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28. M. Tranter, M. Skidmore, J. Wadham, Hydrol. Process. 19, measurements. We are grateful for assistance from the G. R. DiTullio) (P.A.L.); Canadian Institute for Advanced
995 (2005). Crary Laboratory, Petroleum Helicopters Incorporated, and Research (A.V.T.); Harvard–Microbial Sciences Initiative;
29. J. C. Priscu et al., Science 286, 2141 (1999). S. Carter. We would like to extend a special thanks to and NASA (NNX07AV51G) (D.T.J.). DNA sequences have
30. J. L. Kirschvink, in The Proterozoic Biosphere, McMurdo personnel B. Peace and W. Hayworth. Discussions been submitted to GenBank with accession numbers
J. W. Schopf, C. Klein, Eds. (Cambridge Univ. Press, with H. Keys, M. Tranter, K. Welch, W. B. Lyons, FJ389341 to FJ389351.
Supporting Online Material
Cambridge, 1992), pp. 51–52. W. Hamilton, F. MacDonald, S. Shah, and A. Knoll were
31. P. F. Hoffman, D. P. Schrag, Terra Nova 14, 129 (2002). helpful in formulating the ideas presented. The comments
32. D. E. Canfield et al., Science 321, 949 (2008); published
www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/324/5925/397/DC1
of three anonymous reviewers and A. J. Kaufman greatly
Materials and Methods
online 16 July 2008 (10.1126/science.1154499). improved the manuscript. This research was funded by an
Fig. S1
33. J. A. Mikucki, thesis, Montana State University (2005). NSF Polar postdoctoral fellowship (OPP-0528710) to
Tables S1 to S4
34. G. Eischeld and S. Fawcett assisted with oxygen isotope J.A.M. Additional support was provided by NSF grants
measurements, A. Masterson assisted with sulfur isotope EAR-0311937 (A.P.), OPP-432595 and OPP-0631494 17 October 2008; accepted 5 March 2009
measurements, and G. Gordon assisted with iron isotope (J.C.P.), and OPP-0338097 and OCE-0728683 (awarded to 10.1126/science.1167350
W
hether and how psychological inter- Situations where one could be judged or treated ance, increasing threat and lowering performance
ventions produce lasting positive con- in light of a negative stereotype can be stressful further, in a repeating process, can magnify early
sequences are critical questions for and thus undermine performance (5–7). For performance differences among students (14). Early
scientists and policy-makers. This report presents African Americans in school, the concern that outcomes set the starting point and initial trajectory
evidence of how interventions, even brief or sub- they or another African American could be seen of a recursive cycle and so can have dispro-
tle, can produce lasting benefit when targeted at as confirming a negative stereotype about their portional influence. For instance, the low self-
important psychological processes. It does so by group’s intelligence can give rise to stress and confidence of students who experience early failure,
focusing on the long-term impact of a psycho- depress performance (5–8). even by chance, is surprisingly difficult to undo
logical intervention designed to reduce the racial Findings of two randomized field experiments (15). A well-timed intervention could provide ap-
achievement gap through the lessening of aca- addressing this psychological threat in the class- preciable long-term performance benefits through
demic underperformance. room were reported in Science (8). These tested a early interruption of a recursive cycle.
The achievement gap between academically values-affirmation intervention. Beginning early Results encompass the original two student
at-risk minority students and European American in seventh grade, students reflected on an im- cohorts and a third cohort run after the original
students has long concerned the educational com- portant personal value, such as relationships with two experiments. The cohorts were observed for
munity (1). In a society where economic success friends and family or musical interests, in a series a period running from the first term of seventh
depends heavily on scholastic accomplishment, of structured writing assignments. Such self- grade to the end of eighth grade, typically cover-
even partial remediation of this gap would be affirmations reduce psychological threat and stress ing ages 12 to 14. Although the period involves
consequential. This is especially true for low- (9–11) and can thus improve performance. The the last 2 years of middle school, for clarity these
achieving students, given the societal, institutional, intervention should benefit students from groups will henceforth be referred to as Year 1 and 2,
and personal costs of academic failure. subjected to threat pervasive enough to undermine respectively. Individual students were randomly
Research shows the importance of psycho- their average performance—in this case, negative- assigned to the affirmation condition or the con-
logical factors in intellectual achievement (2–4). ly stereotyped minority students. As predicted, rel- trol condition. The former completed affirmation
ative both to a control group and to historical norms, exercises, the latter neutral exercises. The treat-
1
Department of Psychology, University of Colorado, Muenzinger one or two administrations of the intervention im- ment consisted of variations on the original affir-
Psychology Building, Boulder, CO 80309–0345, USA. 2Depart- proved the fall-term grades of African Americans mation exercise in which students wrote about
ment of Psychology, Columbia University, 405 Schermerhorn
Hall, New York, NY 10027, USA. 3Department of Psychology, Yale and lowered the psychological availability of the ste- the personal importance of a self-defining value
University, 2 Hillhouse Avenue, New Haven, CT 06520, USA. reotype. European Americans were unaffected (8). (16). The control exercises consisted of variations
*To whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail: A 2-year follow-up is now reported. We as- on the original control exercise in which students
cohen.geoff@gmail.com sess whether the affirmation buffers minority wrote about an unimportant value or a similarly
into low and high per- process, as the intervention’s early effects suffice to
formers based on a me- explain its long-term effects (16). All students, in-
2.25
dian split within their cluding African Americans, tended to perform rela-
racial group, reflecting tively worse in Year 2 if they had performed poorly
their relative standing in Year 1, even controlling for pre-intervention
within their group. Year performance (16). That the treatment effect on
1, Term 1 represents the 1.75 Year 2 GPA was significantly mediated by Year 1
first term after the initia- GPA suggests that this natural performance cycle
tion of the intervention. could have carried forward the intervention’s early
(Left) Raw means and er- impact (SOM Text).
ror terms. (Right) Means The intervention’s impact on students’ psy-
1.25
and error terms adjusted chological environment is indicated by data sug-
for baseline covariates gesting that it buffered African Americans against
and students’ assigned the impact of early poor performance on their
teacher team. The scale long-term perceptions of adequacy. A survey as-
reflects the grade metric,
sessed students’ self-perceived ability to fit in and
ranging from 0 (= F) to
Raw means and error terms Covariate-adjusted means and succeed in school—their adaptive adequacy in the
4.33 (= A+). error terms academic environment (16). These data indicate
M
irror neurons are a set of neurons, first quent interacting behaviors. A way to test this whether the observed actions were executed in the
described in the monkey premotor area hypothesis is to examine the effect of relative monkey’s peri- or extrapersonal space. Of all F5
F5, that respond both when the monkey distance between observer and actor on mirror mirror neurons tested, 26% (n = 27) exhibited a
performs an active goal-directed motor act and neuron responses. Although completely irrele-
when he observes the same motor act performed vant for “understanding” what the actor is doing, 1
Department of Cognitive Neurology, Hertie Institute for
by others (1, 2). The most accepted interpretation a precise knowledge of the distance at which the Clinical Brain Research, University of Tübingen, 72076
of the function of mirror neurons is that they are observed action is performed is crucial for se- Tübingen, Germany. 2Dipartimento di Psicologia, Univer-
sità di Parma, 43100 Parma, Italy. 3Dipartimento di
involved in action understanding. Here, we in- lecting the most appropriate behavioral reaction. Neuroscienze e Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Università
vestigated whether mirror neurons, besides play- To investigate quantitatively the possible di Parma, 43100 Parma, Italy.
ing a role in this function, also encode aspects of degree of spatial modulation of the visual re- *To whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail:
the observed actions that are relevant to subse- sponses of mirror neurons, we first isolated hand antonino.casile@uni-tuebingen.de