Pediatric Exercise Science, 2006, 17, 30-52

© 2006 Human Kinetics, Inc.

Normal Physiological Characteristics

of Elite Swimmers
Gregory D. Wells
The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto
Jane Schneiderman-Walker
The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto
Michael Plyley
Brock University

The purpose of this research was to develop a comprehensive normative database

of the physiological characteristics of elite swimmers. Data were obtained from
195 elite swimmers (89 males and 106 females) ages 12 to 18 years. Six protocols
were used to measure variables in the following categories: descriptive charac-
teristics, cardiovascular, respiratory, strength and power, body composition, and
anthropometry. Significant effects of gender and age were identified for a number
of variables. These data could be used for the physiological assessment and talent
identification of swimmers in comparison with other populations.

Swimming performance depends on optimizing propulsion and minimizing the

opposing factor—drag (6,10). Factors that contribute to maximizing propulsion
include aerobic and anaerobic energetics (48,7,8), muscular power (20), muscular
endurance (53), and stroke technique (9,10,11). Factors related to minimizing drag
include the anthropometric characteristics and body composition (42). Swimmersʼ
physical characteristics have been examined to determine the characteristics of suc-
cessful sprint and endurance swimmers (17,27,29,32,41,43,56) in order to assess
the relative importance of specific characteristics to performance (11,40,44) and
to evaluate changes in physical characteristics over time (4,14,21,24,32,35,38,50,
51,52,57). Although research into the physiology of swimmers is substantial, few
studies to date have examined these physiological characteristics over an extended
time period or examined an extensive set of variables from a range of physiological
systems. In addition, none have included a comprehensive participant cohort com-
prised of males and females across all swimming disciplines or a wide age range.

Wells and Schneiderman-Walker are with the Department of Lung Biology at The Hospital for Sick
Children, Toronto, Ontario, Canada; Plyley is with the Faculty of Applied Health Sciences at Brock
University, St. Catharineʼs, Ontario, Canada.

30

04Wells(30) 30 1/31/06, 9:36:42 AM

 Characteristics of Elite Swimmers 31

A normative database could be used to evaluate an athleteʼs health, training,

and performance status by providing: a) a means by which the athlete could be
monitored cross-sectionally in relation to world-class performers (37) and b) a
means of tracking improvements in function or physical development over time
(5,43). Smith et al. (43) supported the importance of developing such a database by
suggesting that a successful monitoring program is necessary to both identify and
treat weaknesses. Because optimal training adaptation involves balancing adap-
tive overload and over training, a successful monitoring program would ensure
that the many hours spent in the water developing swimmers could be spent most
efficiently. The overstress study conducted by Hooper et al. (23) also points out
the importance of a regular monitoring program in evaluating the status of athletes
during training.
Therefore, the objective of this research was to establish comprehensive norma-
tive physiological data for male and female elite competitive swimmers from 12 to
18 years of age. The elite swimmers that were used in this research were members
of the Canadian National or Youth National Teams during the study period. To
qualify for the Youth National Team, participants must have been ranked 1st in
Canada in their respective events for their age (12–15 years). To qualify for the
National Team, athletes must have achieved an absolute ranking of top 2 perfor-
mances in Canada for a given event in that calendar year. As a result of the fact
that some athletes qualified for the Canadian Teams on multiple occasions (as few
as once and as many as four times for some athletes), this study used a research
design that included both cross-sectional and longitudinal elements to examine
the physiological characteristics of elite swimmers across genders and over the
age range studied.

Methods
Participants
Study participants included 195 competitive swimmers (89 males and 106 females)
between the ages of 12 and 18 who were members of the Canadian National and
Youth National Teams. The sample included 32 distance (14 males, 18 females),
68 middle distance (33 males, 35 females), and 95 (42 male, 53 female) sprint
swimmers. Distance swimmers were those athletes who specialized in events 800
m or longer, middle-distance swimmers specialized in events 200 and 400 m in
length, and sprinters specialized in events 50 or 100 m in length. Informed consent
was obtained from each participant in accordance with the policy of the University
of Toronto Ethics Board. Data were collected during biannual Youth National and
National Team training camps over an 8-year period. The participants were tested
approximately every 6 months for a period that depended on the length of time they
remained as National or Youth National team members. In some cases, this meant
that a swimmer was evaluated only once, whereas in other cases a swimmer could
have been assessed as many as four times. The number of multiple test sessions
completed by the participants is shown in Figure 1. A total of 13 testing sessions
are included in this database.

04Wells(30) 31 1/31/06, 9:36:44 AM

 32 Wells, Schneiderman-Walker, and Plyley

Figure 1 — Number of multiple test sessions completed by participants.

Procedures
The testing consisted of six protocols to measure variables in the following catego-
ries of descriptive characteristics: cardiovascular, respiratory, strength and power,
body composition, and anthropometry.
Exercise Test Protocol. Participants were instructed to swim face down, main-
taining a position over a marked spot on the bottom of the pool while attached to a
weight loaded tether system. The appropriate progressive scheduled loading was
started (see Table 1) and continued until exhaustion. Expired gases were collected
and analyzed throughout the test with a Beckman Metabolic Measurement Cart
(Beckman Instruments, Anaheim, CA) and a modified Hans Rudolph valve system.
Electrocardiograms were recorded each minute throughout the test with a Hewlett
Packard Telemetry system (78100A Telemetry transmitter and 78101A Telemetry
receiver) and an EK31 electrocardiogram using a modified lead three-electrode
placement. Variables measured during the exercise test included relative aerobic
power (ml·kg–1·min–1), absolute aerobic power (L/min–1), peak heart rate (b/min–1),
peak ventilation (L/min–1), peak breathing frequency (br/min–1), and peak respira-
tory exchange ratio (RER, VCO2/VO2).
Blood Analysis, Cardiovascular, and Pulmonary Function Protocols. Par-
ticipants were evaluated in a rested (no strenuous activity earlier that day), fasted
(12 hrs) state. Blood samples were collected from the median cubital vein into
a 100 × 13 mm evacuated glass tube containing 0.07 ml of a 15% EDTA (K3)

04Wells(30) 32 1/31/06, 9:36:45 AM

04Wells(30) 33
Table 1 Tethered Swim Test Loading Protocol

Estimated maximum Estimated maximum Estimated maximum Estimated maximum

load = 6.00 kg load = 6.25 kg load = 6.50 kg load = 6.75 kg

Adjusted Workload Adjusted Workload Adjusted Workload Adjusted Workload

Time (min) load (kg) (kg) load (kg) (kg) load (kg) (kg) load (kg) (kg)

Warm-up
0 1.50 1.50 1.50 1.50 1.75 1.75 1.75 1.75
1 Hold 1.50 Hold 1.50 Hold 1.75 Hold 1.75
2 Hold 1.50 Hold 1.50 Hold 1.75 Hold 1.75
3 Hold 1.50 Hold 1.50 Hold 1.75 Hold 1.75
4 Hold 1.50 Hold 1.50 Hold 1.75 Hold 1.75
Test
0 1.50 3.00 1.75 3.25 1.50 3.25 1.75 3.50
0.5 Hold 3.00 Hold 3.25 Hold 3.25 Hold 3.50
1 0.75 3.75 0.75 4.00 0.75 40 0 0.75 4.25
1.5 0.50 4.25 0.50 4.50 0.75 4.75 0.75 5 00
2 0.50 4.75 0.50 5.00 0.50 5.25 0.50 5.50
2.5 0.25 5.00 0.25 5.25 0.25 5.50 0.25 5.75
3 0.25 5.25 0.25 5.50 0.25 5.75 0.25 6.00
3.5 0.25 5.50 0.25 5.75 0.25 6.00 0.25 6.25
4 0.25 5.75 0.25 6.00 0.25 6.25 0.25 6.50
4.5 0.25 6.00 0.25 6.25 0.25 6.50 0.25 6.75
5 0.25 6.25 0.25 6.50 0.25 6.75 0.25 7.00
5.5 0.25 6.50 0.25 6.75 0.25 7.00 0.25 7.25
6 0.25 6.75 0.25 7.00 0.25 7.25 0.25 7.50
6.5 0.25 7.00 0.25 7.25 0.25 7.50 0.25 7.75
Characteristics of Elite Swimmers

7 0.25 7.25 0.25 7.50 0.25 7.75 0.25 8.00

7.5 0.25 7.50 0.25 7.75 0.25 8.00 0.25 8.25
8 0.25 7.75 0.25 8.00 0.25 8.25 0.25 8.50
33

8.5 0.25 8.00 0.25 8.25 0.25 8.50 0.25 8.75

1/31/06, 9:36:48 AM
 34 Wells, Schneiderman-Walker, and Plyley

solution that contained 0.014 mg of potassium sorbate. Hemoglobin values were

determined using a calibrated spectrophotometer (Bausch and Lomb, Rochester,
NY) and the Hycel procedure (2). Final hemoglobin concentration of the blood
sample was recorded in mg/100ml by comparing its absorbance against the absor-
bance of the standard Hycel Cvnamethaemoglobin reagent at 540 nm. Hematocrit
was determined by collecting blood into three heparinized microhematocrit tubes
through capillary action. After centrifuging for 5 min, an MSE Microhematocrit
Head and Reader were used to read the tubes individually. Results were recorded
as a percentage of the average of the two closest readings. A trained technician
used an analog blood pressure cuff to measure resting blood pressure. Pulmonary
function was assessed by spirometry according to the procedures suggested by the
National Heart and Lung Institute (34).
Strength and Power Protocol. Muscular strength and power were assessed by
means of vertical jump, isokinetic movements via a strength assessment appara-
tus, and tests on an isokinetic swim bench. The right and left handgrip strength
measures were collected only during the Youth National Team camps. Strength
was assessed using a handgrip dynamometer in kilograms with the participant in
a standing position maintaining a straight arm. Leg power was assessed by vertical
jump; the result was recorded as the difference between reach and jump heights
in centimeters.
Isokinetic strength was measured using a Cybex Multi-Joint Evaluation System
(Cybex International, Medway, MA) to assess the individual muscle(s) involved in
swimming specific movement patterns. The movements tested were in the active
propulsion phase of stroke, contributed to a major percentage of stroke power, and
were consistent with the range of motion that provides the propulsion. Thus, we
chose to examine shoulder internal rotation, elbow extension, and knee extension
at a movement speed of 180 degrees/s because this provides a close approximation
to true swimming movements and speed. The peak torque value from the best of
three maximal trials was used for analysis.
A Biokinetic Swim Bench (Biokinetics Inc., Albany, CA) was used to assess
stroke-specific power and endurance. Athletes assumed a prone position on the
swim bench with their arms extended forward grasping the hand paddles. To
determine power, participants were asked, upon command, to make one maximal
arm pull in which the sweeping motion mimicked their arm pull in their primary
swimming stroke. Athletes used their primary competitive strokes for the test. The
peak power output (W) was recorded and used for subsequent analysis. The best of
three efforts (highest recorded peak) was used for subsequent analysis. Endurance
was assessed by having participants use their specialty stroke to perform 4 min of
maximal exercise on the swim bench. The total work output (J) was recorded and
used for subsequent analysis.
Anthropometry Protocol. Standing height to the nearest 0.2 m was assessed by
using a Health-O-Meter weighing scale (Health-O-Meter 400S, Sunbeam Products
Inc., Boca Raton, FL) with a vertical measuring rod. Mass was assessed to the
nearest 0.5 kg with the same Health-O-Meter scale. A measuring tape was used
to assess girths on the right side of the body to the nearest millimeter. Chest girth
was measured at the level of the nipples for males and immediately distal to the

04Wells(30) 34 1/31/06, 9:36:50 AM

 Characteristics of Elite Swimmers 35

breasts (i.e., bra strap line) for females. Forearm girth was measured at the maxi-
mum circumference immediately distal to the elbow joint with the participantʼs
arm hanging freely. Upper arm girth was measured at the maximum circumference
distal to the shoulder joint with the participantʼs arm hanging freely. Flexed upper
arm girth was measured at the point of maximum girth with the participantʼs arm
flexed to 90 degrees. Gluteal girth was measured at the level of maximum girth with
the participant standing. Thigh girth was measured just below the gluteal furrow
at the maximal girth with the participant standing. Calf girth was measured at the
level of maximum girth with the participant standing.
Limb length variables included: a) forearm and hand length, measured as the
length from the olecranon process of the ulna to the ulnar styloid; b) total arm,
measured as the length from the greater tuberosity of the humerus to the ulnar
styloid with the elbow fully extended; c) shank and foot, with the participant in
standing position, measured as the length from the lateral femoral condyle to
the level of the medial malleolus on the lateral side of the leg; and d) total leg,
with the participant in standing position, measured as the length from the greater
trochanter of the femur to the level of the medial malleolus on the lateral side
of the leg.
A Harpenden skinfold caliper (British Indicators, St Albans, Hertfordshire,
UK) was used to collect skinfold measurements to the nearest 0.2 mm two seconds
after the full pressure of the caliper jaws had been applied; the skinfold value was
taken as the average of 2 skinfold measurements separated by at least 1 min to
avoid tissue compression. The triceps skinfold was measured on the back of the
unclothed pendant right arm at a level midway between the tip of the acromion
and the elbow. The biceps skinfold was measured on the ventral side of the right
pendant upper arm (over the biceps) at a level midway between the acromion and
the olecranon process of the ulna. The subscapular skinfold was measured about
1 cm below the lower (inferior) angle of the right scapula. The suprailiac skinfold
was measured 3 cm above the suprailac crest with the fold running diagonally to
the crest. Body fat calculations were performed according to the recommendations
of Durnin and Wormersley (17).
The joint breadth measures were collected only during the Youth National
Team camps. These measures were also collected by using a sliding caliper. Bi-iliac
breadth was measured across the iliac crests for maximum diameter. Bi-acromial
breadth was measured with the arms of the caliper on the outside of the acromial
processes of the shoulders. Femur epicondylar breadth was measured while the
participants were sitting on a table with their knees bent at right angles. The width
across the outermost parts of the lower end of the femur was recorded. Humerus
epicondylar breadth was measured across the outermost parts of the lower end of
the humerus.
Statistical Analyses. Results were grouped according to age and gender and
were expressed as mean (± SEM). A two-factor analysis of variance was used to
evaluate the main effects of gender and age using a general linear model. Results
were tested for interaction effects (Gender × Age), and if no interaction effects
were noted, then the results were grouped accordingly for post-hoc analysis. A
Tukey test was used for post-hoc analysis if differences were observed in any of
the conditions. Statistical significance was considered to be p < .05.

04Wells(30) 35 1/31/06, 9:36:52 AM

 36 Wells, Schneiderman-Walker, and Plyley

Results
Descriptive Characteristics
Descriptive characteristics are shown in Table 2. The analysis revealed a significant
gender effect, with males having higher relative and absolute maximal aerobic
power (p < .001), height (p < .001), and mass (p < .001) than females at all ages
except mass at 13 years old. Relative maximal aerobic power was unchanged
with age (p = .92), but absolute aerobic power (p < .001), height (p < .001), and
mass (p < .001) all showed significant increases with age. Interaction effects were
found for absolute maximal aerobic power (p = .003), mass (p = .001), and height
(p < = .001).

Cardiovascular Function
No interaction effects were noted for cardiovascular function variables; therefore,
all results were grouped by age and gender for analysis. Males were observed to
have higher hemoglobin and hematocrit levels (p < .001), a lower maximum heart
rate (p = .037), and lower diastolic (p = .004) and systolic blood pressures (p =
.016) than female participants. Age had an effect (a decrease) on maximum heart
rate (p < .001), hematocrit levels (p = .014), and on diastolic blood pressure (p =
.049) but not on hemoglobin and or systolic blood pressure. Results are shown in
Table 3.

Respiratory Function
No interaction effects were noted for respiratory function variables, so all results
were grouped by age and gender for analysis (see Table 4). Males had higher maxi-
mal ventilation values (p < .001) and lower maximal breathing frequency values
(p = .017) than did the female participants. There was no difference between males
and females in maximal RER at the end of the exercise test. Pulmonary function
testing revealed that males had higher residual volume (p = .019) and higher forced
vital capacity (p < .001) than did female participants. Age had an effect (an increase)
on maximum ventilation (p = .028), residual volume (p < .001), and forced vital
capacity (p < .001), but not on RER or maximal breathing frequency.

Strength and Power

Males had higher grip strength (p = < .001), vertical jump (p = < .001), elbow
extension (p = < 0.001), knee extension (p = < .001), stroke-specific power
(p = .005), and nearly significant stroke-specific endurance (p = .08) than did
females (see Table 5). Right grip strength (p = < .001), elbow extension (p =
.004), and knee extension (p = < .001) increased with age, but shoulder internal
rotation (p = .125) and vertical jump (p = .065) did not, although the vertical jump
results approached significance. Interaction effects were noted for vertical jump
(p = < .001) and knee extension (p = .007). The results from the swim-bench testing
indicated that stroke-specific power (p = .474) and stroke-specific endurance (p =
.363) did not change with age.

04Wells(30) 36 1/31/06, 9:36:54 AM

04Wells(30) 37
Table 2 Descriptive Variables: Mean ± SD (n)

Max. aerobic Max. aerobic

power (relative): power (absolute):
Age Gender ml·kg–1·min–1 L/min Height: cm Mass: kg
12 Female 50.1 ± 5.0 (7) 2.7 ± 0.4 (7)00 163.3 ± 7.5 (12) 00 53.2 ± 6.8 (12)000000
13 Male 56.2 ± 6.6 (13)a 3.2 ± 0.5 (13)a0 168.2 ± 7.7 (16)a00 58.1 ± 9.3 (16)000000
Female 49.9 ± 5.39 (34) 2.7 ± 0.3 (34)0 164.6 ± 6.1 (44) 00 54.9 ± 6.3 (44)000000
14 Male 57.6 ± 4.9 (25)a 3.6 ± 0.5 (25)a*13 174.2 ± 5.9 (37)a*13 63.9 ± 7.2 (37)a*13 000
Female 48.8 ± 3.9 (26) 2.8 ± 0.3 (26) 168.4 ± 4.9 (31)000 58.6 ± 6.7 (31)000000
15 Male 56.8 ± 5.3 (42)a 3.7 ± 0.4 (42)a*13 176.9 ± 5.7 (54)a*13 65.8 ± 6.5 (54)a*13 000
Female 50.8 ± 5.7 (34) 2.9 ± 0.4 (34) 167.3 ± 5.3 (48)000 58.6 ± 6.4 (48)000000
16 Male 55.2 ± 3.0 (12)a 3.7 ± 0.4 (12)a*13 177.8 ± 6.0 (15)a*13 67.5 ± 6.2 (15)a*13 000
Female 52.7 ± 3.7 (13) 3.1 ± 0.2 (13)*12,13 168.0 ± 3.7 (17)000 60.5 ± 3.9 (17)*12,13 00
17 Male 57.7 ± 3.4 (11)a 4.3 ± 0.3 (11)a*13,14, 15,16 180.6 ± 7.3 (18)a*13,14 75.6 ± 7.4 (19)a*13,14,15,16
Female 49.3 ± 4.7 (12) 3.1 ± 0.3 (12)*12,13 166.4 ± 5.0 (21)000 61.2 ± 4.9 (21)*12,13 00
18 Male 55.1 ± 5.1 (8)a 4.2 ± 0.5 (8)a*13,14, 15,16 184.0 ± 7.9 (8)a*13,14,15 77.6 ± 7.5 (8)a*13,14,15,16
Female 50.8 ± 4.5 (4) 3.3 ± 0.6 (4)*12,13 169.2 ± 4.8 (11)000 64.1 ± 5.9 (11)*12,130000
*Significantly (p < .05) higher value compared with the superscripted age.
a
Significantly (p < .05) higher result for males when compared with females.
Characteristics of Elite Swimmers
37

1/31/06, 9:36:56 AM
04Wells(30) 38
38

Table 3 Cardiovascular Results: Mean ± SD (n)

Diastolic
Age Hemoglobin Maximum heart Systolic blood blood pressure
(years) Gender (mg/100ml) Hematocrit (%) rate (b/min) pressure (mmHg) (mmHg)

12 Female 13.6 ± 0.6 (8) 42.3 ± 1.7 (8) 000 192.4 ± 7.4 (7)0000 105.3 ± 6.9 (6) 61.6 ± 9.3 (6) 00
a a
13 Male 15.1 ± 0.8 (13) 47.1 ± 5.0 (12) 00 183.0 ± 9.6 (13) 000 115.8 ± 16.4 (10) 68.0 ± 6.7 (10) 0
Female 13.5 ± 0.9 (34) 43.1 ± 2.9 (34) 00 190.1 ± 8.7 (34)b000 113.1 ± 8.4 (32) 67.5 ± 8.1 (32) 0
14 Male 14.8 ± 0.9 (25)a 46.0 ± 2.1 (25)a 00 187.8 ± 8.6 (25)0 00 118.9 ± 10.5 (23) 67.1 ± 7.0 (23) 0
Wells, Schneiderman-Walker, and Plyley

Female 3.9 ± 0.9 (27) 43.2 ± 3.1 (27)000 188.7 ± 7.6 (26) 000 114.5 ± 11.5 (22) 69.5 ± 7.9 (22) 0
a a a
15 Male 15.0 ± 1.0 (43) 45.9 ± 3.2 (43) 0 0 186.9 ± 7.8 (42) 000 121.2 ± 8.4 (39) 69.2 ± 9.3 (39 )0
Female 14.0 ± 1.2 (38) 42.8 ± 2.9 (38)000 188.6 ± 7.7 (34) 000 110.7 ± 11.1 (29) 68.2 ± 8.4 (29) 0
a a
16 Male 14.9 ± 1.1 (13) 46.2 ± 2.2 (13) 00 183.5 ± 7.2 (12) 000 117.3 ± 9.7 (13) 73.3 ± 8.2 (13)00
12,13
Female 13.8 ± 1.4 (17) 40.4 ± 4.2 (17)000 181.6 ± 8.5 (13)* 115.0 ± 7.5 (9) 67.7 ± 8.2 (9) 00
a 14,15
17 Male 15.1 ± 1.2 (18) 43.5 ± 3.3 (18)000 177.3 ± 8.8 (10)* 120.7 ± 9.8 (8) 77.0 ± 4.4 (8)*140
Female 13.3 ± 3.2 (20) 42.4 ± 7.6 (20)000 183.3 ± 9.9 (10) 000 113.8 ± 8.0 (10) 72.1 ± 6.4 (10) 0
a a 14,15
18 Male 15.4 ± 1.7 (7) 45.0 ± 2.0 (7) 000 173.7 ± 6.3 (8)* 0 117.5 ± 3.8 (4) 80.2 ± 7.3 (4)a*14
Female 13.5 ± 1.3 (10) 38.6 ± 4.3 (10)*13,14,15 177.6 ± 4.0 (3)*12,130 117.5 ± 16.4 (4)
*Significantly (p < .05) higher value compared with the superscripted age.
a
Significantly (p < .05) higher result for males when compared with females; bsignificantly (p < .05) higher result for females when compared with males.

1/31/06, 9:36:58 AM
04Wells(30) 39
Table 4 Respiratory Results: Mean ± SD (n)

Max breathing
Residual Forced vital Max ventilation frequency Max RER
Age Gender volume (L) capacity (L) (L/min) (br/min) (VCO2/VO2)

12 Female 0.8 ± 0.04 (5) 4.3 ± 0.58 (8) 0 77.2 ± 12.91 (7) 46.3 ± 5.2 (7) 1.05 ± 0.09 (7)
13 Male 1.0 ± 0.3 (11) 4.9 ± 1.1 (8)a00 93.1 ± 18.1 (8)a 41.0 ± 11.1 (8) 1.0 ± 0.1 (8)
Female 0.8 ± 0.2 (23) 4.2 ± 0.5 (32)00 78.7 ± 13.3 (30) 42.4 ± 7.1 (30) 1.0 ± 0.1 (30)
14 Male 1.0 ± 0.1 (16) 5.4 ± 0.9 (24)a 0 101.6 ± 19.3 (24)a 40.3 ± 8.5 (24) 1.1 ± 0.1 (24)
Female 1.0 ± 0.1 (18) 4.6 ± 0.4 (19)00 83.2 ± 13.1 (18) 41.9 ± 6.3 (18) 1.0 ± 0.1 (18)
15 Male 1.1 ± 0.2 (28) 5.6 ± 0.8 (40)a0 99.7 ± 13.3 (40)a 37.1 ± 7.4 (40) 1.1 ± 0.1 (40)
Female 1.0 ± 0.2 (32) 4.6 ± 0.6 (32)0 81.2 ± 17.8 (30) 42.1 ± 7.2 (29)b 1.0 ± 0.1 (30)
16 Male 1.1 ± 0.2 (9)0 5.5 ± 0.6 (11)0 99.7 ± 19.2 (10) 37.8 ± 10.4 (10) 1.1 ± 0.1 (10)
Female 1.0 ± 0.2 (11) 5.0 ± 0.6 (9) 0 87.9 ± 9.5 (10) 43.8 ± 8.3 (6) 1.0 ± 0.1 (10)
17 Male 1.3 ± 0.2 (11) 6.5 ± 0.9 (9)a*13,14,15,16 113.6 ± 17.4 (9)a 42.3 ± 5.1 (6) 1.0 ± 0.1 (9)
Female 1.1 ± 0.4 (6)0 5.0 ± 0.7 (5)00 72.5 ± 10.5 (6) 45.9 ± 5.8 (5) 1.0 ± 0.1 (6)
18 Male 1.4 ± 0.4 (7)*13,14,15 6.8 ± 1.2 (6)a*13,14,15,16 119.8 ± 10.5 (7)*13,15 46.3 ± 9.8 (3) 1.0 ± 0.1 (7)
Female 1.2 ± 0.3 (3)0 5.3 ± 1.1 (2)00 99.2 ± 4.1 (2) — 1.1 ± 0.2 (2)
Note. VCO2 = volume of carbon dioxide; VO2 = volume of oxygen; br = number of breaths.
a
Significantly (p < .05) higher result for males when compared with females; bsignificantly (p < .05) higher result for females when compared with males.
*Significantly (p < .05) higher value compared with the superscripted age.
Characteristics of Elite Swimmers
39

1/31/06, 9:36:59 AM
04Wells(30) 40
40

Table 5 Strength and Power Results: Mean ± SD (n)

Age (years)

Variable 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Right grip
strength (kg)
39.2 ± 10.2 43.3 ± 7.4 47.1 ± 7.6 50.2 ± 7.3 52.0 ± 6.5 56.3 ± 2.3
malea — (13)a (25)a (41)a*13 (11)a*13,14 (6)a*13,14 (3)a*13,14
28.3 ± 3.6 29.7 ± 3.8 32.2 ± 5.3 33.7 ± 4.9 33.4 ± 2.5 38.3 ± 3.5
female (8) (35) (25) (30) (5) (3) —
Wells, Schneiderman-Walker, and Plyley

Vertical
jump (cm)
16.7 ± 3.1 17.1 ± 1.9 18.6 ± 2.6 19.3 ± 2.5 20.5 ± 2.8 19.1 ± 2.7
malea — (13)a (25)a (41)a (11)a (18)a*13,14 (8)a
12.8 ± 1.3 14.6 ± 2.3 15.5 ± 2.5 14.9 ± 2.2 14.4 ± 1.8 14.4 ± 2.5
female (7) (35) (25) (35) (13) (14) 13.7 ± 2.5 (7)
Shoulder internal
rotation (N.m)
29.3 ± 10.7 28.9 ± 6.0 35.6 ± 6.9 43.9 ± 13.2 39.2 ± 9.5 37.5 ± 3.2
male — (11) (12) (19) (4) (15) (5)
23.1 ± 4.6 24.9 ± 5.7 25.9 ± 6.4 25.1 ± 4.8 28.4 ± 10.5 29.7 ± 11.1 32.9 ± 13.1
female (4) (16) (15) (24) (13) (13) (7)

1/31/06, 9:37:01 AM
04Wells(30) 41
Elbow extension
(N.m)
32.4 ± 38.3 ± 5.5 42.8 ± 9.2 41.5 ± 4.5 40.5 ± 10.3 37.4 ± 8.9
malea — 6.8 (11) (16)a (30)a*13 (10)a (16)a (6)
30.9 ± 3.6 26.9 ± 5.4 31.8 ± 6.8 31.9 ± 8.8 29.1 ± 8.5 31.9 ± 11.0 34.1 ± 12.9
female (5) (24) (20) (35) (15) (13) (7)
Knee extension
(N.m)
88.6 ± 27.1 110.5 ± 21.0 117.7 ± 25.8 121.6 ± 30.2 99.4 ± 26.3 98.1 ± 29.7
malea — (13) (25)a (43)a*13 (12)a*13 (16)a (8)a
79.8 ± 10.7 83.4 ± 13.9 94.9 ± 24.0 85.9 ± 20.8 76.4 ± 19.7 73.7 ± 18.2 71.7 ± 26.0
female (7) (35) (27) (37) (15) (15)*14 (7)
Stroke -specific
power: swim
bench (W)
310 ± 178.2 253.6 ± 109.7 270.3 ± 113.9 319.2 ± 124.4
malea — (2) (13) (24)a (6) — —
142 ± 61.8 171.7 ± 75.2 172.6 ± 63.9 190.4 ± 115.2 253.5 ± 115.3
female (3) (19) (11) (12) (2) — —
Stroke- specific
endurance: swim
bench (J)
569 ± 140 1408.6 ± 839.4 1340.3 ± 693.1 1382.5 ± 781.3
malea — (2) (13) (24) (6) — —
353.7 ± 141.6 791.9 ± 557.6 656.9 ± 398.5 924.3 ± 482.5 952.5 ± 285
female (3) (19) (11) (12) (2) — —
Characteristics of Elite Swimmers

Note. N = newtons; W = watts; J = joules.

a
Significantly (p < .05) higher result for males when compared with females. bSignificantly (p < .05) higher result for females when compared with males.
41

*Significantly (p < .05) higher value compared with the superscripted age.

1/31/06, 9:37:02 AM
 42 Wells, Schneiderman-Walker, and Plyley

Body Composition
The effect of gender was significant for this set of variables (see Table 6), with
the males having a higher body density (p = < .001) and a lower triceps skinfold
(p = < .001), biceps skinfold (p = < .001), subscapular skinfold (p = < .001), and
suprailiac skinfold (p = .046), as well as a lower body fat percentage (p = < .001)
than females. There were no differences between males and females in suprailiac
skinfold (p = .24) results. The results from several body composition tests varied
significantly with age, including triceps skinfold (p = .012), biceps skinfold (p =
.012), and subscapular skinfold (p = < .001). Other variables did not change with
age including body density (p = .46), suprailiac skinfold (p = .45), and body fat
percentage (p = .30).

Anthropometry
Males had greater inspired and expired chest circumferences (p < .001), upper
arm circumferences (p < .001), bi-acromial breadth (p < .001), and epicondylar
femur and humerus breadth (p < .001) than the females, but there was no differ-
ence between genders in gluteal, calf, or thigh girth or bi-iliac breadth (see Table
7). Age was a significant determinant of inspired and expired chest circumferences
(p < .001), upper arm circumferences (p < .001), and gluteal, thigh and calf girths
(p < .001), as well as bi-iliac and bi-acromial breadths (p < .001).

Discussion
The present research establishes normative physiological data for a sample of 195
national-team-level competitive male and female swimmers ranging in age from
12 to 18 years. This data augments the literature on the characteristics of swimmers
because it is derived from more comprehensive physiological variables from a
larger pool of participants and over a wider range of ages than has been previously
reported. The research design that was employed in this study has both cross-
sectional and longitudinal elements. As such, the sample therefore contains data on
participants who were chosen for the Canadian National and Youth National teams
once or on more than one occasion, and in some cases as many as four times. It is
important to note that although the study design has limitations, the sample that
we have obtained is reflective of the athletes who were chosen for the Canadian
National and National Youth Teams during the study period at each age level. Thus,
if the athletes were included in the study on more than one occasion, it is because
that athlete was able to achieve the performance level necessary for selection on
repeated occasions and thus was the highest ranked Canadian swimmer available
for study at that time.

Descriptive Characteristics
Maximal aerobic power is a widely accepted measure of endurance fitness. Our
results for this variable were similar to those from previous studies of maximal
exercise testing in swimmers (17). Of note is that aerobic power, once corrected

04Wells(30) 42 1/31/06, 9:37:03 AM

04Wells(30) 43
Table 6 Body composition Results: Mean ± SD (n)

Body
Age (years) Body density Triceps Biceps Subscapular Suprailiac composition
and gender (g·cm2)a skinfold (mm)b skinfold (mm)b skinfold (mm)b skinfold (mm)b (body fat %)b

12
female 1.055 ± 0.0 (8)0 10.6 ± 3.0 (12) 5.7 ± 2.1 (12) 7.8 ± 1.6 (12) 8.8 ± 2.3 (12) 21.1 ± 3.8 (5)
13
male 1.072 ± 0.01 (8) 7.6 ± 1.0 (16) 4.3 ± 1.1 (16) 6.6 ± 1.3 (16) 7.9 ± 3.3 (16) 13.7 ± 3.1 (11)
female 1.058 ± 0.01 (32) 9.8 ± 3.0 (44) 5.8 ± 1.5 (44) 7.7 ± 1.8 (44) 9.8 ± 3.3 (44) 18.8 ± 3.9 (24)
14
male 1.071 ± 0.01 (23) 7.5 ± 2.0 (37) 4.2 ± 1.0 (37) 6.9 ± 1.5 (37) 9.7 ± 4.1 (37) 13.2 ± 1.9 (15)
female 1.054 ± 0.01 (17) 11.2 ± 5.0 (31) 5.8 ± 2.1 (48) 9.0 ± 3.5 (31) 10.5 ± 4.4 (31) 20.0 ± 4.6 (18)
15
male 1.072 ± 0.01 (40) 6.6 ± 2.0 (54) 4.0 ± 1.1 (54) 6.9 ± 1.4 (54) 9.1 ± 3.3 (54) 12.2 ± 2.1 (27)
female 1.054 ± 0.01 (32) 10.6 ± 3.0 (48) 5.7 ± 1.8 (17) 8.4 ± 2.1 (48) 10.0 ± 3.5 (48) 20.1 ± 5.0 (32)
16
male 1.069 ± 0.01 (8) 6.5 ± 2.0 (15) 3.6 ± 0.8 (15) 7.4 ± 1.7 (15) 9.5 ± 3.8 (15) 12.9 ± 2.9 (7)
female 1.052 ± 0.01 (11) 10.9 ± 3.0 (17) 7.8 ± 3.5 (21) 8.8 ± 1.7 (17) 8.9 ± 2.4 (17) 20.6 ± 3.2 (11)
17
male 1.071 ± 0.01 (10) 6.7 ± 3.0 (19) 3.9 ± 1.1 (19) 8.0 ± 1.4 (19) 7.9 ± 2.3 (19) 11.9 ± 2.8 (10)
female 1.055 ± 0.01 (5) 13.0 ± 4.0 (21) 6.8 ± 1.9 (11) 10.8 ± 2.8 (21) 9.6 ± 3.2 (21) 19.4 ± 2.5 (5)
18
male 1.062 ± 0.01 (3) 7.9 ± 3.0 (8) 4.3 ± 0.8 (8)0 7.9 ± 1.5 (8) 10.3 ± 4.5 (8)0 16.2 ± 2.4 (4)
female 1.047 ± 0.02 (3) 13.0 ± 4.0 (11) 5.3 ± 2.5 (3)0 9.4 ± 2.2 (11) 8.5 ± 2.9 (11) 22.9 ± 7.1 (3)
a
Characteristics of Elite Swimmers

Significantly (p < .05) higher result for males when compared with females; bsignificantly (p < .05) higher result for females when compared with males.
43

1/31/06, 9:37:05 AM
04Wells(30) 44
44
Table 7 Anthropometry Results: Mean ± SD (n)

Age (years)

Variable 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Inspired chest
girth (cm)
89.5 ± 6.9 94.0 ± 4.4 95.6 ± 5.2 96.8 ± 3.1 100.8 ± 3.1 103.8 ± 3.8
male — (16)a (37)a*13 (52)a*13 (13)a*13 (11)a*13,14,15 (7)a*13,14,15,16
82.7 ± 4.3 82.9 ± 3.7 85.5 ± 4.1 86.2 ± 4.1 87.7 ± 1.3 87.1 ± 3.3 88.2 ± 4.5
female (12) (44) (29) (45)*12,13 (11)*12,13 (6) (3)
Expired chest
girth (cm)
81.1 ± 7.5 ( 87.2 ± 5.2 89.7 ± 5.2 90.1 ± 3.5 94.7 ± 3.1 97.4 ± 3.5
malea — 13)a (26)a*13 (41)a*13 (11)a*13 (11)a*13,14,15 (7)a*13,1415,16
Wells, Schneiderman-Walker, and Plyley

76.1 ± 4.4 80.7 ± 3.6

female (8) 76.6 ± 3.1 (35) 77.6 ± 4.5 (25) 77.8 ± 2.9 (35) 79.4 ± 1.9 (11) 79.4 ± 3.6 (6) (3)
Upper arm
girth (cm)
26.1 ± 2.52 27.8 ± 2.2 28.1 ± 2.2 29.0 ± 2.1 30.2 ± 1.7 30.8 ± 1.4
malea — (13) (26) (43)*13 (12)*13 (19)a*13,14,15 (8)a*13,14,15
25.6 ± 1.0 26.1 ± 1.77 27.3 ± 2.51 27.1 ± 2 27.7 ± 1.7 28.1 ± 1.9 28.5 ± 1.7
female (8) (35) (27) (38) (17) (21) (11)*12,13
Flexed upper arm
girth (cm)
28.6 ± 2.7 30.1 ± 2.2 30.6 ± 2.0 31.5 ± 2.3 32.7 ± 1.3 33.5 ± 1.4
malea — (13) (26)a (41)a*13 (11)a*13 (11)a*13,14 (7)a*13,14
27.3 ± 1.3 27.6 ± 1.8 28.9 ± 2.4 28.7 ± 1.9 29.6 ± 1.8 30.3 ± 0.53
female (8) (35) (25) (35) (11)*12,13 (6)*12,13 29.9 ± 1.4 (3)

1/31/06, 9:37:06 AM
04Wells(30) 45
Gluteal girth
(cm)
84.9 ± 6.7 88.6 ± 6.4 90.6 ± 3.6 91.5 ± 3.4 93.7 ± 3.6 96.5 ± 5.1
male — (13) (26) (42)*13 (11)*13 (16)*13,14 (7)*13,14,15
86.9 ± 4.1 87.9 ± 4.1 90.3 ± 5.5 90.1 ± 4.2 91.5 ± 3.8 91.3 ± 3.9 92.1 ± 7.2
female (8) (35)b (25) (37) (14) (16) (8)
Thigh girth
(cm)
49.3 ± 4.1 51.8 ± 3.7 51.9 ± 3.0 52.9 ± 2.8 54.7 ± 2.9 56.3 ± 2.7
male — (13) (26) (43) (12) (19)*13 (8)*13,14,15
51.3 ± 2.9 52.1 ± 4.6 53.7 ± 4.3 53.4 ± 2.9 54.5 ± 2.5 53.2 ± 6.9 55.3 ± 4.1
female (8) (35)b (27) (38) (17) (21) (11)
Calf girth
(cm)
33.7 ± 2.1 35.0 ± 2.2 35.4 ± 1.7 35.4 ± 2.0 37.3 ± 1.5 38.04 ± 1.9
malea — (13) (26) (41)a (11) (11)a*13 (7)*13,14
33.0 ± 1.9 33.8 ± 3.9 34.1 ± 2.2 34.1 ± 1.8 35.4 ± 1.9 35.0 ± 1.8 35.8 ± 1.1
female (8) (35) (25) (35) (11) (6) (3)
Bi-acromial
breadth (cm)
36.7 ± 2.8 39.0 ± 1.9 40.2 ± 1.8 39.9 ± 1.4 41.2 ± 1.5 42.1 ± 1.5
malea — (13) (26)a*13 (41)a*13 (11)a*13 (11)a*13,14 (7)*13,14
36.4 ± 1.5 37.8 ± 4.7 37.9 ± 1.3 37.6 ± 2.6 38.1 ± 1.6 37.9 ± 1.5
female (8) (35) (25) (35) (11) (6) —

(continued)
Characteristics of Elite Swimmers
45

1/31/06, 9:37:08 AM
04Wells(30) 46
46

Table 7 (continued)

Age (years)

Variable 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

Bi-iliac
breadth (cm)
25.9 ± 1.1 27.3 ± 1.5 27.6 ± 1.2 27.6 ± 1.3 27.4 ± 1.4 28.4 ± 2.2
male — (13) (26) (41)*13 (11)*13 (11) (7)*13
25.3 ± 1.4 28.2 ± 9.5 26.6 ± 1.4 27.4 ± 1.6 28.1 ± 1.5 27.4 ± 2.1
female (8) (35) (25) (35) (11) (6) —
Epicondylar
Wells, Schneiderman-Walker, and Plyley

humerus
breadth (cm)
6.9 ± 0.5 7.1 ± 0.4 7.2 ± 0.4 7.1 ± 0.3 7.1 ± 0.2 7.31 ± 0.3
malea — (13) (26)a (41)a (11) (11) (7)
6.3 ± 0.3 6.7 ± 2.4 6.4 ± 0.3 6.3 ± 0.3 6.4 ± 0.3 6.4 ± 0.2
female (8) (35) (25) (35) (11) (6) —
Epicondylar femur
breadth (cm)
9.6 ± 0.4 9.7 ± 0.4 9.7 ± 0.4 9.6 ± 0.4 9.6 ± 0.5 9.5 ± 0.7
malea — (16)a (37)a (52)a (13)a (11)a (7)
8.7 ± 0.3
female (12) 8.4 ± 1.2 (44) 8.8 ± 0.4 (28) 8.7 ± 0.3 (45) 8.8 ± 0.4 (11) 8.7 ± 0.5 (6) —
a b
Significantly (p < .05) higher result for males when compared with females; Significantly (p < .05) higher result for females when compared with males.
*Significantly (p < .05) higher value compared with the superscripted age.

1/31/06, 9:37:09 AM
 Characteristics of Elite Swimmers 47

for body mass, did not vary with age. This result confirmed previous suggestions
that improving athletic performance might be more closely related to developing
the ability to work at a high percentage of maximal aerobic power than to increas-
ing maximal aerobic power per se (39). Our study also confirmed that males have
higher absolute and relative aerobic power values than females (15,26). More spe-
cifically, Drinkwater et al. (15) found that absolute maximal aerobic power (VO2max,
L/min) was 52% higher in males. In the current study, the maximal aerobic power
values for the males were approximately 36% higher than the values for females.
This result might be the result of the combination of larger cardiac volume, blood
volume, and hemoglobin concentration in the male participants. Further, Drink-
water et al. (15) reported that when maximal aerobic power was expressed per kg
of body weight, the gender difference declined to 18%; the current studyʼs results
are in agreement, with the difference in relative VO2max declining to 17%. These
results were expected because the athletes were standardized for the amount of
metabolically active tissue.

Cardiovascular Function
The values obtained for hemoglobin and hematocrit were in agreement with find-
ings from other reports on elite swimmers (22,31). Blood pressure values obtained
for swimmers in the current research were similar to those Mujika et al. (33) and
Kirwan et al. (25) reported for competitive swimmers during intense training. Our
study also confirmed that males have lower maximal heart rates during exercise
than females (54). Maximal heart rates decreased with age for both male and female
swimmers in the current research. These findings agreed with age-related decreases
in aerobic parameters found in studies of older women (18) and men (55), although
this trend has not been previously reported in children.

Respiratory Function
The pulmonary function data that we reported for female swimmers were similar
to Wilson and Tanakaʼs (55) findings about pulmonary function in university-level
female swimmers. The higher maximal ventilation values that the males in our study
achieved during exercise compared with the females likely could be attributed to
higher tidal volumes because we found that female participants maintained a breath-
ing frequency during the exercise tests. An increase was observed in both residual
volume and forced vital capacity with age. This result supported Clanton et al.ʼs
(12) hypothesis that intensive swimming training enhances static and dynamic lung
volumes and improves the conductive properties of both the large and the small
airways. Courteix et al. (13) suggested that the larger values for vital capacity seen
in swimmers versus nonswimmers (49) might result from both training during the
growth period and genetic endowment, which, in turn, supported Andrew et al.ʼs
(1) finding that female swimmers had higher lung volumes than their nonathletic
counterparts. In addition, Astrand et al. (3) reported that changes in physical activity
positively correlated to changes in forced vital capacity. In our study respiratory
exchange ratio was higher (1.5%) in the males than in the females, but the results
did not reach significance. These results are similar to previous research that found
that females have a 3–4% lower RER during submaximal exercise, which reflects

04Wells(30) 47 1/31/06, 9:37:10 AM

 48 Wells, Schneiderman-Walker, and Plyley

the use of a greater proportion of fat as fuel (46), although the current results are
based on a younger population.

Strength and Power

The swim-bench measurements were used to assess overall muscular power and
endurance during the task-specific movements of swimming. Although swim-bench
results for competitive swimmers have been reported previously (45), the current
research was the first to report values for single-stroke maximal power and for 4-
min stroke-specific muscular endurance. The Cybex measurements were important
for assessing individual muscle(s) involved in swimming movement patterns. Iso-
kinetic strength results for specific muscle groups involved in swimming strokes
have not been previously measured. Sharp et al. (40) reported a strong correlation
between arm muscular power output and sprint swimming speed (r = 0.90); thus,
the currently reported measurement might offer an objective assessment of a com-
ponent essential for success in swimming. It has also been reported that vertical
jump and force–velocity relationships are related to muscle-fiber-type composition
and event specialization in swimmers (19). Therefore, the characterization of leg
power, arm strength, and swimming-movement-specific force measurements in
elite-level swimmers in the current research provides an important set of data for
talent identification and event selection.
The observed gender differences in strength and power in our study confirmed
Bencke et al.ʼs (5) results regarding younger swimmers. It is interesting that,
although strength increased across the age ranges sampled in the current research,
there were no significant increases in either vertical jump (a measure of leg power)
or in stroke-specific arm power. Because increases in power output have been cor-
related with increases in swimming speed, the current results suggest that greater
emphasis should be placed on power training as part of the overall training program
for competitive swimming. The observed gender differences in strength and power
might be a result of the greater muscle mass in males than in females.

Body Composition
The gender differences observed in the current research were in agreement with
those in previous research (42) that indicated that body composition measurements
may be predictors of swimming performance in women but not in men. Our results
were consistent with previously reported values for elite adolescent competitive
swimmers (47). Measures of body size (height, weight, and girths) were found to
increase with age, as expected, but body fat percentage did not, which suggested
that it might be important to establish good nutritional habits and fitness at a
young age. The larger proportion of fat mass in the female swimmers might allow
for more buoyancy, which could be an advantage that allows females to kick at
a higher rate and with a better buoyancy profile than male swimmers (30). It is
important to note that internal and external pressures on girls to achieve or maintain
unrealistically low body weight underlies the development of the female athlete
triad of disorders (disordered eating, amenorrhoea, and osteoporosis), leading to
serious health consequences and thus poor athletic performances (36). Therefore,
the body composition results of this research should be interpreted as descriptive

04Wells(30) 48 1/31/06, 9:37:12 AM

 Characteristics of Elite Swimmers 49

of this research population only and not used for other purposes. Further, we have
not analyzed the results to correlate with performance results, so inferences about
the body composition characteristics of these athletes related to performance should
not be made based on these results.

Anthropometry
Our results were consistent with previously reported values for elite adolescent
competitive swimmers (47). Previous research on anthropometry in athletes has
suggested that certain physical characteristics such as height and limb length are
associated with higher levels of performance in a given population of athletes (28).
Although previous research has been published on the anthropometric characteristics
of elite swimmers (47) and on anthropometric and other physical characteristics
related to performance (42), the current research has examined a larger participant
pool, has included both male and female athletes, and has included results from a
broader range of ages.

Conclusions
In summary, we have established normative data for healthy, highly trained male
and female swimmers by using standard protocols across ages 12 to 18 years.
The current research represents a significant addition to the literature because of
its comprehensive physiological analysis, the inclusion of both male and female
participants, and the wide age range studied. This normative data will (a) allow
researchers to fine tune future assessment packages by eliminating those variables
that had no predictive power for performance, thereby decreasing both time and
expense; (b) provide researchers with an established database upon which to update
norms with results from future research projects; and (c) provide a reference upon
which talent-identification programs could be based and monitoring programs could
be established. Further, the physiological characteristics of the general popula-
tion and of individuals with medical conditions in similar age categories could be
evaluated in the context of the upper extremes of human physiological function
that have been included in this normative data.

Acknowledgments
We would like to thank the athletes and coaches of the Canadian National and
Youth National teams for their participation. Dr. Wells is supported by the Irwin
Foundation at the Hospital for Sick Children. We thank Barbara Bauer for her
valuable editorial assistance.

References
1. Andrew, G.M., M.R. Becklake, J.S. Guleria, and D.V. Bates. Heart and lung functions
in swimmers and non-athletes during growth. J. Appl. Physiol. 32:245-51, 1972.
2. Arntsen, K.W., A.C. Deacon, and H.G. Worth. The Hycel-M multichannel analyzer—a
model for evaluation. Clin. Chem. 28:1338-43, 1982.

04Wells(30) 49 1/31/06, 9:37:13 AM

 50 Wells, Schneiderman-Walker, and Plyley

3. Astrand, P.O., B.O. Eriksson, I. Nylander, L. Engstroem, P. Karlberg, B. Saltin, and C.

ThorʼEn. Girl swimmers. With special reference to respiratory and circulatory adapta-
tion and gynaecological and psychiatric aspects. Acta Paediatr. 43:147:1-75, 1963.
4. Bagnall, K.M., and D.W. Kellett. A study of potential Olympic swimmers: I, the starting
point. Br. J. Sports Med. 11:127-32, 1977.
5. Bencke, J., R. Damsgaard, A. Saekmose, P. Jorgensen, K. Jorgensen, and K. Klausen.
Anaerobic power and muscle strength characteristics of 11 years old elite and non-elite
boys and girls from gymnastics, team handball, tennis and swimming. Scand. J. Med.
Sci. Sports. 12:171-8, 2002.
6. Berger, M.A., A.P. Hollander, and G. De Groot. Technique and energy losses in front
crawl swimming. Med. Sci. Sports.29:1491-8, 1997.
7. Capelli, C., P. Zamparo, A. Cigalotto, M.P. Francescato, R.G. Soule, B. Termin, D.R.
Pendergast, and P.E. Di Prampero. Bioenergetics and biomechanics of front crawl
swimming. J. Appl. Physiol. 78:674-9, 1995.
8. Capelli, C., D.R. Pendergast, and B. Termin. Energetics of swimming at maximal speeds
in humans. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 78:385-93, 1998.
9. Chatard, J.C., C. Collomp, E. Maglischo, and C. Maglischo. Swimming skill and
stroking characteristics of front crawl swimmers. Int. J. Sports Med. 11:156-61,
1990.
10. Chatard, J.C., J.M. Lavoie, B. Bourgoin, and J.R. Lacour. The contribution of pas-
sive drag as a determinant of swimming performance. Int. J. Sports Med. 11:367-72,
1990.
11. Chollet, D., P. Pelayo, C. Delaplace, C. Tourny, and M. Sidney. Stroking characteristic
variations in the 100-M freestyle for male swimmers of differing skill. Percept. Mot.
Skills 85:167-77, 1997.
12. Clanton, T.L., G. F. Dixon, J. Drake, and J.E. Gadek. Effects of swim training on lung
volumes and inspiratory muscle conditioning. J. Appl. Physiol. 62:39-46, 1987.
13. Courteix, D., P. Obert, A.M. Lecoq, P. Guenon, and Koch, G. Effect of intensive swim-
ming training on lung volumes, airway resistance and on the maximal expiratory flow-
volume relationship in pre-pubertal girls. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. Occup. Physiol. 76:
264-9, 1997.
14. Damsgaard, R., J. Bencke, G. Matthiesen, J.H. Petersen, and J. Muller. Body propor-
tions, body composition and pubertal development of children in competitive sports.
Scand. J. Med. Sci. Sports.11:54-60, 2001.
15. Drinkwater, B.L. Women and exercise: physiological aspects. Exerc. Sport Sci. Rev.
12:21-51, 1984.
16. Durnin, J.V., and J. Womersley. Body fat assessed from total body density and its
estimation from skinfold thickness: measurements on 481 men and women aged from
16 to 72 years. Br. J. Nutr. 32:77-97, 1974.
17. Dwyer, J. Marathon swimmers: physiologic characteristics. J. Sports Med. Phys. Fit-
ness. 3:263-72, 1983.
18. Eskurza, I., A.J. Donato, K.L. Moreau, D.R. Seals, and H. Tanaka. Changes in maximal
aerobic capacity with age in endurance-trained women: 7-yr follow-up. J. Appl. Physiol.
92:2303-8, 2002.
19. Gerard, E.S., V.J. Caiozzo, B.D. Rubin, C.A. Prietto, and D.M. Davidson. Skeletal
muscle profiles among elite long, middle, and short distance swimmers. Am. J. Sports
Med. 14:77-82, 1986.
20. Hawley, J.A., M.M. Williams, M.M. Vickovic, and P.J. Handcock. Muscle power
predicts freestyle swimming performance. Br. J. Sports Med. 26:151-5, 1992.
21. Haywood, K.M., B.A. Clark, and J.L. Mayhew. Differential effects of age-group gym-
nastics and swimming on body composition, strength, and flexibility. J. Sports Med.
Phys. Fitness. 26:416-20, 1986.

04Wells(30) 50 1/31/06, 9:37:15 AM

 Characteristics of Elite Swimmers 51

22. Heinicke, K., B. Wolfarth, P. Winchenbach, B. Biermann, A. Schmid, G. Huber, B.

Friedmann, and W. Schmidt. Blood volume and hemoglobin mass in elite athletes of
different disciplines. Int. J. Sports Med. 22:504-12, 2001.
23. Hooper, S.L., L. T. Mackinnon, A. Howard, R.D. Gordon, A. W. Bachmann. Markers
for monitoring overtraining and recovery. Med. Sci. Sports. 27:106-12, 1995.
24. Kellett, D.W., P.L. Willan, and K.M. Bagnall. A study of potential Olympic swimmers.
Part 2. Changes due to three months intensive training. Br. J. Sports Med. 12:87-92,
1978.
25. Kirwan, J.P., D. L. Costill, M. G. Flynn, J. B. Mitchell, W. J. Fink, P. D. Neufer, and J.
A. Houmard. Physiological responses to successive days of intense training in competi-
tive swimmers. Med. Sci. Sports. 20:255-9, 1988.
26. Kubukeli, Z.N., T.D. Noakes, and S.C. Dennis. Training techniques to improve endur-
ance exercise performances. Sports Med. 32:489-509, 2002.
27. Lavoie, J.M., and R.R. Montpetit. Applied physiology of swimming. Sports Med. 3:
165-89, 1986.
28. Leone, M., G. Lariviere, and A.S. Comtois. Discriminant analysis of anthropometric
and biomotor variables among elite adolescent female athletes in four sports. J. Sports
Sci. 20:443-9, 2002.
29. Magel, J.R., and J.A. Faulkner. Maximum oxygen uptakes of college swimmers. J.
Appl. Physiol. 22:929-33, 1967.
30. McLean, S.P., and R.N. Hinrichs. Sex differences in the centre of buoyancy location
of competitive swimmers. J. Sports Sci. 16:373-83, 1998.
31. McMurray, R.G., J.S. Harrell, C. B. Bradley, S. Deng, and S. I. Bangdiwala. Predicted
maximal aerobic power in youth is related to age, gender, and ethnicity. Med. Sci.
Sports. 34:145-51, 2002.
32. Millet, G.P., P. Dreano, and D.J. Bentley. Physiological characteristics of elite short-
and long-distance triathletes. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 88:427-30, 2003.
33. Mujika, I., S. Padilla, A. Geyssant, and J.C. Chatard. Hematological responses to train-
ing and taper in competitive swimmers: relationships with performance. Arch. Physiol.
Biochem. 105:379-85, 1998.
34. National Heart and Lung Institute. Recommended standardization procedures for NHLI
lung program epidemiology studies. Author: Bethesda, MD: 221-225, 1971.
35. Obert, P., G. Falgairette, M. Bedu, and J. Coudert. Bioenergetic characteristics of swim-
mers determined during an arm-ergometer test and during swimming. Int. J. Sports
Med. 13:298-303, 1992.
36. Otis, C.L., B. Drinkwater, M. Johnson, A. Loucks, and J. Wilmore. American College
of Sports Medicine position stand. The female athlete triad. Med Sci Sports. 29:i-ix,
1997.
37. Pyne, D.B., H. Lee, and K.M. Swanwick. Monitoring the lactate threshold in world-
ranked swimmers. Med. Sci. Sports. 33:291-297, 2001.
38. Ready, A.E., R.B. Eynon, and D.A. Cunningham. Effect of interval training and detrain-
ing on anaerobic fitness in women. Can. J. Appl. Sport Sci. 6:114-8, 1981.
39. Rodriguez, F.A. Maximal oxygen uptake and cardiorespiratory response to maximal
400-m free swimming, running and cycling tests in competitive swimmers. J. Sports
Med. Phys. Fitness. 40:87-95, 2000.
40. Sharp, R.L., J.P. Troup, and D.L. Costill, Relationship between power and sprint free-
style swimming. Med. Sci. Sports. 14:53-6, 1982.
41. Shephard, R.J., G. Godin, and R. Campbell. Characteristics of sprint, medium and
long-distance swimmers. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 32:99-116, 1974.
42. Siders, W.A., H.C. Lukaski, and W.W. Bolonchuk. Relationships among swimming
performance, body composition and somatotype in competitive collegiate swimmers.
J. Sports Med. Phys. Fitness. 3:166-71, 1993.

04Wells(30) 51 1/31/06, 9:37:17 AM

 52 Wells, Schneiderman-Walker, and Plyley

43. Smith, D.J., S.R. Norris, and J.M. Hogg. Performance evaluation of swimmers: scientific
tools. Sports Med. 32:539-54, 2002.
44. Sprague, H.A. Relationship of certain physical measurements to swimming speed. Res.
Q. 47:810-4, 1976.
45. Swaine, I.L. Cardiopulmonary responses to exercise in swimmer using a swim bench
and a leg-kicking ergometer. Int. J. Sports Med. 18:359-62, 1997.
46. Tarnopolsky, M.A. Gender differences in metabolism; nutrition and supplements. J.
Sci. Med. Sport. 3:287-98, 2000.
47. Thorland, W.G., G.O. Johnson, T.J. Housh, and M.J. Refsell. Anthropometric charac-
teristics of elite adolescent competitive swimmers. Hum. Biol. 55:735-48, 1983.
48. Toussaint, H.M., and A.P. Hollander. Energetics of competitive swimming. Implications
for training programmes. Sports Med. 18:384-405, 1994.
49. Twisk, J.W., B.J. Staal, M.N. Brinkman, H.C. Kemper, and W. van Mechelen. Tracking
of lung function parameters and the longitudinal relationship with lifestyle. Eur. Respir.
J. 12:627-34, 1998.
50. Vaccaro, P., and D.H. Clarke. Cardiorespiratory alterations in 9- to 11-year-old children
following a season of competitive swimming. Med. Sci. Sports. 10:204-7, 1978.
51. Vaccaro, P., D.H. Clarke, and A.F. Morris. Physiological characteristics of young well-
trained swimmers. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. Occup. Physiol. 44:61-6, 1980.
52. Wakayoshi, K., T. Yoshida, Y. Ikuta, Y. Mutoh, and M. Miyashita. Adaptations to six
months of aerobic swim training. Changes in velocity, stroke rate, stroke length and
blood lactate. Int. J. Sports Med. 14:368-72, 1993.
53. Wakayoshi, K., L.J. DʼAcquisto, J.M. Cappaert, and J.P. Troup. Relationship between
oxygen uptake, stroke rate and swimming velocity in competitive swimming. Int. J.
Sports Med. 16:19-23, 1995.
54. Washington, R.L., J.C. van Gundy, C. Cohen, H.M. Sondheimer, and R.R. Wolfe.
Normal aerobic and anaerobic exercise data for North American school-age children.
J. Pediatr. 112:223-33, 1988.
55. Wilson, T.M., and H. Tanaka. Meta-analysis of the age-associated decline in maximal
aerobic capacity in men: relation to training status. Am. J. Physiol. Heart Circ. Physiol.
278:H829-34, 2000.
56. Wutscherk, H. Value and possibilities of somatotype determination in young athletes.
Arztl. Jugendkd. 74:330-44, 1983.
57. Zauner, C.W., and N.Y. Benson. Physiological alterations in young swimmers during
3 years of intensive training. J. Sports Med. Phys. Fitness. 21:179-85, 1981

04Wells(30) 52 1/31/06, 9:37:20 AM