Unit of Competence: Determine Best Fit Topology L3

Lo1: Identify key information source

Introduction to computer network
A computer network is a group of devices connected with each other through a transmission medium such
as wires, cables etc. The purpose of having computer network is to send and receive data stored in other
devices over the network. ... These devices are often referred as nodes.
A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes) connected by communication links. A node can be a
computer, printer, or any other device capable of sending and/or receiving data generated by other nodes on
the network.

A computer network is a group of devices connected with each other through a transmission medium such as
wires, cables etc. These devices can be computers, printers, scanners, Fax machines etc.

The purpose of having computer network is to send and receive data stored in other devices over the
network. These devices are often referred as nodes.

There are five basic components of a computer network

Message: It is the data or information which needs to be transferred from one device to another device over a
computer network.

Sender: Sender is the device that has the data and needs to send the data to other device connected to the
network.

Receiver: A receiver is the device which is expecting the data from other device on the network.
Transmission media: In order to transfer data from one device to another device we need a transmission
media such as wires, cables, radio waves etc.

Protocol: A protocol is a set of rules that are agreed by both sender and receiver, without a protocol two
devices can be connected to each other but they cannot communicate. In order to establish a reliable
communication or data sharing between two different devices we need set of rules that are called protocol.
For example, http and https are the two protocols used by web browsers to get and post the data to internet;
similarly smtp protocol is used by email services connected to the internet.
Features of a Computer Network

A computer network has following features:

Performance: Performance of a computer network is measured in terms of response time. The response time
of sending and receiving data from one node (computer in a computer network are often referred as node) to
another should be minimal.

Data Sharing: One of the reasons why we use a computer network is to share the data between different
systems connected with each other through a transmission media.

Backup: A computer network must have a central server that keeps the backup of all the data that is to be
shared over a network so that in case of a failure it should be able to recover the data faster.

Software and hardware compatibility: A computer network must not limit all the computers in a computer
network to use same software and hardware; instead it should allow the better compatibility between the
different software and hardware configuration.

Reliability: There should not be any failure in the network or if it occurs the recovery from a failure should
be fast.

Security: A computer network should be secure so that the data transmitting over a network should be safe
from unauthorized access. Also, the sent data should be received as it is at the receiving node, which means
there should not be any loss of data during transmission.
Scalability: A computer network should be scalable which means it should always allow to add new
computers (or nodes) to the already existing computer network. For example, a company runs 100 computers
over a computer network for their 100 employees, lets say they hire another 100 employees and want to add
new 100 computers to the already existing LAN then in that case the local area computer network should
allow this.

Computer Network Components

A computer network is build up from several components. This component together makes it possible to
transfer data from one device to another and makes smooth communication between two different devices. In
this guide, we will discuss the main components of a computer network.

Basic components of a computer network

Server: Servers are computers that run operating system and hold data that can be shared over a computer
network.

Client: A client is a computer that is connected to other computers in the network and can receive data sent
by other computers.

Transmission Media: All computers in a computer network are connected with each other through a
transmission media such as wires, optical fiber cables, coaxial cables etc.

Network Interface card: Each system or computer in a computer network must have a card called network
interface card (NIC). The main purpose of NIC is to format the data, send the data and receive the data at the
receiving node.
Hub: Hub acts as a device that connects the entire computer in a network to each other. Any request that
comes from a client computer first received by Hub and then hub transmit this request over a network so that
the correct server receives and respond to it.

Switch: Switch is similar to hub however instead of broadcasting a incoming data request it uses the physical
device address in the incoming request to transfer the request to correct server computer.

Router: Router joins multiple computer networks to each other. For example lets say a company runs 100
computers over a local area network (LAN) and another company runs another LAN of 150 computers.
These both LANs can be connected with each other through a internet connection which is provided by the
router.

LAN cable: A wire that is used to connect more than one computer or other devices such as printers and
scanner to each other.

Computer Network Transmission Modes

The data is transmitted from one device to another device through a transmission mode. The transmission
mode decides the direction of data in which the data needs to travel to reach the receiver system or node. The
transmission mode is divided in three categories:

 Simplex
 Half-Duplex
 Full-Duplex

 Simplex Mode


1. In simplex mode the data transmits in one direction only, from one system to another system.
2. The sender device that sends data can only send data and cannot receive it. On the other hand the receiver
device can only receive the data and cannot send it.
3. Television is an example of simplex mode transmission as the broadcast sends signals to our TV but never
receives signals back from our TV. This is a unidirectional transmission.

Advantages of Simplex Mode:

The full capacity of the transmission medium is utilized as the transmission is one way and cannot
have traffic issues.
Disadvantages of Simplex Mode:
No bidirectional communication is possible. Two devices cannot communicate with each other using
simplex mode of transmission.

Half-Duplex Mode

1. In half duplex mode transmission can be done both ways which means if two systems are connected with
half-duplex mode of transmission, they both can send and receive data but not at the same time.
2. If one device is sending data then other device cannot send data until it receives the data which is already
in transmission. You can say that the communication is not simultaneous.
3. The radio communication device that our soldiers use at the battle fields are the examples of half duplex
mode transmission as they send message and then say over and then the person on other hand send his
message and this way they communicate but not simultaneously like we used to do on mobile.

Advantages of Half-Duplex mode:

Both devices can send and receive data.
Whole bandwidth can be utilized as at a time only one signal transmits.

Disadvantages of Half-Duplex mode:

The disadvantage in half duplex mode is that the other device cannot send data until it receives the data
which is already in transmission, this can cause delays to the communication.

Full Duplex Mode

Synchronous & Asynchronous Transmissions

Synchronous Transmission

In synchronous transmission, large volumes of information can be transmitted at a time. In this type of
transmission, data is transmitted block-by-block or word-byword simultaneously. Each block may contain
several bytes of data. In synchronous transmission, a special communication device known as synchronized
clock’ is required to schedule the transmission of information. This special communication device or
equipment is expensive.

Asynchronous Transmission

In asynchronous transmission, data is transmitted one byte at a ‘time’. This type of transmission is most
commonly used by microcomputers. The data is transmitted character-by-character as the user types it on a
keyboard.

An asynchronous line that is idle (not being used) is identified with a value 1, also known as ‘Mark’ state.
This value is used by the communication devices to find whether the line is idle or disconnected. When a
character (or byte) is about to be transmitted, a start bit is sent. A start bit has a value of 0, also called a space
state. Thus, when the line switches from a value of 1 to a value of 0, the receiver is alerted that a character is
coming

1. In full duplex mode both the connected devices can send and receive data simultaneously. The mobile
phone we use is an example of full duplex mode where we can communicate simultaneously.
2. Both the devices can send and receive the data at the same time.

Advantages of Full Duplex mode:

No delays in communication as both can send and receive data simultaneously.

Disadvantages of Full Duplex mode:

No proper bandwidth utilization as the same line is used for sending and receiving data at the same time

Network Transmission media

Transmission media is a communication channel that carries the information from the sender to the
receiver. Data is transmitted through the electromagnetic signals. The main functionality of the
transmission media is to carry the information in the form of bits through LAN(Local Area Network).

Data transfer methods

In a complex system where a number of senders, receivers and many ways to move the data between two
communicating parties where the transmission system is made of a number of nodes interconnected with a
transmission medium, two typical methods are employed to ensure data transfer. These are:
1. Circuit switching
2. Packet switching
Circuit Switching
Circuit switching was designed in 1878 in order to send telephone calls down a dedicated channel. This
channel remained open and in use throughout the whole call and could not be used by any other data or
phone calls.There are three phases in circuit switching:
 Establish
 Transfer
 Disconnect
 The telephone message is sent in one go, it is not broken up. The message arrives in the same order
that it was originally sent.
 In modern circuit-switched networks, electronic signals pass through several switches before a
connection is established.
 During a call, no other network traffic can use those switches.
 The resources remain dedicated to the circuit during the entire data transfer and the entire message
follows the same path.
 Circuit switching can be analogue or digital
 With the expanded use of the Internet for voice and video, analysts predict a gradual shift away from
circuit-switched networks.
 A circuit-switched network is excellent for data that needs a constant link from end-to-end. For
example real-time video.
Advantages
 Circuit is dedicated to the call – no interference, no sharing
 Guaranteed the full bandwidth for the duration of the call
 Guaranteed Quality of Service
Disadvantages
 Inefficient – the equipment may be unused for a lot of the call, if no data is being sent, the dedicated
line still remains open
  Takes a relatively long time to set up the circuit
 During a crisis or disaster, the network may become unstable or unavailable. It was primarily
developed for voice traffic rather than data traffic
Packet switching
 In packet-based networks, the message gets broken into small data packets. These packets are sent
out from the computer and they travel around the network seeking out the most efficient route to
travel as circuits become available. This does not necessarily mean that they seek out the shortest
route.
 Each packet may go a different route from the others.
 Each packet is sent with a ‘header addresses. This tells it where its final destination is, so it knows
where to go.
 The header address also describes the sequence for reassembly at the destination computer so that the
packets are put back into the correct order.
 One packet also contains details of how many packets should be arriving so that the recipient
computer knows if one packet has failed to turn up. If a packet fails to arrive, the recipient computer
sends a message back to the computer which originally sent the data, asking for the missing packet to
be resent
Advantages of packet switching
 Security
 Bandwidth used to full potential
 Devices of different speeds can communicate
 Not affected by line failure (rediverts signal)
 Availability – do not have to wait for a direct connection to become available
 During a crisis or disaster, when the public telephone network might stop working, e-mails and texts
can still be sent via packet switching
Disadvantages
 Under heavy use there can be a delay
 Data packets can get lost or become corrupted
 Protocols are needed for a reliable transfer
 Not so good for some types data streams e.g real-time video streams can lose frames due to the way
packets arrive out of sequence.
The open system Interconnection (OSI) reference model

The OSI reference model represents the seven layers of the process by which data is packaged and
transmitted from a sending application through the physical wires to the receiving application.

Network Communications

Network activity involves sending data from one computer to another. This complex process can be broken
into discrete, sequential tasks. The sending computer must:

1. Recognize the data.

2. Divide the data into manageable chunks.

3. Add information to each chunk of data to determine the location of the data and to identify the receiver.

4. Add timing and error-checking information.

5. Put the data on the network and send it on its way.

A Layered Architecture

The OSI reference model architecture divides network communication into seven layers. Each layer covers
different network activities, equipment, or protocols. The OSI reference model defines how each layer
communicates and works with the layers immediately above and below it. For example, the session layer
communicates and works with the presentation and transport layers.

The seven layers of the OSI reference model from highest to lowest layers are

7. Application layer

6. Presentation layer

5. Session layer

4. Transport layer

3. Network layer

2. Data link layer

1. Physical layer

Types of Transmission Media

In data communication terminology, a transmission medium is a physical path between the transmitter and
the receiver i.e it is the channel through which data is sent from one place to another. Transmission Media is
broadly classified into the following types

1. Guided Media: 
It is also referred to as Wired or Bounded transmission media. Signals being transmitted are directed and
confined in a narrow pathway by using physical links. 
Features:  

 High Speed
 Secure
 Used for comparatively shorter distances

There are 3 major types of Guided Media: 

(i) Twisted Pair Cable – 

It consists of 2 separately insulated conductor wires wound about each other. Generally, several such pairs
are bundled together in a protective sheath. They are the most widely used Transmission Media. Twisted Pair
is of two types:

1. Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP): 

This type of cable has the ability to block interference and does not depend on a physical shield for
this purpose. It is used for telephonic applications. 
  Speed and throughput—10 to 1000 Mbps
 Average cost per node—Least expensive
 Media and connector size—Small
 Maximum cable length—100 m (short

Advantages: 

 Least expensive
 Easy to install
 High-speed capacity
 Susceptible to external interference
 Lower capacity and performance in comparison to STP
 Short distance transmission due to attenuation

Commonly used types of UTP cabling are as follows:

Category 1—used for telephone communications. Not suitable for transmitting data.
Category 2—capable of transmitting data at speeds up to 4 megabits per second (Mbps).
Category 3—used in 10BASE-T networks. Can transmit data at speeds up to 10 Mbps.
Category 4—used in Token Ring networks. Can transmit data at speeds up to 16 Mbps.
Category 5—can transmit data at speeds up to 100 Mbps.
Category 5e —used in networks running at speeds up to 1000 Mbps (1 gigabit per second [Gbps]).
Category 6—typically, Category 6 cable consists of four pairs of 24 American Wire Gauge (AWG)
copper wires. Category 6 cable is currently the fastest standard for UTP.

2. Shielded Twisted Pair (STP): 

This type of cable consists of a special jacket to block external interference. It is used in fast-data-rate
Ethernet and in voice and data channels of telephone lines. 

 Speed and throughput—10 to 100 Mbps

 Average cost per node—Moderately expensive

 Media and connector size—Medium to large

 Maximum cable length—100 m (short)

Advantages: 

 Better performance at a higher data rate in comparison to UTP

 Eliminates crosstalk
 Comparatively faster
 Comparatively difficult to install and manufacture
 More expensive
 Bulky

(ii) Coaxial Cable – 

It has an outer plastic covering containing 2 parallel conductors each having a separate insulated protection
cover. The coaxial cable transmits information in two modes: Baseband mode(dedicated cable bandwidth)
and Broadband mode(cable bandwidth is split into separate ranges). Cable TVs and analog television
networks widely use Coaxial cables. 

Thinnet Cable

 Thinnet cable is a flexible coaxial cable about 0.64 centimeters (0.25 inches) thick. Because
this type of coaxial cable is flexible and easy to work with, it can be used in almost any type
of network installation.
 Thinnet coaxial cable can carry a signal for a distance of up to approximately 185meters
(about 607 feet) before the signal starts to suffer from attenuation

Thicknet cable can carry a signal for 500 meters (about 1640 feet). Therefore, because of thicknet's ability to
support data transfer over longer distances, it is sometimes used as a backbone to connect several smaller
thinnet-based networks.

Advantages: 

 High Bandwidth
 Better noise Immunity
 Easy to install and expand
 Inexpensive

Disadvantages:  

 Single cable failure can disrupt the entire network

(iii) Optical Fiber Cable – 

It uses the concept of reflection of light through a core made up of glass or plastic. The core is surrounded by
a less dense glass or plastic covering called the cladding. It is used for the transmission of large volumes of
data. 

The cable can be unidirectional or bidirectional. The WDM (Wavelength Division Multiplexer) supports two
modes, namely unidirectional and bidirectional mode.

Advantages:  

 Increased capacity and bandwidth

 Lightweight
 Less signal attenuation
 Immunity to electromagnetic interference
 Resistance to corrosive materials

Disadvantages:  

 Difficult to install and maintain

 High cost
 Fragile
2. Unguided Media: 
It is also referred to as Wireless or unbounded transmission media. No physical medium is required for the
transmission of electromagnetic signals. 

Features:  

 The signal is broadcasted through air

 Less Secure
 Used for larger distances
There are 3 types of Signals transmitted through unguided media: 
(i) Radiowaves – 
These are easy to generate and can penetrate through buildings. The sending and receiving antennas need
not be aligned. Frequency Range:3KHz – 1GHz. AM and FM radios and cordless phones use
Radiowaves for transmission. 
Further Categorized as (i) Terrestrial and (ii) Satellite. 
(ii) Microwaves – 
It is a line of sight transmission i.e. the sending and receiving antennas need to be properly aligned with
each other. The distance covered by the signal is directly proportional to the height of the antenna.
Frequency Range:1GHz – 300GHz. These are majorly used for mobile phone communication and
television distribution. 

(iii) Infrared – 
Infrared waves are used for very short distance communication. They cannot penetrate through obstacles.
This prevents interference between systems. Frequency Range:300GHz – 400THz. It is used in TV remotes,
wireless mouse, keyboard, printer, etc.

Terrestrial Microwave

 Typically used where laying a cable is not practical

 Parabolic dish shaped antenna for directional and bar-like antenna for omni directional transmission
 Transmits/receives electromagnetic waves in the 2-40 GHz range
 Travels in a straight line (line-of-sight propagation)
 High data rates: 100’s Mbps
 Repeaters spaced 10 - 100 km apart
 Applications: telephone and data transmission- wireless LANs Satellite Microwave
 Uses satellite in geostationary (geosynchronous) 36,000 km)orbit(
 Source transmits signal to satellite which amplifies or repeats it, and retransmits down to destinations
 Optimum transmission in 1 - 10 GHz range;
 Bandwidth of 100’s MHz
 270msSignificant propagation delay about
 VSAT ( Very small Aperture Terminal) :- High speed data transmission using satellite
Some Factors

The following factors must be considered to design the transmission media like the following.

 Bandwidth

The bandwidth mainly refers to the capacity of data-carrying in a medium otherwise a channel. So, high BW
communication channels mainly support high data rates.
 Radiation

The radiation refers to the signal leakage from the medium because of its unwanted electrical characteristics.

 Absorption of Noise

The absorption of noise refers to the vulnerability of the media to exterior electrical noise. This noise can
cause data signal distortion.

 Attenuation

Attenuation refers to the energy loss when signal broadcasts externally. The loss of energy amount mainly
depends on frequency. Radiation, as well as physical media characteristics, contributes to attenuation.

Transmission Impairment Causes

The transmission impairment mainly causes because of the following reasons.

 Attenuation

It is the loss of energy which can be occurred due to the decrease in signal & increase in the distance.

 Distortion

Distortion mainly occurs because of the change in signal shape. This kind of distortion can be observed from
various signals which have different frequencies. Every frequency component has its separate propagation
speed because they arrive at a different time which leads to the delay in distortion.

 Noise

When data is transmitted above a transmission medium, an unwanted signal can be added to it. So the noise
can be created.

Quiz 1

1) What is transmission media?

 Transmission media is a path that transmits the data from a transmitter to the receiver.

2). what are the types of transmission media?

 The two types of transmission media are guided and unguided.

3). what are twisted pair cables?

 Unshielded twisted pair & shielded twisted pair

4). what are the examples of transmission media?

 They are coaxial cable, twisted-pair cable, and fiber optic cable
5). Mention the most commonly used transmission media in homes?

 They are coaxial cable, twisted-pair, satellite, fiber optics & microwave,

Personal Area Network (PAN)

As the most basic type of network, a PAN consists of a wireless modem, one or two computers, mobile
phones, printers, tablets, etc. These types of networks are usually found in small offices or residences and
are managed from a single device by one person or organization. It can also be used to communicate
between personal devices to connect to a digital network and the Internet itself.

Local Area Network (LAN)

LAN connect a number of computers and low- voltage devices over short distances (in a building or in
close proximity between two or three buildings) to share information and resources. Companies normally
manage and maintain LAN. All machines on LAN are connected to one cable. Usually, it is a private
network. LAN can connect to wide area networks (WANs) with routers to transmit data quickly and
safely.

Wide Area Network (WAN)

The WAN connects large number of computers spreading across a long geographical distance. This
allows computers and low- voltage devices to communicate remotely over a large network. Due to
WAN’s capacity of wide reaching; it is usually owned and maintained by several administrators or the
public. The majority of WAN networks are used to transmit large data blocks between their users.

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

These network types are larger than LANs but smaller than WANs– and include elements of both
network types. MANs cover a whole geographical area (typically a city or town, but sometimes a
campus). Ownership and maintenance are carried out by one person or company (local council, large
company, etc.).

Campus Area Network (CAN)

Campus area network consists of a LAN connection with a limited geographical area. Network devices
such as switches, routers, optical fiber etc. are entirely owned by the campus network owner. Typically,
these types of networks are seen in universities, large K-12 school districts or small companies. They can
be spread over several buildings which are relatively close together so that users can share resources.

Computer networking provides a large number of benefits to its users-

 Sharing
 Connectivity
 Increased speed
 Decreased cost
 Improved security
 Centralized software management
 Electronic mails
 Flexible access
Advantage of a computer network
 File sharing
 The major advantage of a computer network is that is allows file sharing and remote file access. A
person sitting at one workstation of a network can easily see the files present on the other
workstation, provided he is authorized to do so. It saves the time which is wasted in copying a file
from one system to another, by using a storage device. In addition to that, many people can access or
update the information stored in a database, making it up-to-date and accurate. Resource
 sharing[Hardware and software sharing]Hardware like Printer, hard disk, CD-ROM and different
software can be shared
 Increased Storage Capacity: A standalone computer might fall short of storage memory, but when
many computers are on a network, memory of different computers can be used in such case. One can
also design a storage server on the network in order to have a huge storage capacity.
 Centralized administration and support From just a single location, the network administrator can
perform administrative tasks on any computer on the network, remote troubleshooting, for technical
 Increased Cost Efficiency: There are many software available in the market which are costly and take
time for installation. Computer networks resolve this issue as the software can be stored or installed
on a system or a server and can be used by the different workstations
Disadvantage of a computer network
 Security Issue
 Rapid spread of computer virus
 Expensive setup
 Dependency on the main servers
Hacker: A computer hacker is a person who finds out weaknesses in the computer and exploits it. Hackers
may be motivated by a multitude of reasons, such as profit, protest, or challenge
Workstation: PC connected to a network
Types of networks based on configuration (Node Relationship)
Terms to be familiar
 Servers: Computers that provide shared resources to network users.
 Clients: Computers that access shared network resources provided by a server. Media: the wires
that make the physical connections.
 Shared data: Files provided to clients by servers across the network.
 Shared printers and other peripherals—Additional resources provided by servers.
 Resources—any service or device, such as files, printers, or other items, made available for use by
members of the network.
Based on the computers relationship on the network, computer networks can be categorized as Peer to Peer
and Server based network
Peer-to-Peer Networks
In a peer-to-peer network, there are no dedicated servers, and there is no hierarchy among the computers. All
the computers are equal and therefore are known as peers. Each computer functions as both a client and a
server, and there is no administrator responsible for the entire network. The user at each computer
determines what data on that computer is shared on the network. Peer to peer network are also called
Workgroup.
Peer-to-peer networks are good choices for environments where:
 There are 10 users or fewer.
 Users share resources, such as files and printers, but no specialized servers exist. Security is not an
issue.
 The organization and the network will experience only limited growth within the foreseeable future.
Advantages of peer to peer network
 Easy to install and configure
 The cost of installation and operation is less
 A full time network administrator is not required
Disadvantages of peer to peer network
 Shared resources can be accessed by everyone
 Backup has to be performed on each computer separately
 No centralized security
Server Based network (client/server network)
In an environment with more than 10 users, a peer-to-peer network—with computers acting as both servers
and clients—will probably not be adequate. Therefore, most networks have dedicated servers. A dedicated
server is one that functions only as a server and is not used as a client or workstation. Servers are described
as "dedicated" because they are not themselves clients, and because they are optimized to service requests
from network clients quickly and to ensure the security of files and directories. Server based network is also
known as Domain.
Advantages of server based network
 Centralized resources
 Easier to backup files
 Easier to find files
 Efficient
 Security
 One machine can secure entire network
 One central login
 Scalability
Disadvantage of client server
 If the server goes down, it takes part or the whole network with it
 It is more expensive to install
 Needs to be maintained by staff with high IT skills

Network Topology

The term topology, or more specifically, network topology, refers to the arrangement or physical layout of
computers, cables, and other components on the network. "Topology" is the standard term that most network
professionals use when they refer to the network's basic design. In addition to the term "topology," you will
find several other terms that are used to define a network's design:
 Physical layout
 Design
 Diagram
 Map
A network's topology affects its capabilities.
The choice of one topology over another will have an impact on the:
 Type of equipment the network needs.
 Capabilities of the equipment.
 Growth of the network
 Way the network is managed.

Category of Topology
1. Logical: describes the way network data flows through the physical components.
2. Physical: Physical topology describes how the physical components on a network are connected.
Standard Topologies

Types of Topology
There are five types of topology in computer networks:

Mesh Topology

In mesh topology each device is connected to every other device on the network through a dedicated point-
to-point link. When we say dedicated it means that the link only carries data for the two connected devices
only. Lets say we have n devices in the network then each device must be connected with (n-1) devices of
the network. Number of links in a mesh topology of n devices would be n(n-1)/2.

Advantages of Mesh topology

1. No data traffic issues as there is a dedicated link between two devices which means the link is only
available for those two devices.
2. Mesh topology is reliable and robust as failure of one link doesn’t affect other links and the
communication between other devices on the network.
3. Mesh topology is secure because there is a point to point link thus unauthorized access is not possible.
4. Fault detection is easy.

Disadvantages of Mesh topology

1. Amount of wires required to connected each system is tedious and headache.

2. Since each device needs to be connected with other devices, number of I/O ports required must be huge.
3. Scalability issues because a device cannot be connected with large number of devices with a dedicated
point to point link.

Star Topology

In star topology each device in the network is connected to a central device called hub. Unlike Mesh
topology, star topology doesn’t allow direct communication between devices, a device must have to
communicate through hub. If one device wants to send data to other device, it has to first send the data to hub
and then the hub transmit that data to the designated device.

Advantages of Star topology

1. Less expensive because each device only need one I/O port and needs to be connected with hub with one
link.
2. Easier to install
3. Fewer amounts of cables required because each device needs to be connected with the hub only.
4. Robust, if one link fails, other links will work just fine.
5. Easy fault detection because the link can be easily identified.
Disadvantages of Star topology

1. If hub goes down everything goes down, none of the devices can work without hub.
2. Hub requires more resources and regular maintenance because it is the central system of star topology.

Bus Topology

In bus topology there is a main cable and all the devices are connected to this main cable through drop lines.
There is a device called tap that connects the drop line to the main cable. Since all the data is transmitted
over the main cable, there is a limit of drop lines and the distance a main cable can have.

Advantages of bus topology

1. Easy installation, each cable needs to be connected with backbone cable.

2. Less cables required than Mesh and star topology

Disadvantages of bus topology

1. Difficultly in fault detection.

2. Not scalable as there is a limit of how many nodes you can connect with backbone cable.

Ring Topology
In ring topology each device is connected with the two devices on either side of it. There are two dedicated
point to point links a device has with the devices on the either side of it. This structure forms a ring thus it is
known as ring topology. If a device wants to send data to another device then it sends the data in one
direction, each device in ring topology has a repeater, if the received data is intended for other device then
repeater forwards this data until the intended device receives it.

Advantages of Ring Topology

1. Easy to install.
2. Managing is easier as to add or remove a device from the topology only two links are required to be
changed.

Disadvantages of Ring Topology

1. A link failure can fail the entire network as the signal will not travel forward due to failure.
2. Data traffic issues, since all the data is circulating in a ring.

Hybrid topology
A combination of two or more topology is known as hybrid topology. For example a combination of star and
mesh topology is known as hybrid topology.

Advantages of Hybrid topology

1. We can choose the topology based on the requirement for example, scalability is our concern then we can
use star topology instead of bus technology.
2. Scalable as we can further connect other computer networks with the existing networks with different
topologies.

Disadvantages of Hybrid topology

1. Fault detection is difficult.

2. Installation is difficult.
3. Design is complex so maintenance is high thus expensive

Network access method

The access method is a way of sharing a common transmission medium (cable, wireless link) between
several hosts. Ethernet is built upon the medium access method called CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple
Access/Collision Detection). The network aspects explain how a local area network is built today.
The Function of Access Methods
The set of rules that defines how a computer puts data onto the network cable and takes data from the cable
is called an access method. Once data is moving on the network, access methods help to regulate the flow of
network traffic. Access methods prevent computers from gaining simultaneous access to the cable. By
making sure that only one computer at a time can put data on the network cable, access methods ensure that
the sending and receiving of network data is an orderly process.
Major Access Methods
The three methods designed to prevent simultaneous use of the network media include:
 Carrier-sense multiple access methods (with collision detection or with collision avoidance).
  Token-passing methods that allow only a single opportunity to send data.
 Demand-priority methods.
Carrier-Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD) Access Method
 Before sending data each computer checks the network cable
 Only when a computer senses that the cable is free and that there is no traffic on the cable can it send
data
 Once the computer has transmitted data on the cable, no other computer can transmit data until the
original data has reached its destination and the cable is free again
 If a computer detects a possible collision, it waits for a random period of time before retransmitting
(collision detection)

Carrier-Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA) Access Method

 Carrier-sense multiple access with collision avoidance (CSMA/CA)is the least popular of the three
major access methods.
 In CSMA/CA, each computer signals its intent to transmit before it actually transmits data. In this
way, computers sense when a collision might occur; this allows them to avoid transmission
collisions. Unfortunately, broadcasting the intent to transmit data increases the amount of traffic on
the cable and slows down network performance.
What is packet?
In telecommunications and computer networking, a network packet is a formatted unit of data carried by a
packet-switched network. A packet consists of control information and user data; the latter is also known as
the payload.
A packet is a small amount of data sent over a network, such as a LAN or the Internet. Similar to a real-life
package, each packet includes a source and destination as well as the content (or data) being transferred.

What Is Packet Filter?

Packet filter is a standard router equipped with some extra functionality. The extra functionality allows every
incoming or outgoing packet to be inspected. Packets meeting some criterion are forwarded normally. Those
that fail the test are dropped

What is frame?
A frame is a digital data transmission unit in computer networking and telecommunication.
Ethernet is a way of connecting computers together in a local area network or LAN. It has been the most
widely used method of linking computers together in LANs since the 1990s. The basic idea of its design is
that multiple computers have access to it and can send data at any time.
The 10-Mbps IEEE Standards
This section looks at four 10 Mbps Ethernet topologies:
 10BaseT
 10Base2
 10Base5
 10BaseFL
10BaseT Standard
 10 Mbps, baseband, over twisted-pair cable
 Mostly uses UTP but can also use STP
 Has a physical star and logical bus topology
 The maximum length of a 10BaseT segment is 100 meters (328 feet). Repeaters can be used to
extend this maximum cable length. The minimum cable length between computers is 2.5 meters
(about 8 feet). A 10BaseT LAN will serve 1024 computers.
Transceivers. These are devices that can both transmit and receive, provide communications between the
computer and the main LAN cable, and are located in the vampire taps attached to the cable.

What Is the OSI Model

The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model describes seven layers that computer systems use to
communicate over a network. It was the first standard model for network communications, adopted by all
major computer and telecommunication companies in the early 1980s

The modern Internet is not based on OSI, but on the simpler TCP/IP model. However, the OSI 7-layer model
is still widely used, as it helps visualize and communicate how networks operate, and helps isolate and
troubleshoot networking problems.

OSI was introduced in 1983 by representatives of the major computer and telecom companies, and was
adopted by ISO as an international standard in 1984.

OSI Model Explained: The OSI 7 Layers

We’ll describe OSI layers “top down” from the application layer that directly serves the end user, down to
the physical layer.

7. Application Layer

The application layer is used by end-user software such as web browsers and email clients. It provides
protocols that allow software to send and receive information and present meaningful data to users. A few
examples of application layer protocols are the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), File Transfer Protocol
(FTP), Post Office Protocol (POP), Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP), and Domain Name System
(DNS).

6. Presentation Layer
The presentation layer prepares data for the application layer. It defines how two devices should encode,
encrypt, and compress data so it is received correctly on the other end. The presentation layer takes any data
transmitted by the application layer and prepares it for transmission over the session layer.

5. Session Layer

The session layer creates communication channels, called sessions, between devices. It is responsible for
opening sessions, ensuring they remain open and functional while data is being transferred, and closing them
when communication ends. The session layer can also set checkpoints during a data transfer—if the session
is interrupted, devices can resume data transfer from the last checkpoint.

4. Transport Layer

The transport layer takes data transferred in the session layer and breaks it into “segments” on the
transmitting end. It is responsible for reassembling the segments on the receiving end, turning it back into
data that can be used by the session layer. The transport layer carries out flow control, sending data at a rate
that matches the connection speed of the receiving device, and error control, checking if data was received
incorrectly and if not, requesting it again.

3. Network Layer

The network layer has two main functions. One is breaking up segments into network packets, and
reassembling the packets on the receiving end. The other is routing packets by discovering the best path
across a physical network. The network layer uses network addresses (typically Internet Protocol addresses)
to route packets to a destination node.

2. Data Link Layer

The data link layer establishes and terminates a connection between two physically-connected nodes on a
network. It breaks up packets into frames and sends them from source to destination. This layer is composed
of two parts—Logical Link Control (LLC), which identifies network protocols, performs error checking and
synchronizes frames, and Media Access Control (MAC) which uses MAC addresses to connect devices and
define permissions to transmit and receive data.

1. Physical Layer

The physical layer is responsible for the physical cable or wireless connection between network nodes. It
defines the connector, the electrical cable or wireless technology connecting the devices, and is responsible
for transmission of the raw data, which is simply a series of 0s and 1s, while taking care of bit rate control.

Advantages of OSI Model

The OSI model helps users and operators of computer networks:

 Determine the required hardware and software to build their network.

 Understand and communicate the process followed by components communicating across a network. 
 Perform troubleshooting, by identifying which network layer is causing an issue and focusing efforts
on that layer.

The OSI model helps network device manufacturers and networking software vendors:
  Create devices and software that can communicate with products from any other vendor, allowing
open interoperability
 Define which parts of the network their products should work with.
 Communicate to users at which network layers their product operates – for example, only at the
application layer, or across the stack.

The Transfer Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) is older than the OSI model and was created by the
US Department of Defense (DoD). A key difference between the models is that TCP/IP is simpler,
collapsing several OSI layers into one:

 OSI layers 5, 6, 7 are combined into one Application Layer in TCP/IP

 OSI layers 1, 2 are combined into one Network Access Layer in TCP/IP – however TCP/IP does not
take responsibility for sequencing and acknowledgement functions, leaving these to the underlying
transport layer.

Other important differences:

 TCP/IP is a functional model designed to solve specific communication problems, and which is based
on specific, standard protocols. OSI is a generic, protocol-independent model intended to describe all
forms of network communication.
 In TCP/IP, most applications use all the layers, while in OSI simple applications do not use all seven
layers. Only layers 1, 2 and 3 are mandatory to enable any data communication.

 Physical layer −It is the first layer that physically connects the two systems that need to
communicate. It transmits data in bits and manages simplex or duplex transmission by modem. It also
 manages Network Interface Card’s hardware interface to the network, like cabling, cable terminators,
topography, voltage levels, etc.

 Data link layer − It is the firmware layer of Network Interface Card. It assembles datagrams into
frames and adds start and stop flags to each frame. It also resolves problems caused by damaged, lost
or duplicate frames.

 Network layer − It is concerned with routing, switching and controlling flow of information between
the workstations. It also breaks down transport layer datagrams into smaller datagrams.

 Transport layer − Till the session layer, file is in its own form. Transport layer breaks it down into
data frames, provides error checking at network segment level and prevents a fast host from
overrunning a slower one. Transport layer isolates the upper layers from network hardware.

 Session layer − This layer is responsible for establishing a session between two workstations that
want to exchange data.

 Presentation layer − This layer is concerned with correct representation of data, i.e. syntax and
semantics of information. It controls file level security and is also responsible for converting data to
network standards.

 Application layer − It is the topmost layer of the network that is responsible for sending application
requests by the user to the lower levels. Typical applications include file transfer, E-mail, remote
logon, data entry, etc.

A network protocol is an established set of rules that determine how data is transmitted between different
devices in the same network. Essentially, it allows connected devices to communicate with each other,
regardless of any differences in their internal processes, structure or design.

Types of Protocols

1. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

2. Internet Protocol (IP)
3. User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
4. Post office Protocol (POP)
5. Simple mail transport Protocol (SMTP)
6. File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
7. Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
8. Hyper Text Transfer Protocol Secure (HTTPS)
9. Telnet
10. Gopher

Other protocol

 ARP (Address Resolution Protocol)

 DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol)
 IMAP4 (Internet Message Access Protocol)
 SIP (Session Initiation Protocol)
  RTP (Real-Time Transport Protocol)
 RLP (Resource Location Protocol)
 RAP (Route Access Protocol)
 L2TP (Layer Two Tunnelling Protocol)
 PPTP (Point To Point Tunnelling Protocol)
 SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol)
 TFTP (Trivial File Transfer Protocol)

Let's discuss each of them briefly:

1. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP): TCP is a popular communication protocol which is used for
communicating over a network. It divides any message into series of packets that are sent from
source to destination and there it gets reassembled at the destination.
2. Internet Protocol (IP): IP is designed explicitly as addressing protocol. It is mostly used with TCP.
The IP addresses in packets help in routing them through different nodes in a network until it reaches
the destination system. TCP/IP is the most popular protocol connecting the networks.
3. User Datagram Protocol (UDP): UDP is a substitute communication protocol to Transmission
Control Protocol implemented primarily for creating loss-tolerating and low-latency linking between
different applications.
4. Post office Protocol (POP): POP3 is designed for receiving incoming E-mails.
5. Simple mail transport Protocol (SMTP): SMTP is designed to send and distribute outgoing E-
Mail.
6. File Transfer Protocol (FTP): FTP allows users to transfer files from one machine to another.
Types of files may include program files, multimedia files, text files, and documents, etc.
7. Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP): HTTP is designed for transferring a hypertext among two
or more systems. HTML tags are used for creating links. These links may be in any form like text or
images. HTTP is designed on Client-server principles which allow a client system for establishing a
connection with the server machine for making a request. The server acknowledges the request
initiated by the client and responds accordingly.
8. Hyper Text Transfer Protocol Secure (HTTPS): HTTPS is abbreviated as Hyper Text Transfer
Protocol Secure is a standard protocol to secure the communication among two computers one using
the browser and other fetching data from web server. HTTP is used for transferring data between the
client browser (request) and the web server (response) in the hypertext format, same in case of
HTTPS except that the transferring of data is done in an encrypted format. So it can be said that https
thwart hackers from interpretation or modification of data throughout the transfer of packets.
9. Telnet: Telnet is a set of rules designed for connecting one system with another. The connecting
process here is termed as remote login. The system which requests for connection is the local
computer, and the system which accepts the connection is the remote computer.
10. Gopher: Gopher is a collection of rules implemented for searching, retrieving as well as displaying
documents from isolated sites. Gopher also works on the client/server principle.
11. Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) Before an IP packet can be forwarded to another host, the
hardware address of the receiving machine must be known. The ARP determines hardware address
(MAC addresses) that corresponds to an IP address.
 12. Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP). The ICMP is used by IP and higher-level protocols to
send and receive status reports about information being transmitted. Routers commonly use ICMP to
control the flow, or speed, of data between themselves. If the flow of data is too fast for a router, it
requests that other routers slow down

TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) is a set of protocols independent of the physical
medium used to transmit data, but most data transmission for Internet communication begins and ends with
Ethernet frames.

Types of network devices

Here is the common network device list:

 Hub
 Modem
 Repeater
 Access Point
 The network interface card (NIC)
 The switch
 The bridge
 The router
 The gateway
  Other devices

NIC

The network interface card (NIC), as its name suggests, is the expansion card you install in your computer to
connect, or interface, your computer to the network. This device provides the physical, electrical, and
electronic connections to the network media. A NIC is either an expansion card (the most popular
implementation) or built in to the motherboard of the computer. In most cases, a NIC connects to the
computer through expansion slots, which are special slots located on a computer’s motherboard that allow
peripherals to be plugged directly into it. In some notebook, NIC adapters can be connected to the printer
port or through a PC card slot.

NIC cards generally all have one or two light emitting diodes (LEDs) that help in diagnosing problems with
their functionality. If there are two separate LEDs, one of them may be the Link LED, which illuminates
when proper connectivity to an active network is detected. This often means that the NIC is receiving a
proper signal from the hub/MAU or switch, but it could indicate connectivity to and detection of a carrier on
a coax segment or connectivity with a router or other end device using a crossover cable. The other most
popular LED is the Activity LED.

The Activity LED will tend to flicker, indicating the intermittent transmission or receipt of frames to or from
the network.

The Hub

In a star topology Ethernet network, a hub is the device that connects all the segments of the network
together. Every device in the network connects directly to the hub through a single cable. Any transmission
received on one port will be sent out all the other ports in the hub, including the receiving pair for the
transmitting device, so that CSMA/CD on the transmitter can monitor for collisions. So, if one station sends
it, all the others receive it; but based on addressing in the frame, only the intended recipient listens to it. This
is to simulate the physical bus that the CSMA/CD standard was based on. It’s why we call the use of a hub in
an Ethernet environment a physical star/logical bus topology. It is important to note that hubs are nothing
more than glorified repeaters, which are incapable of recognizing frame boundaries and data structures;
that’s why they act with such a lack of intelligence. A broadcast sent out by any device on the hub will be
propagated to all devices connected to the hub. Any two or more devices connected to the hub have the
capability of causing a collision with each other, just as in the case of a physical bus.

Switch

Like a hub, a switch connects multiple segments of a network together, with one important difference.
Whereas a hub sends out anything it receives on one port to all the others, a switch recognizes frame
boundaries and pays attention to the destination MAC address of the incoming frame as well as the port on
which it was received. If the destination is known to be on a different port than the port over which the frame
was received, the switch will forward the frame out over only the port on which the destination exists.

Otherwise, the frame is silently discarded. If the location of the destination is unknown, then the switch acts
much like a hub in that it floods the frame out every port, except for the port over which it was received,
unlike a hub. The only way any party not involved in that communication will receive the transmission is if it
shares a port with the transmitter or receiver of the frame. This can occur if a hub is attached to the switch
port, instead of in a 1:1 relationship of end devices and switch ports. The benefit of a switch over a hub is
that the switch increases performance because it is able to support full wire speed on each and every port
with a non-blocking backplane, meaning the electronics inside the switch are at least equivalent in speed to
the sum of the speeds of all ports.

Bridge

A bridge, specifically a transparent bridge, is a network device that connects two similar network segments
together. The primary function of a bridge is to keep traffic separated on both sides of the bridge. Traffic is
allowed to pass through the bridge only if the transmission is intended for a station on the opposite side. The
main reasons for putting a bridge in a network are to connect two segments together and to divide a busy
network into two segments. A switch can be thought of as a hardware-based multiport bridge.

Router

A router is a network device that connects multiple, often dissimilar, network segments into an internetwork.
The router, once connected, can make intelligent decisions about how best to get network data to its
destination based on network performance data that it gathers from the network itself. Routers are very
complex devices. Often, routers are computers unto themselves with their own complex operating systems to
manage the routing functions (Cisco’s IOS, for example) and CPUs dedicated to the functions of routing
packets. Because of their complexity, it is actually possible to configure routers to perform the functions of
other types of network devices (like gateways, firewalls, etc.) by simply implementing the feature within the
router’s software.

Gateways

A gateway is any hardware and software combination that connects dissimilar network environments.
Gateways are the most complex of network devices because they perform translations at multiple layers of
the OSI model.

For example, a gateway is the device that connects a LAN environment to a mainframe environment. The
two environments are completely different. LAN environments use distributed processing, baseband
communications, and the ASCII character set. Mainframe environments use centralized processing,
broadband and baseband communications, and the EBCDIC character set. Each of the LAN protocols is
translated to its mainframe counterpart by the gateway software.

Another popular example is the e-mail gateway. Most LAN-based e-mail software, such as Novell’s
GroupWise and Microsoft’s Exchange, can’t communicate directly with Internet mail servers without the use
of a gateway. This gateway translates LAN-based mail messages into the SMTP format that Internet mail
uses.

Other Devices

In addition to other network connectivity devices, there are several devices that, while maybe not directly
connected to a network, participate in moving network data. They are

 Modems
 ISDN terminal adapters
 Wireless access points
 CSU/DSUs
 Transceivers (media converters)
 Firewalls
1. Modems

A modem is a device that modulates digital data onto an analog carrier for transmission over an analog
medium and then demodulates from the analog carrier to a digital signal again at the receiving end. The term
modem is actually an acronym that stands for MOdulator / DEModulator.

When we hear the term modem, three different types should come to mind:

 Traditional (POTS)
 DSL
 Cable

Traditional (POTS)

Most modems you find in computers today fall into the category of traditional modems. These modems
convert the signals from your computer into signals that travel over the plain old telephone service (POTS)
lines. The majority of modems that exist today are POTS modems, mainly because PC manufacturers include
one with a computer.

DSL

Digital subscriber line (DSL) is quickly replacing traditional modem access because it offers higher data
rates for a reasonable cost. In addition, you can make regular phone calls while online. DSL uses higher
frequencies (above 3200Hz) than regular voice phone calls use, which provides greater bandwidth (up to
several megabits per second) than regular POTS modems provide while still allowing the standard voice
frequency range to travel at its normal frequency to remain compatible with traditional POTS phones and
devices, an advantage over ISDN. DSL “modems” are the devices that allow the network signals to pass over
phone lines at these higher frequencies.

Most often, when you sign up for DSL service, the company you sign up with will send you a DSL modem
for free or for a very low cost. This modem is usually an external modem (although internal DSL modems
are available), and it usually has both a phone line and an Ethernet connection. You must connect the phone
line to a wall jack and the Ethernet connection to your computer (you must have an Ethernet NIC in your
computer in order to connect to the DSL modem). Alternatively, a router, hub, or switch may be connected
to the Ethernet port of the DSL modem, increasing the options available for the Ethernet network.

Cable

Another high-speed Internet access technology that is seeing widespread use is cable modem access. Cable
modems connect an individual PC or network to the Internet using your cable television cable. The cable TV
companies use their existing cable infrastructure to deliver data services on unused frequency bands.

The cable modem itself is a fairly simple device. It has a standard coax connector on the back as well as an
Ethernet port. You can connect one PC to a cable modem (the PC will need to have an Ethernet NIC
installed), or you can connect the modem to multiple PCs on a network (using a hub or switch). A router may
also be used to enhance the Ethernet network’s capabilities.
2. ISDN Terminal Adapters

Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) is another form of high-speed Internet access. It delivers digital
services (over 64Kbps channels) over conditioned telephone copper pairs. The device you must hook up to
your computer to access ISDN services is properly known as an ISDN Terminal Adapter. It’s not a modem in
the truest sense of the word because a modem changes from digital to analog for transmission. An ISDN TA
doesn’t change from digital to analog. It just changes between digital transmission formats.

The box itself is about the size of a modem and looks similar to one. But, as with DSL modems, there is a
phone jack and an Ethernet jack. You connect a phone cord from the phone jack to the wall jack where your
ISDN services are being delivered. Then you connect an Ethernet cable from your PC to the ISDN TA’s
Ethernet jack. Older, less-capable TAs used an EIA/ TIA-232 serial port for PC connectivity.

3. Wireless Access Points (WAPs)

A wireless access point (WAP) allows mobile users to connect to a wired network wirelessly via radio
frequency technologies. WAPs also allow wired networks to connect to each other via wireless technologies.
Essentially, they are the wireless equivalent of a hub or a switch in that they can connect multiple wireless
(and often wired) devices together to form a network.

One of the most popular uses for wireless access points is to provide Internet access in public areas, like
libraries, coffee shops, hotels, and airports. WAPs are easy to set up; most often, you just need to plug them
in to a wired network and power them up to get them to work. Plus, without the clutter or added expense of
cables to hook them up, they make ideal foundations for small business networks.

4. CSU/DSUs

The Channel Service Unit/Data Service Unit (CSU/DSU) is a common device found in equipment rooms
when the network is connected via a T-series data connection or other digital serial technology (e.g., a T1 or
Digital Data Server [DDS]). It is essentially two devices in one that are used to connect a digital carrier (the
T-series or DDS line) to your network equipment (usually to a router). The Channel Service Unit (CSU)
terminates the line at the customer’s premises. It also provides diagnostics and remote testing, if necessary.
The Data Service Unit (DSU) does the actual transmission of the signal through the CSU. It can also provide
buffering and data flow control.

Both components are required if you are going to connect to a digital transmission medium, such as a T1
line. Sometimes, however, one or both of these components may be built into a router. If both components
are built into a router, you only have to plug the T1 line directly into the router. Otherwise, some Physical
Layer specification, like V.35 or HSSI, will have to be used to cable the interface on the router to the
external CSU/DSU.

5. Transceivers (Media Converters)

Another small device that is commonly seen on a network is the external transceiver (also known as a media
converter). These are relatively simple devices that allow a NIC or other networking device to connect to a
different type of media than it was designed for. Many NICs have special connectors that will allow this, as
do hubs and switches.
For example, if you have a 100Base-TX switch and would like to connect it to another switch using fiber-
optic cabling, you would connect a fiber transceiver to each switch’s transceiver port and then connect the
two transceivers together with the appropriate fiber-optic cabling.

With early Ethernet-style DB-15 female Digital-Intel-Xerox (DIX, or more commonly Attachment Unit
Interface [AUI]) NIC interfaces, which are still available as medium-independent connectors on more
advanced NICs and other networking devices, an external transceiver has to be used to convert the electrical
signal from the device to one that is compatible with the cabling medium. Every other popular type of
Ethernet technology, such as the xBase-T standards, has a built-in transceiver on the NIC card or device
interface. An external transceiver is necessary with these technologies only to act as a media converter.

6. Firewalls

A firewall is probably the most important device on a network if that network is connected to the Internet. Its
job is to protect LAN resources from attackers on the Internet. Similarly, it can prevent computers on the
network from accessing various services on the Internet. It can be used to filter packets based on rules that
the network administrator sets. These rules state what kinds of information can flow into and out of a
network’s connection to the Internet.

Firewalls can be either stand-alone “black boxes,” or can be set up in software on a server or router. Either
way, the firewall will have at least two network connections: one to the Internet (known as the “public”
side), and one to the network (known as the “private” side). Sometimes, there is a third network port on a
firewall. This port is used to connect servers and equipment that can be considered both public and private
(like web and e-mail servers). This intermediary network is known as a demilitarized zone, or DMZ.

Firewalls are the first line of defense for an Internet-connected network. If a network was directly connected
to the Internet without a firewall, an attacker could theoretically gain direct access to the computers and
servers on that network with little effort.

A network collision occurs when two or more devices attempt to transmit data over a network at the same
time. For example, if two computers on an Ethernet network send data at the same moment, the data will
"collide" and not finish transmitting.

A collision occurs on your network when something happens to the data sent from the physical network
medium that prevents it from reaching its destination. ... This causes an issue for both network devices
because they both need to wait for an ever-increasing period until they are able to transmit the data clearly.

In Ethernet networks, the dominant type of local area network (LAN), collisions occur when two nodes
attempt to send packets simultaneously. This can cause loss of the data and require retransmission. ... A
collision domain is a logical area in a network in which packets can collide with one another

Network documentation is a technical record of the hardware, software, servers, directory structure, user
profiles, data, and how it all works together. Network documents should include any information that helps
administrators and IT professionals to keep the network up and running smoothly.

Network documentation is the practice of maintaining records of computer networks to provide data center
managers information about the devices in the data center and how they are arranged.

Essential Parts of Network Documentation

  Map of the entire network to include locations of hardware and the cabling that connects the
hardware.
 Server information such as data on the individual servers, schedules and locations of backups.
 Software information such as current versions, dates, licensing and support.

Network documentation is important for the following reasons: Proper documentation can save you from
time-consuming research to fix recurring problems. When everything is in place and everybody follows the
same processes and procedures, consistency across the network helps to reduce problems and errors.