitan area

campus-based
horizontal
hand-over

in-house
twisted
Frequencies for communication
coax cable optical transmission
pair

1 Mm 10 km 100 m 1m 10 mm 100 m 1 m
300 Hz 30 kHz 3 MHz 300 MHz 30 GHz 3 THz 300 THz

VLF LF MF HF VHF UHF SHF EHF infrared visible light UV

• VLF = Very Low Frequency UHF = Ultra High Frequency
• LF = Low Frequency SHF = Super High Frequency
• MF = Medium Frequency EHF = Extra High Frequency
• HF = High Frequency UV = Ultraviolet Light
• VHF = Very High Frequency

• Frequency and wave length:

•  = c/f
• wave length , speed of light c  3x10 m/s, frequency f
8
Frequencies for radio transmission
 VHF-/UHF-ranges for mobile radio
– simple, small antenna for cars
– deterministic propagation characteristics, reliable connections
 SHF and higher for directed radio links, satellite communication
– small antenna, beam forming
– large bandwidth available
 Wireless LANs use frequencies in UHF to SHF range
– some systems planned up to EHF
– limitations due to absorption by water and oxygen molecules (resonance
frequencies)
• weather dependent fading, signal loss caused by heavy rainfall etc.
Classification of Radio Wave
Propagation
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE PROPAG-ATION
MODES:
 Ground Wave & Sky Wave Propagation
• Ground wave (<2 MHz): Waves
with low frequencies follow the
earth’s surface and can propagate
long distances. These waves are used
for, Example submarine
communication or AM radio.

• ● Sky wave (2–30 MHz): Many

international broadcasts and
amateur radio use these short waves
that are reflected at the ionosphere.
This way the waves can bounce back
and forth between the ionosphere and
the earth’s surface, travelling around
the world. Examples Military Comm,
Amateur radio
 Space Wave Propagation
• Line-of-sight (>30 MHz): Mobile
phone systems, satellite systems,
cordless telephones etc. use even
higher frequencies. The emitted
waves follow a (more or less) straight
line of sight. This enables direct
communication with satellites (no
reflection at the ionosphere) or
microwave links on the ground.
However, an additional consideration
for ground-based communication is
that the waves are bent by the
atmosphere due to refraction.
Example TV, satellite, optical comm
 Signals I
 physical representation of data
 function of time and location
 signal parameters: parameters representing the value of data
 classification
– continuous time/discrete time
– continuous values/discrete values
– analog signal = continuous time and continuous values
– digital signal = discrete time and discrete values
 signal parameters of periodic signals:
period T, frequency f=1/T, amplitude A, phase shift 
– sine wave as special periodic signal for a carrier:

s(t) = At sin(2  ft t + t)

 Antennas
• Antenna:-A metallic (usually) device used for radiating or receiving
electromagnetic waves which acts as the transition region between free space and
guiding structure like a transmission line in order to communicate even in a longer
distance.”
• Electromagnetic (em) Wave in Free Space
• Electromagnetic waves are disturbances to the electrical and magnetic fields. A
changing electric disturbance produces a changing magnetic field at right angle to
the electric field.
 Types of Antennas
• 1. “Omnidirectional antenna” (also known as a whip antenna) transmits and receives radio
frequency signals in a three-hundred-sixty-degree radial pattern. For the purpose of this
chapter, an omnidirectional antenna is up to twenty feet in height and up to four inches in
diameter.
• 2. “Directional antenna” (also known as a panel antenna) transmits and receives radio
frequency signals in a specific directional pattern of less than three hundred sixty degrees.
• 3. “Parabolic antenna” (also known as a dish antenna) is a bowl-shaped device for the
reception and/or transmission of radio frequency communications signals in a specific
directional
 ANTENNA CLASSSIFICATION

• Antenna can be classified on the basis of:

• 1. Frequency - VLF, LF, HF, VHF, UHF, Microwave, Millimeter wave antenna

• 2 .Aperture - Wire, Parabolic Dish, Microstrip Patch antenna

• 3. Polarization - Linear (Vertical/Horizontal), Circular polarization antenna

• 4. Radiation - Omnidirectional, Directional Antenna

 Polarization of Electromagnetic Wave
• The Polarization of Electromagnetic wave is defined as the orientation of electric field vector
in space with respect to time. There are three types of EM wave polarization:
• Vertical Polarization-
• When E field vector of EM wave is perpendicular to the earth, the EM wave said to be
Vertically Polarized..
• Horizontal Polarization
• When E field vector of EM wave is parallel to the earth, the EM wave said to be Horizontally
Polarized
• Circular Polarization
• When E and H field of the EM wave are of same amplitude and having a phase difference of
90o, wave is said to be circularly polarised..
 Signal propagation ranges

• Transmission range
– communication possible
– low error rate
• Detection range sender
– detection of the signal
possible transmission
– no communication distance
possible detection

• Interference range interference

– signal may not be
detected
– signal adds to the
background noise
 Radio Propagation Mechanisms
• An extreme form of attenuation is
blocking or shadowing of radio signals
due to large obstacles. The higher the
frequency of a signal, the more it behaves
like light. Even small obstacles like a
simple wall, a truck on the street, or trees
in an alley may block the signal.
• Reflection
– Propagation wave impinges on an
object which is large as compared
to wavelength
- e.g., the surface of the Earth,
buildings, walls, etc.
• .
• Signals transmitted from a sender may bounce
off the walls of buildings several times before
they reach the receiver. The more often the
signal is reflected, the weaker it becomes,
shows the effect of refraction. This effect
occurs because the velocity of the
electromagnetic waves depends on the density
of the medium through which it travels. Waves
that travel into a denser medium are bent
towards the medium. This is the reason for
LOS radio waves being bent towards the earth:
the density of the atmosphere is higher closer
to the ground.

• Scattering
– Objects smaller than the wavelength of
the propagation wave
- e.g. foliage, street signs, lamp posts
• Diffraction
– Radio path between transmitter
and receiver obstructed by
surface with sharp irregular edges
– Waves bend around the obstacle,
even when LOS (line of sight)
does not exist

• Effects like attenuation, scattering,

diffraction, and refraction all
happen simultaneously and are
frequency and time dependent.
 Accounting for Ground Reflection

• Two-ray (Ground reflection) model

– Considers LoS path + Ground reflected wave path

ELOS
Transmitter
ETOT = ELOS +
Eg

Ei Receiver
Eg

θi θo
Ground Reflection Model
 Multipath propagation
• Signal can take many different paths between sender and
receiver due to reflection, scattering, diffraction
multipath
LOS pulses pulses

signal at sender
signal at receiver

• Time dispersion: signal is dispersed over time

•  i terfere e with eigh or sy ols, I ter Sy ol
Interference (ISI)
• The signal reaches a receiver directly and phase shifted
•  distorted signal depending on the phases of the
different parts
 Factors Affecting Multi Path Propogation
• Wireless communication system sends the signal information through
radiopropagation environment. The different copies of signal undergo different
attenuation, distortion, phase shift and delays during transmission. The following
impairments are responsible to the suffering of radio wave propagation and hence
the overall performance of wireless communication system

• Path loss

• Shadowing loss

• Noise

• Inter Symbol Interference

• Co-Channel Interference (CCI)

• Doppler Shift or Effect

• Path loss:
The loss of power on the way of radio wave propagation in space is called as Path Loss which
attenuates the signal and depends on the distance between the communicating nodes of the
system.

• Shadowing loss:
• The loss due to the presence of large-scale obstacles in the propagation path of the radio
signal is called as Shadowing loss.

• Noise :
• In radio wave propagation there are two types of noise, Natural noise and man-made noise.
The Main source of natural noise is the ignition systems of vehicles. However, natural noise
source such as galactic noise, solar, atmospheric noise, has less effect in land-mobile
communication systems but lots in radio channel.

• Inter Symbol Interference (ISI):- is a form of distortion of a signal in which one symbol
interferes with subsequent symbols. This is an unwanted phenomenon as the previous
symbols have similar effect as noise, thus making the communication less reliable.

• ISI is usually caused by Multipath Propagation( Reflection , Refraction ,Diffraction &

Scattering), Bandlimit Channels
• Co-Channel Interference (CCI): is crosstalk from two different radio transmitters using the
same frequency. The co-channel interference arises in the cellular mobile networks owing to
this phenomenon of Frequency reuse. Thus, besides the intended signal from within the cell,
signals at the same frequencies (co-channel signals) arrive at the receiver from the undesired
transmitters located (far away) in some other cells and lead to deterioration in receiver
performance.
•
• Doppler Effect: Due to movement of the communicating device or other components in a
multipath propagation environment the information carrying radio signal experience a shift
infrequency domain. The shift in frequency domain is also called Doppler Effect.
• Example. As the car approached with its siren blasting, the pitch of the siren sound (a measure
of the siren's frequency) was high; and then suddenly after the car passed by, the pitch of the
siren sound was low. That was the Doppler effect - an apparent shift in frequency for a sound
wave produced by a moving source.
 Fading
• The term fading, or, small-scale fading, means rapid fluctuations of the amplitudes,
phases, or multipath delays of a radio signal over a short period or short travel distance.
• The communication between the base station and mobile station in mobile systems
is mostly non-LOS.
• The LOS path between the transmitter and the receiver is affected by terrain and
obstructed by buildings and other objects.
• The mobile station is also moving in different directions at different speeds.
• The RF signal from the transmitter is scattered by reflection and diffraction and
reaches the receiver through many non-LOS paths.
• This non-LOS path causes long-term and short term fluctuations in the form of log-
normal fading and rayleigh and ricean fading, which degrades the performance of
the RF channel.
 Large and Small Scale Fading Propagation Models

Large scale propagation models:RAYLEIGH FADING

T-R separation distances are large

Main propagation mechanism: reflections
Attenuation of signal strength due to power loss along distance traveled:
shadowing
Distribution of power loss in dBs: Log-Normal

Small scale propagation models: RICEAN FADING

T-R separation distances are small

Heavily populated, urban areas
Main propagation mechanism: scattering
Multiple copies of transmitted signal arriving at the transmitted via
different paths and at different time-delays, add vectotrially at the receiver:
fading
• RAYLEIGH FADING
• This phenomenon is due to multipath
propagation of the signal.
• The Rayleigh fading is applicable to
obstructed propagation paths.
• All the signals are NLOS signals and
there is no dominant direct path.
• Signals from all paths have comparable
signal strengths.
• The instantaneous received power seen by
a moving antenna becomes a random
variable depending on the location of the
antenna.

• RICEAN FADING
• This phenomenon is due to multipath
propagation of the signal.
• In this case there is a partially scattered
field.
• One dominant signal. Others are weaker.
 Factors Influencing Fading

• The following physical factors influence small-scale fading in the radio propagation channel:

• (1) Multipath propagation – Multipath is the propagation phenomenon that results in radio
signals reaching the receiving antenna by two or more paths. The effects of multipath include
constructive and destructive interference, and phase shifting of the signal.

• (2) Speed of the mobile – The relative motion between the base station and the mobile results
in random frequency modulation due to different Doppler shifts on each of the multipath
components.

• (3) Speed of surrounding objects – If objects in the radio channel are in motion, they induce
a time varying Doppler shift on multipath components. If the surrounding objects move at a
greater rate than the mobile, then this effect dominates fading.

• (4) Transmission Bandwidth of the signal – If the transmitted radio signal bandwidth is
greater than the “bandwidth” of the multipath channel (quantified by coherence bandwidth),
the received signal will be distorted.
•
Free Space Propagation
 Free-space Propagation

hb

hm

Transmitter Distance d
Receiver

113
Path loss modeling and signal coverage
Universal Mobile Telecommunication System (UMTS)
Modulation
 bps and Baud
• bps measures the speed of communication correctly in bits per
second.

• Baud indicates the number of times the state of a signal

changes in one second
bps and Baud Represent the Same

bps = 1
Baud = 1
1
0

F1 F2

1 Second
 bps and Baud are Different

1 second

10 11
00 01

bps = 2
Baud = 1
 Amplitude Modulation (AM)
• Amplitude of the analog signal is modulated
• One amplitude represents a 0
• Another amplitude represents a 1
• Frequency remains unchanged in both cases
• Signals that are modulated at one end are demodulated at the other end
• Amplitude is susceptible to interference
– This technique in not normally used in modems
• A variation of this technique is used in AM radio transmission
– Analog-to-analog modulation takes place
 Amplitude Modulation (AM)

1 = Amp. 1
0 = Amp. 2

1 1
0 0

A B

Amp. 1 Amp. 2
 AM and Radio Transmission

Voice

Carrier
Wave Modulated Amplitude
 ASK
• ASK – strength of carrier signal is varied to represent binary 1 or 0
• both frequency & phase remain constant while amplitude changes
• advantage: simplicity
• disadvantage: ASK is very susceptible to noise interference
• noise usually (only) affects the amplitude, therefore ASK is the modulation
technique most affected by noise
• application: ASK is used to transmit digital data over optical fiber
Amplitude Modulation and ASK
 Frequency Modulation (FM)
• Frequency is modulated
• Frequency f1
– Represents 1
• Frequency f2
– Represents 0
• The amplitude remains unaltered in both cases
• Variations in frequency are easy to detect
– They are less susceptible to interference
• FM and variations of this technique are used in modems
• Easy to implement full duplex transmission under FM
• A variation of the FM technique described here is used in FM radio transmission
Frequency Modulation (FM)

1 = Frequency F1
0 = Frequency F2

1 1
0 0

Freq. 1 Freq. 2
 FSK
• FSK – frequency of carrier signal is varied to represent binary 1 or 0
• peak amplitude & phase remain constant but frequency changes during each bit
interval
• advantage: FSK is less susceptible to errors than ASK – receiver
• disadvantage: FSK spectrum is 2 x ASK spectrum
• application: over voice lines, in high-freq. radio transmission, etc.
Frequency Modulation and FSK
 Phase Modulation Technique
• Phase is modulated
• Phase shift of 0 represents a 0
• Phase shift of 90 degrees represents a 1
• Both amplitude and frequency remain unaltered is both cases
• Also known as Phase Shift Keying, it is used in a number of modern modems as
well
Phase of an Analog Signal
 PSK
• PSK – phase of carrier signal is varied to represent binary 1 or 0
• peak amplitude & freq. remain constant but phase changes during each bit interval
• example: binary 1 = 0º phase, binary 0 = 180º (πrad) phase
• advantage: PSK is less susceptible to errors than ASK, while it requires/occupies
the same bandwidth as ASK
• more efficient use of bandwidth (higher data-rate) are possible, compared to FSK
• disadvantage: more complex signal detection / recovery process, than in ASK and
FSK
Phase Modulation and PSK
 Sending Multiple Bits Simultaneously
Each of the three modulation techniques can be refined to send more than one bit at a
time. It is possible to send two bits on one wave by defining four different
amplitudes.

This technique could be further refined to send three bits at the same time by defining 8
different amplitude levels or four bits by defining 16, etc. The same approach can
be used for frequency and phase modulation.
Sending Multiple Bits Simultaneously
 QPSK
• Quadrature phase shift keying (QPSK) takes the concept of PSK a step further as it assumes
that the number of phase shifts is not limited to only two states. The transmitted carrier can
undergo any number of phase changes. This is indeed the case in quadrature phase shift
keying.
• With QPSK, the carrier undergoes four changes in phase and can thus represent four binary
bit patterns of data, effectively doubling the bandwidth of the carrier. The following are the
phase shifts with the four different combinations of input bits
 QAM
• Quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) is simply a combination of AM and PSK, in which
two carriers out of phase by 90◦ are amplitude modulated. We modulate the signal by using
two measures of amplitude and four possible phase shifts. Combining the two, we have eight
possible waves. In view of the fact that both amplitude and phase variations are present it
may also be considered as a mixture of amplitude and phase modulation.
• Quadrature Amplitude Modulation is an important modulation scheme with many
Practical applications, including current and future wireless technologies.

• Some examples of communication systems that use QAM are Wi ‐ Fi, cable
modems, Digital Video Broadcast (DVB) and WiMAX.
 16QAM

• 16QAM involves splitting the signal into 12 different phases and 3 different amplitudes for a
total of 16 different possible values, each encoding 4 bits. 16QAM is used in applications
including microwave digital radio, DVB-C (digital video broadcasting—cable), and modems
Duplexing
 Duplexing
• For voice or data communications, must assure two way communication (duplexing, it is
possible to talk and listen simultaneously). Duplexing may be done using frequency or time
domain techniques.

– Forward Channel(downlink) :- Radio Channel used for transmission of information

from BS to the MS.
– Reverse Channel (uplink) :- Radio Channel used for transmission of information from
the MS to the BS.

• Control and Traffic Channel:- Control Channels are used for setting up the call and Traffic
Channels are used to send the data. Given bandwidth is used for control channel as well as
for traffic channel.
 Duplex Systems

• Full Duplex System:- Simultaneous two way communication. Transmission and Reception
on two different channels.
• Full Duplex is provided either by :- Frequency Division Duplex (FDD) or Time Division
Duplex (TDD).
• Mobile system uses the scheme of multiple access and duplex system ie.
FDMA/FDD,TDMA/FDD,FDMA/TDD

• Half Duplex System:- Two way communication is done by using the same radio channel for
both Transmission and Reception .At any given time user can either transmit or receive.

• Frequency Division Duplex(FDD):-

• Both the base stations(BS) and the subscriber(MS) unit transmit and receive signals
simultaneously.
• At the base station two separate transmit and receive antennas are used.
• At the subscriber unit only a single antenna is used both for transmission and reception. A
device called duplexer is used to enable the same antenna for transmission and reception
simultaneously.
 FDD
• FDD requires two separate communications channels. In networking, there are two cables.
Full-duplex Ethernet uses two twisted pairs inside the cable for simultaneous send and
receive operations.
• Wireless systems need two separate frequency bands or channels . A sufficient amount of
guard band separates the two bands so the transmitter and receiver don’t interfere with one
another.
• Most cell-phone systems use FDD. The 4G systems use FDD. Cable TV systems are fully
FDD.
• Time Division Duplex (TDD):-
TDD
• TDD uses a single frequency band for both transmit and receive. Then it shares that band by
assigning alternating time slots to transmit and receive operations . The information to be
transmitted—whether it’s voice, video, or computer data—is in serial binary format. Each
time slot may be 1 byte long or could be a frame of multiple bytes., but two separate time
slots to provide both a forward and reverse link.
• Transmission from mobile to BS and from BS to mobile alternates in time, this scheme is also
known as pi g po g .
• As a consequence of the use of the same frequency band, the communication quality in both
directions is the same. This is different from FDD.
• In some TDD systems, the alternating time slots are of the same duration or have equal DL
and UL times. However, the system does ’t have to be 50/50 symmetrical. The system can be
asymmetrical as required.
• For instance, in Internet access, download times are usually much longer than upload times
so more or fewer frame time slots are assigned as needed. Some TDD formats offer dynamic
bandwidth allocation where time-slot numbers or durations are changed on the fly as
required.
 TDD
• Most wireless data transmissions are TDD. WiMAX and Wi-Fi use TDD. So does Bluetooth
when piconets are deployed. ZigBee is TDD.

• Most digital cordless telephones use TDD. Because of the spectrum shortage and expense,
TDD is also being adopted in some cellular systems
 Multiple Access Techniques

• The transmission from the BS in the downlink can be heard by each and every mobile user in
the cell, and is referred as broadcasting. Transmission from the mobile users in the uplink to
the BS is many-to-one, and is referred to as multiple access.

• Multiple access schemes to allow many users to share simultaneously a finite amount of radio
spectrum resources.
– Should not result in severe degradation in the performance of the system as compared to
a single user scenario.
– Approaches can be broadly grouped into two categories: narrowband and wideband.
 Narrowband Systems & Wideband Systems
• In communications, band is referred to as the range of frequencies (bandwidth) used in the
channel. Depending on the size of the band (in terms of kHz, MHz or GHz) and some other
properties of the communication channel, they can be categorized as narrowband and
wideband etc.
• 1.Narrowband communications use a smaller frequency range (bandwidth) compared to
wideband communications.
• 2. In internet access, wideband technologies provide much higher data rate (more than
50Mbps), whereas narrowband connections provide a slower data rate such as 56 kbps.
• 3. In radio communications, bandwidth is smaller than the coherence bandwidth of the
channel for narrowband, and wider for wideband.
• 4. Channel system : In narrow band generally total spectrum is divided into a number of
relatively narrow radio channels (e.g. FDMA). In wideband systems is that either all the
spectrum available (e.g. CDMA, TDMA) or a considerable portion of it is used by each user
(e.g. TDMA+FDMA).
 Party Analogy

• Suppose there are people at a party who all want to talk

• If everyone talks at once, no one would be able to hear anyone
• If one person raises his voice to be heard, others will raise their voices
and eventually everyone will be shouting and no one will be able to
communicate
• How can this situation be resolved?
Channelization
Each group could be given a corner of the room to hold their conversation (SDMA)
 Channelization

• Similar to multiplexing
• FIVE schemes
– Frequency-Division Multiple Access (FDMA)
– Time-Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
– Code-Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
– Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing(OFDM)
– Spatial division multiple access (SDMA)

163
 Multiple Access Techniques
• Multiple Accessing Techniques : with possible conflict and conflict- free
– Random access
– Frequency division multiple access (FDMA)
– Time division multiple access (TDMA)
– Spread spectrum multiple access (SSMA) : an example is Code division
multiple access (CDMA)
– Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM)
– Space division multiple access (SDMA)
• Multiple-access techniques are based on the orthogonalization of signals.
• A radio signal can be presented as a function of frequency, time, or code as
s( f, t, c) = s( f, t)c(t) where s( f, t) is a function of frequency and time and c(t) is a
function of code.
• When c(t) = 1, equation can be s( f, t, c) = s( f, t). This constitutes a well-known
general expression for the signal as a function of frequency and time.
 FDMA
• If a system employs different carrier frequencies to transmit the signal for each user, it is
called a FDMA system.
• Radio spectrum broken into frequency bands (channels)
• Each channel allocated to a different user (only 1 user per frequency band)
• Each channel must contain guard bands .
• FDMA is a multiple-access system that has been widely adopted in existing analog systems
for portable and automobile wireless telephones.
• The BS dynamically assigns a different carrier frequency to each active user (MS).
• A frequency synthesizer is used to adjust and maintain the transmission and reception
frequencies.
• The orthogonality condition of the two signals in FDMA is given by

• Equation indicates that there is no overlapping frequency in frequency domain F for the
signals si ( f, t) and s j ( f, t) and the two signals do not interfere with each other.
• The basic structure of a FDMA system, consisting of a BS and many MSs. There is a pair of
channels for the communication between the BS and the MS. The paired channels are called
forward channel (downlink) and reverse channel (uplink).

• Different frequency bandwidths are assigned to different users. This implies that there is no
frequency overlapping between the forward and reverse channels. For example, the forward
and reverse channels for MS #1 are f 1 and f ‘ 1 respectively.

• A protecting bandwidth is used between the forward and reverse channels, and a guard band
Wg between two adjacent channels is used to minimize adjacent channel interference between
them. The frequency bandwidth for each user is called subband Wc. If there are N channels in
a FDMA system, the total bandwidth is equal to N · Wc
 TDMA
• If a system uses distinct time slots to transmit the signal for different users, it is a TDMA
system. guard slots are necessary to separate users.
• The communication channels essentially consist of many units, i.e., time slots, over a time
cycle, which makes it possible for one frequency to be efficiently utilized by multiple users,
given that each utilizes a different time slot . This system is widely used in the field of digital
portable and automobile telephones and mobile satellite communication systems.
• The orthogonality condition for the signals in TDMA is

Equation indicates that there is no overlapping time in time axis T for signals si ( f, t) and s j ( f, t).
• A TDMA system may be in either of two modes: FDD (in which the forward/ reverse or uplink/downlink
communication frequencies differ) and TDD(in which the forward/reverse communication frequencies are
the same). That is, TDMA/FDD and TDMA/TDD systems may be as shown in Figures 7.7 and 7.8. Figure
7.9 shows a frame structure of TDMA. For a TDMA system, there is guard time between the slots so that
interference due to propagation delays along different paths can be minimized.
Medium access schemes in voiceoriented networks
 CDMA
• In a CDMA system, different spread-spectrum codes are selected and assigned to each user,
and multiple users share the same frequency.
• A CDMA system is based on spectrum-spread technology, which makes it less susceptible to
the noise and interference by substantially spreading over the bandwidth range of the
modulated signal
• The orthogonality condition for the signals in CDMA is

Above equation indicates that there is no overlapping of signals in code axis C for signals si (t)
and s j (t) and implies that the signals do not have any common codes in the code space.
 CDMA Example – transmission from two sources
1 0 1 1
A Data

A 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1
Codeword

Data Code 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0
A Signal

B Data 0 0 1 0

1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0
B
Codeword
Data Code 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0
B Signal

Transmitted
A+B
Signal
 A+B
CDMA Example – recovering signal A at the receiver
Signal
received

A
Codeword
at
receiver

(A  B)  Code

Integrator
Output

Comparator
Output 0 1 0 0

Take the inverse of this to obtain A

 A+B
CDMA Example – recovering signal B at the receiver
Signal
received

B
Codeword
at
receiver

(A  B)  Code

Integrator
Output

Comparator
Output
1 1 0 1

Take the inverse of this to obtain B

 CDMA Example – using wrong codeword at the
A+B
receiver
Signal
received

Wrong
Codeword
Used at
receiver

Integrator
Output

Comparator
Output
X 0 1 1
Noise
Wrong codeword will not be able to decode the original data!
 Spread Spectrum

• Spread spectrum is a transmission technique wherein data occupy a larger bandwidth than
necessary. Bandwidth spreading is accomplished before transmission through the use of a
code that is independent of the transmitted data. The same code is used to demodulate the data
at the receiving end. the spreading done on the data signal s(t) by the code signal c(t)
resulting in the message signal to be transmitted, m(t). That is, m(t) = s(t) ⊗ c(t).

Originally designed for military use to avoid jamming (interference created intentionally to make
a communication channel unusable), spread spectrum modulation is now also used in personal
communication systems due to its superior performance in an interference dominated
environment.
 Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)
• In a DSSS method, the radio signal is multiplied by a pseudorandom sequence whose
bandwidth is much greater than that of the signal itself, thereby spreading its Bandwidth.
•
• This is a modulation technique wherein a pseudorandom sequence directly phase modulates a
(data-modulated) carrier, thereby increasing the bandwidth of the transmission and lowering
the spectral power density (i.e., the power level at any given frequency).
•
• The received signal is despread by correlating it with a local pseudorandom sequence
identical to and in synchronization with the sequence used to spread the carrier at the radio
transmitting end.
 Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)
• In a FH method, a pseudorandom sequence is used to change the radio signal frequency across
a broad frequency band in a random fashion. A spread spectrum modulation technique
implies that the radio transmitter frequency hops from channel to channel in a predetermined
but pseudorandom manner.
• The RF signal is dehopped at the receiver end using a frequency synthesizer controlled by a
pseudorandom sequence generator synchronized to the transmitter’s pseudorandom sequence
generator.
• A frequency hopper may be fast hopped, where there are multiple hops per data bit, or slow
hopped, where there are multiple data bits per hop. Figure below shows an example of a
frequency hopping pattern.
• Multiple simultaneous transmission from several users is possible using FH, as long as each
uses different frequency hopping sequences and none of them “collides” (no more than one
unit using the same band) at any given instant of time.
 Near-Far Problem
• The near-far problem stems from a wide range of signal levels received in wireless and
mobile communication systems. We consider a system in which two MSs are communicating
with a BS. If we assume the transmission power of each MS to be the same, received signal
levels at the BS from the MS1 and MS2 are quite different due to the difference in the path
lengths or distance
• Let us assume that the MSs are using adjacent channels. Out-of-band radiation of the signal
from the MS1 interferes with the signal from the MS2 in the adjacent channel. This effect,
called adjacent channel interference, becomes serious when the difference in the received
signal strength is high. For this reason, the out-of-band radiation must be kept small. If power
control technique is used, the system can tolerate higher relative adjacent channel
interference levels.
 Power Control
• Power control is simply the technique of controlling the transmit power in the traffic channel
so as to affect the received power and hence the CIR(carrier-to-interference ratio) . For
example, in free space, the propagation path loss depends on the frequency of transmission, f ,
and the distance between transmitter and receiver, d, as follows:

• where Pt is the transmitted power, Pr is the received power in free space, c is the speed of
light, and α is an attenuation constant.
• Base station monitors the RSSI(Received Signal Strength Indicator) values from different
mobiles and then sends power change commands to the mobiles over a forward channel. The
mobiles then adjust their transmit power. That is, Assuming that the interference remains
constant, a desired Pr can be attained by adjusting the transmit power Pt appropriately. Note
that this can be done by observing currently transmitted and received power, if we assume that
the distance d does not change significantly between the time of observation and the
adjustment of Pt .
• While power control can often be effective for traffic channels, there are some
disadvantages:- First, since battery power at a MS is a limited resource that needs to be
conserved, it may not be possible or desirable to set transmission powers to higher values.
Second, increasing the transmitted power on one channel, irrespective of the power levels
used on other channels, can cause inequality of transmission over other channels.

• Finally, power control techniques are restricted by the physical limitations on the transmitter
power levels.
 OFDM
• Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM) is a method of digital modulation in
which a signal is split into several narrowband channels at different frequencies. The
orthogonality condition of the two signals in OFDM can be given by

• where ∗ means a complex conjugate relation.

• Priority is given to minimizing the interference, or crosstalk, among the channels and symbols
comprising the data stream.
• The transmitter of OFDM converts high-speed data streams into n parallel low-speed bit
streams, which are then modulated and mixed with inverse discrete Fourier transform (IDFT);
then guard time is inserted to reduce ISI. The reverse actions are taken at the receiver side. In
all these systems, the information is first modulated before being transmitted over a channel
•
SDMA
Spatial division multiple access (SDMA) is a channel access method used in mobile
communication systems which reuses the same set of cell phone frequencies in a given
service area. Two cells or two small regions can make use of the same set of frequencies if
they are separated by an allowable distance (called the reuse distance).

• SDMA increases the capacity of the system and transmission quality by focusing the signal
into narrow transmission beams. Through the use of smart antennas with beams pointed at the
direction of the mobile station, SDMA serves different users within the same region.

Mobile stations operating outside the bounds of these directed beams experience a near zero
interference from other mobile stations operating under the same base station with the same
radio frequency..

spot beam
antenna
Comparison of Multiple Division Technique