You are on page 1of 16

Dam

A dam is a barrier that stops or restricts the flow of surface water or underground
streams. Reservoirs created by dams not only suppress floods but also provide water for
activities such as irrigation, human consumption, industrial use, aquaculture, and
navigability. Hydropower is often used in conjunction with dams to generate electricity.
A dam can also be used to collect or store water which can be evenly distributed between
locations. Dams generally serve the primary purpose of retaining water, while other
structures such as floodgates or levees (also known as dikes) are used to manage or
prevent water flow into specific land regions. The earliest known dam is the Jawa Dam in Glen Canyon Dam on the Colorado River,
Jordan, dating to 3,000 BC. Arizona, USA

The word dam can be traced back to Middle English,[1] and before that, from Middle
Dutch, as seen in the names of many old cities,[2] such as Amsterdam and Rotterdam.

Contents
History
Ancient dams
Roman engineering
Middle Ages
Industrial revolution
Modern era
Lake Vyrnwy Dam, Wales, finished in 1888
Types of dams
By structure
Arch dams
Gravity dams
Arch-gravity dams
Barrages
Embankment dams
Rock-fill embankment dams
Concrete-face rock-fill dams
Earth-fill dams
Karapuzha Dam, an earthen dam in the Indian
Fixed-crest dams state of Kerala
By size
Large dams
Small dams
Non-jurisdictional dams
Risks of unregulated small dams
By use
Saddle dam
Weir
Check dam
Dry dam
Diversionary dam
Underground dam
Tailings dam
By material
Steel dams
Timber dams
Other types Small dam near Groningen, Netherlands
Cofferdams
Natural dams
Beaver dams
Construction elements
Power generation plant
Spillways
Dam creation
Common purposes
Location
Impact assessment
Environmental impact
Human social impact
Economics
Reservoir and dam improvements
Dam removal
Dam failure
See also
Notes Afsluitdijk with the Wadden Sea (a
Sources part of the North Sea) on the left
and the IJsselmeer on the right in
Further reading the Netherlands
External links

History

Ancient dams

Early dam building took place in Mesopotamia and the Middle East. Dams were used to control water levels, for Mesopotamia's weather
affected the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers.

The earliest known dam is the Jawa Dam in Jordan, 100 kilometres (62 mi) northeast of the capital Amman. This gravity dam featured
an originally 9-metre-high (30 ft) and 1 m-wide (3.3 ft) stone wall, supported by a 50 m-wide (160 ft) earthen rampart. The structure is
dated to 3000 BC.[3][4]

The Ancient Egyptian Sadd-el-Kafara Dam at Wadi Al-Garawi, about 25 km (16 mi) south of Cairo, was 102 m (335 ft) long at its base
and 87 m (285 ft) wide. The structure was built around 2800[5] or 2600 BC[6] as a diversion dam for flood control, but was destroyed by
heavy rain during construction or shortly afterwards.[5][6] During the Twelfth Dynasty in the 19th century BC, the Pharaohs Senosert III,
Amenemhat III, and Amenemhat IV dug a canal 16 km (9.9 mi) long linking the Fayum Depression to the Nile in Middle Egypt. Two
dams called Ha-Uar running east-west were built to retain water during the annual flood and then release it to surrounding lands. The
lake called Mer-wer or Lake Moeris covered 1,700 km2 (660 sq mi) and is known today as Birket Qarun.[7]

By the mid-late third millennium BC, an intricate water-management system in Dholavira in modern-day India was built. The system
included 16 reservoirs, dams and various channels for collecting water and storing it.[8]

One of the engineering wonders of the ancient world was the Great Dam of Marib in Yemen. Initiated sometime between 1750 and 1700
BC, it was made of packed earth – triangular in cross-section, 580  m (1,900  ft) in length and originally 4  m (13  ft) high – running
between two groups of rocks on either side, to which it was linked by substantial stonework. Repairs were carried out during various
periods, most importantly around 750 BC, and 250 years later the dam height was increased to 7 m (23 ft). After the end of the Kingdom
of Saba, the dam fell under the control of the Ḥimyarites (c. 115 BC) who undertook further improvements, creating a structure 14 m
(46 ft) high, with five spillways, two masonry-reinforced sluices, a settling pond, and a 1,000 m (3,300 ft) canal to a distribution tank.
These works were not finished until 325 AD when the dam permitted the irrigation of 25,000 acres (100 km2).

Eflatun Pınar is a Hittite dam and spring temple near Konya, Turkey. It is thought to date from the Hittite empire between the 15th and
13th centuries BC.

The Kallanai is constructed of unhewn stone, over 300 m (980 ft) long, 4.5 m (15 ft) high and 20 m (66 ft) wide, across the main stream
of the Kaveri River in Tamil Nadu, South India. The basic structure dates to the 2nd century AD[9] and is considered one of the oldest
water diversion or water regulating structures still in use.[10] The purpose of the dam was to divert the waters of the Kaveri across the
fertile delta region for irrigation via canals.[11]

Du Jiang Yan is the oldest surviving irrigation system in China that included a dam that directed waterflow. It was finished in 251 BC. A
large earthen dam, made by Sunshu Ao, the prime minister of Chu (state), flooded a valley in modern-day northern Anhui Province that
created an enormous irrigation reservoir (100 km (62 mi) in circumference), a reservoir that is still present today.[12]

Roman engineering

Roman dam construction was characterized by "the Romans' ability to plan and organize
engineering construction on a grand scale."[13] Roman planners introduced the then-
novel concept of large reservoir dams which could secure a permanent water supply for
urban settlements over the dry season.[14] Their pioneering use of water-proof hydraulic
mortar and particularly Roman concrete allowed for much larger dam structures than
previously built,[13] such as the Lake Homs Dam, possibly the largest water barrier to
that date,[15] and the Harbaqa Dam, both in Roman Syria. The highest Roman dam was
the Subiaco Dam near Rome; its record height of 50  m (160  ft) remained unsurpassed
until its accidental destruction in 1305.[16]

Roman engineers made routine use of ancient standard designs like embankment dams The Roman dam at Cornalvo in Spain has been in
and masonry gravity dams.[17] Apart from that, they displayed a high degree of use for almost two millennia.
inventiveness, introducing most of the other basic dam designs which had been
unknown until then. These include arch-gravity dams,[18] arch dams,[19] buttress dams[20] and multiple arch buttress dams,[21] all of
which were known and employed by the 2nd century AD (see List of Roman dams). Roman workforces also were the first to build dam
bridges, such as the Bridge of Valerian in Iran.[22]

In Iran, bridge dams such as the Band-e Kaisar were used to provide hydropower through water
wheels, which often powered water-raising mechanisms. One of the first was the Roman-built dam
bridge in Dezful,[23] which could raise water 50 cubits (c. 23 m) to supply the town. Also diversion
dams were known.[24] Milling dams were introduced which the Muslim engineers called the Pul-i-
Bulaiti. The first was built at Shustar on the River Karun, Iran, and many of these were later built in
other parts of the Islamic world.[24] Water was conducted from the back of the dam through a large
pipe to drive a water wheel and watermill.[25] In the 10th century, Al-Muqaddasi described several
dams in Persia. He reported that one in Ahwaz was more than 910 m (3,000 ft) long,[26] and that it
Remains of the Band-e Kaisar dam, had many water-wheels raising the water into aqueducts through which it flowed into reservoirs of
built by the Romans in the 3rd the city.[27] Another one, the Band-i-Amir Dam, provided irrigation for 300 villages.[26]
century AD

Middle Ages

In the Netherlands, a low-lying country, dams were often built to block rivers to regulate the water level and to prevent the sea from
entering the marshlands. Such dams often marked the beginning of a town or city because it was easy to cross the river at such a place,
and often influenced Dutch place names. The present Dutch capital, Amsterdam (old name Amstelredam), started with a dam on the
river Amstel in the late 12th century, and Rotterdam began with a dam on the river Rotte, a minor tributary of the Nieuwe Maas. The
central square of Amsterdam, covering the original site of the 800-year-old dam, still carries the name Dam Square or simply 'the Dam'.

Industrial revolution

The Romans were the first to build arch dams, where the reaction forces from the abutment
stabilizes the structure from the external hydrostatic pressure, but it was only in the 19th century
that the engineering skills and construction materials available were capable of building the first
large-scale arch dams.

Three pioneering arch dams were built around the British Empire in the early 19th century.
Henry Russel of the Royal Engineers oversaw the construction of the Mir Alam dam in 1804 to
supply water to the city of Hyderabad (it is still in use today). It had a height of 12 m (39 ft) and
consisted of 21 arches of variable span.[28] An engraving of the Rideau Canal locks
at Bytown
In the 1820s and 30s, Lieutenant-Colonel John By supervised the construction of the Rideau
Canal in Canada near modern-day Ottawa and built a series of curved masonry dams as part of
the waterway system. In particular, the Jones Falls Dam, built by John Redpath, was completed in 1832 as the largest dam in North
America and an engineering marvel. In order to keep the water in control during construction, two sluices, artificial channels for
conducting water, were kept open in the dam. The first was near the base of the dam on its east side. A second sluice was put in on the
west side of the dam, about 20 ft (6.1 m) above the base. To make the switch from the lower to upper sluice, the outlet of Sand Lake was
blocked off.[29]

Hunts Creek near the city of Parramatta, Australia, was dammed in the 1850s, to cater to
the demand for water from the growing population of the city. The masonry arch dam
wall was designed by Lieutenant Percy Simpson who was influenced by the advances in
dam engineering techniques made by the Royal Engineers in India. The dam cost
£17,000 and was completed in 1856 as the first engineered dam built in Australia, and
the second arch dam in the world built to mathematical specifications.[30]

The first such dam was opened two years earlier in France. It was the first French arch
dam of the industrial era, and it was built by François Zola in the municipality of Aix-en-
Provence to improve the supply of water after the 1832 cholera outbreak devastated the
area. After royal approval was granted in 1844, the dam was constructed over the
following decade. Its construction was carried out on the basis of the mathematical
Masonry arch wall, Parramatta, New South results of scientific stress analysis.
Wales, the first engineered dam built in Australia
The 75-miles dam near Warwick, Australia, was possibly the world's first concrete arch
dam. Designed by Henry Charles Stanley in 1880 with an overflow spillway and a special
water outlet, it was eventually heightened to 10 m (33 ft).

In the latter half of the nineteenth century, significant advances in the scientific theory of masonry dam design were made. This
transformed dam design from an art based on empirical methodology to a profession based on a rigorously applied scientific theoretical
framework. This new emphasis was centered around the engineering faculties of universities in France and in the United Kingdom.
William John Macquorn Rankine at the University of Glasgow pioneered the theoretical understanding of dam structures in his 1857
paper On the Stability of Loose Earth. Rankine theory provided a good understanding of the principles behind dam design.[31] In
France, J. Augustin Tortene de Sazilly explained the mechanics of vertically faced masonry gravity dams, and Zola's dam was the first to
be built on the basis of these principles.[32]

Modern era
The era of large dams was initiated with the construction of the Aswan Low Dam in
Egypt in 1902, a gravity masonry buttress dam on the Nile River. Following their 1882
invasion and occupation of Egypt, the British began construction in 1898. The project
was designed by Sir William Willcocks and involved several eminent engineers of the
time, including Sir Benjamin Baker and Sir John Aird, whose firm, John Aird & Co., was
the main contractor.[33][34] Capital and financing were furnished by Ernest Cassel.[35]
When initially constructed between 1899 and 1902, nothing of its scale had ever before
been attempted;[36] on completion, it was the largest masonry dam in the world.[37]

The Hoover Dam is a massive concrete arch-gravity dam, constructed in the Black
Canyon of the Colorado River, on the border between the US states of Arizona and
Nevada between 1931 and 1936 during the Great Depression. In 1928, Congress
authorized the project to build a dam that would control floods, provide irrigation water
and produce hydroelectric power. The winning bid to build the dam was submitted by a The Hoover Dam by Ansel Adams, 1942
consortium called Six Companies, Inc. Such a large concrete structure had never been
built before, and some of the techniques were unproven. The torrid summer weather and
the lack of facilities near the site also presented difficulties. Nevertheless, Six Companies turned over the dam to the federal government
on 1 March 1936, more than two years ahead of schedule.

By 1997, there were an estimated 800,000 dams worldwide, some 40,000 of them over 15 m (49 ft) high.[38] In 2014, scholars from the
University of Oxford published a study of the cost of large dams – based on the largest existing dataset – documenting significant cost
overruns for a majority of dams and questioning whether benefits typically offset costs for such dams.[39]

Types of dams
Dams can be formed by human agency, natural causes, or even by the intervention of wildlife such as beavers. Man-made dams are
typically classified according to their size (height), intended purpose or structure.

By structure

Based on structure and material used, dams are classified as easily created without materials, arch-gravity dams, embankment dams or
masonry dams, with several subtypes.

Arch dams

In the arch dam, stability is obtained by a combination of arch and gravity action. If the upstream face is
vertical the entire weight of the dam must be carried to the foundation by gravity, while the distribution of
the normal hydrostatic pressure between vertical cantilever and arch action will depend upon the stiffness
of the dam in a vertical and horizontal direction. When the upstream face is sloped the distribution is more
complicated. The normal component of the weight of the arch ring may be taken by the arch action, while
the normal hydrostatic pressure will be distributed as described above. For this type of dam, firm reliable
supports at the abutments (either buttress or canyon side wall) are more important. The most desirable
place for an arch dam is a narrow canyon with steep side walls composed of sound rock.[40] The safety of an
arch dam is dependent on the strength of the side wall abutments, hence not only should the arch be well
seated on the side walls but also the character of the rock should be carefully inspected.

Two types of single-arch dams are in use, namely the constant-angle


and the constant-radius dam. The constant-radius type employs the
same face radius at all elevations of the dam, which means that as the
Gordon Dam, Tasmania, is
channel grows narrower towards the bottom of the dam the central
an arch dam.
angle subtended by the face of the dam becomes smaller. Jones Falls
Dam, in Canada, is a constant radius dam. In a constant-angle dam,
also known as a variable radius dam, this subtended angle is kept
constant and the variation in distance between the abutments at various levels is taken care of by
varying the radii. Constant-radius dams are much less common than constant-angle dams. Parker
Daniel-Johnson Dam, Quebec, is a
Dam on the Colorado River is a constant-angle arch dam.
multiple-arch buttress dam.
A similar type is the double-curvature or thin-shell dam. Wildhorse Dam near Mountain City,
Nevada, in the United States is an example of the type. This method of construction minimizes the
amount of concrete necessary for construction but transmits large loads to the foundation and
abutments. The appearance is similar to a single-arch dam but with a distinct vertical curvature to it as well lending it the vague
appearance of a concave lens as viewed from downstream.

The multiple-arch dam consists of a number of single-arch dams with concrete buttresses as the supporting abutments, as for example
the Daniel-Johnson Dam, Québec, Canada. The multiple-arch dam does not require as many buttresses as the hollow gravity type but
requires a good rock foundation because the buttress loads are heavy.

Gravity dams

In a gravity dam, the force that holds the dam in place against the push from the water is Earth's gravity pulling down on the mass of the
dam.[41] The water presses laterally (downstream) on the dam, tending to overturn the dam by rotating about its toe (a point at the
bottom downstream side of the dam). The dam's weight counteracts that force, tending to rotate the dam the other way about its toe.
The designer ensures that the dam is heavy enough that the dam's weight wins that contest. In engineering terms, that is true whenever
the resultant of the forces of gravity acting on the dam and water pressure on the dam acts in a line
that passes upstream of the toe of the dam. The designer tries to shape the dam so if one were to
consider the part of the dam above any particular height to be a whole dam itself, that dam also
would be held in place by gravity, i.e., there is no tension in the upstream face of the dam holding
the top of the dam down. The designer does this because it is usually more practical to make a dam
of material essentially just piled up than to make the material stick together against vertical tension.
The shape that prevents tension in the upstream face also eliminates a balancing compression stress
in the downstream face, providing additional economy.
The Grand Coulee Dam is an
For this type of dam, it is essential to have an impervious foundation with high bearing strength.
example of a solid gravity dam.
Permeable foundations have a greater likelihood of generating uplift pressures under the dam.
Uplift pressures are hydrostatic pressures caused by the water pressure of the reservoir pushing up
against the bottom of the dam. If large enough uplift pressures are generated there is a risk of
destabilizing the concrete gravity dam.

On a suitable site, a gravity dam can prove to be a better alternative to other types of dams. When built on a solid foundation, the gravity
dam probably represents the best-developed example of dam building. Since the fear of flood is a strong motivator in many regions,
gravity dams are built in some instances where an arch dam would have been more economical.

Gravity dams are classified as "solid" or "hollow" and are generally made of either concrete or masonry. The solid form is the more
widely used of the two, though the hollow dam is frequently more economical to construct. Grand Coulee Dam is a solid gravity dam and
Braddock Locks & Dam is a hollow gravity dam.

Arch-gravity dams

A gravity dam can be combined with an arch dam into an arch-gravity dam for areas with massive
amounts of water flow but less material available for a pure gravity dam. The inward compression of
the dam by the water reduces the lateral (horizontal) force acting on the dam. Thus, the
gravitational force required by the dam is lessened, i.e., the dam does not need to be so massive.
This enables thinner dams and saves resources.

Barrages

A barrage dam is a special kind of dam that consists of a line of large gates that can be opened or The Hoover Dam is an example of
closed to control the amount of water passing the dam. The gates are set between flanking piers an arch-gravity dam.
which are responsible for supporting the water load, and are often used to control and stabilize
water flow for irrigation systems. An example of this type of dam is the now-decommissioned Red
Bluff Diversion Dam on the Sacramento River near Red Bluff, California.

Barrages that are built at the mouths of rivers or lagoons to prevent tidal incursions or utilize the
tidal flow for tidal power are known as tidal barrages.[42]

Embankment dams

Embankment dams are made of compacted earth, and are of two main types: "rock-fill" and "earth-
fill". Like concrete gravity dams, embankment dams rely on their weight to hold back the force of
water. The Koshi Barrage of Nepal

Rock-fill embankment dams

Rock-fill dams are embankments of compacted free-draining granular earth with an impervious
zone. The earth used often contains a high percentage of large particles, hence the term "rock-fill".
The impervious zone may be on the upstream face and made of masonry, concrete, plastic
membrane, steel sheet piles, timber or other material. The impervious zone may also be inside the
embankment, in which case it is referred to as a "core". In the instances where clay is used as the
impervious material, the dam is referred to as a "composite" dam. To prevent internal erosion of
clay into the rock fill due to seepage forces, the core is separated using a filter. Filters are specifically
graded soil designed to prevent the migration of fine grain soil particles. When suitable building
Gathright Dam in Virginia is a rock-
material is at hand, transport is minimized, leading to cost savings during construction. Rock-fill
fill embankment dam.
dams are resistant to damage from earthquakes. However, inadequate quality control during
construction can lead to poor compaction and sand in the embankment which can lead to
liquefaction of the rock-fill during an earthquake. Liquefaction potential can be reduced by keeping
susceptible material from being saturated, and by providing adequate compaction during construction. An example of a rock-fill dam is
New Melones Dam in California or the Fierza Dam in Albania.

A core that is growing in popularity is asphalt concrete. The majority of such dams are built with rock and/or gravel as the primary fill.
Almost 100 dams of this design have now been built worldwide since the first such dam was completed in 1962. All asphalt-concrete
core dams built so far have an excellent performance record. The type of asphalt used is a viscoelastic-plastic material that can adjust to
the movements and deformations imposed on the embankment as a whole, and to settlement of the foundation. The flexible properties
of the asphalt make such dams especially suited to earthquake regions.[43]

For the Moglicë Hydro Power Plant in Albania the Norwegian power company Statkraft built an asphalt-core rock-fill dam. Upon
completion in 2018 the 320 m long, 150 m high and 460 m wide dam is anticipated to be the world's highest of its kind.[44][45][46]
Concrete-face rock-fill dams

A concrete-face rock-fill dam (CFRD) is a rock-fill dam with concrete slabs on its upstream face. This design provides the concrete slab
as an impervious wall to prevent leakage and also a structure without concern for uplift pressure. In addition, the CFRD design is
flexible for topography, faster to construct and less costly than earth-fill dams. The CFRD concept originated during the California Gold
Rush in the 1860s when miners constructed rock-fill timber-face dams for sluice operations. The timber was later replaced by concrete
as the design was applied to irrigation and power schemes. As CFRD designs grew in height during the 1960s, the fill was compacted
and the slab's horizontal and vertical joints were replaced with improved vertical joints. In the last few decades, design has become
popular.[47]

The tallest CFRD in the world is the 233 m-tall (764 ft) Shuibuya Dam in China, completed in 2008.[48]

Earth-fill dams

Earth-fill dams, also called earthen dams, rolled-earth dams or simply earth dams, are constructed as a simple embankment of well-
compacted earth. A homogeneous rolled-earth dam is entirely constructed of one type of material but may contain a drain layer to
collect seep water. A zoned-earth dam has distinct parts or zones of dissimilar material, typically a shell of locally plentiful material with
a watertight clay core. Modern zoned-earth embankments employ filter and drain zones to collect and remove seep water and preserve
the integrity of the downstream shell zone. An outdated method of zoned earth dam construction used a hydraulic fill to produce a
watertight core. Rolled-earth dams may also employ a watertight facing or core in the manner of a rock-fill dam. The frozen-core dam is
a temporary earth dam occasionally used in high latitudes by circulating a coolant is through pipes inside the dam to maintain a
watertight region of permafrost within it.

Tarbela Dam is a large dam on the Indus River in Pakistan, about 50 km (31 mi) northwest of Islamabad. Its height of 485 ft (148 m)
above the river bed and 95  sq  mi (250  km2) reservoir make it the largest earth-filled dam in the world. The principal element of the
project is an embankment 9,000 feet (2,700  m) long with a maximum height of 465 feet (142  m). The dam used approximately
200 million cubic yards (152.8 million cu. meters) of fill, which makes it one of the largest man-made structures in the world.

Because earthen dams can be constructed from local materials, they can be cost-effective in regions where the cost of producing or
bringing in concrete would be prohibitive.

Fixed-crest dams

A fixed-crest dam is a concrete barrier across a river.[49] Fixed-crest dams are designed to maintain depth in the channel for
navigation.[50] They pose risks to boaters who may travel over them, as they are hard to spot from the water and create induced currents
that are difficult to escape.[51]

By size

There is variability, both worldwide and within individual countries, such as in the United States, in how dams of different sizes are
categorized. Dam size influences construction, repair, and removal costs and affects the dams’ potential range and magnitude of
environmental disturbances.[52]

Large dams

The International Commission on Large Dams (ICOLD) defines a "large dam" as "A dam with a height of 15 m (49 ft) or greater from
lowest foundation to crest or a dam between 5  m (16  ft) metres and 15 metres impounding more than 3  million cubic metres
(2,400 acre⋅ft)".[53] "Major dams" are over 150 m (490 ft) in height.[54] The Report of the World Commission on Dams also includes in
the "large" category, dams which are between 5 and 15  m (16 and 49  ft) high with a reservoir capacity of more than 3  million cubic
metres (2,400 acre⋅ft).[42] Hydropower dams can be classified as either "high-head" (greater than 30 m in height) or "low-head" (less
than 30 m in height).[55]

As of 2021, ICOLD's World Register of Dams contains 58,700 large dam records.[56]: 6  The tallest dam in the world is the 305 m-high
(1,001 ft) Jinping-I Dam in China.[57]

Small dams

As with large dams, small dams have multiple uses, such as, but not limited to, hydropower production, flood protection, and water
storage. Small dams can be particularly useful on farms to capture runoff for later use, for example, during the dry season.[58] Small
scale dams have the potential to generate benefits without displacing people as well,[59] and small, decentralised hydroelectric dams can
aid rural development in developing countries.[60] In the United States alone, there are approximately 2,000,000 or more "small" dams
that are not included in the Army Corps of Engineers National Inventory of dams.[61] Records of small dams are kept by state regulatory
agencies and therefore information about small dams is dispersed and uneven in geographic coverage.[55]

Countries worldwide consider small hydropower plants (SHPs) important for their energy strategies, and there has been a notable
increase in interest in SHPs.[62] Couto and Olden (2018)[62] conducted a global study and found 82,891 small hydropower plants (SHPs)
operating or under construction. Technical definitions of SHPs, such as their maximum generation capacity, dam height, reservoir area,
etc., vary by country.

Non-jurisdictional dams
A dam is non-jurisdictional when its size (usually "small") excludes it from being subject to certain legal regulations. The technical
criteria for categorising a dam as "jurisdictional" or "non-jurisdictional" varies by location. In the United States, each state defines what
constitutes a non-jurisdictional dam. In the state of Colorado a non-jurisdictional dam is defined as a dam creating a reservoir with a
capacity of 100 acre-feet or less and a surface area of 20 acres or less and with a height measured as defined in Rules 4.2.5.1. and 4.2.19
of 10 feet or less.[63] In contrast, the state of New Mexico defines a jurisdictional dam as 25 feet or greater in height and storing more
than 15 acre-feet or a dam that stores 50 acre-feet or greater and is six feet or more in height (section 72-5-32 NMSA), suggesting that
dams that do not meet these requirements are non-jurisdictional.[64] Most US dams, 2.41 million of a total of 2.5 million dams, are not
under the jurisdiction of any public agency (i.e., they are non-jurisdictional), nor are they listed on the National Inventory of Dams
(NID).[65]

Risks of unregulated small dams

Small dams incur risks similar to large dams. However, the absence of regulation (unlike more regulated large dams) and of an
inventory of small dams (i.e., those that are non-jurisdictional) can lead to significant risks for both humans and ecosystems.[65] For
example, according to the US National Park Service (NPS), "Non-jurisdictional—means a structure which does not meet the minimum
criteria, as listed in the Federal Guidelines for Dam Safety, to be included in dam safety programs. The non-jurisdictional structure does
not receive a hazard classification and is not considered for any further requirements or activities under the NPS dam safety
program."[66] Small dams can be dangerous individually (i.e., they can fail), but also collectively,[67] as an aggregation of small dams
along a river or within a geographic area can multiply risks. Graham's 1999 study[68] of US dam failures resulting in fatalities from
1960–1998 concluded that the failure of dams between 6.1 and 15 m high (typical height range of smaller dams[69]) caused 86% of the
deaths, and the failure of dams less than 6.1 m high caused 2% of the deaths. Non-jurisdictional dams may pose hazards because their
design, construction, maintenance, and surveillance is unregulated.[69] Scholars have noted that more research is needed to better
understand the environmental impact of small dams[62] (e.g., their potential to alter the flow, temperature, sediment[70][55] and plant
and animal diversity of a river).

By use

Saddle dam

A saddle dam is an auxiliary dam constructed to confine the reservoir created by a primary dam either to permit a higher water elevation
and storage or to limit the extent of a reservoir for increased efficiency. An auxiliary dam is constructed in a low spot or "saddle" through
which the reservoir would otherwise escape. On occasion, a reservoir is contained by a similar structure called a dike to prevent
inundation of nearby land. Dikes are commonly used for reclamation of arable land from a shallow lake, similar to a levee, which is a
wall or embankment built along a river or stream to protect adjacent land from flooding.

Weir

A weir (sometimes called an "overflow dam") is a small dam that is often used in a river channel to create an impoundment lake for
water abstraction purposes and which can also be used for flow measurement or retardation.

Check dam

A check dam is a small dam designed to reduce flow velocity and control soil erosion. Conversely, a wing dam is a structure that only
partly restricts a waterway, creating a faster channel that resists the accumulation of sediment.

Dry dam

A dry dam, also known as a flood retarding structure, is designed to control flooding. It normally holds back no water and allows the
channel to flow freely, except during periods of intense flow that would otherwise cause flooding downstream.

Diversionary dam

A diversionary dam is designed to divert all or a portion of the flow of a river from its natural course. The water may be redirected into a
canal or tunnel for irrigation and/or hydroelectric power production.

Underground dam

Underground dams are used to trap groundwater and store all or most of it below the surface for extended use in a localized area. In
some cases, they are also built to prevent saltwater from intruding into a freshwater aquifer. Underground dams are typically
constructed in areas where water resources are minimal and need to be efficiently stored, such as in deserts and on islands like the
Fukuzato Dam in Okinawa, Japan. They are most common in northeastern Africa and the arid areas of Brazil while also being used in
the southwestern United States, Mexico, India, Germany, Italy, Greece, France and Japan.[71]

There are two types of underground dams: "sub-surface" and a "sand-storage". A sub-surface dam is built across an aquifer or drainage
route from an impervious layer (such as solid bedrock) up to just below the surface. They can be constructed of a variety of materials to
include bricks, stones, concrete, steel or PVC. Once built, the water stored behind the dam raises the water table and is then extracted
with wells. A sand-storage dam is a weir built in stages across a stream or wadi. It must be strong, as floods will wash over its crest. Over
time, sand accumulates in layers behind the dam, which helps store water and, most importantly, prevent evaporation. The stored water
can be extracted with a well, through the dam body, or by means of a drain pipe.[72]
Tailings dam

A tailings dam is typically an earth-fill embankment dam used to store tailings, which are produced during mining operations after
separating the valuable fraction from the uneconomic fraction of an ore. Conventional water retention dams can serve this purpose, but
due to cost, a tailings dam is more viable. Unlike water retention dams, a tailings dam is raised in succession throughout the life of the
particular mine. Typically, a base or starter dam is constructed, and as it fills with a mixture of tailings and water, it is raised. Material
used to raise the dam can include the tailings (depending on their size) along with soil.[73]

There are three raised tailings dam designs, the "upstream", "downstream", and "centerline", named according to the movement of the
crest during raising. The specific design used is dependent upon topography, geology, climate, the type of tailings, and cost. An
upstream tailings dam consists of trapezoidal embankments being constructed on top but toe to crest of another, moving the crest
further upstream. This creates a relatively flat downstream side and a jagged upstream side which is supported by tailings slurry in the
impoundment. The downstream design refers to the successive raising of the embankment that positions the fill and crest further
downstream. A centerlined dam has sequential embankment dams constructed directly on top of another while fill is placed on the
downstream side for support and slurry supports the upstream side.[74][75]

Because tailings dams often store toxic chemicals from the mining process, they have an impervious liner to prevent seepage.
Water/slurry levels in the tailings pond must be managed for stability and environmental purposes as well.[75]

By material

Steel dams

A steel dam is a type of dam briefly experimented with around the start of the 20th century which
uses steel plating (at an angle) and load-bearing beams as the structure. Intended as permanent
structures, steel dams were an (failed) experiment to determine if a construction technique could be
devised that was cheaper than masonry, concrete or earthworks, but sturdier than timber crib dams.

Timber dams

Timber dams were widely used in the early part of the industrial
revolution and in frontier areas due to ease and speed of
Redridge Steel Dam, built 1905,
construction. Rarely built in modern times because of their
Michigan
relatively short lifespan and the limited height to which they can
be built, timber dams must be kept constantly wet in order to
maintain their water retention properties and limit
deterioration by rot, similar to a barrel. The locations where timber dams are most economical to
build are those where timber is plentiful, cement is costly or difficult to transport, and either a low
head diversion dam is required or longevity is not an issue. Timber dams were once numerous,
A timber crib dam in Michigan, 1978 especially in the North American West, but most have failed, been hidden under earth
embankments, or been replaced with entirely new structures. Two common variations of timber
dams were the "crib" and the "plank".

Timber crib dams were erected of heavy timbers or dressed logs in the manner of a log house and the interior filled with earth or rubble.
The heavy crib structure supported the dam's face and the weight of the water. Splash dams were timber crib dams used to help float
logs downstream in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

"Timber plank dams" were more elegant structures that employed a variety of construction methods using heavy timbers to support a
water retaining arrangement of planks.

Other types

Cofferdams

A cofferdam is a barrier, usually temporary, constructed to exclude water from an area that is
normally submerged. Made commonly of wood, concrete, or steel sheet piling, cofferdams are used
to allow construction on the foundation of permanent dams, bridges, and similar structures. When
the project is completed, the cofferdam will usually be demolished or removed unless the area
requires continuous maintenance. (See also causeway and retaining wall.)

Common uses for cofferdams include the construction and repair of offshore oil platforms. In such
cases, the cofferdam is fabricated from sheet steel and welded into place under water. Air is pumped
into the space, displacing the water and allowing a dry work environment below the surface. A cofferdam during the construction
of locks at the Montgomery Point
Lock and Dam
Natural dams

Dams can also be created by natural geological forces. Lava dams are formed when lava flows, often basaltic, intercept the path of a
stream or lake outlet, resulting in the creation of a natural impoundment. An example would be the eruptions of the Uinkaret volcanic
field about 1.8 million–10,000 years ago, which created lava dams on the Colorado River in northern Arizona in the United States. The
largest such lake grew to about 800 km (500 mi) in length before the failure of its dam. Glacial activity can also form natural dams, such
as the damming of the Clark Fork in Montana by the Cordilleran Ice Sheet, which formed the 7,780  km2 (3,000  sq  mi) Glacial Lake
Missoula near the end of the last Ice Age. Moraine deposits left behind by glaciers can also dam rivers to form lakes, such as at Flathead
Lake, also in Montana (see Moraine-dammed lake).

Natural disasters such as earthquakes and landslides frequently create landslide dams in mountainous regions with unstable local
geology. Historical examples include the Usoi Dam in Tajikistan, which blocks the Murghab River to create Sarez Lake. At 560  m
(1,840  ft) high, it is the tallest dam in the world, including both natural and man-made dams. A more recent example would be the
creation of Attabad Lake by a landslide on Pakistan's Hunza River.

Natural dams often pose significant hazards to human settlements and infrastructure. The resulting lakes often flood inhabited areas,
while a catastrophic failure of the dam could cause even greater damage, such as the failure of western Wyoming's Gros Ventre landslide
in 1927, which wiped out the town of Kelly resulting in the deaths of six people.

Beaver dams

Beavers create dams primarily out of mud and sticks to flood a particular habitable area. By flooding a parcel of land, beavers can
navigate below or near the surface and remain relatively well hidden or protected from predators. The flooded region also allows beavers
access to food, especially during the winter.

Construction elements

Power generation plant

As of 2005, hydroelectric power, mostly from dams, supplies some 19% of the world's electricity, and over
63% of renewable energy.[76] Much of this is generated by large dams, although China uses small-scale
hydro generation on a wide scale and is responsible for about 50% of world use of this type of power.[76]

Most hydroelectric power comes from the potential energy of dammed water driving a water turbine and
generator; to boost the power generation capabilities of a dam, the water may be run through a large pipe
called a penstock before the turbine. A variant on this simple model uses pumped-storage hydroelectricity
to produce electricity to match periods of high and low demand, by moving water between reservoirs at
different elevations. At times of low electrical demand, excess generation capacity is used to pump water
into the higher reservoir. When there is higher demand, water is released back into the lower reservoir
through a turbine. (For example, see Dinorwig Power Station.)
Hydraulic turbine and
Spillways electric generator

A spillway is a section of a dam designed to pass water from the


upstream side of a dam to the downstream side. Many spillways have
floodgates designed to control the flow through the spillway. There are
several types of spillway. A "service spillway" or "primary spillway"
passes normal flow. An "auxiliary spillway" releases flow in excess of
the capacity of the service spillway. An "emergency spillway" is
Hydroelectric dam in cross section
designed for extreme conditions, such as a serious malfunction of the
service spillway. A "fuse plug spillway" is a low embankment designed
to be overtopped and washed away in the event of a large flood. The
elements of a fuse plug are independent free-standing blocks, set side by side which work without any
remote control. They allow increasing the normal pool of the dam without compromising the security of the
dam because they are designed to be gradually evacuated for exceptional events. They work as fixed weirs
at times by allowing overflow in common floods.

A spillway can be gradually eroded by water flow, including cavitation or turbulence of the water flowing Spillway on Llyn Brianne
over the spillway, leading to its failure. It was the inadequate design of the spillway and installation of fish dam, Wales, soon after first
screens that led to the 1889 over-topping of the South Fork Dam in Johnstown, Pennsylvania, resulting in fill
the Johnstown Flood (the "great flood of 1889").[77]

Erosion rates are often monitored, and the risk is ordinarily minimized, by shaping the downstream face of the spillway into a curve that
minimizes turbulent flow, such as an ogee curve.

Dam creation

Common purposes
Function Example
Hydroelectric power is a major source of electricity in the world. Many countries have rivers with adequate water flow, that can be dammed for
Power
power generation purposes. For example, the Itaipu Dam on the Paraná River in South America generates 14 GW and supplied 93% of the
generation
energy consumed by Paraguay and 20% of that consumed by Brazil as of 2005.
Many urban areas of the world are supplied with water taken from rivers pent up behind low dams or weirs. Examples include London, with water
Water
from the River Thames, and Chester, with water taken from the River Dee. Other major sources include deep upland reservoirs contained by high
supply
dams across deep valleys, such as the Claerwen series of dams and reservoirs.
Stabilize
Dams are often used to control and stabilize water flow, often for agricultural purposes and irrigation.[78] Others such as the Berg Strait Dam can
water flow /
irrigation help to stabilize or restore the water levels of inland lakes and seas, in this case, the Aral Sea.[79]

Flood The Keenleyside Dam on the Columbia River, Canada can store 8.76 km3 (2.10 cu mi) of floodwater, and the Delta Works protects the
prevention Netherlands from coastal flooding.[80]
Land Dams (often called dykes or levees in this context) are used to prevent ingress of water to an area that would otherwise be submerged, allowing
reclamation its reclamation for human use.
Water A typically small dam used to divert water for irrigation, power generation, or other uses, with usually no other function. Occasionally, they are
diversion used to divert water to another drainage or reservoir to increase flow there and improve water use in that particular area. See: diversion dam.
Dams create deep reservoirs and can also vary the flow of water downstream. This can in return affect upstream and downstream navigation by
Navigation altering the river's depth. Deeper water increases or creates freedom of movement for water vessels. Large dams can serve this purpose, but
most often weirs and locks are used.

Some of these purposes are conflicting, and the dam operator needs to make dynamic tradeoffs. For example, power generation and
water supply would keep the reservoir high, whereas flood prevention would keep it low. Many dams in areas where precipitation
fluctuates in an annual cycle will also see the reservoir fluctuate annually in an attempt to balance these different purposes. Dam
management becomes a complex exercise amongst competing stakeholders.[81]

Location

One of the best places for building a dam is a narrow part of a deep river valley; the valley sides can
then act as natural walls. The primary function of the dam's structure is to fill the gap in the natural
reservoir line left by the stream channel. The sites are usually those where the gap becomes a
minimum for the required storage capacity. The most economical arrangement is often a composite
structure such as a masonry dam flanked by earth embankments. The current use of the land to be
flooded should be dispensable.

Significant other engineering and engineering geology considerations when building a dam include:

Permeability of the surrounding rock or soil The discharge of Takato Dam


Earthquake faults
Landslides and slope stability
Water table
Peak flood flows
Reservoir silting
Environmental impacts on river fisheries, forests and wildlife (see also fish ladder)
Impacts on human habitations
Compensation for land being flooded as well as population resettlement
Removal of toxic materials and buildings from the proposed reservoir area

Impact assessment

Impact is assessed in several ways: the benefits to human society arising from the dam (agriculture, water, damage prevention and
power), harm or benefit to nature and wildlife, impact on the geology of an area (whether the change to water flow and levels will
increase or decrease stability), and the disruption to human lives (relocation, loss of archeological or cultural matters underwater).

Environmental impact

Reservoirs held behind dams affect many ecological aspects of a river. Rivers topography and
dynamics depend on a wide range of flows, whilst rivers below dams often experience long periods
of very stable flow conditions or sawtooth flow patterns caused by releases followed by no releases.
Water releases from a reservoir including that exiting a turbine usually contain very little suspended
sediment, and this, in turn, can lead to scouring of river beds and loss of riverbanks; for example,
the daily cyclic flow variation caused by the Glen Canyon Dam was a contributor to sand bar
erosion.

Older dams often lack a fish ladder, which keeps many fish from moving upstream to their natural
breeding grounds, causing failure of breeding cycles or blocking of migration paths.[82] Even fish Wood and garbage accumulation
due to a dam
ladders do not prevent a reduction in fish reaching the spawning grounds upstream.[83] In some
areas, young fish ("smolt") are transported downstream by barge during parts of the year. Turbine
and power-plant designs that have a lower impact upon aquatic life are an active area of research.
At the same time, however, some particular dams may contribute to the establishment of better conditions for some kinds of fish and
other aquatic organisms. Studies have demonstrated the key role played by tributaries in the downstream direction from the main river
impoundment, which influenced local environmental conditions and beta diversity patterns of each biological group.[84] Both
replacement and richness differences contributed to high values of total beta diversity for fish (average = 0.77) and phytoplankton
(average = 0.79), but their relative importance was more associated with the replacement component for both biological groups
(average = 0.45 and 0.52, respectively).[84] A study conducted by de Almeida, R. A., Steiner, M.T.A and others found that, while some
species declined in population by more than 30% after the building of the dam, others increased their population by 28%.[85] Such
changes may be explained by the fact that the fish obtained "different feeding habits, with almost all species being found in more than
one group.[85]

A large dam can cause the loss of entire ecospheres, including endangered and undiscovered species in the area, and the replacement of
the original environment by a new inland lake.

Large reservoirs formed behind dams have been indicated in the contribution of seismic activity, due to changes in water load and/or
the height of the water table.

Dams are also found to influence global warming.[86] The changing water levels in reservoirs are a source for greenhouse gases like
methane.[87] While dams and the water behind them cover only a small portion of earth's surface, they harbour biological activity that
can produce large quantities of greenhouse gases.[88]

Human social impact

Dams' impact on human society is significant. Nick Cullather argues in Hungry World: America's Cold War Battle Against Poverty in
Asia that dam construction requires the state to displace people in the name of the common good, and that it often leads to abuses of the
masses by planners. He cites Morarji Desai, Interior Minister of India, in 1960 speaking to villagers upset about the Pong Dam, who
threatened to "release the waters" and drown the villagers if they did not cooperate.[89]

The Three Gorges Dam on the Yangtze River in China is more than five times the size of the Hoover Dam (U.S.). It creates a reservoir
600  km (370  mi) long to be used for flood control and hydropower generation. Its construction required the loss of over a million
people's homes and their mass relocation, the loss of many valuable archaeological and cultural sites, as well as significant ecological
change.[90] During the 2010 China floods, the dam held back a what would have been a disastrous flood and the huge reservoir rose by
4 m (13 ft) overnight.[91]

As of 2008, it is estimated that 40–80  million people worldwide have been displaced from their homes as a result of dam
construction.[92]

Economics

Construction of a hydroelectric plant requires a long lead time for site studies, hydrological studies, and environmental impact
assessments, and are large-scale projects in comparison to carbon-based power generation. The number of sites that can be
economically developed for hydroelectric production is limited; new sites tend to be far from population centers and usually require
extensive power transmission lines. Hydroelectric generation can be vulnerable to major changes in the climate, including variations in
rainfall, ground and surface water levels, and glacial melt, causing additional expenditure for the extra capacity to ensure sufficient
power is available in low-water years.

Once completed, if it is well designed and maintained, a hydroelectric power source is usually comparatively cheap and reliable. It has
no fuel and low escape risk, and as an clean energy source it is cheaper than both nuclear and wind power.[93] It is more easily regulated
to store water as needed and generate high power levels on demand compared to wind power.

Reservoir and dam improvements

Despite some positive effects, the construction of dams severely affects river ecosystems leading to degraded riverine ecosystems as part
of the hydrological alteration.[94] One of the main ways to reduce the negative impacts of reservoirs and dams is to implement the
newest nature-based reservoir optimization model for resolving the conflict in human water demand and riverine ecosystem
protection.[94]

Dam removal

Water and sediment flows can be re-established by removing dams from a river. Dam removal is considered appropriate when the dam
is old and maintenance costs exceed the expense of its removal.[95] Some effects of dam removal include erosion of sediment in the
reservoir, increased sediment supply downstream, increased river width and braiding, re-establishment of natural water temperatures
and recolonisation of habitats that were previously unavailable due to dams.[95]

The world’s largest dam removal occurred on the Elwha river in the U.S. state of Washington (see Restoration of the Elwha River). Two
dams, the Elwha and Glynes Canyon dams, were removed between 2011 and 2014 that together stored approximately 30 Mt of
sediment.[95][96] As a result, the delivery of sediment and wood to the downstream river and delta were re-established. Approximately
65% of the sediment stored in the reservoirs eroded, of which ~10% was deposited in the riverbed. The remaining ~90% was
transported to the coast. In total, renewed sediment delivery caused approximately 60 ha of delta growth, and also resulted in increased
river braiding.[96]

Dam failure
Dam failures are generally catastrophic if the structure is breached or significantly damaged.
Routine deformation monitoring and monitoring of seepage from drains in and around larger dams
is useful to anticipate any problems and permit remedial action to be taken before structural failure
occurs. Most dams incorporate mechanisms to permit the reservoir to be lowered or even drained in
the event of such problems. Another solution can be rock grouting  – pressure pumping Portland
cement slurry into weak fractured rock.

During an armed conflict, a dam is to be considered as an "installation containing dangerous forces"


South Fork Dam failure and
due to the massive impact of possible destruction on the civilian population and the environment. resulting flood that destroyed
As such, it is protected by the rules of international humanitarian law (IHL) and shall not be made Johnstown in Pennsylvania in 1889
the object of attack if that may cause severe losses among the civilian population. To facilitate the
identification, a protective sign consisting of three bright orange circles placed on the same axis is
defined by the rules of IHL.

The main causes of dam failure include inadequate spillway capacity, piping through the
embankment, foundation or abutments, spillway design error (South Fork Dam), geological
instability caused by changes to water levels during filling or poor surveying (Vajont, Malpasset, International special sign for works
Testalinden Creek dams), poor maintenance, especially of outlet pipes (Lawn Lake Dam, Val di and installations containing
dangerous forces
Stava Dam collapse), extreme rainfall (Shakidor Dam), earthquakes, and human, computer or
design error (Buffalo Creek Flood, Dale Dike Reservoir, Taum Sauk pumped storage plant).

A notable case of deliberate dam failure (prior to the above ruling) was the Royal Air Force 'Dambusters' raid on Germany in World War
II (codenamed "Operation Chastise"), in which three German dams were selected to be breached in order to damage German
infrastructure and manufacturing and power capabilities deriving from the Ruhr and Eder rivers. This raid later became the basis for
several films.

Since 2007, the Dutch IJkdijk foundation is developing, with an open innovation model and early warning system for levee/dike
failures. As a part of the development effort, full-scale dikes are destroyed in the IJkdijk fieldlab. The destruction process is monitored
by sensor networks from an international group of companies and scientific institutions.

See also
Bunding
Grout curtain
Ice dam
Inflatable rubber dam
International Commission on Large Dams
List of dams and reservoirs
List of largest dams
List of tallest dams
List of tidal barrages
Lock (water navigation) – Device for raising and lowering boats or ships
Reservoir safety

Notes
1. "Bartleby.com: Great Books Online – Quotes, Poems, Novels, Classics and hundreds more" (https://web.archive.org/web/20090408
164742/http://www.bartleby.com/61/45/D0014500.html). bartleby.com. Archived from the original (http://www.bartleby.com/61/45/D00
14500.html) on 8 April 2009. Retrieved 9 November 2015.http://www.bartleby.com/
2. Source: Tijdschrift voor Nederlandse Taal- en Letterkunde (Magazine for Dutch Language and Literature), 1947
3. Günther Garbrecht: "Wasserspeicher (Talsperren) in der Antike", Antike Welt, 2nd special edition: Antiker Wasserbau (1986), pp.51–
64 (52)
4. S.W. Helms: "Jawa Excavations 1975. Third Preliminary Report", Levant 1977
5. Günther Garbrecht: "Wasserspeicher (Talsperren) in der Antike", Antike Welt, 2nd special edition: Antiker Wasserbau (1986), pp.51–
64 (52f.)
6. Mohamed Bazza (28–30 October 2006). "overview of the hystory of water resources and irrigation management in the near east
region" (https://web.archive.org/web/20070808082928/http://www.fao.org/world/Regional/RNE/morelinks/Publications/English/HYST
ORY-OF-WATER-RESOURCES.pdf) (PDF). Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Archived from the original (htt
p://www.fao.org/world/Regional/RNE/morelinks/Publications/English/HYSTORY-OF-WATER-RESOURCES.pdf) (PDF) on 8 August
2007. Retrieved 1 August 2007.http://www.fao.org/docrep/005/y4357e/y4357e14.htm
7. "Lake Moeris" (https://www.brown.edu/Departments/Joukowsky_Institute/courses/afterpharaohs2010/13390.html). www.brown.edu.
Retrieved 14 August 2018.
8. "The reservoirs of Dholavira" (https://web.archive.org/web/20110711170319/http://himalmag.com/component/content/article/44/1062
-The-reservoirs-of-Dholavira.html). The Southasia Trust. December 2008. Archived from the original (http://himalmag.com/compone
nt/content/article/44/1062-The-reservoirs-of-Dholavira.html) on 11 July 2011. Retrieved 27 February
2011.http://old.himalmag.com/component/content/article/1062-the-reservoirs-of-dholavira.html
9. Govindasamy Agoramoorthy; Sunitha Chaudhary; Minna J. Hsu. "The Check-Dam Route to Mitigate India's Water Shortages" (http
s://web.archive.org/web/20130720143611/http://lawlibrary.unm.edu/nrj/48/3/03_agoramoorthy_indian.pdf) (PDF). Law library –
University of New Mexico. Archived from the original (http://lawlibrary.unm.edu/nrj/48/3/03_agoramoorthy_indian.pdf) (PDF) on 20
July 2013. Retrieved 8 November 2011.
10. Kalyanaraman, S (18 March 2003). "Water management: Historical maritime, riverine tradition of Bharat" (https://web.archive.org/we
b/20070206130842/http://www.hindunet.org/saraswati/traditionwater.pdf) (PDF). Archived from the original (http://www.hindunet.org/
saraswati/traditionwater.pdf) (PDF) on 6 February 2007. Retrieved 23 January 2021.
11. Singh, Vijay P.; Ram Narayan Yadava (2003). Water Resources System Operation: Proceedings of the International Conference on
Water and Environment (https://books.google.com/books?id=Bge-0XX6ip8C&q=kallanai&pg=PA508). Allied Publishers. p. 508.
ISBN 978-81-7764-548-4. Retrieved 9 November 2015.
12. Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Part 3. Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd.
13. Smith 1971, p. 49
14. Smith 1971, p. 49; Hodge 1992, pp. 79f.
15. Smith 1971, p. 42
16. Hodge 1992, p. 87
17. Hodge 2000, pp. 331f.
18. Hodge 2000, p. 332; James & Chanson 2002
19. Smith 1971, pp. 33–35; Schnitter 1978, pp. 31f.; Schnitter 1987a, p. 12; Schnitter 1987c, p. 80; Hodge 2000, p. 332, fn. 2
20. Schnitter 1987b, pp. 59–62
21. Schnitter 1978, p. 29; Schnitter 1987b, pp. 60, table 1, 62; James & Chanson 2002; Arenillas & Castillo 2003
22. Vogel 1987, p. 50
23. Hartung & Kuros 1987, pp. 232, 238, fig. 13, 249
24. Donald Routledge Hill (1996), "Engineering", p. 759, in Rashed, Roshdi; Morelon, Régis (1996). Encyclopedia of the History of
Arabic Science. Routledge. pp. 751–795. ISBN 978-0-415-12410-2.
25. Adam Lucas (2006), Wind, Water, Work: Ancient and Medieval Milling Technology, p. 62. Brill, ISBN 90-04-14649-0.
26. Donald Routledge Hill (1996). A history of engineering in classical and medieval times. Routledge. pp. 56–8. ISBN 978-0-415-
15291-4.
27. Donald Routledge Hill (1996). A history of engineering in classical and medieval times. Routledge. p. 31. ISBN 978-0-415-15291-4.
28. "Key Developments in the History of Buttress Dams" (https://web.archive.org/web/20120321190213/http://www.simscience.org/crack
s/advanced/butt_hist1.html). Archived from the original (http://www.simscience.org/cracks/advanced/butt_hist1.html) on 21 March
2012.
29. "John Redpath, the Whispering Dam, and Sugar" (http://www.mysteriesofcanada.com/Canada/john_redpath.htm). 31 October 2014.
30. "Historical Development of Arch Dams" (http://www.traianvs.net/textos/archdams_en.htm).
31. Rankine, W. (1857) "On the stability of loose earth". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Vol. 147.
32. "dam" (http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/150337/dam/72085/The-19th-century). Encyclopædia Britannica.
33. "Egyptian Irrigation Bond 1898 – Aswan Dam on Nile River" (https://web.archive.org/web/20050513224447/http://www.collectstocks.
com/egyptbond.html). Scripophily. Archived from the original (http://www.collectstocks.com/egyptbond.html) on 13 May 2005.
Retrieved 9 November 2015.
34. Roberts, Chalmers (December 1902), "Subduing the Nile" (https://books.google.com/books?id=DoDNAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA2861),
The World's Work: A History of Our Time, V: 2861–2870, retrieved 10 July 2009
35. Finance (http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=142&letter=F&search=Finance), Jewish Encyclopedia, c.1906
36. Frederic Courtland Penfield, "Harnessing the Nile", The Century Magazine, Vol. 57, No. 4 (February 1899)
37. "The First Aswan Dam" (https://web.archive.org/web/19970615204902/http://www.umich.edu/~kelseydb/Exhibits/AncientNubia/Phot
oIntro.html). University of Michigan. Archived from the original (http://www.umich.edu/~kelseydb/Exhibits/AncientNubia/PhotoIntro.ht
ml) on 15 June 1997. Retrieved 2 January 2011.
38. Joyce, S. (October 1997). "Is it worth a dam?" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1470397). Environmental Health
Perspectives. 105 (10): 1050–1055. doi:10.1289/ehp.971051050 (https://doi.org/10.1289%2Fehp.971051050). PMC 1470397 (http
s://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1470397). PMID 9349830 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9349830).
39. Atif Ansar; Bent Flyvbjerg; Alexander Budzier; Daniel Lunn (June 2014). "Should we build more large dams? The actual costs of
hydropower megaproject development". Energy Policy. 69: 43–56. arXiv:1409.0002 (https://arxiv.org/abs/1409.0002).
doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2013.10.069 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.enpol.2013.10.069). S2CID 55722535 (https://api.semanticscholar.or
g/CorpusID:55722535). SSRN 2406852 (https://ssrn.com/abstract=2406852).
40. "Arch Dam Forces" (https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/buildingbig/dam/basics.html#arch). Retrieved 7 January 2007.
41. British Dam Society http://www.britishdams.org/about_dams/gravity.htm Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20110831091428/htt
p://www.britishdams.org/about_dams/gravity.htm) 31 August 2011 at the Wayback Machine
42. "Dams and Development: An Overview" (https://web.archive.org/web/20101028045913/http://www.dams.org/report/wcd_overview.ht
m). 16 November 2000. Archived from the original (http://www.dams.org/report/wcd_overview.htm) on 28 October 2010. Retrieved
24 October 2010. "Box 1. What is a large dam?"
43. "Asphalt concrete cores for embankment dams" (https://web.archive.org/web/20120707001414/http://www.waterpowermagazine.co
m/story.asp?storyCode=472). International Water Power and Dam Construction. Archived from the original (http://www.waterpowerm
agazine.com/story.asp?storyCode=472) on 7 July 2012. Retrieved 3 April 2011.
44. "Devoll Hydropower Project" (http://www.power-technology.com/projects/devoll-hydropower-project/). Power Technology. Retrieved
3 November 2015.
45. "Devoll | Statkraft" (http://www.statkraft.com/about-statkraft/Projects/albania/devoll/). www.statkraft.com. Retrieved 3 November
2015.
46. "Devoll Hydropower | F.A.Q" (https://web.archive.org/web/20151117031954/http://www.devollhydropower.al/new/?page_id=7754).
www.devollhydropower.al. Archived from the original (http://www.devollhydropower.al/new/?page_id=7754) on 17 November 2015.
Retrieved 3 November 2015.
47. Neves, E. Maranha das, ed. (1991). Advances in rockfill structures (https://books.google.com/books?id=USEyV8y9ZFQC&q=concre
te+face+rock+fill+dams&pg=PA341). Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic. p. 341. ISBN 978-0-7923-1267-3. Retrieved 9 November 2015.
48. "Shuibuya" (https://web.archive.org/web/20110905192713/http://www.chincold.org.cn/news/li080321-17-shuibuya.pdf) (PDF).
Chinese Committee on Large Dams. Archived from the original (http://www.chincold.org.cn/news/li080321-17-shuibuya.pdf) (PDF)
on 5 September 2011. Retrieved 23 August 2011.
http://www.chincold.org.cn/dams/MilestoneProject/webinfo/2010/4/1281577326095795.htm
49. "The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Wants You To Enjoy The Rivers, Safely | 90.5 WESA" (http://wesa.fm/post/us-army-corps-engin
eers-wants-you-enjoy-rivers-safely#stream/0). Wesa.fm. 23 June 2017. Retrieved 18 July 2018.
50. "Army Corps, waterways partners focus on fixed-crest dam safety > Pittsburgh District > News Releases" (https://www.lrp.usace.arm
y.mil/Media/News-Releases/Article/1218267/army-corps-waterways-partners-focus-on-fixed-crest-dam-safety/). Lrp.usace.army.mil.
19 June 2017. Retrieved 18 July 2018.
51. Bob Bauder (20 May 2017). "Family of kayaker swept over Dashields Dam sues U.S. Army Corps of Engineers" (https://triblive.com/l
ocal/allegheny/13875841-74/family-of-kayaker-swept-over-dashields-dam-sues-us-army-corps-of). TribLIVE. Retrieved 18 July
2018.
52. Carter, Edward F.; Hosko, Mary Ann; Austin, Roger (1997). "Guidelines for Retirement of Dams and Hydroelectric Facilities" (https://
cedb.asce.org/CEDBsearch/record.jsp?dockey=0106463). ASCE: 1248–1256.
53. "Definition of a Large Dam" (https://www.icold-cigb.org/GB/dams/definition_of_a_large_dam.asp). International Commission on
Large Dams. Retrieved 23 January 2021.
54. "Methodology and Technical Notes"
(https://archive.is/20070704103642/http://www.iucn.org/themes/wani/eatlas/html/technotes.html). Watersheds of the World. Archived
from the original (http://www.iucn.org/themes/wani/eatlas/html/technotes.html) on 4 July 2007. Retrieved 1 August 2007. "A large
dam is defined by the industry as one higher than 15 meters high and a major dam as higher than 150.5 meters."
55. Poff, N. Leroy; Hart, David D. (1 August 2002). "How Dams Vary and Why It Matters for the Emerging Science of Dam Removal;..."
(https://doi.org/10.1641%2F0006-3568%282002%29052%5B0659%3AHDVAWI%5D2.0.CO%3B2) BioScience. 52 (8): 659–668.
doi:10.1641/0006-3568(2002)052[0659:HDVAWI]2.0.CO;2 (https://doi.org/10.1641%2F0006-3568%282002%29052%5B0659%3AH
DVAWI%5D2.0.CO%3B2). ISSN 0006-3568 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0006-3568).
56. Perera, Duminda; et al. (2021). Ageing Water Storage Infrastructure: An Emerging Global Risk (https://inweh.unu.edu/wp-content/up
loads/2021/01/Ageing-Water-Storage-Infrastructure-An-Emerging-Global-Risk.pdf) (Report Series, Issue 11). Hamilton, Canada:
United Nations University Institute for Water, Environment and Health. ISBN 978-92-808-6105-1. Retrieved 23 January 2021.
57. "The Jinping-I Double Curvature Arch Dam sets new world record" (http://en.powerchina.cn/2016-12/28/content_27870606.htm).
en.powerchina.cn.
58. Nathan, R.; Lowe, L. (1 January 2012). "The Hydrologic Impacts of Farm Dams" (https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.7158/1324
1583.2012.11465405). Australasian Journal of Water Resources. 16 (1): 75–83. doi:10.7158/13241583.2012.11465405 (https://doi.o
rg/10.7158%2F13241583.2012.11465405) (inactive 31 May 2021). ISSN 1324-1583 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1324-1583).
59. "Why small-scale hydroelectric plants benefit local communities" (https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2015/09/why-small-scale-hydroel
ectric-plants-benefit-local-communities/). World Economic Forum. Retrieved 11 May 2020.
60. Faruqui, N. I. (1994). "Small Hydro for Rural Development" (https://doi.org/10.4296%2Fcwrj1903227). Canadian Water Resources
Journal. 19 (3): 227–235. doi:10.4296/cwrj1903227 (https://doi.org/10.4296%2Fcwrj1903227). ISSN 0701-1784 (https://www.worldc
at.org/issn/0701-1784).
61. Graf, WL (1993). "Landscapes, commodities, and ecosystems: The relationship between policy and science for American rivers".
Sustaining Our Water Resources. Washington DC: National Academy Press. pp. 11–42.
62. Couto, Thiago BA; Olden, Julian D. (2018). "Global proliferation of small hydropower plants – science and policy". Frontiers in
Ecology and the Environment. 16 (2): 91–100. doi:10.1002/fee.1746 (https://doi.org/10.1002%2Ffee.1746). ISSN 1540-9309 (https://
www.worldcat.org/issn/1540-9309).
63. "DWR Dam Safety Non-Jurisdictional Dam | Colorado Information Marketplace | data.colorado.gov" (https://data.colorado.gov/Wate
r/DWR-Dam-Safety-Non-Jurisdictional-Dam/6smc-zj6j/data). Colorado Information Marketplace. Retrieved 11 May 2020.
64. "Evaluation of Non-Jurisdictional Dams" (https://www.ose.state.nm.us/dams/submittal/EvaluationOfNonJurisdictionalDams.pdf)
(PDF). Office of the State Engineer, Dam Safety Bureau. 7 December 2009.
65. Brewitt, Peter K.; Colwyn, Chelsea L. M. (2020). "Little dams, big problems: The legal and policy issues of nonjurisdictional dams" (h
ttps://doi.org/10.1002%2Fwat2.1393). WIREs Water. 7 (1): e1393. doi:10.1002/wat2.1393 (https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fwat2.1393).
ISSN 2049-1948 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/2049-1948).
66. "Director's Order #40: Dam Safety & Security Program" (https://www.nps.gov/subjects/policy/upload/DO_40_5-25-2010.pdf) (PDF).
United States Department of the Interior, National Park Service. 25 May 2010.
67. Fencl, Jane S.; Mather, Martha E.; Costigan, Katie H.; Daniels, Melinda D. (5 November 2015). Deng, Z. Daniel (ed.). "How Big of
an Effect Do Small Dams Have? Using Geomorphological Footprints to Quantify Spatial Impact of Low-Head Dams and Identify
Patterns of Across-Dam Variation" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4634923). PLOS ONE. 10 (11): e0141210.
Bibcode:2015PLoSO..1041210F (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015PLoSO..1041210F). doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0141210 (htt
ps://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0141210). ISSN 1932-6203 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1932-6203). PMC 4634923 (https://
www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4634923). PMID 26540105 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26540105).
68. Graham, W J (September 1999). "A Procedure for Estimating Loss of Life Caused by Dam Failure" (https://www.usbr.gov/ssle/dams
afety/TechDev/DSOTechDev/DSO-99-06.pdf) (PDF). U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Reclamation.
69. Pisaniello, John D. (2009). "How to manage the cumulative flood safety of catchment dams" (http://www.scielo.org.za/scielo.php?scr
ipt=sci_abstract&pid=S1816-79502009000400001&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=en). Water SA. 35 (4): 361–370. ISSN 1816-7950 (https://
www.worldcat.org/issn/1816-7950).
70. Ashley, Jeffrey T. F.; Bushaw-Newton, Karen; Wilhelm, Matt; Boettner, Adam; Drames, Gregg; Velinsky, David J. (March 2006). "The
Effects of Small Dam Removal on the Distribution of Sedimentary Contaminants". Environmental Monitoring and Assessment. 114
(1–3): 287–312. doi:10.1007/s10661-006-4781-3 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10661-006-4781-3). ISSN 0167-6369 (https://www.wo
rldcat.org/issn/0167-6369). PMID 16565804 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16565804). S2CID 46471207 (https://api.semanticsch
olar.org/CorpusID:46471207).
71. Yilmaz, Metin (November 2003). "Control of Groundwater by Underground Dams" (http://etd.lib.metu.edu.tr/upload/1259621/index.p
df) (PDF). The Middle East Technical University. Retrieved 7 May 2012.
72. Onder, H; M. Yilmaz (November–December 2005). "Underground Dams—A Tool of Sustainable Development and Management of
Ground Resources" (http://www.ewra.net/ew/pdf/EW_2005_11-12_05.pdf) (PDF). European Water: 35–45. Retrieved 7 May 2012.
73. Blight, Geoffrey E. (1998). "Construction of Tailings Dams" (https://books.google.com/books?id=qG9Bux3RYWMC&q=tailings+dam&
pg=PA9). Case studies on tailings management. Paris: International Council on Metals and the Environment. pp. 9–10. ISBN 978-1-
895720-29-7. Retrieved 10 August 2011.
74. "Properties of Tailings Dams" (https://web.archive.org/web/20111001213037/http://www.mining.ubc.ca/faculty/meech/MINE290/Tailin
gs%20Dam%20Construction%20Methods.pdf) (PDF). NBK Institute of Mining Engineering. Archived from the original (http://www.mi
ning.ubc.ca/faculty/meech/MINE290/Tailings%20Dam%20Construction%20Methods.pdf) (PDF) on 1 October 2011. Retrieved
10 August 2011.http://mining.ubc.ca/files/2013/03/Dirk-van-Zyl.pdf
75. Singhal, Raj K., ed. (2000). Environmental issues and management of waste in energy and mineral production: Proceedings of the
Sixth International Conference on Environmental Issues and Management of Waste in Energy and Mineral Production: SWEMP
2000; Calgary, Alberta, Canada, May 30 – June 2, 2000 (https://books.google.com/books?id=PqiYy538JFUC&q=tailings+dam&pg=P
A257). Rotterdam [u.a.]: Balkema. pp. 257–260. ISBN 978-90-5809-085-0. Retrieved 9 November 2015.
76. Renewables Global Status Report 2006 Update (http://www.ren21.net/globalstatusreport/download/RE_GSR_2006_Update.pdf)
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20110718181410/http://www.ren21.net/globalstatusreport/download/RE_GSR_2006_Update.
pdf) 18 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine "RENEWABLES GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 2006 Update" (https://web.archive.org/we
b/20160514070611/http://www.ren21.net/Portals/0/documents/activities/gsr/RE_GSR_2006_Update.pdf) (PDF). Archived from the
original (http://www.ren21.net/Portals/0/documents/activities/gsr/RE_GSR_2006_Update.pdf) (PDF) on 14 May 2016. Retrieved
9 November 2015., REN21, published 2006, accessed 16 May 2007
77. "The Club and the Dam" (http://www.jaha.org/attractions/johnstown-flood-museum/flood-history/the-club-and-the-dam/). Johnstown
Flood Museum. Johnstown Area Heritage Association. Retrieved 15 January 2018.
78. C. J. Shiff (1972). M. Taghi Farvar; John P. Milton (eds.). "The Impact of Agricultural Development on Aquatic Systems and its Effect
on the Epidemiology of Schistosomes in Rhodesia". The careless technology: Ecology and international development. Natural
History Press. pp. 102–108. OCLC 315029 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/315029). "Recently, agricultural development has
concentrated on soil and water conservation and resulted in the construction of a multitude of dams of various capacities which tend
to stabilize water flow in rivers and provide a significant amount of permanent and stable bodies of water."
79. "Kazakhstan". Land and Water Development Division. 1998. "Construction of a dam (Berg Strait) to stabilize and increase the level
of the northern part of the Aral Sea."
80. "Blackwater Dam" (https://web.archive.org/web/20130228142956/http://www.nae.usace.army.mil/recreati/bwd/bwdfc.htm). US Army
Corps of Engineers. Archived from the original (http://www.nae.usace.army.mil/recreati/bwd/bwdfc.htm) on 28 February 2013. "The
principal objective of the dam and reservoir is to protect downstream
communities"http://www.nae.usace.army.mil/Missions/Recreation/BlackwaterDam.aspx
81. "Lake Diefenbaker Reservoir Operations Context and Objectives" (https://www.wsask.ca/Global/Lakes%20and%20Rivers/Dams%20
and%20Reservoirs/Operating%20Plans/Developing%20an%20Operating%20Plan%20for%20Lake%20Diefenbaker/DiefenbakerRe
servoirOperationsContextandObjectives.pdf) (PDF). Saskatchewan Watershed Authority. Retrieved 27 June 2013.
82. Silva, S., Vieira-Lanero, R., Barca, S., & Cobo, F. (2017). Densities and biomass of larval sea lamprey populations (Petromyzon
marinus Linnaeus, 1758) in north-western Spain and data comparisons with other European regions. Marine and Freshwater
Research, 68(1), 116–122.
83. Tummers, J. S., Winter, E., Silva, S., O’Brien, P., Jang, M. H., & Lucas, M. C. (2016). Evaluating the effectiveness of a Larinier super
active baffle fish pass for European river lamprey Lampetra fluviatilis before and after modification with wall-mounted studded tiles.
Ecological Engineering, 91, 183–194.
84. Lansac-Tôha, Fernando Miranda (2019).
85. Almeida, Ricardo (2018).
86. Kosnik, Lea-Rachel (1 March 2008). "The Potential of Water Power in the Fight Against Global Warming". SSRN 1108425 (https://ss
rn.com/abstract=1108425).
87. "Water Reservoirs behind Rising Greenhouse Gases" (http://frenchtribune.com/teneur/1212763-water-reservoirs-behind-rising-gree
nhouse-gases). French Tribune. 9 August 2012. Retrieved 9 August 2012.
88. "Dams the latest culprit in global warming" (https://web.archive.org/web/20120809003651/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/e
nvironment/global-warming/Dams-the-latest-culprit-in-global-warming/articleshow/15403985.cms). The Times of India. 8 August
2012. Archived from the original (http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/environment/global-warming/Dams-the-latest-culprit-in-glo
bal-warming/articleshow/15403985.cms) on 9 August 2012. Retrieved 9 August 2012.
89. Cullather, 110.
90. "Three Gorges dam wall completed" (http://www.china-embassy.org/eng/zt/sxgc/t36502.htm). China Embassy. 20 May 2006.
Retrieved 21 May 2006.
91. "China's Three Gorges dam faces flood test" (https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/mobile/world-asia-pacific-10695272). BBC News. 20 July
2010.
92. "World Commission on Dams Report" (https://web.archive.org/web/20080913152808/http://internationalrivers.org/en/way-forward/w
orld-commission-dams/world-commission-dams-framework-brief-introduction). International Rivers. 29 February 2008. Archived
from the original (http://internationalrivers.org/en/way-forward/world-commission-dams/world-commission-dams-framework-brief-intr
oduction) on 13 September 2008. Retrieved 16 August 2012.
93. "Transparent Cost Database – Transparent Cost Database" (http://en.openei.org/apps/TCDB/). en.openei.org.
94. Ren, Kang (2019).
95. Bellmore, J. R.; Duda, J. J.; Craig, L. S.; Greene, S. L.; Torgersen, C. E.; Collins, M. J.; Vittum, K. (2017). "Status and trends of dam
removal research in the United States" (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/wat2.1164). WIREs Water. 4 (2): e1164.
doi:10.1002/wat2.1164 (https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fwat2.1164). ISSN 2049-1948 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/2049-1948).
96. Ritchie, A. C.; Warrick, J. A.; East, A. E.; Magirl, C. S.; Stevens, A. W.; Bountry, J. A.; Randle, T. J.; Curran, C. A.; Hilldale, R. C.;
Duda, J. J.; Gelfenbaum, G. R. (2018). "Morphodynamic evolution following sediment release from the world's largest dam removal"
(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6125403). Scientific Reports. 8 (1): 13279. Bibcode:2018NatSR...813279R (https://u
i.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2018NatSR...813279R). doi:10.1038/s41598-018-30817-8 (https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41598-018-30817
-8). ISSN 2045-2322 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/2045-2322). PMC 6125403 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC612
5403). PMID 30185796 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30185796).

Sources
Arenillas, Miguel; Castillo, Juan C. (2003). "Dams from the Roman Era in Spain. Analysis of Design Forms (with Appendix)" (http://w
ww.traianvs.net/textos/presas_in.htm#_ednref4). 1st International Congress on Construction History [20th–24th January].
Almeida, Ricardo (2018). "A case study on environmental sustainability: A study of the trophic changes in fish species as a result of
the damming of rivers through clustering analysis". Computers & Industrial Engineering. 135: 1239–1252.
doi:10.1016/j.cie.2018.09.032 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cie.2018.09.032).
Hartung, Fritz; Kuros, Gh. R. (1987). "Historische Talsperren im Iran". In Garbrecht, Günther (ed.). Historische Talsperren. 1.
Stuttgart: Verlag Konrad Wittwer. pp. 221–274. ISBN 978-3-87919-145-1.
Hodge, A. Trevor (1992). Roman Aqueducts & Water Supply. London: Duckworth. ISBN 978-0-7156-2194-3.
Hodge, A. Trevor (2000). "Reservoirs and Dams". In Wikander, Örjan (ed.). Handbook of Ancient Water Technology. Technology and
Change in History. 2. Leiden: Brill. pp. 331–339. ISBN 978-90-04-11123-3.
James, Patrick; Chanson, Hubert (2002). "Historical Development of Arch Dams. From Roman Arch Dams to Modern Concrete
Designs" (http://www.traianvs.net/textos/archdams_en.htm). Australian Civil Engineering Transactions. CE43: 39–56.
Lansac-Tôha, Fernando Miranda (2019). "A Differently dispersing organism groups show contrasting beta diversity patterns in a
dammed subtropical river basin". Science of the Total Environment. 691: 1271–1281. Bibcode:2019ScTEn.691.1271L (https://ui.ads
abs.harvard.edu/abs/2019ScTEn.691.1271L). doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.07.236 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.scitotenv.2019.07.23
6). PMID 31466207 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31466207).
Ren, Kang (2019). "A nature-based reservoir optimization model for resolving the conflict in human water demand and riverine
ecosystem protection". Journal of Cleaner Production. 231: 406–418. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.05.221 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2F
j.jclepro.2019.05.221).
Schnitter, Niklaus (1978). "Römische Talsperren". Antike Welt. 8 (2): 25–32.
Schnitter, Niklaus (1987a). "Verzeichnis geschichtlicher Talsperren bis Ende des 17. Jahrhunderts". In Garbrecht, Günther (ed.).
Historische Talsperren. 1. Stuttgart: Verlag Konrad Wittwer. pp. 9–20. ISBN 978-3-87919-145-1.
Schnitter, Niklaus (1987b). "Die Entwicklungsgeschichte der Pfeilerstaumauer". In Garbrecht, Günther (ed.). Historische Talsperren.
1. Stuttgart: Verlag Konrad Wittwer. pp. 57–74. ISBN 978-3-87919-145-1.
Schnitter, Niklaus (1987c). "Die Entwicklungsgeschichte der Bogenstaumauer". In Garbrecht, Günther (ed.). Historische Talsperren.
1. Stuttgart: Verlag Konrad Wittwer. pp. 75–96. ISBN 978-3-87919-145-1.
Smith, Norman (1970). "The Roman Dams of Subiaco". Technology and Culture. 11 (1): 58–68. doi:10.2307/3102810 (https://doi.or
g/10.2307%2F3102810). JSTOR 3102810 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/3102810).
Smith, Norman (1971). A History of Dams. London: Peter Davies. pp. 25–49. ISBN 978-0-432-15090-0.
Vogel, Alexius (1987). "Die historische Entwicklung der Gewichtsmauer". In Garbrecht, Günther (ed.). Historische Talsperren. 1.
Stuttgart: Verlag Konrad Wittwer. pp. 47–56 (50). ISBN 978-3-87919-145-1.

Further reading
Khagram, Sanjeev. Dams and Development: Transnational Struggles for Water and Power. Ithaca: Cornell University Press 2004.
McCully, Patrick. Silenced Rivers: The Ecology and Politics of Large Dams. London: Zed. 2001.

External links
Basic Terms of Dam Characteristics (http://www.des.nh.gov/organization/commissioner/pip/factsheets/db/documents/db-1.pdf)
Gravity Dam Analysis (https://web.archive.org/web/20130324052009/http://www.mathalino.com/reviewer/fluid-mechanics-and-hydra
ulics/analysis-gravity-dam)
Structurae: Dams and Retaining Structures (http://en.structurae.de/structures/stype/index.cfm?doi=3)

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dam&oldid=1045993466"

This page was last edited on 23 September 2021, at 12:27 (UTC).

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License;


additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and
Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.

You might also like