1-1 Text clustering

The idea of text clustering long preceded the computer age: “Clustering is one of the most

primitive mental activities of humans, used to handle the huge amount of information they receive

every day” (Theodoridis and Koutroubas, 2003: 398). The act of indexing long used in libraries

is an obvious example. Manual clustering was the only type of document clustering possible prior

to the computer age. This circumstance may have influenced much clustering work that relied

only on immediate intuitive knowledge of the world without making use of quantitative numerical

methods. In other words, text clustering was usually performed in subjective ways that relied

heavily on the perception, knowledge, and judgment of the researcher. With more and easier

accessibility to electronic digital data in different disciplines and the power of computing data

processing on one hand and the need for maintaining objectivity standards on the other, it has

become ever more likely that such procedures must involve computational automated methods

(Arabie et al., 1996) where human intuition and traditional organization methods are replaced by

mathematical and computational techniques (Golub, 2006; Golub, 2005). In this, recent years have

witnessed a flourishing of the development of automated statistical clustering and classification

systems for systematizing the inherent subjectivity in traditional text classification applications.

 Clustering vs. classification

The two terms clustering and classification are extensively used throughout this chapter. The

question that rises at this point is: are they synonymous or is there a distinction?

In order to answer this question, some overlapping concepts should be considered. Firstly, there

is an overlap between the two terms text classification and text categorization. In information

retrieval (IR) and text classification of literature (Sebastiani, 2006; Svetlana, 2006; Taeho, 2006;

Mirkin, 2005; Sebastiani, 2005a; Sebastiani, 2005b), the two terms are often used interchangeably.

1
This book too uses them interchangeably. Secondly, there is a frequent confusion between the

terms text clustering and text classification. While many studies (Janos and Balazs, 2007; Wang,

2007; Ozgur, 2006; Jain et al., 1999) use the two terms interchangeably, this book does not. The

idea they share is that they are both concerned with grouping documents into clusters or groups.

However, mechanisms for doing so are different.

Text clustering is the process of automatically grouping natural language texts according to an

analysis of their information/ semantic content, by means of clustering algorithms (2004; Debole

and Sebastiani, 2003). It is simply a process of placing similar documents together into distinct

sets without labelling them (Maranis and Babenko, 2009). Text classification, on the other hand,

is the task of automatically sorting a set of documents into a number of classes or categories where

each is given a label (Maranis and Babenko, 2009; Taeho, 2006).

The main difference thus between clustering and classification is that, in the former, there are no

prior assumptions about the data structure. Unlike clustering, “classification relies on a priori

reference structures that divide the space of all possible data points into a set of classes that are

usually, but not necessarily, nonoverlapping” (Maranis and Babenko, 2009: 164-5). In other

words, clustering is a task of dividing given data into defined set of clusters and it is the task of

classification to structure these clusters and sort them into categories according to a group

structure known in advance (Sebastiani, 2006). In this, a text classification task starts by

discovering and finding groups that have similar content then organizing our perceptions of these

groups into categories. In other words, clustering places documents into natural classes while

classification places them into predefined known ones. There is a link thus between clustering and

classification since clustering is a way of generating taxonomies for classification purposes. The

one word that distinguishes between clustering and classification is that clustering is an

“unsupervised” activity while classification is a supervised one. In clustering, there is no one who

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assigns documents to classes but it is only the distribution and makeup of the data that will

determine cluster membership (Manning et al., 2008).

To illustrate the argument, let us consider the following example. Having a set of 1000 documents

on the history of English literature, these can be both clustered and classified. In performing a

clustering task, documents are just clustered into distinct groups where similar or related

documents are grouped together. In classification, on the other hand, predefined sets are given

first. These can be Old English literature, Shakespearean literature, Augustan Literature, Romantic

Literature, and Victorian Literature. Then documents are placed or classified under these

predefined categories.

1-1-1 Applications

Text/ document clustering is applied in different disciplines including IR and data mining. In IR,

document clustering is used to automatically group together documents that belong to the same

topic in order to facilitate user’s browsing of retrieval results. This is usually labelled as cluster-

based retrieval. The underlying principle cluster-based retrieval is the organization of web pages

or any documents into a hierarchical structure for subject browsing with the purpose of speeding

up and improving IR operations since search in the vector space model amounts to finding the

nearest neighbours to the query (Manning et al., 2008; Golub, 2006; Golub, 2005; Rijsbergen,

2004). The main assumption of cluster-based retrieval applications is that closely associated

documents tend to be relevant to the same requests (Rijsbergen, 1979). Kobayashi and Aono

(2004) argue that clustering is an effective approach for overcoming many IR problems. They

explain that to identify clusters or sets of documents that cover similar topics helps in ranking and

presenting only documents in one or a few selected clusters to users. In turn, the lack of a coherent

clustering structure makes searching much more difficult, especially when specific resource types

are being sought.

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In data mining, document clustering is one of some computational systems for carrying out data

mining tasks (Mirkin, 2005). Document clustering is proved successful in carrying out many

important operations for data mining including natural language processing, feature extraction,

annotation and summarization.

1-1-2 Approaches to text classification & clustering

Currently, there are many classification systems. Broadly speaking, these systems fall into two

main categories. These are binary and multiclass systems. Binary classification systems are only

concerned with classifying documents into two main categories or groups. Classification systems

of this kind are used to distinguish between just two classes of objects. As Maranis and Bebenko

(2009) explain, these systems provide Yes/No answer to the question: Does this document belong

to class X? In this, such systems can be useful in classifying emails where they are classified as

to whether they are spam or not, or commercial transactions where they are determined to be

fraudulent or not. In such applications, it is more likely and easier to use binary classification

systems as we have only two classes or groups. Multiclass systems, in turn, divide documents into

two classes or more. As the name indicates, these classifiers assign each document or data point

to one of many classes where each has a distinct subject area. Newspaper accounts, for instance,

can be classified under different categories such as news, sport, culture, business & money,

politics, science, etc.

Computational methods of text clustering fall into two main categories. These are linguistic and

statistical mathematical methods (Srivastava and Sahami, 2009; Justo and Torres, 2005).

Linguistic methods are based on natural language processing techniques. Methods of this kind

usually involve morphological and syntactic processes for extracting meaning and identifying

relationships within documents. Mathematical and statistical classification methods are essentially

based on probabilistic frameworks. The main difference between the two approaches lies in the

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idea that statistical and mathematical methods are not concerned with linguistic properties. Word

order or compositional semantics, for instance, do not have any significance in classification or

clustering performance. The focus of this chapter is on the use of statistical methods.

 Statistical text clustering

Statistical text clustering developed greatly in the 1990s, when it emerged as a subtask of

Information Retrieval (IR) applications (Joachims and Sebastiani, 2002). The hallmark of that a

development has been the dramatic improvement of the effectiveness of text clustering systems.

The last two decades have witnessed an unprecedented revolution in developing mechanized

solutions for organizing the vast quantity of unstructured digital documents and providing

powerful tools for turning this unstructured repository into a structured one (Sebastiani, 2006).

The world of knowledge has witnessed over recent years a rapid increase in the amount of sorted

data in all fields of knowledge due to the continuous improvement of methods for digitally storing

data. As a response to the growing overflow of information which has made it difficult for many

search engines to fill people’s needs, various computer-based clustering and classification

methods have been developed. Concerns have been raised by IR researchers and internet users

about the poor matching of queries and the results generated by search engines. IR researchers

have worked in consequence to find ways capable of automatically analyzing, classifying and

summarizing data in order to make it easy for internet users to access data effectively. In this they

made extraordinary progress over the last few years as they have managed to devise mechanisms

for assessing the relevance of information for user interests. Nonetheless, statistical text clustering

has not escaped criticism. Perhaps the most serious disadvantage with ATC applications is that in

almost all text classification schemes, semantic relatedness is merely judged at the level of lexical

semantics without taking compositional semantics into account (Gabrilovich and Markovitch,

2007). Another major criticism of ATC applications is that many of the algorithms used for

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computing semantic relatedness represent documents as just bags of words where context is not

considered at all.

 Content vs. context

To date, the standard approach and the most widely used in statistical text clustering applications

is clustering by content. This is the clustering of documents by the words they contain. Content

clustering is carried out by means of computing semantic similarity/ distance or what can be called

measuring proximity within documents. It is thus a lexical semantic function. It has always been

argued that semantic information within documents is key to understanding and determining the

content of such documents. In some recent studies (Attardi et al., 1999; Attardi et al., 1998),

however, clustering by context has been introduced as a working approach to evade the problems

caused in clustering by content. Clustering by context is a new method for grouping web pages

whereby the context surrounding a link is used for categorizing the document referred by the link.

The conception is based on the assumption that a web page which refers to a document must

necessarily involve enough hints about its content which themselves are sufficient to classify the

document (Attardi et al., 1998).

In relation to clustering by context, many software programs have been devised to execute such

tasks including SenseClusters (Purandare and Pedersen, 2004). This and others are programs that

allow users to cluster similar contexts such as emails and web pages (Pedersen, 2008). The

working principle of such programs is that data documents can be grouped on the basis of their

mutual contextual similarities (Purandare and Pedersen, 2004). Programs of this kind have indeed

proven a successful clustering method when applied to web pages and its merits are more tangible

with multimedia material. Nevertheless, an approach of this kind carries with it some limitations.

The most serious shortcoming is that it is not concerned with the analysis of the content of

documents. One more drawback is that in almost all context classification applications “identical

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 replications of controlled experiments result in different conclusions” (Martin et al., 2005: 470).

1-2 Document clustering models

Several document clustering models exist. A clustering model is a formalization of the way of

thinking about document clustering. Such formalism can be established and defined in the form

of algorithms capable of computing semantic similarity among documents. The goal of all

clustering models or systems is to create clusters that are coherent internally, but clearly different

from each other (Manning et al., 2008). The selection of a clustering system however is a

complicated and controversial matter. The idea that clustering results can be used in important

applications makes it crucial to consider the selection of a clustering system or model well.

The main bulk of clustering systems or approaches can be best described under the heading vector

semantics (VS) or vector space clustering (VSC). The underlying principle of VSC is measuring

or computing similarity between the documents to be clustered. VSC is an umbrella approach that

encompasses a number of methods and techniques including vector space model (VSM), latent

semantic indexing (LSI), explicit semantic analysis (ESA), and concept mining.

Prior to discussing the vector space clustering theory and its main methods, however, there are

some concepts that need to be addressed. They are fundamental to understanding VSC theory and

applications. These are data, geometry, and vector space. These are discussed as follows.

 The nature of data

Data is the plural form of ‘datum’, the past participle of Latin to ‘dare’, ‘to give’, and means

‘things that are given’. A datum is therefore is something to be accepted as granted or assumed as

fact, a true statement about the world and used as a basis for reasoning, discussion, or calculation

(Simpson and Weiner, 1989). The question ‘what is a true statement about the world?’ has been

intensively studied in cognitive science. For convenience reasons, this discussion adopts the

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attitude prevalent in most areas of science: data are abstractions of what we observe using our

senses, often with the aid of instruments (Chalmers, 1999).

There are numerous sources of data. Any object in the world can be a source of data: people,

animal, plants, institutions, texts, sounds, etc but data itself is ontologically different from the

world: “The world is as it is; the data is an interpretation of it for the purpose of scientific study”

(Moisl, 2008 a: 876). To explain the difference between the two concepts, let us consider this

example.

Table 1-1: Age distribution of the Egyptian people

Age Population %
group Male Female
0–18 5,560,489 5,293,871 18.0
19–59 20,193,876 19,736,516 66.3
60+ 4,027,721 5,458,235 15.7

The table above describes the age distributions of the Egyptian people. In this example,

populations are the world, the reality while age and sex are just features or observations about this

world. The populations themselves represent the real world while the features of age and sex are

the variables that describe population. Data, therefore, is just these variables or values that

describe populations: “Data never provides more than a pale and hazy shadow, a murky outline,

of the true workings of the world. And yet this gossamer wisp is just enough for us to grasp at the

edges of understanding” (Pyle, 1999: 46).

In linguistics, a text corpus is not the linguist’s data. A text corpus is as it is; measurements of

such things as sentence length, the use of function words, or the destiny of loan words can be the

linguist’s data. Texts are facts; they are unchangeable entities. Data, on the other hand, can be

different from one analysis to another depending on the nature and purpose of analysis. Having

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Shakespeare’s corpus as an example, data can be different from one application to another. If the

analysis is concerned, for instance, with the relationship between the use of static/dynamic

adjectives and characterization, it is likely then that data can be composed only of the adjectives

and proper names within the documents. If the analysis, however, is concerned with the

investigation of the Latin element in Shakespeare’s texts, data can be abstracted from the lexical

types within the texts to determine the ratio of Latin words to the overall texts.

 Data abstraction

In general, any aspect of the world can be described in a number of ways and to degrees of

precision. However, there is no theory-free observation of the world (Popper, 1963; Popper, 1959).

In other words, entities in a domain of inquiry only become relevant to observation in terms of a

research question framed using the ontology and axioms of a theory about the domain. For

example, in marketing analysis variables are selected in terms of the discipline of marketing

broadly defined, which includes the division into sub-disciplines such as direct marketing, brand

marketing, online marketing, promotions, and public relations.

Data can, therefore, only be created in relation to a research question that is defined on the domain

of interest, and that thereby provides an interpretative orientation --without such an orientation,

how does one know what to observe, what is important, and what is not? The domain of interest

in the present case is the collection of Hardy’s prose works, and the research question defined on

it is:

Can an experimentally replicable, objective and conceptually useful classification based

on empirical evidence abstracted from Thomas Hardy’s prose fiction texts be defined?

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  Data representation

Given that data is an interpretation of some aspect of the world in terms of variables, it is crucial

to select the appropriate variables for a successful data analysis. Unfortunately, there are no pre-

defined rules for variable selection. The process depends in the first place on the nature and

purpose of the analysis. The fundamental principle of such a process is that the variables must

describe all and only those aspects of the domain that are relevant to the purpose of analysis

(Moisl, 2008 a; Pyle, 1999).

In text clustering, the semantics of each selected variable determines a particular interpretation of

the domain of interest, and the domain is measured in terms of the semantics. Measurement is

fundamental in data preparation because it makes the link between data and the world, and thus

allows the results of data analysis to be applied to the understanding of the world (Moisl, 2008 a;

Pyle, 1999). Measurement is only possible in terms of some scale and there are various types of

measurement scale, but for present purposes the main dichotomy is between numeric and non-

numeric. The cluster analysis methods discussed in due course assume numeric measurement as

the default case, and for that reason the same is done here. If they are to be analyzed using

mathematically-based computational methods, selected variables must be mathematically

represented. A widely used way for doing this in text clustering is vector space representation

(Salton et al., 1975).

 The nature of geometry

Geometry is based on human intuitions about the world around us. This is a discipline in

mathematics that is concerned with the properties and relations of magnitudes in space, as lines,

surfaces, and solids. The earliest systematic discussion of geometry was developed by Euclid

around 300 B.C (Lang, 1958). Euclid based his theory on the earliest attempts of many

10
mathematicians before him like Apollonius, Hippocrates, and Eudoxus who were concerned with

defining the intuitive notions of space, direction, distance, size and shape. He placed the

propositions of the previous mathematicians into a comprehensive deductive and logical system

entitled Elements (Ball, 1935; Taylor, 1893; Euclid, 1826). The Euclidean geometry was used

virtually unchanged for 2, 000 years for understanding the physical reality (Lang and Murrow,

1988; Prenowitz and Jordan, 1965). In the meantime, Euclidean geometry used to be seen as a

perfect model for logical reasoning. At the end of the 19th century, however, mathematicians found

logical deficiencies within Euclidean framework. Prenowitz and Jordan (1965) argue that there

are certain logical gaps in the reasoning in the Euclidean frame. Nevertheless, Euclidean geometry

is still used in a range of disciplines including analysis of textual data, and as such the present

discussion is based on Euclidean geometry. Some fundamental ideas of that geometry are

presented below.

 Euclidean geometry

Euclidean geometry is concerned with modelling the world as it is experienced. It describes the

physical world in any finite number of dimensions using a distance formula. In mathematical

terms, Euclidean geometry is concerned with studying the relationships among distances and

angles in a space. According to Euclid, A 1-dimensional, 2-dimnsional, or 3-dimensional can be

described and defined by axes. For a 1-dimensional space, only a single numerical measure is

required. The distance between two objects can be defined by length and graphically represented

as in the figure below.

Figure 1-1 Axis for a 1-dimensional space

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Likewise, a 2-dimensional space can be defined using two numerical measures. A school’s

playground, for instance, can be defined in terms of length and width. The two measurements can

be represented in Euclidean geometry as a 2-dimensional space as in Figure 1-2.

Figure 1-2 : Axes for a 2-dimensional space

Euclid observed that there are still other kinds of physical property which cannot be described in

one or two dimension but require three, such as Big Ben Tower. In such a case, three

measurements are required: length, width, and height, and these can be represented in Euclidean

geometry as a 3-dimensional space as in Figure 1-3.

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Figure 1-3 : Axes for a 3-dimensional space

Because it was impossible to define more than three dimensions, modern mathematics generalized

Euclid’s concepts of distance, length, and angle so that any number of dimensions can be defined.

The economic growth of developing countries can be represented by an arbitrary large number of

dimensions such as the role of physical and human capital, technological progress, scale of

investments, trade, capital mobility, fixed assets, net capital stock, and employment. These can be

represented using N-dimensional space. Some fundamental ideas about N-dimensional space are

presented below.

 Vector space

A vector space is the basic object of study in linear algebra, one of the most basic of all branches

of mathematics. Vector space theory is based on the development of a mathematical structure that

consists of a set of vectors associated with a field of scalars (which are the object elements of

these vectors). The theory is used in different applications “and the vectors and scalars for one

application will generally be different from the vectors and scalars for another application”

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(Howlett, 2010:10-11). A vector space is defined as a geometrical interpretation of a vector in

which the dimensionality 𝓃 of the vector defines an 𝓃-dimensional space, the sequence of

numerical values comprising the vector specifies coordinates in the space, and the vector itself is

a point at the specified coordinates (Howlett, 2010; Fraleigh et al., 1995). So let X and Y are 2

axes with the values 36 and 160 respectively. These two axes can be represented in a vector space

as follows V [36, 160]. This is a vector representation in 2 dimensional spaces, and this can be

represented in a 2-dimensional space as in Figure 1-4. The components of the 2-dimensional

vector correspond to the coordinates in the 2-dimensional vector space with axes 0…100 and

0…200, counting 36 along the horizontal axis and 160 along the vertical.

Figure 1-4: A vector graphic representation of a 2-dimensional space

This can be extended to include a third dimension, and can be graphically represented as a 3-

dimensional vector space as in Figure 1-5.

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Figure 1-5: A vector graphic representation of a 3-dimensional space

Indeed, we are not limited to only using 2 or even 3 dimensions in mathematics. We can have any

number of dimensions and we can use each axis to represent a different value. An axis can be

anything. It can be an image, numbers, or documents. This discussion is only concerned with

documents. The following is an example.

The following are 3 different titles that represent different categories

Title No. 1- United States and Russia agree historic nuclear deal

Title No. 2- Korean sailors killed in naval incident

Title No. 3- Couple convicted of toddler murder

The titles are given the title names A, B, and C respectively and are represented as follow

A = {United, States, and, Russia, agree, historic, nuclear, deal},

B = {Korean, sailors, killed in naval incident},
C = {Couple, convicted, of, toddler, murder},

These vectors can be included together in just one space technically called a matrix. For now, let’s

give it the name X.

15
X = { United, States, and, Russia, agree, historic, nuclear, deal; B Korean, sailors, killed in naval
incident; C Couple, convicted, of, toddler, murder}.

Where there is more than one vector in a space as in the above example, they are collected so as

to constitute a matrix in which each row is a vector, as in the figure below.

Figure 1-6: A matrix X of the 3 vectors A, B, and C

Uni st a R a his nu d Ko Sa ki i N inc Co con o to m

ted at n us gr tor cle e re ilo lle n av ide up vict f dd ur
es d sia ee ic ar a an rs d al nt le ed ler de
l r
A 0 01 0 01 0 01 01 0 00 00 00 0 00 00 00 00 0 00 00
: 1 1 1 1 0 0

B 0 00 0 00 0 00 00 0 01 01 01 0 01 01 00 00 0 00 00
: 0 0 0 0 1 0

C 0 00 0 00 0 00 00 0 00 00 00 0 00 00 01 01 0 01 01
: 0 0 0 0 0 1

The matrix X in the above example is composed of two main constituents: rows and columns. The

matrix with the m rows and n columns defines a manifold in 𝓃-dimensional space. This is the

shape of data in 𝓃-dimensional space. In a manifold, vectors are plotted in a 3-dimensional space

forming a cloud of points, as in Figure 1-7.

Figure 1-7: A manifold in 3-dimensional space

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1-3 Vector space clustering (VSC)

Vector space clustering (VSC) is based on measuring the relative distances between the row

vectors. The distance between any two vectors in a space is jointly determined by the size of the

angle between the lines joining them to the origin of the space’s coordinate system, and by the

lengths of those lines. These are shown in Figure 1-8 and Figure 1-9.

Figure 1-9: Vector length

Figure 1-8: The angle between vectors

In VSC, the interplay between length and angle is what determines the distance relations between

and among vectors in a space, and thereby their clustering structure. This can be explained as

follows.

 If the angle is kept constant and the lengths of the vectors are made unequal by

lengthening or shortening one of them, then the distance increases, as shown in

Figure 1-10.

17
Figure 1-10

 If the lengths are kept equal but the angle is increased the distance between them

increases, as shown in Figure 1-11.

Figure 1-11

 If the lengths are kept equal and angle is decreased so does the distance, as shown in

Figure 1-12.

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Figure 1-12

Based on these observations, vectors in the first two cases are set apart and not clustered together

shown in Figure 1-10 and Figure 1-11 while they are more likely to be clustered together in the

last case shown in Figure 1-12.

In what follows the main applications of VSC are discussed.

1-3-1 Vector space model (VSM)

VSM is simply a technique where documents are compared with each other then indexed or

classified in terms of their similarity or distance based on the words they contain. It can be defined

as the organization of a collection of documents usually represented by a vector space model into

distinct clusters based on similarity. The theory was first developed by Salton (1971) essentially

for IR purposes four decades ago and since then it has become a standard tool in IR systems. The

underlying formula of VSM is initially to extract all useful information within a document

collection and record it in an index known as a vector space. Then a proximity measurement is

used to compute the semantic similarity among the documents with the purpose of grouping

similar documents together. The way data is mathematically represented using VSM is further

19
discussed in Error! Reference source not found.

In spite of being widely used, many studies have doubted the effectiveness of VSM as it is wholly

based on lexical semantics with no regard to the importance of context in identifying intended

meanings (Gabrilovich and Markovitch, 2007; Gabrilovich and Markovitch, 2006; Landauer et

al., 1998; Deerwester et al., 1990). Likewise, some studies have argued that VSM is less effective

in clustering and ranking web pages (Markov et al., 2008; Maguitman et al., 2005) since these

have some special features such as hyperlinks and structural information, which inevitably have

additional information and these are ignored in VSM applications.

1-3-2 Latent Semantic Indexing

Latent Semantic Indexing (LSI) is a statistical/ mathematical technique for extracting and

representing the underlying semantic connections between both the documents and the words in

a large corpus of texts for the purpose of automatic indexing or grouping of documents. (Adrian

et al., 2007; Foltz et al., 1998; Landauer et al., 1998; Deerwester et al., 1990; Dumais et al., 1988).

The literature suggests that LSI was originally developed to tackle some problems such as

polysemy and synonymy that used to affect the validity of VSC performance. Today, it has

numerous applications and techniques. Almost all LSI models assume in principle that a document

arises from one single source even if that source is not determined or defined.

The main assumption behind LSI is that linguistic information that is typically ignored in VSM

applications is fundamental; it is not supplemental information that can be ignored (Kuhn et al.,

2007; Berlin, 2006; Kuhn, 2006). This linguistic information, Deerwester et al. (1990) postulate,

has some underlying semantic structure that is essential for IR and clustering applications.

Nevertheless, LSI, Kuhn (2006) explains, is based essentially on the VSM approach. Just like

VSM, the first step in LSI is to represent a document in the form of a matrix of rows and vectors

20
where rows stand for unique words and columns for text passages.

The underlying principle of LSI is that it uses statistical correlation between word and passage

meaning to create a similarity score between any two documents based entirely on the words that

they contain. Landauer et al. (1998) assert that the relations LSI generates are well correlated with

several human cognitive phenomena involving association or semantic similarity. Unlike VSM,

LSI “uses as its initial data not just the summed contiguous pairwise (or tuple-wise) co-

occurrences of words but the detailed patterns of occurrences of very many words over very large

numbers of local meaning-bearing contexts, such as sentences or paragraphs, treated as unitary

wholes” (Landauer et al., 1998: 5).

Although LSI is reported to achieve good performance in grouping documents of similar topical

meaning together, it has some problems when it comes to practice. One major drawback of this

approach however is that the resulting dimensions might be difficult to interpret. That is, results,

which can be justified on a mathematical level, can have no interpretable meaning in natural

language. Equally important, it is theoretically unsuitable for many applications as a document

does not arise from a single theme. Rather a document often contains multiple themes.

1-3-3 Explicit Semantic Analysis

ESA is a novel scheme for computing semantic similarity developed by Gabrilovich and

Markovitch (2007). It computes semantic relatedness between two given texts. This newly

developed technique is based on Wikipedia, the largest online encyclopaedia now. It represents

the meaning of texts in a high dimensional space of concepts derived from Wikipedia. The main

assumption behind ESA is that computing the degree of semantic relatedness between fragments

of natural language text can be improved by explicitly representing the meaning of any text in

terms of Wikipedia-based concepts (Gabrilovich and Markovitch, 2007; Gabrilovich and

21
Markovitch, 2006).

Weiping et al. (2008) assert that the newly developed approach has achieved good performance

in computing semantic relatedness. The experimental results, however, indicate that ESA has

some problems. One main problem about this technique is that it can’t exactly determine the

intended sense of an ambiguous word (Weiping et al., 2008). In this, it loses a lot of its

significance. ESA is not an integrated classification system. It is merely a technique for computing

semantic relatedness and it is not successful in relating similar long documents together.

1-3-4 Concept mining

This is a process that has long been used to provide an automated categorization of documents

based on their content. It is a workflow that is used to discover implicit and explicit relationships,

useful associations and groupings in a set of documents or data collection with the purpose of

detecting similar documents in a large corpora and classifying them by topic. It can provide thus

powerful insights into the meaning, provenance and similarity of documents (Looks et al., 2007;

Fang et al., 2006; Han and Kamber, 2001). The assumption is that each word in a given document

relates to several possible concepts which makes it possible to cluster documents based on their

content. The underlying principle of concept mining is the conversion of words into concepts.

This is done in two subsequent steps. First, documents are reduced into a sequence of words that

describes the content. Second, these words are mapped into concepts.

In this way, given that we have a number of documents on generative grammar; concept mining

is possible by identifying relationships and generating facts based on the data within collection

and the dimensions of the subject. These can be something like Chomsky and generative grammar;

theoretical linguistics and generative grammar; Phrase Structure Rules (PSR) and Generative

grammar; deep and surface structures in generative grammar; etc. Documents can also be

22
 classified by topic as WH-movement; linguistic competence; etc.

1-4 Summary

This chapter has given an account of the different ways documents can be clustered thematically

yet in objective ways. The one approach in the literature that seems theoretically most consistent

with our goal is VSM. In spite of its limitations, VSM remains the most widespread method for

data representation in document clustering and classification applications. So far, most document

clustering approaches work with VSM methods. This can be justified in that it is still suitable for

the majority of clustering and classification purposes. The way data is mathematically represented

using VSM is the subject of the next chapter.

23
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