ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

OUTLINE ○ Stimulate or inhibit cell division

I. Overview ○ Promote or inhibit secretion of product
II. Hormone Action ○ Turn on or turn off transcription of certain genes
A. Direct Gene Activation Steroid hormones
B. Second-Messenger System ● Made from cholesterol
III. Stimuli for Control of Hormone Release ● Include the sex hormones made by the gonads and the
IV. The Major Endocrine Organs
A. Pituitary Gland and Hypothalamus
hormones produced by the adrenal cortex.
1. Antidiuretic Hormone Prostaglandins
2. Anterior Pituitary Hormones ● Hormones that act locally
B. Thyroid Gland ● Made from highly active lipids released from nearly all cell
1. Thyroid Hormone membranes.
2. Lack of Stimulation by TSH Target Cells or Target Organs
3. Calcitonin ● Given hormone affects only certain tissue cells or organs
C. Pineal Gland ● For a target cell to respond to a hormone, specific protein
D. Parathyroid Glands
1. Parathyroid Hormone
receptors to which that hormone can attach must be
2. Functions of Parathormone present on the cell’s plasma membrane or in its interior.
3. Disorders of Parathyroid Hormone Section
E. Thymus
1. Thymosin A. DIRECT GENE ACTIVATION
F. Adrenal Glands
● Steroid hormones and strangely thyroid hormones can use
1. Two Regions of Adrenal Gland
G. Pancreatic Islets this mechanism. Because they are lipid-soluble molecules,
1. Hormones Released by Pancreatic Islets the steroid hormones can diffuse through the plasma
2. Cell Types in Pancreatic Islets membranes of their target cells.
H. Gonads
V. Other Hormone-Producing Tissues and Organs ● Once inside, the steroid hormone enters the nucleus and
A. Placenta binds to a specific hormone receptor. The hormone-
VI. Developmental Aspects of Endocrine System receptor complex then binds to specific sites on the cell’s
DNA, activating certain genes to transcribe messenger
I. OVERVIEW RNA (mRNA). The mRNA is translated in the cytoplasm
Endocrine System resulting in the synthesis of new proteins. Alternatively, the
● Second great controlling system of the body steroid hormone may bind to receptors in the cytoplasm,
● Releases chemicals called hormones that regulate complex and then the complex moves into the nucleus to activate
body processes certain genes.
● Hormones released by endocrine glands travel through the Figure 5.1 Direct Gene Activation
blood and alter the activity of target cells. B. SECOND-MESSENGER SYSTEM
● Regulates complex processes such as growth and ● Protein and peptide hormones, however, are not water-
development, metabolism, and reproduction. soluble and are unable to enter target cells directly. Instead,
● The scientific study of hormones and endocrine organs is
called endocrinology.

II. HORMONE ACTION

Hormone
● The term hormone comes from a Greek word meaning “to
arouse.” In fact, the body’s hormones do just that. They
“arouse,” or bring about their effects on the body’s cells
primarily by altering cellular activity that is, by increasing or
decreasing the rate of a normal, or usual, metabolic process
rather than by stimulating performance of a new one.
● Are chemical substances secreted by endocrine cells into
the extracellular fluids that regulate the metabolic activity of
other cells in the body.
● Although the body produces many different hormones,
nearly all of them can be classified chemically as either
amino acid–based molecules (including proteins,
peptides, and amines) or steroids.
● Hormones can do the following:
○ Change plasma membrane permeability or
membrane potential (electrical state) by opening
or closing ion channels
○ Activate or inactive enzymes they bind to hormone receptors situated on the target cell’s

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plasma membrane and use a second-messenger system.
● In these cases, the hormone (first messenger) binds to the
receptor protein on the membrane 1, and the activated
receptor sets off a series of reactions (a cascade) that
activates an enzyme.
● The enzyme, in turn, catalyzes reactions that produce
second-messenger molecules cyclic AMP, also known as
cAMP, or cyclic adenosine monophosphate) that oversee
additional intracellular changes that promote the typical
response of the target cell to the hormone
● As you might guess, the same hormone may have a variety
of possible second messengers (including cyclic guanosine
monophosphate, or cGMP, and calcium ions) and many
possible target cell responses, depending on the tissue type
stimulated.
Figure 5.2 Second Messenger System
III. THE MAJOR ENDOCRINE ORGANS
A. PITUITARY GLAND AND HYPOTHALAMUS
Pituitary Gland
● Approximately the size of a pea.
● It hangs by a stalk from the inferior surface of the
hypothalamus of the brain, where it is snugly surrounded by
the sella turcica of the sphenoid bone.
● It has two functional lobes—the anterior pituitary (glandular
tissue) and the posterior pituitary (nervous tissue).
● Has often been called the “master endocrine gland.”
● The release of each of its hormones is controlled by
releasing hormones and inhibiting hormones produced by
the hypothalamus.
Hypothalamus
● Liberates these regulatory hormones into the blood of the
portal circulation, which connects the blood supply of the
hypothalamus with that of the anterior pituitary.
● Makes two additional hormones, oxytocin and
antidiuretic hormone, which are transported along the
axons of the hypothalamic neurosecretory cells to the
posterior pituitary for storage. They are later released into
the blood in response to nerve impulses from the
hypothalamus.
Posterior Pituitary and Hypothalamic Hormones
● The posterior pituitary is not an endocrine gland in the strict
sense because it does not make the peptide hormones it
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releases. Instead, it acts as a storage area for hormones
made by hypothalamic neurons.
Oxytocin
● Released in significant amounts only during childbirth and
nursing.
● It stimulates powerful contractions of the uterine muscle
during sexual relations, during labor, and during
breastfeeding.
● It also causes milk ejection (the let-down reflex) in a nursing
woman.
● Both natural and synthetic oxytocic drugs (Pitocin and
others) are used to induce labor or to hasten labor that is
progressing at a slow pace.
● Less often, oxytocics are used to stop postpartum bleeding
(by causing constriction of the ruptured blood vessels at the
placental site) and to stimulate the let-down reflex.
i. Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)
● Diuresis is urine production. Thus, an antidiuretic is a
chemical that inhibits or prevents urine production.
● ADH causes the kidneys to reabsorb more water from the
forming urine; as a result, urine volume decreases, and
blood volume increases.
● Water is a powerful inhibitor of ADH release. In larger
amounts,
● ADH also increases blood pressure by causing constriction
of the arterioles (small arteries). For this reason, it is
sometimes referred to as vasopressin.
ii. Anterior Pituitary Hormones
● All anterior pituitary hormones are proteins (or peptides),
act through second-messenger systems, and are regulated
by hormonal stimuli and, in most cases, negative feedback.
Growth Hormone
● A general metabolic hormone. However, its major effects
are directed to the growth of skeletal muscles and long
bones of the body, and thus it plays an important role in
determining final body size.
● GH is a protein-sparing and anabolic hormone that causes
the building of amino acids into proteins and stimulates
most target cells to grow in size and divide.
● At the same time, it causes fats to be broken down and used
for energy while it spares glucose, helping to maintain blood
sugar homeostasis.
Prolactin (PRL)
● A protein hormone structurally similar to growth hormone.
● Its only known target in humans is the breast
● (pro = for; lact =milk).
● After childbirth, it stimulates and maintains milk production
by the mother’s breasts.
● Its function in men is not known.
Gonadotropic Hormone
● Regulate the hormonal activity of the gonads (ovaries and
testes).
Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH)
● In women, FSH stimulates follicle development in the
ovaries.
● As the follicles mature, they produce estrogen, and eggs
are readied for ovulation.
● In men, FSH stimulates sperm development by the testes.
Luteinizing Hormone (LH)
● Triggers ovulation of an egg from the ovary and causes the
ruptured follicle to produce progesterone and some
estrogen.
● In men, LH stimulates testosterone production by the
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interstitial cells of the testes.
Thyrotropic hormone (TH)
● Also called as thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
● Influences the growth and activity of the thyroid gland.
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
● Regulates the endocrine activity of the cortex portion of the
adrenal
gland.
Figure 5.3 Hypothalamus
B. THYROID GLAND
● Is located at the base of the throat just inferior to Adam's
apple.
● It is fairly large gland consisting of two lobes joined by a
central mass, or isthmus
● The thyroid gland makes two hormones:
○ Thyroid hormone
○ Calcitonin
● It is composed of hollow structures called follicles
○ Follicles - store a sticky colloidal material
i. Thyroid hormone
● Referred to as the body’s major metabolic hormone
○ Two active iodine-containing hormones
■ Thyroxine or T4
■ Triiodothyronine or T3
Thyroxine
● Has four bound iodine atoms
● Constructed from two tyrosine amino acids
Triiodothyronine
● Constructed from two tyrosine amino acids
● Has three iodine atoms,
● Is the major hormone secreted by the thyroid follicles.
● Most triiodothyronine is formed at the target tissues by
conversion of thyroxine to triiodothyronine.
❏ Thyroid hormone, controls the rate at which glucose is
“burned”, or oxidized and converted to body heat and
chemical energy.
❏ Thyroid hormone is also important for normal tissue
growth and development, especially in the reproductive and
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nervous systems.
● TSH calls for the release of thyroxine,but as the peptide part
of the molecule is made, the thyroid gland enlarges
because the protein is nonfunctional without iodine.
○ The inactive form of thyroxine fails to provide
negative feedback to inhibit TSH release, resulting
in continued production of the peptide component,
which makes the goiter larger.
Figure 5.4 Thyroid Hormone
ii. Lack of stimulation by TSH
Hyposecretion / Cretinism
● Results in dwarfism
● Which adult body proportions remain childlike, with a
proportionally longer torso and shorter legs compared to
normal adults.
Hypothyroidism / Myxedema
● Characterized by both physical and mental sluggishness
● Other signs are puffiness of the face, fatigue, poor muscle
tone, low body temperature,obesity and dry skin.
● Hyperthyroidism, generally results from a tumor of the
thyroid gland.
○ Graves’ disease is one form of hyperthyroidism.
○ Exophthalmos thyroid gland enlarges, eyes may
bulge or protrude anteriorly.
iii. Calcitonin
● Decreases the blood calcium ion level by causing calcium
to be deposited in the bones.
● It acts antagonistically to parathyroid glands.
○ Parafollicular cells, found in the connective
tissue between the follicles.
■ It is released directly to the blood in
response to an increasing level of blood
calcium ions.
C. PINEAL GLAND
● A small, cone-shaped gland that hangs from the roof of the
third ventricle of the brain.
Melatonin
● The only hormone appears to be secreted in substantial
amounts
● The level of melatonin rises and falls during the course of
the day and night. The peak level occurs at night and makes
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us drowsy; the lowest level occurs during daylight around
noon.
● Melatonin is believed to be a “sleep trigger” that plays an
important role in establishing the body’s sleep-wake cycle.
● It is believed to coordinate the hormones of fertility and to
inhibit the reproductive system (especially the ovaries of
females) until the body matures.
D. PARATHYROID GLAND
Figure 5.5 Parathyroid Gland
● Small glands found on the back of the thyroid gland.
● There are usually four of these glands.
● PTH increases Ca+ concentration in the blood.
● The opposite effect of Calcitonin.
● PTH stimulates osteoclasts (bone resorbing cells) to
increase their breakdown of bone matrix. This moves Ca+
out of bone into blood.
i. Parathyroid Hormone (PTH)
● Parathyroid glands are essential for life. They secrete
Parathyrin or Parathyroid hormone (PTH) by chief cells.
● Four rice grain-sized glands located on the back surface of
the thyroid gland, one in each corner.
● Ca2+ sensors in cells of the parathyroid glands regulate
PTH synthesis and secretion in response to changes in the
plasma concentration of ionized Ca2+ .
● More PTH is secreted into the bloodstream whenever Ca2+
concentration falls below normal (hypocalcemia).
● Inversely, PTH secretion decreases when Ca2+ level rises.
● The primary function of PTH is to normalize the decreased
Ca2+ conc. in the blood. It is a Ca2+ increasing hormone.
Low levels of Ca+ in the blood can cause:
➢ Overactive nerve cells
➢ Muscle spasms resulting from constant nervous
stimulation
High levels of Ca+ can cause :
➢ The death of brain and heart cells
● PTH essentially acts to increase the concentration of
calcium in the blood by acting upon the parathyroid
hormone 1 receptor, which is present at high levels in bone
and kidney, and the parathyroid hormone 2 receptor, which
is present at high levels in the central nervous system,
pancreas, testis, and placenta.
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Figure 5.6 Parathyroid Hormone
ii. Functions of Parathormone
Calcium regulation:
● Maintenance of plasma Ca++ level at 10 mg %, and also
phosphate level to keep solubility product = [Ca++] X [PO4-
3] = constant.
A) On bone:
● PTH raises plasma Ca2+ by withdrawing Ca2+ from the
bone bank.
● Induces a fast Ca2+ efflux into the plasma from the small
labile pool of Ca2+ in the bone fluid.
● Second, by stimulating bone dissolution, it promotes a slow
transfer into the plasma of both Ca2+ & PO43- from the
stable pool of bone minerals in bone itself.
iii. Disorders of parathyroid hormone secretion
❏ HYPERPARATHYROIDISM Causes:
● Adenoma of parathyroid gland (in 80% of cases).
● Multiple adenomas or hyperplasia (in 15% of
cases).
● Carcinoma (in less than 5% of cases).
Characterized by hypercalcemia & hypophosphatemia.
● Clinical features:
Bones
Stones
Abdominal groans
Psychic moans
❏ HYPOPARATHYROIDISM Causes:
● Accidental removal of parathyroids surgically with
thyroid in cases of thyroid carcinoma.
● Autoimmune disease.
Characterized by hypocalcemia & hyperphosphatemia.
● Clinical picture:
Hypocalcemia → neuromuscular hyperexcitability → Tetany.
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E. THYMUS GLAND Humoral factors (fewer sodium ions or too many

● Located in the upper thorax, posterior to the sternum. potassium ions in the blood)
● Large in infants and children, decreases in size throughout Hormonal stimulation (ACTH)
adulthood. Renin and Angiotensin II responds to a drop in blood
● Composed of fibrous connective tissue and fat. pressure
● Produces a hormone called thymosin. Aldosterone production is inhibited by atrial natriuretic
peptide (ANP), hormone produced by the heart when blood
pressure is too high.
i. Thymosin
● Essential for normal development of white blood cells (T
lymphocytes).
● Important in developing immune system

Figure
5.7 Thymus Gland

F. ADRENAL GLAND
● These two glands curve over the top of kidneys like
triangular hats.

Figure 5.8 Adrenal Gland Figure 5.7

i. Two Regions of Adrenal Gland b. Glucocorticoids are secreted by middle layer of adrenal
1. Adrenal Cortex - outer glandular region that produces cortex
three major groups of steroid hormones called ● Includes cortisone and cortisol.
corticosteroids. ● Promotes normal cell metabolism and helps the
Hormones of the Adrenal Cortex body resist long-term stressors, by increasing the
a. Mineralocorticoids are secreted by outermost layer of blood glucose level.
adrenal cortex ● Considered as hyperglycemic hormones.
● Mainly contains aldosterone. ● Control more unpleasant effects of inflammation
● Important in regulating the mineral or salt content by decreasing edema.
of the blood. ● Release in response to increased blood levels of
● Specifically the concentrations of potassium and ACTH
sodium ions. c. Sex hormones are secreted by innermost layer of the
● Help regulate water and electrolyte balance in adrenal cortex
body fluids. ● Small amounts are made throughout life
● Target organ is the kidney ● Androgens (male sex hormones)
Release of aldosterone is stimulated by: ● Estrogens (female sex hormones)

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2. Adrenal Medulla - inner neural tissue region

Produces two similar hormones (catecholamines)
1. Epinephrine (adrenaline)
2. Norepinephrine (noradrenaline)
These hormones prepare the body to deal with
short-term stress “fight or flight” response by:
a. Increasing heart rate, blood pressure, blood
glucose levels
b. Dilating small passageways of lungs
These events result in more oxygen and glucose in the
blood and a faster circulation of blood to the body.

G. PANCREATIC ISLETS
Pancreas
● Pan- = all; -creas = flesh
● Located in the abdomen, close to stomach

Figure 5.8 Pancreas Figure 5.10 Hormones Released by Pancreatic Islets

● Mixed gland, with both endocrine and exocrine functions
● also called the islets of Langerhans, are little masses of
endocrine (hormone-producing) tissue scattered among the
exocrine (enzyme-producing) tissue of the pancreas.
i. Hormones Released by Pancreatic Islets
● Insulin
○ Produced by beta cells
○ Released when blood glucose levels are high
○ Increases the rate of glucose uptake and metabolism by
body cells
○ Effects are hypoglycemic
● Glucagon
○ Produced by alpha cells
○ Released when blood glucose levels are low
○ Stimulates the liver to release glucose to blood, thus
increasing blood glucose levels
● These hormones are antagonists that maintain blood sugar
homeostasis
ii. Cell types in Pancreatic Islets
Each pancreatic islet includes four types of hormone-secreting cells:
1. Alpha or A cells
● constitute about 17% of pancreatic islet cells and secrete
glucagon.
2. Beta or B cells
● constitute about 70% of pancreatic islet cells and secrete
insulin.
3. Delta or D cells
● constitute about 7% of pancreatic islet cells and secrete
somatostatin.
4. F cells
● constitute the remainder of pancreatic islet cells and
secrete pancreatic polypeptide.
● Glucagon raises blood glucose level, and insulin lowers it.
● Low blood glucose stimulates release of glucagon; high blood
glucose stimulates secretion of insulin.

Figure 5.9 Pancreatic Islets

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characteristics
○ Promotes growth and maturation of male reproductive
system
○ Required for sperm cell production

Figure 5.11 Glucagon and Insulin

● Negative feedback regulation of the secretion of glucagon (blue
arrows) and insulin (orange arrows).

H. GONADS
● Produce gametes — sperm in males and oocytes in females.
Ovaries
● Female gonads located in the pelvic cavity
● Produce eggs
● Produce two groups of steroid hormones
1. Estrogens (estradiol and estrone)
● Stimulate the development of secondary female
characteristics
● Mature the female reproductive organs
● With progesterone, estrogens also:
● Promote breast development
● Regulate menstrual cycle
2. Progesterone
● Acts with estrogen to bring about the menstrual
cycle
● Helps in the implantation of an embryo in the
uterus
● Helps prepare breasts for lactation
Testes
● Male gonads suspended outside the pelvic cavity
● Produce sperm
● Produce androgens, such as testosterone
● Testosterone
○ is the most important androgen
○ Responsible for adult male secondary sex

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Figure 5.12 Hormones Released by Major Glands of Endocrine

System

V. OTHER HORMONE-PRODUCING TISSUE AND ORGANS

● Stomach
● Small intestine
● Kidneys
● Heart
A. Placenta
● Secretes human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) - in addition
to estrogen, progesterone, and other hormones
● Secretes human placental lactogen (hPL) - prepares breast
for lactation
● Secretes Relaxin - pelvic ligaments and pubic symphysis for VI. DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS OF ENDOCRINE
childbirth SYSTEM
● In the absence of disease, efficiency of the endocrine system
remains high until old age.
● Decreasing function of female ovaries at menopause leads to
such symptoms as osteoporosis, increased chance of heart
disease, and possible mood changes.
● Efficiency of all endocrine glands gradually decreases with
aging , which leads to a generalized increase in incidence of :
○ Diabetes mellitus
○ Immune system depression
○ Lower metabolic rate
○ Cancer rate in some areas

REFERENCES
➢ Marieb, E., (12th Edition) .Essentials of Human Anatomy and
Physiology
➢ Notes from the discussion by Ms. Annie M. Ramos RMT, RN.
MD

Figure 5.13 Hormones Produced by Other Organs

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