This is a reproduction of a library book that was digitized

by Google as part of an ongoing effort to preserve the

information in books and make it universally accessible.

https://books.google.com
B 385794
University of
Michijan
Libraries
1917
ARTIT CINTIA VIKITAS
Montale
‫ملح‬
neseach monte Library
 HENTAL HEALTH RESEARCH INSTITUTE Price : $ 9
1

62-11175
VERSITY OF MICHIGAN direct purchase
J PRS :
ART ARBOR , MICHIGAN
26 February 1962

Akademia pedagogiches kinh

narik RSFSR , Institut DEC + 4-1964
psikhulog'is

PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE IN THE USSR

VOLUME II

Psychological Science in the USSR , Vol I

has been published as JPRS : 11466
(OTS : 62-11083 ). Prices $ 8.00

Distributed by :
OFFICE OF TECHNICAL SERVICES
V. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE
WASHINGTON 25 , D. C.

U. S. JOINT PUBLICATIONS RESEARCH SERVICE

1636 CONNECTICUT AVENUE , N. W.
WASHINGTON 25 , D. C.
North Campus
Sirene

FF
ing
A323
 2 JPRS :
Puisine
CSO : 6427 - D
11165 NC 1o - 9-67
SCIE
PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE IN THE USSR

VOLUME II

/ Following is the translation of the book Psikhologi

cheskaya nauka v SSSR ( Psychological Science in the
USSR ) , Vol. II , edited by Ya . A. Ponomarev , Publishing
House of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences ,
Moscow , 1960 , pages 1-656 .
Table of Contents Page

B. M. Teplov , Investigation of the Properties of the

Nervous System as a Path Leading to the Study of
Individual Psychological Differences 2

V , A. Krutetskiy . Problem of Character in Soviet Psy

chology 63

N. S. Leytes . Individual Differences in Aptitudes 103

P. R. Chama ta . Problems Concerned with the Self

Awareness of the Personality in Soviet Psychology 128

V. N. Myasi shchev . Basic Problems and Present State of

the Psychology of Human Relations 156

A , S. Prangishvili . General Psychological Theory of Set 179

R. G. Natadze . Experimental Foundations of the Theory

of Set of D. N. Uznad ze 203

P. M. Yakobson . The Problem of the Psychology of Emo -

tions 236

L. I. Bozhovich . Study of the Personality of School

Children and Problems of Education 267

D , B , El'konin . Some Results of the Study of the

Psychic Development of Children of Pre - School
Age 320

D. N. Bo goyavlenskiy and N. A. Menchinskaya . The Psy 408

chology of Learning

. a -
 Page

S. G. Gellershteyn . Questions of the Psychology of

Labor 486

K. K. Platonov . The Psychology of Flight Operations 520

P. A. Rudik . The Psychology of Sport 556

A. Ts . Puni . Some Problems of the Psychology of Sports

Competition 587

A. R. Luriya . Study of Brain Affections and the

Restoration of Damaged Functions 611

B. V. Zeygarnik and S. Ya . Rubinshteyn . Experimental

Psychological Laboratories in Psychiatric
Clinics in the Soviet Union 657

Zh . I. Shif . Peculiarities of the Mental Development

in Students of Auxiliary Schools 691

I. M. Solov'yev . Problems of the Psychology of the

Deaf -Mute Child 741

M. I. Zemt sova . Characteristics of Perceptional Ac

tivity in the Blind 784

N. N. Ladygina - Kots . Works of Soviet Scholars in the

Field of Comparative Psychology 825

M. V. Sokolov , The Works of Soviet Psychologists in

the History of Psychology 873

. b .
 JPRS :

CSO : 6427 / D
Academy of Pedagogical Sciences RSFSR
Institute of Psychology

PSIKHOLOGICHESKAYA NAUKA V SSSR

( PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE IN THE USSR )

Vol . II

Edited by B. G. Anan'yev

Publishing House of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences RSFSR

Moscow , 1960

Printed by decision of the Scientific Council of the Institute of Psy

chology of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences RSFSR

This book , which is a continuation of the work entitled

"Psikhologicheskaya Nauka v SSSR (Psychological Science in the
USSR), Vol. I , 1959 , gives a summary of experimental and theoretical
studies conducted by Soviet psychologists, during the past 40 years of
the Soviet regime, in the field concerned with the problem of psychology
of the personality and special psychology . A detailed bibliography is
presented .
This publication is intended for psychologists, physiologists,
deficiency specialists and wide circles of the pedagogical public .
Editorial Board : B. G. Anan'yev , G. S. Kostyuk , A. N. Leont'yev , A.
R. Luriya, N. A. Menchinskaya, s . L. Rubinshteyn ( de
ceased) , A. A. Smirnov , B. M. Teplov, F. N. Shemyakin .

. 1
 INVESTIGATION OF THE PROPERTIES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM AS A
PATH LEADING TO THE STUDY OF INDIVIDUAL
PSYCHOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES

By B. M. Teplov

The study of individual differences between people is one of the

most important tasks of psychology . The importance of this problem has
become especially obvious since the time when psychological science has
set itself the task of becoming a science useful in practice . Individ
ual differences include, of course , differences in reserves of knowledge,
skills and habits . Usually , however , when the problem of individual dif
ferences is considered , one has in mind differences in other properties .
Such differences are discussed in chapters of psychology textbooks, con
cerned with a study of temperament, character and abilities .
These chapters usually belong to sections of psychology textbooks
which have the poorest content , and they contain a small number of
scientifically established rules ( laws ); and it is precisely for this
reason that these chapters have little to offer in the field of practice,
al thouch their contents appear to be concerned with vitally important
problems. And, finally, these chapters are almost not related at all
to the contents of the remaining portion of a course on general psychol
ogy
It must be stated that the contents of the above -mentioned chapters
in a course on psychology lie beyond the range of a description of indi
vidual - psychological differences between people . Usually , they are com
bined in a section devoted to problems of the psychology of personality .
The majority of Soviet psychologists agrees that the problem of the psy
chology of personality does not involve merely a study of individual
psychological differences . Problems in the field of psychology of per
sonality are primarily problems of general psychology , and only later
can be considered as problems in the field of an " individual " or " dif
ferential" psycholocy . The fact that problems of the general psychology
of personality have not been worked out to a sufficient extent no doubt
constitutes one of the reasons why development work on problems of
individual - psychological differences is also clearly unsatisfactory .
Attention must also be called to the fact that, in chapters of
psycholocy textbooks devoted to individual psychic processes , there is
almost always a certain amount of discussion of the question of individ
ual differences, such as individual differences in sensitivity , in per
ception , " types of memory , " " qualities of mind ( intelligence ), " etc.
But these individual differences, as a rule , remain completely unas
sociated both with each other and with those differences in temperament,
character and abilities which are discussed in the psychology of per
sonality .
The theory of individual differences , the way it is presented in
psycholocy textbooks and courses , lacks not only system but even simple

- 2 .
coherence . Actually , there is no reason for even using the expression
" theory on individual differences . " There is a certain amount of em
pirical information in this problem ( including some very valuable in
formation ) , but there is no firm basis of any kind , either psychological
or physiological , which could bind together these scattered data.
At the present time, not a single psychologist would be satisifed
with a simple catalog of individual human characteristics , no matter how
complete, extensive, varied or detailed such a catalog would be . A sort
of sample of such a catalog was the " Program for the Investigation of
Personality , " compiled by A. F. Lazurskiy as early as 1904 [ 55 ; pages
359-383] . At that time, this program was of considerable value, and
has probably not been surpassed by any one among the innumerable auth
ors of similar programs, which were later compiled by foreign psychol
ogists . However , more than half a century has passed since those days !
What was of scientific value at that time can now be only of historical
value .
Progress in the study of individual - psychological differences de
pends to a considerable extent upon the development of a general psycho
logical theory , specifically on development of the general questions of
the psychology of personality , and also upon the creation of such a sys
tem of this science , as will eliminate the clear gap existing at the
present time between the psychology of psychic processes and the psy
chology of personality .
So far , the situation in this highly important sector is clearly
unsatisfactory . This fact is clearly recognized by Soviet psychologists
( see the resolution adopted at the conference on problems of the psychol
ogy of personality [ 527.
( Note ] The fact that there is such a gap is beyond doubt, even
though the authors of psychology textbooks and courses are trying to
avoid in their headings a contrasting of psychic processes with psychic
properties of the personality . For example , in the psychology textbook
for pedagogical institutes published in 1956 under the editorship of A.
A. Smirnov and others , Section V , entitled " Psychic Properties of Per
sonality is characterized not only by a very modest size , but also by
the fact that it is completely unrelated to the contents of the preced
ing sections ( 947.)
In West - European and American psychology of the past few decades,
problems of individual differences are usually solved with the aid of
the so - called " test method . " In this problem , there is a major dif
ference of opinion between Soviet psychologists and adherents of " testo
ology , " as one can designate this field of activity of psychologists in
Western countries .
The word " test " is used to designate more or less short and
strictly standardized tests , the results of which can be expressed in
one way or another in a quantitative form and which are usually subjected
to a statistical processing . There is no reason to object to " short
tests," on principle or to oppose the standardization of the testing con
ditions, or the attempts to express the results of the test in quantitative

- 3 -
form , or to oppose the statistical processing of the results . What
must be objected to is something else , namely the fact that the vast
majority of tests are not based upon a firmly established scientific
foundation .
Let us take as an example one of the most famous tests , the
Rorschach test , in which the tested subject is shown ink spots having a
" random " design and he is asked to tell what he can seen in these spots.
It is difficult to object to the fact that such a test can disclose cer
tain features of the imagination and phantasy possessed by the tested
subject . But it is much more difficult to credit that this test can pre
tend to disclose the main properties of the human personality in all of
their great variety . It is even more difficult to credit that scores of
thousands of man -hours have been spent in developing techniques used in
the preparation of these blots , in developing standard conditions for
conducting tests with these blots , in finding methods for expressing in
a quantitative form , namely in the form of " grades , " the results of such
tests, and in developing methods for the statistical processing of these
results . It is difficult to credit that there are large numbers of peo
ple , whose main special field consists in the administration of Rorschach
tests . And , finally , it is impossible not to protest against the fact
that all types of " screenings , " upon which the fate of human beings fre
quently depends, are carried out with the aid of " Rorschach " and other
similar tests .
A considerable portion of the tests depresent " samples , " which
were found in a purely empirical way , and whose significance must al
legedly be proven in a statistical way , as a result of their large
scale use . We believe , however , that if the physiological or psy
chological meaning of a test is not clear to us, if this test is a
" blind test , " then any kind of statistical processing of the large
scale application of this test , no matter how complex or ingenious it
might be , will not be able to yield scientifically clear results .
" Blind tests" cannot acquire a sense of " vision " merely as a result of
the application of mathematical statistical methods to these tests .
This applies fully also to those hopes which are placed in
testological studies upon the calculation of correlations ( statistical,
or probability, ratios) between the results obtained with various tests ..
Since the time when Spearman's book on the faculties of man was pub
lished ( 1927 [7407 ), the conviction appeared that, by means of special
( usually very complex ) mathematical operations with correlation factors,
known as so - called factorial analysis, it will be possible, by purely
testological means, to establish personality structure . " An enormous
amount of time and effort was consumed ( spent) on the performance of
testo logical studies , which were intended for a processing by factorial
analysis methods . The results obtained so far have been more than mod
est . Part of this research work , probably the major part, followed a
blind empirical course , while other investigations started from concep
tions based on everyday observations and idealist speculative

-4 .
 constructions , such as , for example, the typologies of Jung or
Kretschmer . Neither of these trends yielded anything basically new
toward an understanding of the nature of individual differences . They
were obviously incapable of providing scientifically valuable results ,
since they were based on the tacit assumption that one can start with a
search for and an improvement of refined methods for the mathematical pro
ceeding of experimental results , without a strict investigation of what
kind of properties should be tested and what methods are suitable for
testing these properties .
In the field of testological research , individual tests have been
proposed , which are no doubt of scientific interest , These tests , nat
urally , must be studied and used . However, " testology " as a whole did
not open up any new paths leading to the study of individual
psychological differences . In a scientific sense , it has proven itself
as barren , and in the sphere of practical application it has even some
times been downright harmful .
The purpose of all the statements made above was to show that a
search for ways of studying individual -psychological differences be
tween people, which are theoretically well - founded and based on objec
tive methods, represents one of the important tasks of modern psychology .
This article will describe mainly the work done by a staff of
psychologists , who have been carrying out research work during the past
few years in the laboratory , headed by me , of the Institute of Psychol
ogy of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences .
The aim of our staff is to come closer to an understanding and
the most accurate possible study of certain individual - psychological
differences between people , using as a starting point a study of the
typological properties of the nervous system , or , which is the same
thing , of the typological properties of the highor noural activity .
I have had the opportunity already several times_to_describe the
general trend and character ofour work [1147, [ 115 ] [ 112] [ 1187,
[142] . The main results , achieved by our staff by the ond of 1957, have
been described in two colected works , entitled " Typoligical Character
istics of the Higher Nervous Activity in Man . " Further in this article,
I shall dwell only on certain problems which , in my opinion , have the
greatest significance .
TYPES AND PROPERTIES

There are two possible methods of approach to a scientific char

acterization of individual differencos : 1. One can proceed from a
quantitative characteristic of definite properties ( such as height ,
weight, magnitude of expiration , etc .; tho sensitivity of each analyzer ,
nemorizing speed , memory stability, etc. ) . 2. One can proceed from a
brouping of individuals according to types (athletic, asthenic and pycnic
types of body structure; " types of memory " : visual , audi tory , motor or
Graphic and verbally abstract .

-5 .
 It is natural to designate the first approach as an analytical
approach , and the second one as a synthetic approach . Each of these ap
proaches , in view of its one- sided nature, cannot provide a full solu
tion of the problem . By following the first approach , a considerable
amount of useful empirical information has been obtained , which , however ,
all by itself , is of no greater use than those incoherent " catalogs" of
individual characteristics which were mentioned above . The second ap
proach rapidly yields results which appear to be very effective and ap
parently close to life , but which in the final analysis lead to a dead
end . This second approach gave rise to such concepts as the introvert
and extrovert types of Jung or the cyclothymic and schizometic types of
Kretschmer , representing typologies which have been extremely popular
in Western psychology during the course of several decades already . At
tempts to conduct an objective study of individual differences , using
as a starting point such types as are integral but cannot be subjected
to a scientific analysis , lead to the appearance of " irrational " methods,
such as the Rorschach test mentioned above , methods which have a false
appearance of objectivity exclusively as a result of the use of a com
plex apparatus of mathematical statistics during the processing of re
sults .
One cannot deny , of course , that the second course allows a truly
scientific approach , which has nothing in common with " irrational " meth
ods . Along this road , it is possible , in case of extensive, prolonged
and thorough scientific work , to arrive at " psychological types , " which
may become the subject of a scientific analysis. For example , the
studies conducted by V.N. Myasishchev and A. G. Kovalev [72] [737,
[457 follow this indispensable, but not the only possible, course .
As was stated above, our staff follows the first approach , where
by our work is based on the physiological concepts concerning the typo
logical properties of the nervous system , discovered by I. P. Pavlov .
Our final goal is the blending , or more precisely , the meeting of both
research trends .
One of the decisive merits of Pavlov's theory on the types of the
nervous system consists precisely in the fact that I , P. Pavlov under
stood the types of nervous activity as representing " certain complexes
of the basic properties of the nervous system " [83; III , 2,2627 . The
scientific importance and tremendous prospects offered by Pavlov's theory
consist precisely in such an interpretation .
It should be noted , however, that the word " type " is used in the
literature on the higher neural activity not only in its basic meaning ,
but also in a different meaning: namely, as a characteristic " model , "
as a " picture " of animal or human behavior . P. S. Kupalov (547 was the
first one to draw attention to the difference of these two meanings,
and this problem has been worked out in detail by me in another publica
tion [T127 . While studying the history of the development of the theory
concerning types of higher neural activity in animals, during the life
time of I. P. Pavlov, I attempted to show the gradual transition from
the predominant use of a general " picture " of animal behavior in

.6 .
determining the type of nervous system to the reliance on strictly
experimental indices of certain definite properties of neural proces
ses [ 117 ; 27 .
Towards the end of his life , I. P. Pavlov became convinced that
the basic properties of the nervous system , which should be used as a
building foundation for the theory of animal types, are the following :
1 ) The intensity of neural processes, 2) their mobility and 3) the
equilibrium of stimulation and inhibition processes . In his well .
known work , entitled "General Types of Higher Neural Activity of Ani
nals and Man " (83; III , 27, I. P. Pavlov gave a summary of experimental
methods for determining these properties in dogs with the aid of his
classical salivation method. Concerning " types, " Pavlov wrote the fol
lowing in the same article :
" As a result of possible fluctuations in the basic properties of
the nervous system and of possible combinations of these fluctuations ,
certain types of nervous system should occur , and , as an arithmetical
calculation shows, there should be at least 24 such types, but, as re
ality shows , there is a much smaller number of such types, namely 4 par
ticularly sharp and striking types, which , most important of all , differ
from each other in their ability to adapt themselves to the surrounding
environment and in their hardiness in resistance towards morbific
agents " [ 83; III , 2,2907 .
What are the reasons which compelled Pavlov to select precisely
four types out of the 24 ( according to a modest calculation ) possible
combinations of basic properties ?
1. " Particularly sharp and striking . " This argument stems from
an understanding of type as a " model " of behavior. However, as I have
been able to show in detail in another study [ 117; 23-307, even in test
dogs , typical pictures of behavior do not constitute direct and unambig
uous indices of types of higher neural activity , understood as complexes
of definite properties of the nervous system , a fact which was frequently
noted and stressed by Pavlov himself . Even less so , of course , can this
argument be considered as a serious scientific argument in the problem
concerned with the application to man of the " four type " theory .
2. " Ability to adapt themselves to the surrounding environment . "
This argument obviously cannot be transfered directly from dogs to man :
the ability to adapt himself to the surrounding environment , in the case
of man , is most decidedly determined by other factors than in the case
of animals .
3. " Hardiness in resistance towards morbific agents . " It is dif
ficult to reject this reason , if we proceed from any kind of theoretical
considerations . However , the following fact deserves attention . Numer
ous attempts have been made to establish a connection between certain
diseases and the types of higher neural activity . If we examine care
fully the studies conducted in this field , we find that the connection ,
if it was discovered by research workers, was observed not so much be
tween the illness and the type as a characteristic complex of properties,
as between the illness and a definite property or properties of the

- 7 -
nervous system . Thus , for example , S. N. Davidenkov has been able to
discern a connection between the inertness of the nervous system and
neuroses ( the most inert natures are predominantly the main contractors
of neuroses) [ 23; 677 ; M. V. Chernorutskiy, N. S. Lang -Belonogova and Ye .
P. Kok have observed a certain connection between hypertonic and ulcerous
diseases , on the one hand, and a weakness and unbalance of the nervous
system , on the other hand [1237, 1567. The question arises: would it
not be more advisable , instead of making attempts (which are very diffi
cult and successful only under certain conditions) to classify patients
according to " four types , " to direct our work towards finding that prop
erty of the nervous system , which , according to our assumption , may play
a role in the appearance of a given disease ?
The idea of " four types" and of their analogy with four kinds of
temperament was conceived by I. P. Pavlov prior to the maturing of the
theory concerning basic properties of the nervous system , which is re
flected in the final studies conducted by this prominent physiologist.
It is understandable , therefore , that the first serious attempts to ap
ply Pavlov's theory concerning types of the nervous system to man were
made not so much on the basis of the theory on the definite properties
of the nervous system , as on the basis of the scheme of " four types . "
These first serious attempts are associated with the name of A.
G. Ivanov- Smolenskiy and with the studies conducted by his associates .
In the laboratories of A. G. Ivanov - Smolenskiy , by means of motor methods
based on vocal, alimentary and orientational reinforcement, four " types
of switch - in activity " were found , which were characterized mainly by the
speed of formation of positive and inhibiting conditional connections,
namely a labile, inert, stimulated and inhibiting type . In this connec
tion , must_be mentioned the experimental studies conducted by A. A.
Novikova 1797,L. I. Kotlyarevskiy (487, R.M. Pen [ 5] and others. A
general appraisal of studies dealing with this problem , which were con
ducted in the laboratories of A. G. Ivanov - Smolenskiy , was performed in
1953 by L. S. Bogachenko and V. K. Faddeyeva b.
The experimental studies listed above were conducted in the late
1920's ( the last two were published in 1933 , but were " put into final
shape in 1931 " ) [41, 27 .
Probably , in his classification of types, A. G. Ivanov - Smolenskiy
proceeded from the classification of four types given by I. P. Pavlov
in his articles published in the late 1920's ( described in the most
clear and distinct form in his lecture , entitled " The Physiological
Theory On Nervous System and Temperament Types" ) . In this case , the
classification system was set up according to the principle of equil
ibiru , thus yielding 3 types of temperament: an excitable , inhibited
and central , or well - balanced, temperament, whereby in the latter type
there were distinguished ( in respect of the general nature of behavior )
two forms, which Pavlov correlated with a sanguine or phlegmatic tem
perament . In the final result, four types were obtained , which could
be correlated with the four traditional temperaments . The property of
the nervous system which makes it possible to distinguish between san
guíne and phlegmatic persons, which was later called "mobility , " had not

8 -
yet been discovered at that time -- a fact which was very clearly pointed
out by Pavlov himself during his talk at a " Wednesday " meeting on 15
November 1933 [ 84; II , 927.
Thus , it may be assumed that the four -member classification of
" types of switch - in activity of a child , " proposed by A. G. Ivanov
Smolenskiy , originated on the basis of the four -member classification
of types of nervous system of animals, proposed by I. P. Pavlov in 1927 .
At the same time , A. G. Ivanov - Smolenskiy and his associates took one
step forward by proposing an experimental criterion for the distinction
of the two well - balanced types and by introducing , for the designation
of these types, the terms " labile" and " inert , ” which were later used
by Pavlov to designate two opposing poles of the mobility parameter .
During the period between 1927 and 1935 , I. P. Pavlov frequently
revised the principles of classification of types of higher neural ac
tivity , striving to achieve the deepest possible understanding of the
nature of the basic properties of the nervous system and their inter
relation . The history of the elaboration by I. P. Pavlov , of the theory
on the types of nervous system of which I have attempted to give a sketch
in one of my past articles [ T17; 6-27, gives an instructive picture of
the tireless creative work done by this great scientist . During this
period , I. P. Pavlov discovered a third basic property of the nervous
system , namely mobility . The last classification , given by Pavlov , is
built primarily on the principle of the strength of the nervous system ,
as its most important property , whereas the principle of equilibrium of
the processes of stimulation and inhibition , upon which the 1927 classi
fication was based , is relegated to a secondary place ( see page 77 ff .
in my article mentioned above ) . The 1935 classification is basically
different from the 1927 classification ( and also different from earlier
rough sketches of type classifications ) .
However , the number " four remained unchanged between 1927 and
1935 , as well as the correlation of these " four types " with the desig
nations of temperaments going back to ancient times. This fact , which
is completely immaterial from a physiological standpoint, exerted a very
deleterious effect on development work of the problem of the application
of Pavlov's teaching on nervous system types to man .
A completely wrong conviction arose , especially among those peo
ple who attempted to utilize Pavlov's theory for practical purposes
such as in medicine or pedagogy , that the main concern is to divide
people ( specifically, patients and children ) into four types, which cor
respond more or less to the four traditional temperaments . In this
connection , it was often found ( and the more often , the more conscien
tiously researchers tackled this problem ) that the majority of the in
dividuals studied could not be classified under any one of these types:
these people were considered as belonging to " intermediate " types .
The experimental determination of types was most frequently per
formed by one or another modification of the method devised by A. G.
Ivanov - Smolenskiy . This method resulted in the determination of " four
types , " which , however , as was just demonstrated , are quite different,

- 9 -
in regard to their content, from the " four types" described by Pavlov
in his last classification system , which is presented in all physiology
and psychology textbooks and which is tacitly acknowledged as being un
disputable and " definitive . " This fact , which is of decisive importance
for an understanding of the problem , is usually ignored : it is assumed
that the " four types , " determined by the method devised by A. G. Ivanov
Smolenskiy, are precisely the " Pavlov types . "
In 1939 , N. I. Krasnogorskiy published in his book a classifica
tion of types ( first proposed by him in 1931 ) , which was based on the
interrelation between the cortex and the subcortex and included a cen
tral, subcortical, cortical and anergetic type (19; 102-1047. This
classification had nothing in common with the Pavlov classification but
retained the same number " four " and was considered by many as an appli
cation to children of Pavlov's doctrine of types, since the author of
this classification is a pupil of Pavlov and works by means of the con
ditioned reflex method . In 1952 , N. I. Krasnogorskiy described a new
variation of the four -membered classification of types, whose general
scheme corresponds to Pavlov's classification , but in which one of the
types (Pavlovis " impetuous" type ) is again characterized by a symptom
which Pavlov did not have in mind, namely by a predomination of the
subcortex over the cortex [507. The interrelation between the cortex
and the subcortex is an important property of higher neural activity .
N. I. Krasnogorskiy deserves credit for stressing this property . How
ever , why should a classification of types, based only on this property ,
yield precisely " fourn types, and mhy should these four types correspond
in any sense to Pavlov's four types ? Why , upon introduction of a new
property ( predomination of the subcortex ), into Pavlov's classification ,
does the number " four not change , and finally begin to assume a myster
ious meaning , and why does the type, characterized by this new symptom ,
still retain the same designation of Nimpetuous " or " cholerich type ?
A large number of similar examples could be cited showing the
utilization of the four type scheme, in which these types bear either
designations given by Pavlov or designations borrowed , according to the
example set by Pavlov , from the traditional nomenclature of temperaments ,
but without concern for a retention of Pavlov's content of types. However ,
this would hardly appear to be necessary . The most influential studies
are still those conducted in the laboratory of A. G. Ivanov - Smolenskiy
and N. I. Krasnogorskiy .
We believe that it is Pavlov's discovery of the main properties
of the nervous system which is of major importance in studying individ
ual differences in man , and not at all the adoption of those four
types which correspond more or less to the traditional temperaments as
basic types . The number " four " has no scientific basis whatsoever .
It cannot even be said that the doctrine of human temperaments is
based on a firm tradition of differentiating precisely four temperaments .
It is true that four temperaments were mentioned by Aristotle , Kant,
Wundt , Ebbinghaus, Foulier and many other authors, whereby these authors
proceeded from completely different subdivision principles . On the

. 10 -
 other hand , the great Roman physician Galen_gave a count of 12 temper
aments [139; 2847, Hefding = eight [ T7; 3417 , Heymans - six ( 141; 4847
N. Ach - five [135;314-3247, Meiman - tweIve [69; 2887, etc. Incident
ally , it would be quite unnatural to derive the number of types of the
nervous system from the number of temperaments, since temperament is a
psychological manifestation of a nervous system type , and not vice
versa. [ Note7 In Soviet psychological literature, data on the history
of the problem concerned with temperaments are presented in a study con
ducted by Ye . P. Yeres [ 287 ).
Data obtained during a study of the nervous system of animals in
dicate the existence of types which do not correspond to any one of the
Pavlov types and which at the same time are not intermediate types . For
example : 1 ) a type characterized by absolutely strong stimulatory and
absolutely weak inhibitory processes , which is basically different ( as
admitted by Pavlov himself) from the usual " impetuous " ( choleric) type,
in which both of these processes are absolutely strong and in which the
stimulatory process is only relatively predominant over the inhibitory
process ( this is explained in detail in [T17 ; 78-79 and 927) ; 2 ) an un
balanced type, in which inhibition predominates over stimulation ( see the
same source , pages 86-90 , 92) ; 3 ) types, which are unbalanced in regard
to the mobility of stimulation and inhibition processes ( see the same
source , pages 90-91 ) .
There is not the slightest reason to assume that these types may
not also be characteristic types of human beings.
If the word " type " 15 understood as representing a complex of the
main properties of the nervous system , then , in order to solve the prob
lem as to how many basic types should be adopted and which types, it is
necessary to study the problem concerning the relation between individ
ual properties and the problem as to which combinations of properties
are the most natural and the most " typical " ones . This problem has not
yet been studied at all . The Pavlov classification of types provides
for a combination of inertness only with the strength and equilibrium
of the nervous system ( phlegmatic type ). As I have shown in another
publication , the factual data which are available indicate that a
combination of inertness with an unbalanced nature, on the one hand,
and with a weakness of the nervous system , on the other hand , consti
tutes, apparently, a more common and " typical " phenomenon than a_com
bination of inertness with strength and equilibrium [117; 94-967 .
The task confronting us is not to simply preserve Pavlov's
teaching concerning types of higher neural activity and to apply
this teaching to man , but rather to work on a creative development of
this teaching , clearly recognizing what constitutes the basic founda
tion of this teaching and wherein lies the main idea formulated by I.
P. Pavlov .
We believe that it is a wrong and practically harmful idea to
consider that the basic foundation of Pavlov's doctrine of types con
sists in acknowledging the existence of " four types, " analogous to the
four traditional temperaments ) and " intermediatesh between these temper
aments ) . Using this idea as a starting point , it is impossible to go
. 11 -
beyond the circle of a purely descriptive " typology . " In the event of
such an approach to the problem , the concepts of basic properties of
the nervous system , conceived by Pavlov as accurate physiological con
cepts , are transformed into certain " metaphorich concepts , into a
method for translating into a psuedo - physiological language every - day
concepts on the features of the human character , precisely everyday ,
and not scientific , concepts .
In the event of such an approach , the entire innovatory meaning
of Pavlov's doctrine of types becomes lost .
We believe that the basic foundation of Pavlov's doctrine of
types consists in discovering those properties of the nervous system ,
by means of which it is possible to carry out a classification of
types. We believe , therefore, that one has to proceed from " proper
ties" to " types, " and not from " types" to " properties . "
The goal pursued by our staff is to study in man those main
properties of the nervous system which can be considered as " para
meters " in the classification of nervous system types . We do not
believe it possible to assign a first priority to the problem invol
ving a study of types as " complexes of these properties , " until we
have progressed to a sufficient extent in the study of properties .
CERTAIN PROBLEMS CONCERNING THE NATURE OF THE MAIN PROPERTIES
OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

The main properties of the nervous system are not traits be

havior or character traits of a human individual . These properties can
not be observed directly; they must be discovered " by means of a special
investigation .
That which can be directly observed , namely the " behavior typen
or " the neural activity present , " represents , according to the expres
sion used by I. P. Pavlov, " an alloy of type features and alterations
conditioned by the external environment [83; III, 2 , 3347. Our task
is to separate from this " alloy " the " type features ," i.e. the main
properties of the nervous system . This is the purpose and meaning of
our work .
I. P. Pavlov spoke about the " still almost unsurmountable dif
ficulty in determining the type of neural activity (83; III , 2, 2697 .
However , on the same page , Pavlov also pointed out the means for
" overcoming the above difficulty , " namely , " to multiply and vary , as
far as possible , the forms of our diagnostic tests . " Pavlov was hop
ing that, by following this course , it would be possible to isolate
from the " alloy " native traits , i.e. true typological properties.
This indication given by Pavlov is also of major importance to
us , engaged as we are in a study of the properties of the human nervous
system . However , in the case of man , a much greater variety of " diag
nostic tests " must be used than in the case of animals .

- 12 -
 The properties of the nervous system are considered by us as " native
properties , " but not necessarily as herediatry properties; they may be
the result of an embryonic development, as well as of development condi
tions during the early period of life . Therefore, I would consider it
proper not to use in the context of our topic the term " genotype , " which
points directly to the hereditary nature of type properties .
The difficult and prolonged work involved in the separation of the
native properties of the nervous system from the " alloy " is justified by
the fact that such work does not lead simply to a description of individ
ual characteristic features of man and to their classification , but that
it opens up a road for explaining the origin of certain individual char
acteristics and for finding ways of effecting an individual approach to
man , namely in educational work , when we talk about children and youth ,
and in the establishment of optimum working and living conditions, when
we are talking about adults .
In the true meaning of the word , the strength and mobility of
neural processes constitute the main properties of the nervous system .
The third property , pointed out by I. P. Pavlov , namely equilibrium , is
a secondary and derived property for the simple reason that we are con
cerned here with the equilibrium in respect of strength or mobility .
Wi thout a knowledge of the force and mobility of the neural processes of
a given individual , we cannot talk - strictly scientifically, rather
than metaphorically or descriptively - about the equilibrium or disa
equilibrium of his nervous system .
At the present time, it is hardly possible to doubt that not only
the strength but also the mobility, of neural processes may be unbalanced
( I. P. Pavlov (83; III, 2,2687, 284; III,150–1517 ,P. S. Kupalov 153;
466-4677 , P. G. Popescu- Nevianu 193; 64-65], N. A. Roko tova [ 102], B. M.
Teplov (117 ; 90-917 ). Equally beyond doubt is the possibility , in case
of an unbalanced state of the strength of a preponderance of stimulation
over inhibition and of inhibition over stimulation (I.P. Pavlov [83; III ,
2 , 268, 273] , N. I. Mayzel' [637 , B. M. Teplov (117; 85-907 ).
During the classification of types, the sign of equilibrium ob
viously deserves serious attention , and to a greater extent than was
given it by Pavlov in his latest version of a classification of types
in comparison to earlier versions. However , having specified that the
immediate task of our work is the study of the main properties of the
nervous system , and not a study of types , we have naturally concentrated
our attention on the investigation of strength and mobility .
In regard to these basic properties of the nervous system , the
following general problems of basic importance must be considered.
First, the problem as to whether each of these properties is a
" single property," or whether this property can be " split " into a group
of similar properties as a result of a more thorough investigation . The
strength of the nervous system will be discussed further in this text .
In regard to mobility , the problem of the " complex naturen of this prop
erty and of its different types or aspects was considered for the first
time in our laboratory in a study conducted by I. V. Ravich - Shcherbo 1967

13 -
As a result of an analysis of all factual data and theoretical consider
ations , available in the literature on the problem of mobility , it was
possible to draw the conclusion that , in the theory on higher neural ac
tivity , the meaning of the term " mobility ” is such as to include all
temporal characteristics in the work performed by the nervous system and
all those aspects of this work to which the category of speed is appli
cable , The indices of mobility , understood in such a broad sense , can
be the following : 1 ) the speed at which a neural process makes its ap
pearance in response to a stimulation ; 2) the speed of movement of
neural processes, their irradiations and concentrations; 3 ) the cessa
tion rate of neural processes ; 4) the rate at which inhibition is re .
placed by stimulation and stimulation by inhibition ; 5) the rate of
formation of new positive and inhibiting conditioned bonds; 6 ) the rate
of change of reactions during a change in external conditions ( altera
tion of the signal value of stimulators, change in the stereotype, etc. )
( B. M. Teplov [117; 60-727 ) . A systematic comparison of these indices
in the same tested subjects has not yet been performed . A comparison
of data , obtained by different authors under different conditions and on
different tested subjects , naturally cannot provide an answer to the ques
tion as to whether mobility is a " single property . " This problem remains
open and can be solved only as a result of experimental studies .
Second , the problem of the connection between strength and mobil
ity . So far , this problem has actually not been investigated at all .
Its importance , as well as the necessity of considering this problem
when explaining the discrepancy between various manifestations of mo
bility , were properly underlined by A. M. Zimkina [ 35 ] and L. G.
Voronin (737, who gave a detailed critical analysis of the studies con
ducted in our laboratory .
Third , the problem of the possibility of considering the concen
trated nature of neural processes and the stability of bonds as " independ
ent" properties of the nervous system , along with strength and mobility
[T17; 97-987 . The idea of a " concentrations as an independent property
belongs to P. S. Kupalov . However , this idea is presented by P. S.
Kupalov merely as a hypothesis: We have not been able " - he writes
" to find such forms of tests as would allow us to draw a definitive
conclusion " [54; 147. In our laboratory, M. N. Borisova is conducting
special studies of distinction thresholds and fine " positive different
iations , " which we consider as being an index of the concentrated nature
of neural processes . And so far , this form of tests has not yet provided
a definite answer to the question regarding the connection between the
strength and concentration of neural processes . In regard to the term
" stability ," the idea of considering it as an independent property_of
the nervous system belongs to E. A. Asratyan and v . v . Yakovleva [733] .
Of great urgency and interest is the problem as to whether the " stabil .
ity of connections " is an independent property or one of the manifesta
tions of inertness [ 117; 73-767 . In our laboratory, A. N. Vasil'yev has
conducted an experimental study, which introduces a certain amount of
clarity into this complex problem .

- 14 .
 Fourth , the question arises as to the correctness of the widely
held opinion that strength and mobility are positive qualities, whereas
debility and inertness are properties which are negative in all respects .
In a drastic form , the theoretical_formulation of this view has been pre
sented by S. N. Davidenkov [23; 187. I. P. Pavlov himself, in his char
acterization of individual types, expressed a similar opinion , although ,
as I have tried to show in my previous studies, the theoretical analysis
given by Pavlov in connection with the concepts of debility and inert
ness contradicts this opinion .
In psychology , this widely held opinion leads to extremely over
simplified and practically harmful concepts of the " faculties" of peo
ple with a debilitated or inert nervous system . A strong type is con
sidered to be a " good type , " a debilitated type as a " bad type , " etc.
Very characteristic in this respect are the statements made by
the professor of physiology A. Breitburg in his article devoted to the
significance of Pavlov's theories in the field of musical pedagogy . Ac
cording to A. Breitburg , representatives of the strong type are " usually
considered as people possessing great abilities , capable of solving
easily any problems with which they are confronted . " Representatives
of the debilitated type are classified as people of poor ability , un
suited for any kind of active work and even less for any kind of musical
performing activity . " There is no doubt that courses or training with
people belonging to the strong type of higher neural activity can be
conducted with a considerably greater amount of success than with people
belonging to one of the " transient" forms or even more with people belong
ing to the debilitated typen ( B; 143-1447.
It is difficult to express more clearly the fatalistic outlook on
the all - round inferiority of people with a debilitated nervous system .
A similar view , possibly less sharply expressed , is held of people with
an inert nervous system .
We are guided in our work by the hypothesis, according to which
the concepts " debility " and " inertness " are not considered , in their
content , as negative concepts . We believe that a debility , as well as
an inertness of the nervous system , is a property which has both posi
tive and negative aspects. I shall talk about debility in greater de
tail further on . In regard to inertness , I want to point out that its
positive aspects include ( according to our hypothesis) a stability of
connections and a greater ability to form and preserve stereotypes . А
number of considerations in favor of this hypothesis as a whole have
been presented in detail by me in other studies [116 ] [117].
We believe that both parameters ( strength - debility and lability
inertness ) must be considered not as two characteristics of the degree
of perfection of the nervous system , but rather as parameters character
izing in their opposite poles qualitatively different methods for bring
ing the organism into equilibrium with its environment . The important
point is not that, in case of a strong nervous system , any kind of prob
iem can be easily solved , but that a strong nervous system is better

- 15 -
capable of solving certain kinds of problems, while a weak system is
capable of solving other problems, that a weak and strong nervous sys
tem must follow a different course in solving the same problem .
Naturally , the concrete content of the hypothesis proposed by us
must be checked by means of persistent experimental work . The hypothesis
mentioned here outlines the direction of this work and suggests specific
topics for experimental research .
Fifth , and finally , the problem of " general " and " specific " (par
tial ) properties of the nervous system .
If a certain person is characterized by a great mobility or
strength of neural processes in the visual field , can we conclude from
this that he must necessarily display a great mobility or strength of
neural processes in the auditory or motor field ? An analysis of facts
from daily life has led us to the following hypothesis : along with
general typological properties , characterizing the nervous system as a
whole, there exist specific (partial ) typological properties, character
izing individual analyzers or individual brain systems.
Recently , V. D. Nebylitsyn has carried out an experimental study
in our laboratory , in which he determined in 25 tested subjects , by
means of several methods, the strength of cortical cells of visual and
auditory analyzers [78]. The results have shown that in 18 tested sub
jects ( 72 % ) , the strength characteristics of the visual and audi tory
analyzers coincide, whereas the remaining ? tested subjects exhibit a
discrepancy , sometimes very sharp , between the indices showing the
strength of cortical cells present in these two analyzers .
This represents only the first step toward any sort of accurate
experimental study of the problem concerning general and specific prop
erties of the nervous system . This step has shown that , in regard to
the majority of the data obtained with tested subjects ( about 3/4) , there
is a good reason to speak about the strength of cortical cells as a prop
erty which characterizes to the same extent both visual and auditory
analyzers (possibly , also the nervous system as a whole ) , whereas, in a
minority of the tested subjects , the visual and auditory analyzers have
a strength parameter with a completely different characteristic .
CONCERNING THE PROBLEM OF PSYCHOLOGICAL MANIFESTATIONS OF THE
BASIC PROPERTIES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

Strength and mobility are properties of the nervous system , and

not properties of the personality . This means that, in case a strong
( or weak ) , mobile ( or inert ) nervous system is present , different psy
chological traits of personality may arise during the course of develop
ment under different living and educational conditions .
And still a knorrledge of these properties of the nervous system
has a very important explanatory significance in the psychology of
personality , or more accurately, in connection with problems dealing
with individual - psychological differences of personality .

- 16 .
 S. L. Rubinshteyn is quite right in distinguishing two basic
planes ( aspects) of the psychological characteristic of personality:
namely character and abilities 71057. A separation of these two as
pects is effected on the basis of psychological ( and not physiological )
criteria . From this standpoint, temperament cannot be considered as a
special third aspect of the psychological characteristic . Temperament
can be considered only as being a special problem within the framework
of the problem concerned with character .
At the present time , all Soviet psychologists associate , in one
way or another , temperament precisely with typological properties of
the nervous system ( I. P. Paley and V. V. Pshenichnov (86 ); A. G.
Kovalev [44; 9 and 187, A. G. Kovalev and v. N. Myasishchev /45; 1527,
N. D. Levitov [58; 52 ), and others). At the same time, different view
points are held in regard to the interrelations between temperament
and character . Thus, I. M. Paley and V. V. Pshenichnov are consider
ing the problem of temperament independently ( separately ) from the
problem of character . N. D. Levitov " extends " temperament beyond the
limits of character , by examining the mutual relations between temper
ament and character within the context of the problem of " character and
other characteristic features of the personality . " As can be clearly
seen from the statements made above , I believe that the viewpoint held
by A. G. Kovalev and V. N. Myasishchev is more correct , according to
which these authors believe that " temperament is not something external
to the character of man , but is something which is an organic part of
its structuro " [45; 1597. A detailed discussion of this problem tran
scends the limits of this article .
In working out the problem of the contents of the " temperament "
concept, psychologists were confronted with a sharp contradiction . On
the one hand , the history of psychology exhibited a very long tradition
according to which temperaments were characterized by definite psycho
logical traits (whereby various authors used completely different traits
as a basis for the characteristic of temperaments ) . On the other hand ,
as early as 1927, I. P. Pavlov identified temperaments with nervous sys
tem types, and in a most categorical form at that , : " We are fully en
titled to transfer the types of nervous system established in a dog ...
to man . Apparently, these types represent that which we call ' temper
amenti in people . Temperament is the most general characteristic of
each individual man , the most basic characteristic of his nervous sys
tem , which leaves an imprint of one type or another on the whole activ
ity of every individual" [ 83; III, 2 , 857.
How is it possible to " superimpose " the psychological definition
of temperament on the Pavlov interpretation of temperament as a type
of the nervous system , as the most basic characteristic of the nervous
system ? I believe that this problem cannot be solved by any kind of
theoretical and apriori considerations, if we attempt to base the defi
nition of temperament simultaneously both on definite psychological
traits and on definite properties of the nervous system .

- 17 -
 As an example , we might cite the chapter on temperaments in my
psychology textbook for secondary schools . In the latest editions of
this textbook ( from the 5th to the 8th edition ), the following defini
tion of temperament was given : " Temperament is used to designate indi .
vidual characteristics of a human individual , which are expressed as
follows: 1 ) In an emotional excitability ..., 2) In a greater or les
ser tendency towards a strong expression of feelings ad extra... ,
3 ) In a rapidity of movements and a general mobility of the individ
ual" [113; 5th edition, 2327. Such a definition made it possible
to describe, in a more or less orderly and brief manner , each of the
four traditional temperaments , to give a typical " model " of a choleric ,
sanguine or other type of person . But how is it possible to reconcile
this definition with the statement given on the next page , according
to which the characteristic traits of temperaments are explained by those
properties of the higher neural activity which are used as a basis for
the subdivision of types of higher neural activity ( strength , equilibrium
and mobility ) ? For a tendency strongly to express feelings ad extra
and a rapidity of movements may be the result of a " habit" and of a life
time training , and may not be due at all to the properties of the nervotis
system . On the other hand , why were only these " individual features
selected for a characteristic of temperaments? For the properties of
the nervous system " leave an imprint of one type or another on the whole
activity of an individual . "
This problem was resolved in approximately the same manner also
in the psychology textbooks published by P. I. Ivanov ( 38; 343 ] and T.
G. Yegorov [27; 527, in the first edition of N. D. Levitov's book on
character [58; 1st Edition , 607 and in a number of other works .
A broader definition of temperament was given by those authors
who included into temperament, along with an emotional excitability
( Kornilov ) or, simply , " a psychic excitability " ( Yeres ') , also_ " a
rapid and strong_course_of psychic processes" ( Ye. P. Yeres' [28 ; 1147,
K. N. Kornilov[47; 1137 ). Ofcourse , the words" rapidity and strength
of psychic processes" sound very " similar " to the words " mobility and
strength of neural processes ." However , this terminological similar
ity may lead to confusion . The rapidity of psychic processes is often
determined directly by customs, habits , skills, and finally , by the
knowledge of a person in a given field . The expression " strength of
the course of psychic processes , " on the other hand , is difficult to
understand and is even more difficult to compare with the contents of
the physiological concept of the strength of the nervous system .
Relatively better than other psychological definitions of temper .
ament was the following definition given by S. L. Rubinshteyn : " Temper
ament is the dynamic characteristic of the psychic activity of an indi
vidual " [ 103; 656] ; this definition is a better one because it has the
broadest content. However , even this definition did not solve the
problem which confronted psychologists since the time when Pavlov con
ceived his idea of identifying a nervous system type with temperament
( or at least the idea of a direct causation of a temperament by the

- 18 .
 nervous system type ). The value of the concept " dynamic characteristic
of the psychic activity " lies not so much in its positive content, as in
the fact that it delimits temperament from the contents of the spiritual
life of a personality ( world outlook , ideals, convictions, etc. ) , which ,
of course , is not associated with temperament ( or with the nervous sys
tem type ).
The least vulnerable and the most correct, in regard to their
basic intention , are those definitions of temperament in which its
psychological characteristic is not given , and where there is pointed
out only its conditioning by the type of higher nervous activity (A._V.
Zaporozhets [33; 1757; N. S. Leytes [94 ; 4647, B. G. Anan'yev 13 ; 457 ).
However , even the authors of such definitions were forced , during the
further presentation of the problem of temperament, to touch upon the
psychological content of this concept, and consequently , were unable
to avoid completely those difficulties which are associated with a
solution of the problem formulated above . A serious attempt to analyze
some of these difficulties was made by I. M. Paley and V. V.
Pshenichnov ( 867. However , they were unable to reach a final solution
of this problem , and this is not so much their fault as their misfor
tune .
As can be seen from the above statements, the concept of temper
ament should include those psychological manifestations, referring to
character and not to abilities, which are conditioned by the properties
of the type of higher neural activity . Probably , one can say that the
natural basis of character is most directly expressed in temperament.
However , there is still a long way from such an essentially for
mal definition of temperament to a truly psychological characteristic
of temperament .
If we admit seriously, and not merely verbally , that " temperament
is the psychological manifestation of a general type of higher neural
activityn ( T. G. Yakusheva [ 7347) - a thesis which, as has just been
show , is presently acknowledged by the vast majority of Soviet psychol
ogists - then , first , methods for determining the properties of a type
must be available , and, second, we must know what are the psychological
manifestations of individual properties and of a type , as a definite com
bination of such properties .
Usually, however , nobody is concerned with this matter . It is
tacitly assumed that these are evident and obvious things , or things
which have been clarified by somebody at some time. T. G. Yakusheva ,
for example , has determined the temperament of school children by means
of talks and observations , and from this basis makes some far - reaching
basic conclusions in regard to the variability of temperaments . However ,
a " diagnosis of temperament " in such types of studies ( and there is a
very large number of such studies; I have cited the study conducted by
T. G. Yakusheva only as an example) is made on the basis of establishing
certain definite psychological traits, either during the course of talks
or by observation . How can the author know that these traits are " psycho
logical manifestations" precisely of a general type of higher neural ac
tivity ? The most surprising fact is that this question , apparently , seems
to be completely irrelevant to many researchers.
19
 It is quite possible that the " psychological types , " described
in such studies (i.e. in the majority of studies concerned with temper
aments ), deserve full attention and that a study of these types is quite
useful . But for what reason should these types be " supported " by Pav
lovian concepts concerning the properties of a nervous system type ?
Would it not be better to forego a " verbal " reliance on Pavlov , and to
conduct an analysis on a purely psychological level?
The above - mentioned doubts refer to an even greater extent to the
numerous studies which are not concerned with temperaments, but rather
with types of higher neural activity , but in which these types are estab
lished only on the basis of so - called " vital factors , " i.e. , more or
less complex psychological manifestations of personality . As a rule ,
here also it is assumed to be a well -known fact that certain psycho
logical traits are manifestations of the properties of a nervous system
type .
Naturally , this does not mean that all studies , concerned to a
lesser or greater extent with the properties of a nervous system type or
temperament, but which are conducted on the basis of " vital factors " ( i.e.
by means of observations, talks, " natural experiments , " etc. ) have no
significance whatsoever .
Careful attention should be given to the considerations about the
" vital factors" of strength , equilibrium and mobility, expressed on the
basis of an extensive clinical experience by leading workers of Pavlov
clinics , namely of the nervous and psychiatric clinic (B. N. Birman
57, s. N. Davidenkov [237 , A. G. Ivanov -Smolenskiy (427 ). The ideas
expressed by these authors concerning the " vital factors of the basic
properties of the nervous system are essentially carefully thought - out
hypotheses, of great importance for the direction of an experimental
study of the properties of the nervous system .
Of considerable interest are the studies conducted by Leningrad
psychologists , under the direction of Yu . A. Samarin , which are based
on prolonged observation and partially on natural experiments, conducted
with children of nursery , pre - school and early school age ( V. A.
Gorbacheva[ 12], [20] , A. N. Davydova [247, Yu. A. Samarin [ 1037). The
study conducted by L. I. Umanskiy [122 ]represents an attempt aimed at
singling out in a more differentiated way indices of individual proper
ties of the nervous system in natural experiments with pre - school age
children .
A different and , in my opinion , completely justified approach
includes the scientific project consisting of such research studies
based on vital factors as_the research work performed in our labor
atory by N. S. Leytes [607. The purpose of this work was not the
utilization of definite psychological traits , considered as indices of
strength , equilibrium and mobility that have allegedly been scientif
ically approved sometime by somebody , but rather a discovery of "those
psychological characteristics, which , although in a preliminary and
hypothetical way , can still be considered as indices of the basic prop
erties of a typeof neural activityn [80; 3007. Such studies can be

- 20 -
 set up only on condition of a prolonged and careful investigation deal
ing not only with psychological traits of the persons under study ( in
this case , of school children belonging to the upper grades ) , but also
with conditions of their life , activity and developmental history . Con
di tions allowing a possible interpretation , during such types of studies,
of the observed psychological characteristics as indices of precisely
typological properties of the nervous system have been developed by me
in greater detail in another publication [T17; 106-1027 .
From the standpoint of principle , special mention should be made
of those still very rare studies , in which psychological characteristics ,
determined on the basis of " vital indicators , " are compared with exper
imentally established properties of a nervous system type .
Such, for example, is the study conducted by A. A. Makogonova [65] ,
[66 , in which characteristics of the distribution ofattention (the cri
terion of which was the successful work performed by students of radio
schools during a switch to a rate of reception , at which it is necessary
simultaneously to receive a signal and record the preceding one ) were
compared with the indices of equilibrium and mobility of neural processes ,
obtained by the method of motor reactions with a preliminary instruction .
of a similar nature is the study conducted by A. I. Il'ina [43],
in which an attempt was made to isolate , in such a character trait as
" sociability , " that which may depend upon the properties of the nervous
system ( specifically, on mobility ), and that which does not depend upon
the properties of the nervous system type , but is determined by the sys
tem of human relations. Also similar is the study conducted by I. M.
Paley [ 897 , who compared manifestations of " restraint" ( the inhibiting,
restraining function of the will ) in persons with a balanced and unbal
anced (where excitation predominates over inhibition ) type of nervous
system . In the studies of A. I. Il'ina and I. M. Paley; the proper
ties of the nervous system type were determined both experimentally
(by the cutaneous- galvanic reflex method ) and on the basis of vital
indices , established by anamnesis and observation .
Returning to the beginning of this section , I wish to recall the
idea proposed by S. L. Rubinshteyn concerning the two basic planes ( as
pects) of the psychological characteristic of personality, namely char
acter and abilities . Temperament, as a psychological manifestation of
the properties of the nervous system , has a direct bearing on the natural
basis of character . On the other hand , the typological properties of the
nervous system are just as closely related to the natural basis of abil
ities , namely to what are usually called " inclinations . "
This thought has been expressed by many Soviet psychologists dur
ing the past few years . In a general form , it was expressed in 1952 by
s. L.Rubinshteyn[ 104; 226-2277, and in a more extensive and definite
form - by B. G. Anan'yev in 1956 4. V. N. Myasishchev called atten
tion to the fact that the property of mobility "is most intimately con
nected both with the concept of temperament and with the concept of
abilities [ 72; 567. Certain authors, without stressing this idea in a
general form , actually included typological properties of the nervous

- 21 -
 system among individual characteristics, upon which abilities depend .
This was done by K. K. Platonov, who included " the traits of strength ,
mobility and equilibrium of neural processes" among the number of
" individual - psychological characteristics of personality , the total
combination of which represents flight faculties" 1917. N. D.
Levitov, in the second edition of his book on character , while enumerat
ing " individual native characteristics of the nervous system which play
a part in the development of abilities " and ' which are called inclina
tions, " mentions those traits of the higher nervous activity which lie
at the base of the Pavlovian definition of the typological properties
of the nervous system [ 58; 607.
I have frequently suggested the following principle : " Whereas
general typological properties determine the temperament of a person ,
specific properties are of the utmost importance in studying special
abilities [T17; 1027, [T15; 417 , [118 ; 757. However , this principle
is too narrow . Specific (partial ) properties are , of course, associ
ated not with the problem of temperament, but rather with the problem
of special abilities . This is true . However , there are not only spe
cial , but also general , abilities . Therefore, general properties of
the nervous system also play an important role not only in connection
with the problem of temperament, but also in connection with the prob
lem of general abilities .
A striking confirmation of this fact is the study of N. S. Leytes
[ 607 just mentioned above . Although this study is entitled " An Exper
iment in the Psychological Characteristic of Temperaments , " the concrete
data given in this study indicate the manner in which the basic proper
ties of the nervous system manifest themselves , namely strength , equil
ibrium and mobility , and their typical combinations in characteristic
features of general abilities to perform mental work . The three young
men , described in this study , the first of whom is classified by the
author as a strong well - balanced and mobile type , the second as a strong
unbalanced type , and the third as a weak nervous system type , are , from
a psycholog ical standpoin , examples not only ( and, perhaps, not even as
t
much ) of three temperaments , but also of three qualitatively different
" types " of general mental abilities ,
The typological properties of the nervous system form a part of
the natural foundations for the development of abilities, and form a
part of so - called " inclinations. " Probably , these properties even oc
cupy the most important place in the structure of these natural pre
mises of abilities ( Note: One should not, however , on this basis,
identify abilities, i.e. psychic properties of the personality which
are the result of development and education , with typological proper
ties of the nervous system , which represent only the natural basis of the
development of abilities ) .

- 22 -
-
 CONCERNING METHODS FOR STUDYING THE TYPOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

The question of methods is , at the present time, probably

the most important and urgent question in the investigation of the
problem with which the present article is concerned . How can we
study the nature of the strength of the nervous system or of its
mobility and their psychological manifestations in the absence of
accurate methods for determining these properties?
As was shown in the preceding section , it is possible, with
the aid of methods involving observation , talks , collection of
anamnesis , etc. , to study " psychological manifestations, " but at the
same time by following this course , it is only possible to " assume,
to construct hypotheses in regard to the fact as to " manifestations
of whats they represent . A truly scientific substantiation of the " vital
indices" of the typological properties of the nervous system can be
achieved only by means of experiments . For this reason , the problem
concerning methods of studying the typological properties of the nervous
system is a problem concerned with experimental methods .
The immediate object of study here is a physiological one ( proper
ties of the nervous system ) , even though the work is performed by psy
chologists and for a psychological purporse , namely the study of
individual -psychological differences between human individuals . The ob
ject of study becomes a psychological one only during the second stage
of the investigation ( I have in mind stages rather in a logical than in
an actual chronological meaning of the word ) , when we consider the prob
lem of the " psychological manifestation " of an already established prop
erty of the nervous system .
However , in most cases , an experiment conducted on a human indi
vidual is , in regard to its immediate content , a psychological exper
iment, although it may be a physiological experiment in regard to the
object being studied . This fact was very well understood by I. P.
Pavlov , and this was expressed in a particularly striking manner in
Pavlov's statements during meetings held at the nerve and psychiatric
clinics [85; II , 101-107 , 508-51.17. The fact that the psychic activ
ity of tested subjects during the course of an experiment was ignored ,
which resulted in the final analysis from the false assumption that
the " so - called " psychic activity actually constitutes merely the dy
namics of excitation and inhibition processes, has led to many fail
ures in the selection of methods for studying human types of higher
neural activity .
It is an indisputable merit of A. G. Ivanov- Smolenskiy for the
fact that , having consciously borrowed a number of methods from the
field of experimental psychology, he analyzed these methods from the
standpoint of their possible use for a physiological purpose , namely
in studying the higher neural activity of man . Ivanov - Smolenskiy's
book, devoted to the problem of methods and published in 1933 (407 ,
has retained its interest to the present day .

- 23 -
 The general impression gained from this book , which is also
strengthened by a number of statements published by the author at a con
siderably later date , is that Ivanov - Smolenskiy was striving to find the
greatest possible number of various methods . This tendency is a very
valuable one and even absolutely indispensable for a number of reasons ,
some of which were noted above ( " the splitting " of such a property as
mobility , which appeared to be a " single " property , into a group of sim
ilar properties; the presence of general and specific typological dif
ferences, etc. ) . However, a strange contradiction should be noted here .
The practical work of " followers" of A. G. Ivanov - Smolenskiy persistently
instilled a directly opposite conviction that there exist two or three
" basic" and " tested" methods ( Ivanov - Smolenskiy methods, as these were
usually called ), which , as will be shown later , were found to be pre
cisely the least satisfactory methods .
A. G. Ivanov- Smolenskiy , in enumerating the dangers which con
front a research worker engaged in the development of a method for study
ing the higher neural activity of man , especially adults and older chil
dren , has correctly pointed out the " danger of an excessive complication
of a method , which , at the present status of the physiology of human
higher neural activity , can complicate to a considerable extent the phys
iological analysis of the already extremely complex neural processes
which_take place in the cortex of the large hemispheres of man ... [10;
30-317 .
It is not the technical complication of a method which is danger
ous , but rather its psychological complication , namely the creation of
such a situation that the results of an experiment depend least of all
on the natural characteristics of the nervous system of the tested sub
ject , but are determined mainly by complex psychological causes . For
the purpose of a typological study of the nervous system , psychologically
complex methods are not well suited because these me thods do not afford
the possibility of smoothing out to any extent the psychic activity of
the tested subjects in those links of this activity , upon which the in
dices obtained depend in a decisive manner ( in general, it is impossible ,
and actually not necessary , to " smooth out" ( or equalize ) the psychic
activity of the tested subjects with any kind of method ) .
The most typical examples of methods, which have been " complicated "
in this undesirable sense , are precisely those methods which are generally
considered to be associated with the name of A. G. Ivanov - Smolenskiy . I
have in mind here the motor method " with spoken reinforcement " and the
so - called " associative experiment . "
As early as 1917 , A. G. Ivanov - Smolenskiy started to use the
method of motor reactions in its classical form , i.e , with a prelim
inary instruction . In a study published in 1926 [ 397 , he used for
the first time a new variation of this method , in which the preliminary
instruction was replaced by a "spoken reinforcement, " i.e. by the order
" press , " given after the application of the stimulus which one desires
to convert into a positive conditioned stimulus , and by the order " do not
press , " given after those stimuli which one desires to convert into

- 24 -
negative inhibiting stimuli . By introducing such a change in this
method , A. G. Ivanov - Smolenskiy_believed that he was simplifying, and
not complicating, this method (540; 46]. In reality, however, the op
posite occurred .
A description of the motor method with spoken reinforcement was
given in a special book published in 1954 by Yu. A. Povarinskiy ( 927,
which was written with the " approval " of the author of this method ,
namely A. G. Ivanov -Smolenskiy (p . 4) . Characteristic features of this
method are the absence of any kind of verbal instructions and the pro
hibition of the tested subject asking any kind of questions during the
course of the test (p . 32 ) .
Thus , a situation is created , which is very indefinite from a
psychological standpoint. When should the test subject press : should
he press after getting the command "press , " or , without waiting for this
command , should he press after the appearance of that signal which , dur
ing previous requests, preceded the command " press" ? Tested subjects ,
ranging from older children of pre - school age to adults, are unavoidably
confronted with this question and behave according to the manner in
which they will answer this question to themselves and according to the
" self - instruction " which they will give themselves . Yu . A. Povarinskiy
admits that , in a number of test subjects, a conditioned reflex is not
produced during spoken reinforcement: these subjects do not press upon
receiving a signal , but only upon receiving the command " press . " He is
also fully aware of the cause of this phenomenon : " Certain test sub
jects , upon giving a verbal account, told the man conducting the test
that they decided ' or ' considered ' that it was necessary to press only
when the command ' press ' was given " (p . 48 ) . However , strange as it
might seem , the author believers that these cases happen with exper
imenters " who are beginning to work according to the method of spoken
reinforcements and are determined by a lack of " skill and persistence"
on the part of the experimenter ( pp . 47-48 ) . Yu . A. Povarinskiy does
not want to find the reason for this phenomenon in the test subject,
but rather attempts to find it in the experimenter , although if the
latter is prohibited from giving any kind of instructions or answers to
questions asked by the test subject, he can avoid the difficulty men
tioned here only by having recourse to indirect means which are unforeseen
in this method .
It is not by chance that Yu . A. Povarinskiy gives the words " de
cided " and " considered " in quotation marks in the passage cited above .
Even though he admits that people are actually capable of " deciding "
and " considering , " he still believes in any case that these " decisions "
cannot be the reasons for their actions . At the same time, he invokes
by misunderstanding - the authority of I , M. Sechenov : " It is well
known that even I. M. Sechenov considered that the acknowledgment of
thought as being the primary cause of behavior was ' the greatest pos
sible falsehood ' " ( p . 34 ) . The misunderstanding lies in the fact
that, in making such a statement, I. M. Sechenov laid an emphasis only

- 25 -
on the word " primary . " For the same Sechenov wrote : NOur actions are
directed not by phantoms such as various forms of the .I , ' but by our
thoughts and feelings" [710; I , 2677. The postulate of the ineffective
ness of psychic processes and the assertion that the thoughts and deci
sions of a man cannot be the cause of his actions exclude the possibil
ity of a scientificially competent elaboration of methods for studying
the higher neural activity of man .
I. P. Pavlov , apparently , fully shared such a viewpoint. I want
to cite two passages from the record of a session held on 24 October
1934 at the psychiatric clinic , during which Pavlov subjected the method
of spoken reinforcement to a devastating criticism .
" A. G. Ivanov -Smolenskiy . Now , imagine that in this case one
rings a bell , and this ringing is followed by the command " press , "
he presses several times , and then he presses already upon hearing the
bell . "
" I. P. Pavlov . And if he does not do that, then he reasons in an
active manner : he must act here upon receiving an order , there is no
order , he does not do that . If I were subjected to this tost , I would
also start to reason : what should I do in this case - should I press
the buzzer or not ? And , maybe, I would decide , since I have not been
ordered to do so , why should I do it? " (85; II , 509).
" I. P. Pavlov. I cannot understand that at all . Why must I
press upon hearing the bell ? Imagine that I have never heard anything
about this test . Why should the thought necessarily occur to me here
that this has to be done ? On the contrary , I must ask myself the ques
tion - why is this doną , what should this lead to ? " ( Same source ) .
As we can see , Pavlov was firmly convinced that, during the test ,
a man reasons , even " reasons in an active manner , " asks himself ques
tions , decides , and that all these psychic processes affect the results
of the test . He did not doubt for a minute that man thinks and " on the
basis of one or another decision acts accordingly " ( Same source, p . 103) .
Human thought, reasoning and decisions do not constitute an ob
ject of study in works devoted to typoligical properties of the human
nervous system . But this does not mean that they should be ignored . It
means that they should be carefully analyzed , in order to make corres
ponding tests as unambiguous as possible . The absence of a preliminary
instruction imparts to tests a maximum degree of ambiguity in this re
spect and therefore makes them most unsuitable for studying the typolog
ical properties of the nervous system (Note : It is worthy of attention
that I. P. Pavlov also criticized the cutaneous - defensive method for
the same reason as the method of spoken reinforcement, namely for the
absence of a preliminary instruction , which_resulted in a psycholog
ically From
indefinite and ambiguous situation [85; II , 103-1077 . )
a practical standpoint, the most harmful effect is caused
by the fact that Yu . A. Povarinskiy considers the failure of attempts
to produce a positive conditioned reflex during spoken reinforcement
as a pathological symptom and as an indication of the weakening of the
switch - in function of the cortex , for example, in depressed patients
[92; 467, which constitutes an example of the way in which practically
harmful consequences may result from a theoretical error .
- 26 .
 Numerous authors have noted that conditioned reflexes are not pro
duced by the method of spoken reinforcement without a preliminary instruc
tion in a large number of adults and school children belonging to medium
and senior age groups (N. A. Rokotova_ [7027, L. A. Orbeli ( 817, v. N.
Myasishchev 1747, Ye . A. Rushkevich ( TOT). This problem was subjected
to a special investigation by A. S. Dmitriyev , who conducted tests
aimed at the production of conditioned reflexes by spoken reinforcement
on 155 test subjects ranging in age from 7 to 22 years . It was found
that, among test subjects 19 to 22 years old , the " non - formation " of con
ditioned reflexes by spoken reinforcement was observed in 58 % of the
test subjects, while in the remaining 42 % only 20 % exhibited the forma
tion of stable conditioned reflexes . Consequently , among adult test
subjects, 80 % either exhibit no formation at all of a conditioned re
flex in the case of the method of spoken reinforcement, or exhibit the
formation of unstable conditioned reflexes [25]. This fact was con
firmed in an experimental study conducted by B. M. Teplov and M. N.
Borisova , who have attempted to produce a conditioned reaction towards
a bell , by strictly following the rules of the spoken reinforcement
method described in Yu . A. Povarinskiy's book . Only a minority of the
test subjects reacts to the bell without waiting for a command , whereby
such a reaction takes place , as a rule, at once , " on the spot " ; nothing
resembling a process of gradual formation and strengthening of the con
ditioned reflex can be observed during this method (1207.
As is correctly noted by A. R. Luriya, in whose laboratory this
method was subjected to a prolonged and careful study, the so - called
" production " of motor reactions in the case of this method has a " com
plex and mediate character . " " Tests involving the production ' of a
motor reaction according to the method of spoken reinforcement " O

writes A. R. Luriya - " are actually transformed , in children of the

older age group and adults , into tests involving the solution of a
problem by analysis and generalization of the proposed conditions,
which are realized with the aid of the test's own speech connections ,
and in this respect such tests do not differ greatly from the tests
known in psychology, devoted to_the process involving a study of the
formation of concepts" [62; 5-67 . Indeed, the non - formation of a con
ditioned motor reflex by this method does not indicate the impossibil
ity of solving that complex problem mentioned by A. R. Luriya , but
rather a definite solution of this problem , which , incidentally , is by
no means less correct than another solution resulting in the so - called
formation of a conditioned reflex . Let us recall Pavlov's reasoning
cited above . The question as to which solution will be adopted by the
test subject and to what extent this solution will be " stable " has no
direct relation whatsoever to such relatively simple ( though manifested
some times in a very complex form ) properties of the nervous system as
strength and mobility .
The motor method with spoken reinforcement, but without a pre
liminary instruction , cannot be used as a means for studying the typo
logical properties of the nervous system .

. 27
 Naturally , the idea was conceived of combining a preliminary in
struction , having a general form , with one or another type of conditioned
reinforcement, but one which is no longer of the spoken type . Such is
the method proposed by N. A. Rokotova [102 ]. The results of an accurate
testing of this method are not yet available to us, [See Note ]. In re
gard to another variation of this method , proposed by L. G. Voronin and
Ye. N. Sokolov [72] , it was used in connection with problems having no
relation to the problem of individual and typoligical differences ; no
data are available which would allow an evaluation of this method within
the context of interest to us . The main type of the motor reaction
method is still the classical method with a preliminary instruction , to
which we shall return a little later .
( Note7 The testing of this method, described in the Scientific
Notes of the Leningrad Pedagogical Institute Imeni A. I. Gertsen [TOJ,
can by no means be considered either as accurate or scientifically con
vincing ) .
The so - called " associative experiment " in the form of the method
of " free associations, " which was proposed for the first time by Galton
in 1879 [137], was extensively used first in Wundt's laboratory, and
later in a number of other laboratories . It was especially widely used
in foreign psychology after the publication of the work of Jung, who
adopted it as the main experimental technique in the determination of
types of human individuals . The " free association" method has two main
variations: 1 ) the tested subject must , after hearing a word spoken
out by the experimenter, answer by saying the first word that comes to
his mind ; 2) in answering to a word spoken by the experimenter , the tested
subject must pronounce a number of words which come to his mind . Some
what later , this method was supplemented by the method of " related associ
ations" : the tested subject must answer to a word , pronounced by the
experimenter , by using another word which meets the requirement formulated
in the instruction , such as " part - whole , " " genus type, " or by using
a word having the opposite meaning , etc. The latent period of the vocal
answer is recorded , and the character of the words used as answers is
also analyzed .
A. G. Ivanov- Smolenskiy [Co ] has proposed the use of this_method
for studying the higher neural activity of man . L. B. Gakkel ' [75 ] has
workod out a special variation of this method , intended for the deter
mination in man of both a " general " type of higher neural activity ( i .
e. a type based on the properties of strength , mobility and equilibrium )
as well as of a special human type ( based on the relation of signal sys
tems ) . The rosults obtained during a check of Gakkel's method, per
formed by N. S. Lang - Belonogova 577 , do not speak in favor of this
method. Recently ,D. G. Elikin [1327 has proposed hisvariationof the
" associative experiment, " which is especially intended for the determina
tion of the type of higher neural activity in healthy adults .
" The associative experiment " exhibits the same defect as the
method of spoken reinforcement: tho psychic processes taking place here

28 .
are sufficiently complex , are completely different in different test
subjects and are by no means determined by the test conditions . How
can we " break through " this psychological curtain to reach the typo
logical relations between the strength and the mobility of excitation
and inhibition processes, a determination of which is attempted by
means of this method ?
Even if we follow the most careful and objective course , by
selecting as an indicator mainly the magnitude of the latent period
( as does D. G. E'kin ) , we cannot draw any kind of well - substantiated
conclusion in regard to the natural properties of the nervous system of
the tested subject . Each latent period in this test is determined first
of all by complex systems of connections, which are actually realized
during the perception of a word . ( And verbal , i.e. secondary signal ,
connections are always complex systematic connections .) And this meth
od does not offer any kind of possibility of equalizing conditions for
different test subjects , in order to " break through " these systems of
second signal system connections created by the entire complex vital
experience of a given test subject, to the natural properties of the
nervous system of the test subject .
To a certain extent , this difficulty is encountered in almost
every method . However , in certain methods, this difficulty is very
small , whereas here it is exceptionally great .
The only advantage of this method is its technical simplicity :
it does not require any kind of equipment . However , this advantage
is completely destroyed by its main defect : for the determination of
the natural properties of the nervous system . this is a " blind method . "
It is possible that, in the future , when we shall have at our
disposal a large number of sufficiently accurate methods for determining
all the basic properties of the nervous system , it will also be possible
to use this method as an auxiliary technique. At the present time, how
ever , it cannot be used for the special purpose with which are con
cerned here .
In my previous work , I have specially stressed the fact that,
in studying the properties of the nervous system of interest to us , of
basic importance at the present time are " methods of involuntary reac
tions , " and not methods dealing with voluntary movements, not "methods
of voluntary reactions " [115; 38-39 ] [117; 108 1097 . This thesis fol .
lowed from a fully justified and necessary striving to find methods
which are relatively simple in a psychological sense and have a maximum
possible degree of psychological nonambiguity, and to find indices that
would have the maximum possible direct relationship to the natural prop
erties of the nervous system of interest to us , and in which it would
be comparatively easy to account for ( or , even better , to equalize in
different test subjects) the influence of complex systems of verbal con
nections . These requirements, which were noted also in my previous
works, are still valid even at the present time . However , the formula
-- "methods of involuntary reactions " and not " methods of voluntary re
actions " OO
appears to us now as a formula which is too simplified and
which gives a poor picture of the actual state of affairs .

29
 First, as I have written in an article published in 1956 [T17;
1087 , "of crucial importance in regard to the question as to whether
a given method belongs to the group of 'methods of voluntary reactions'
or to the group of 'methods of involuntary reactions ' is not so much
the nature of the reactions , upon which the method is built , as the
character of those processes which constitute the actual object of
study . " This meant that, for example, the usual method of motor re
actions becomes to a considerable extent a " method of involuntary re
actions " if the selected object of study is the aftereffect from one
reaction , expressed in the rate or strength of the following reaction ,
since , under definite test conditions , the tested subject cannot con
trol this aftereffect . However , from a terminological standpoint, it
is not advisable to designate the method of motor reactions as a " meth
od of involuntary reactions , " no matter what indices the experimenter
is interested in . Many methods cannot be subdivided at all on the basis
of the characteristic of #voluntariness " or " involuntariness " of reac
tions .
Second , recent testing experience shows an increasing number of
valuable possibilities, presented for studying the problem of inter
est to us by methods concerned with motor reactions, i.e. by typical
"methods of voluntary reactions . " At the same time, only a few char
acteristic "methods of involuntary reactions " have proven themselves to
be useful so far in studying the typological properties of the nervous
system .
I wish to repeat , however , once more that , by giving up the for
mula -- " methods of involuntary reactions and not " methods of voluntary
reactions" which is too schematic and does not reflect reality , we
are not giving up those basic requirements imposed upon the methods out
of which this formula grew and which have been explained above .
Without pretending to give a complete review of methods used in
studying the typological properties of the nervous system , I shall
dwell upon certain groups of these methods , which are now attracting
the attention of researchers .
Among the typical " methods of involuntary reactions" (ve can say
" vegetative methods" ) , we are using with an increasing success in our
research work the method of the so - called photo - chemical conditioned re
flex (method based on the conditioned - reflex variation in light sensi
tivity ), which developed from a fact_discovered for the first time by
A. 0. Dolin [267. 1. I. Mayzel' [037 was able to find in this method
several indices, which fully agree with each other , showing the equil
ibrium of excitation and inhibition processes . I. V. Ravich - Shcherbo
1967 has shown that the rate of " transformation " of photo - chemical con
ditioned reflexes may be one of the indices of mobility . V. I.
Rozhdestvenskaya has shown in her early studies - at that time only in
the form of an assumption the possibility of coming close, with the
aid of this method , to the determination of the strength of cortical
processes 1937 , 1997. Recently , she has developed a special variation
of this method , which , in our opinion , is one of the most direct and
valuablemethods for determining the strength of neuralprocesses[101].
We shall talk in detail about this method in the next section .
- 30 -
 Until quite recently , we believed that the photo - chemical reflex
method characterizes the strength , mobility and equilibrium of neural
processes in a visual analyzer . For this reason , A. M. Zimkina was
fully entitled to stress , as a symptom limiting the importance of this
method, the fact that it " reflects only partial typological properties
of the nervous system , and by no means general typological properties "
135; 1827. In 1957, v. D. Nebylitsyn showed that the method of a photo
chemical conditioned reflex characterizes the typological properties of
that analyzer to which a stimulus is addressed 1787. Auditory stimuli
were used as conditioning stimuli in this method ; in this form , accord
ing to the convincing facts cited by V. D. Nebylitsyn , this method does
not characterize the properties of a visual analyzer, as was previously
believed, but rather the properties of an auditory analyzer . However ,
it is possible, when using this method , to select visual stimuli as con
ditioning stimuli ( either sufficiently weak stimuli, or , even better , red
light stimuli ) . Conditioned photo - chemical reflexes in response to vis
ual stimuli were utilized for the first time by I. V. Ravich - Shcherbo
1967; an extensive and detailed study of such reflexes was conducted by
E. A. Golubeva [ 787. Such conditioned photo - chemical reflexes in re
sponse to visual stimuli characterize , apparently , the properties of
neural processes taking place in a visual analyzer .
It is obvious that conditioned photo - chemical reflexes can be
produced in response to a stimulus from any kind of analyzer . More
over , as_was demonstrated in studies
conducted by L. A. Shvarts [727] ,
[1287, [129 ] and M.V. Matyukhina [687 , words, i.e. stimuli of the soc
ond signal system , may act as conditioning stimuli during a photo - chemical
reflex . From the above statements , it is clear that the photo - chemical
reflex method involving the use of various types of conditioning stimuli
may lead to a study of not only specific , but also of generic typological
properties of the nervous system ,
The exceedingly laborious nature of this method still constitutes
its basic defect : as a rule, several weeks, and sometimes even several
months of work with each tested subject are required in order to solve
any kind of typological problem .
Unfortunately , I am not familiar with any kind of works describ
ing carefully worked out and successful attempts to use , in studying
the typological properties of the nervous system , such typical " vege
tative" methods as the vascular (plethysmographic ) and eye pupil
methods . Attempts undertaken in our laboratory in this direction have
not yet yielded sufficiently definite results .
v . S. Merlin [707 and his associates, first working at the Kazan'
University (L. B. Yermolayeva- Tomina (297) and later at the Perm ' Peda
gogical Institute ( I.M. Paley and A. V. Pen ' skaya [827; A. I. Il'ina
2437; I.M. Paley /E87, (897 ) have used the cutaenous-galvanic reflex
method in determining the types of nervous system and individual typo
logical properties. A description of this method , and an analysis of
its weak and strong points , is given in an article published by V. S.
Merlin [717. Among the significant defects of the cutaneous- galvanic

- 31 -
method ( as pointed out in the works of I. M. Paley and A. V. Penskaya
[877 and I. M. Paley (887), the following might be mentioned : a ) con
siderable variations in the magnitude of both the conditioned and un
conditioned cutaneous-galvanic reflex during the course of one and the
same test ; b) instability of the positive reflex ; c) lack of clarity in
the differentation ; d) fading of the positive conditioned reflex , in
spite of reinforcements . However , the studies conducted by associates
of the Perm Pedagogical Institute, based on a comparison of the results
obtained during the experimental determination of the properties of the
nervous system by the cutaneous- galvanic reflex method with the results
obtained for the same properties on the basis of anamnesis and observa
tion (according to " vital indices" ), have shown a good agreement between
the results obtained by means of these two research methods . There are
good reasons to believe that the cutaneous- galvanic reflex method may
occupy a significant place among the methods used for studying the typo
logical properties of the nervous system .
P. 0. Makarov has made a very interesting and important attempt
to utilize the critical interval of discreteness as a characteristic of
mobility (i.e. that minimum interval between two stimuli , during which
a man is capable of registering the presence of a discontinuity in stim
ulation ) [647. A comparison of this method with other methods is being
conducted in our laboratory by L. A. Shvarts .
Methods which are based on studying , during a determination of
typological properties of the nervous system , of the absolute sensitivity
and of its changes under different conditions, are assuming a steadily
growing importance in our laboratory . Since these methods are used
mainly for studying the strength of the nervous system , I shall talk about
them in the following section . At this point, I shall merely point out
certain possibilities of using characteristic features of sensation
thresholds in determining other properties of the nervous system . L. A.
Shvarts has presented data showing that " typological differences in the
mobility of the stimulation process in a visual analyzer are observed in
the character of the discrepancy between the thresholds of the appearance
and disappearance of a visual sensation " [T307 . If a further check con
firms the results obtained in this particular study , we shall obtain a
very simple index of one of the manifestations of mobility ( it is clear
that the same method can also be used in other analyzers). Starting
from the considerations which I have presented earlier [117 ;627 ,and
particularly on the basis of the studies conducted by P. O. Makarov,
we have undertaken an attempt to utilize an adequate visual chronaxy in
determining mobility in a visual analyzer ( tests performed by I. V.
Ravich - Shcherbo ) .
It was found that it is considerably more difficult to use , for
typological purposes, a distinctive ( differential ) sensitivity , and even
more difficult to develop fine sensory differentations; the latter con
stitute , in our opinion , indices of sensory memory ( see. B. M. Teplov
and M. N. Borisova [T197 ) . A wide variety of tests conducted along these
lines have not yet resulted in the possibility of developing any kind of
- 32 -
 complete method , and have only resulted in setting up a number of prob
lems, standing on the way leading to the development of such a method
( work conducted by M. N. Borisova ) .
As a typological indicator , researchers are devoting a great deal
of attention to the characteristic features of the course of after - images
( the vast majority of researchers are concerned only with visual after
images) . The problem concerned with the relation between the type of
higher neural activity and the characteristics of the course of visual
after - images (mainly the relationship between the latent period of the
appearance of an after - image and the duration of the actual image) was
examined in studies conducted by S. P. Narikashvili and L , T. Zagorul'ko
[ 5] , [327. A. M.andN. V. Zimkin and their associates have presented
data indicating that the duration of visual after - images ( as well as
the duration of tactile and temperature " after sensations" ) is an indica
tor of the mobility of sensory neural processes [347. I. v. Alekseyev
1, 2 and A. I. Zotov [ 327 have examined the characteristics of the
course of a visual negative after - images as indices of typological char
acteristics in the correlation of excitation and inhibition processes .
A. S. Vitenzon ( working in the laboratory of K. K. Platonov) attempted
to find indices of all typological properties of the nervous system in
different characteristics of the dynamics of after - images [ 117. It
must be stated that some of the researchers mentioned above made no at
tempt whatever to compare the characteristics of the course of after
images with other experimental indices of definite properties of the
nervous system , while others ( for example, A. S. Vitenzon ) compared the
characteristics of the course of after - images only with the general
characteristic of the type of higher neural activity in test subjects,
obtained with the aid of a certain complex and only approximately de
scribed method .
Only in the above -mentioned study of A. M. and N. V. Zimkin and
their associates, was the duration of after images compared in a plan
ned manner with other indices of the mobility of neural processes . Work
in our laboratory , involving the use of characteristic features of after
images , is being conducted along the same lines . I. V. Ravich - Shcherbo
has not been able to discover any correlation at all between the latent
period of the appearance of after - images and their duration , on the one
hand, and the speed of converstion of stimuli signs, on the other hand
1967. L. A. Shvarts has found a very good coincidence between the dura
tion of after - images and the index mentioned above , namely the nature of
the discrepancy between the thresholds of appearance and disappearance
of visual sensations [7307. In another study, L. A. Shvarts has shown
the correlation between the duration of the negative phase of after
images and the critical flashing frequency .
There is no doubt that there are striking individual differences
in the course of after - images . In addition , this method is very tempto
ing in view of its technical simplicity . However , the technical simpli
city of the method is the reverse side of a substantial defect of this
method, namely an insufficient definiteness, a certain " conventionality "

- 33 -
in the indications given by test subjects in regard to the moment of ap
pearance and disappearance of the after - image or of its individual phas
es ( it is well known that they do not appear and disappear at once ) .
However , such difficulties , of course , do not constitute a sufficient
reason for rejecting this method . The important thing is that the ex
perimenter should be aware of these difficulties and should not become
a victim of an illusion in regard to the simplicity and unambiguous
nature of these indices .
Another factor is even more important . Apparently , there is no
doubt that the time indices of the growth and fading of after - images
are expressions not only of the mobility , but also of other properties
of the nervous system . Consequently , this index should be compared not
only with mobility indices , but also with the indices of other proper
ties . In regard to mobility proper , this index must here be compared
with the greatest possible variety of mobility indices, which , as was
stated earlier , may be manifestations of different aspects of this , in
any case , " complex " and " aggregate " property .
Let us turn back again to the methods concerned with typical vol
untary actions , namely motor reactions effected according to a prelim
inary instruction (Note: A quite original variation of such a method ,
in the form of a method " with a verbal instruction and an additional
stimulus, " has been proposed by Ye . A. Rushkevich [106 ]. However , the
use of this method in a typological study has not yet been tested . )
The main purpose of the substitution of a preliminary instruction
by a " spoken reinforcement , " effected by A. G. Ivanov - Smolenskiy , was
to secure the opportunity of observing the process , evolving during the
course of time , involving the formation and strengthening of positive
and inhibitory connections . For this process has not been brought to
light at all in an objective manner when using the usual most simple form
of method of motor reactions with a preliminary instruction . If the
following instruction is given to a pupil of the medium or senior age
group , or even to a normal adult : " Press down the key when a red light
goes on , and do not press when a green light goes on , " - he will , of
course , immediately and accurately carry out this instruction , and we
will not be able to differentiate the tested subjects according to the
rate of formation of positive and inhibitory connections . Is it pos
sible to devise such a variation of this method , by means of which
tested subjects can be differentiated from each other according to
this index , namely the rate of stabilization of connections ?
The first road leading to this goal is the application of a
relatively complex elective reaction : several stimuli and several
methods of reacting ( several buttons ) , whereby there should be no re
action whatever in response to certain stimuli . By following this
course , A. A. Makogonova was able to divide test subjects according
to the equilibrium of excitation and inhibition processes , using as a
basis the relative speed and ease of formation of positive and inhib
itory connections [75], [667. However, one should notgo too far along
this road: if the instruction has such a complicated form that it is

- 34 -
difficult to understand or remember , then we shall arrive at a differen
tiation of the test subjects according to their quickness of wit or ac
cording to their ability to memorize complex verbal assignments, which
will make us stray away from our main problem .
An interesting course was outlined in a study of K. M. Gurevich ,
conducted in our laboratory . He showed that test subjects can be clearly
differentiated according to the speed with which positive connections are
stabilized , when using , in the classical method of motor reactions with
a preliminary instruction , a problem which can be designated as a problem
involving the production of a functional mosaic . The stimuli used are
four sounds with a different pitch : " very low , " " low , " "medium " and
" high . " The task assigned to the test subject is to press on a key up
on hearing the "low and " high " tone , and to refrain from pressing the
key upon hearing the " very low " and " medium " tones ( or vice - versa ) .
The difference between adjacent tones ( according to pitch ) is approx
imately equal to one octave . Consequently , the task of producing a
sensory differentiation does not exist here . As tests performed by
M. N. Borisova on 16 test subjects have shown , all subjects are cap
able of detecting " on the spots a differentiation of tones according
to pitch , which differ from each other by more than a major third .
The difficulty encountered in connection with the test subjects of K.
M. Gurevich consisted , apparently, precisely in the production of a
functional mosaic . Already previously, V. I. Rozhdestvenskaya had
shown that , when using the photo - chemical reflex method ( a typical
* method of non - arbitrary reactions" ), it is possible to produce a
functional mosaic_in respect of the loudness of sounds only in a few
test subjects 1997. In the case of K. M. Gurevich , when using a typ
ical " method of voluntary reactions, " the problem of producing a func
tional mosaic ( in this case , it is true , not according to loudness ,
but rather according to the pitch of sounds) proved to be insoluble
only in case of one test subject . However , for the remaining test sub
jects , the difficulty involved in this problem proved to be different:
the test subjects could be clearly differentiated according to the
speed with which these connections were stabilized . They could be dif
ferentiated just as clearly also according to the rate of conversion of
the stimulus signs in an already established mosaic - the most generally
recognized index of mobility .
There is reason to believe that the production of a functional
mosaic during various methods may represent a valuable means for
studying the typological properties of the nervous system of man [see
Note .
( note] The classical tests of P. S. Kupalov , involving the
production of a functional mosaic in the cutaneous analyzer of the
dog ( cf. a series of studies by P. S. Kupalov , published in Volumes
III and V of the " Transactions of the Physiological Laboratories of
I. P. Pavlov " ) were successful only on condition that they involved
a strict adherence to the stereotype not only in the sequence of

- 35 -
stimuli , but also in the identical length of the intervals between
these stimuli . Under such conditions , it is very easy , of course , to
produce a mosaic in man . In their tests, Rozhdestvenskaya and Gurevich
applied stimuli without any kind of stereotype order . )
Another successful way of using the method of motor reaction with
a preliminary instruction was outlined by Kiev psychologists ( P. G.
Saprygin and Ye . A. Mileryan (109) ; N. Ye . Malkov [677 ) . The verbally
formulated task , confronting the test subjects , is always very simple,
namely to press , when a colored bulb is lighted, a knob of the same
color ( there are 8 bulbs and 8 knobs of different colors) . In the
study conducted by N. Ye . Malkov, the difficulty in the work which had
to be done by the test subject depended only on the speed with which
the stimuli were applied , which ( according to the way in which the
test subject mastered his work at each given speed ) was gradually in
creased . The test subjects exhibited clearly marked individual differ
ences in regard to the success with which they were able to master the
steadily increasing operating speed . N. Ye . Malkov presents conclusions
worthy of attention in favor of the fact that this constitutes an index
of the degree of mobility of neural processos .
By referring to the studies of A. A. Makogonova , K. M. Gurevich
and the Kiev psychologists, I wanted to show that, when using the method
based on a preliminary instruction , it is possible to utilize the "cor
rectness of reactions as an index of the rate of stabilization of con
nections . The return from " spoken reinforcement , " which has proven
itself as being clearly unsatisfactory in typological studies , to a
preliminary instruction , enables research workers to make use of this
index .
However , in all probability , an even greater importance in motor
methods with a preliminary instruction must be assigned to another index ,
namely the latent reaction time , for the sake of which these methods were
used for the first time about 100 years ago . It is completely out of the
question to present in this article even the most brief history of the
problem concerning individual differences in the reaction rate . I shall
merely cite a few studies in order to show in a most general way the
possibilities of using this index during the study of the basic typo
logical properties of the nervous system .
First of all , I want to make a remark dealing with terminology .
The time interval elapsing between the appearance of a stimulus and
the beginning of a response movement has long been called in psychol
ogy the " reaction time or even " the reaction rate . " During the past
decades, under the influence of entirely proper considerations originat
ing from physiologists , this time interval has started to be called
"latent reaction period ." Of course , the above time interval is not, in
a precise meaning of the word , the " reaction time , " since it does not
include the time during which the movement is performed , 1.6 . the " re
action time " in the accurate sense of the word . The term " latent re
action period " is , indisputably more accurato . Quite rocently , the
French researcher Le Ny[138 ]has suggested distinguishing from the

- 36 -
generic concept " latent reaction period , " which has a very broad meaning
in physiology , the specific concept of " reaction time " ( le temps de
reaction ) , whereby this latter term is intended to mean the latent per
iod of a motor reaction in case of a preliminary instruction which re
quires from the tested subject to react " as rapidly as possible . " He
believes that , in case of such an instruction , the latent reaction per
iod has the greatest stability ( for the given test subject and in the
given conditions) , since the demand to react was rapidly as possible "
creates the most unambiguous conditions and reduces the influence ex
erted by an external inhibition , caused by accidental actions . I be
lieve that this methodological indication is correct, and it probably
should be observed , except, of course , in those variations of the motor
method in which it is excluded by the methodological intention itself .
In regard to the problem of terminology , the proposal made by Le
Ny is undoubtedly expedient from a practical standpoint
standpoint.. At the pre
sent time , various terms are being used in psychological literature .
I believe that there is no reason to object to the term reaction time
when it is used in the specific sense attributed to it by Le Ny ( al
though , of course , we should not speak about a " reaction time in con
nection , for example , with all sorts of involuntary reactions or even
motor reactions, in which a quick reacting is not stipulated in the pre
liminary instruction ). There is all the less reason to object to the
use of the term " reaction rate , ” inasmuch as it is characterized by the
reaction time . "
In a study conducted by K. N. Kornilov, published in 1922 , on the
basis of prolonged and careful tests with normal adult test subjects
using the method of motor reaction with a preliminary instruction , it
was possible to divide the test subjects into four types, according to
indices of the time and intensity of reaction : 1 ) subjects with a slow
and weak reaction , 2) subjects with a slow and strong reaction , 3) sub
jects with a rapid and weak reaction , and 4) subjects with a rapid and
strong reaction (46; 1st edition , 99-1007. Ye . P. Yeres ', in a study
conducted by the same method ( but on school children ) , was able to ident
ify only two types of reacting subjects out of the four types mentioned
above, namely the first and the last type [28] . In any case, the
studies of Kornilov and Yeres ' showed the presence of clear individual
differences in regard to the speed and intensity of reactions . The
intensity of the reaction ( i.e. the force with which the knob was pres
sed ) , as an index of typological properties of the nervous system , was
practically not investigated at all in the sequel , and therefore I shall
not talk about this index any more ( Note ] This does not mean , of
course , that this index should not be thoroughly investigated . I be
lieve, however, that for this purpose the instruction should contain a
requirement stipulating the force with which the knob is pressed . )
In regard to the reaction time ( latent period ), we believe that
this index , when considered all by itself aside from any kind of special
methodical techniques, can hardly be regarded as being an unambiguous

- 37 -
index of any kind of single property of the nervous system . A number
of authors consider the reaction time as a characteristic of the degree
of excitability of the cortical point to which the stimulus is addres
sed (A. I. Bronshteyn 9, Ye . I. Boyko 7, N. I. Chuprikova (T247,
[ 1257), i.e. as a function of the predominance of stimulation over
inhibition . If we base ourselves on the opinions held by the above
mentioned authors, then , from the standpoint of the typological prop
erties of the nervous system , it would be most natural to consider the
reaction time as an index of the equilibrium parameter .
L. S. Bogachenko and V. K. Faddeyeva , in generalizing the data ob
tained in the studies conducted in the laboratories of A. G. Ivanov
Smolenskiy , come to the conclusion that " the various durations of the
latent period is associated with a differing_mobility of neural proces
ses in representatives of different types" [6; 7027. However, the
facts upon which this conclusion is based indicate rather that the mag
nitude of the latent period is a function not only of mobility , but
also of equilibrium , i.e. of the balance between excitation and inhibi .
tion ( Teplov [117; 637 ). The conclusion that the latent period of re
action depends not only on the mobility , but also on other properties
of the nervous system , was also reached by A. N. Krestovnikov [51 ] and
P. G. Popescu-Nevianu 1937 .
However , if the average magnitude of the latent reaction period ,
characteristic for a given person , cannot by itself be considered , at
our present level of knowledge, as an unambiguous index of any kind of
single typological property of the nervous system , nevertheless, varia
tions in this magnitude , under certain definite conditions, can appar
ently be considered as such indices . I shall cite several examples of
such a case .
D. A. Oshanin [82 ] has selected , as an index of individual dif
ferences , not the average magnitude of the latent period and not its
variability , but rather the curves showing fluctuations in the latent
period . He advanced an hypothesis , according to which " irregular "
curves , as he calls them , characterized not only by a high variability
of latent periods but also by the presence of individual reactions
with an exceptionally short latent period ( " records , ” according to the
terminology used by the author ) , which are usually followed by reac
tions with a long and sometimes exceedingly long latent period , are
indices of a weakness and unbalance of the neural processes . Certain
arguments, presented in favor of this hypotheses , are pretty convincing .
I want to mention two additional ways of using the reaction time
as an index of the mobility : in one case , during the conversion of
stimuli signs, and in the other case during the establishment and alter
ation of a stereotype .
A. A. Makogonova [857 has shown that, during the conversion of
signal value of stimuli , the reaction time remains more or less constant
in some test subjects , while it increases considerably in other sub
jects . This latter fact , when compared with certain other indices, is
rightfully considered by the author as representing an index of inert
ness .

- 38 -
 In our laboratory, K. M. Gurevich [227, starting from the firmly
established law specifying the dependence of the reaction time_upon the
intensity of the stimuìus ( K. M. Gurevich and T. V. Rozanova [211 an
extensive foreign literature on this subject is given by Le Ny 71387)
was able to work out a dynamic stereotype in test subjects . He used
audio stimuli of various loudness in a strictly stereotyped ( constant)
order . According to the law just mentioned , loud stimuli produced the
shortest reaction time, while soft stimuli produced the longest reac
tion time . Then , the usual testing of the stereotype was performed :
only soft stimuli were applied . It was found that a stereotype was
observed in certain test subjects , i.e. in those spots of the series
in which strong stimuli were always applied , the reaction time was
shorter than in those spots in which weak stimuli were always applied .
A break - up of the stereotype was then performed : in those spots where
soft sounds were previously applied , loud sounds were now applied , and
vice - versa .The test subjects could be differentiated according to the
degree at which , during such a breakup of the stereotype, the natural
correlations between the intensity of the stimulus and the reaction time
were disturbed . These results indicate the possibility of obtaining an
adequate method for studying in man the rate of formation and the ease
of alteration of a stereotype , which is one of the " classical " expres
sions of the mobility of neural processes .
A further index which can be obtained when using the motor reac
tion method is the aftereffect of a positive and inhibitory stimulus ,
which expresses itself in the latent period or other characteristics of
the reaction following this stimulus .
This index was successfully used as early as 1927 by A. I.
Bronshteyn 0, who showed that the latent period of the reaction, which
follows the previous reaction after a brief interval ( from 0.5 to 1 sec
ond ) is always longer than the normal latent period of a given test sub
ject , i.e. he discovered an aftereffect of the stimulation process in
the form of a negative induction . At the same time, great individual dif
ferences were observed between individuals in regard to the duration of
this negative induction . The aftereffect of an inhibitory stimulus in
Bronshteyn's tests was expressed in two different forms: as a positive
induction ( shortening of the latent period ) and a subsequent inhibition
(prolongation of the latent period ) . Bronshteyn interpreted the individ
ual differences in the aftereffect, observed by him , as differences in
the degree of concentration of neural processes.
A. N. Krestnikov [51 ] was concerned only with the aftereffect of
an inhibitory process . He interpreted the slow - down in the speed of
reaction following an inhibitory stimulus, and even more so the complete
absence of a reaction observed by him sometimes in this case , as repre
senting an index of the inertness of the inhibitory process .
L. S. Bogachenko and V. K. Faddeyeva, in generalizing the results
of typological studies conducted in the laboratories of A. G. Ivanov
Smolenskiy , point out that a rapid concentration of the inhibition pro
cess is most frequently observed in representatives of the labile and

- 39 -
excitable type , while a slow concentration is observed in representatives
of the inhibited and inert type [ 6; 7027. It remains unknown which prop
erty mobility , by means of which a labile and an inert type can be dif
ferentiated , or a balance between excitation and inhibition , by means of
which an excitable and inhibited type can be differentiated - is respon
sible for the differences in the speed of concentration of the inhibitory
process . ( of course , it should not be forgotten that " concentration " can
be understood as being an independent property .)
T. I. Zhukova 1317 , in one series of tests, studied the influence
exerted by an inhibitory stimulus upon the time of a reaction , taking
place at intervals of two to ten seconds. She discovered individual dif
ferences both in the duration , in the intensity of a subsequent inhibi
tion . In another series of tests , she studied the aftereffects of an
excitation process . Against a background of positive stimuli , applied
at intervals of ten to fifteen seconds , there were sometimes applied
groups ( each consisting of five , ten , twenty stimuli ) of " frequent"
stimuli , following each other at intervals of 0.8 to 1.2 seconds . In
this case , she was able to discover two types of facts : 1 ) the reac
tion time within a group of Mfrequent stimuli " remains the same in cer
tain test subjects, while in others, this time is reduced . ( The last
fact is explained by the author as a surmation of the excitation , and is
considered as an index of the slowness of the fading of the trace left
by the excitation ); 2) the time of the first reaction , following at the
usual interval after the group of " frequent stimuli , " remains the same
in some test subjects and increases in others, which is explained by the
author as being a manifestation of a negative induction . All of the
individual differences established in this manner are considered by T.
I. Zhukova as indices of the mobility of neural processes . In the light
of other studies, which have already been mentioned and which will be
mentioned now , this cannot be considered as a definitely proven fact.
There is no doubt, however , that T. I. Zhukova has provided us with sev
eral indices of the speed of concentration of neural processes .
of great interest are the studies conducted by N. I. Chuprikova
[T24, 125 , 1267 , who has utilized those valuable methodological improve
ments, which have been introduced into the classical method of motor re
actions with a preliminary instruction by Ye . I. Boyko 17 , the head of
the laboratory in which Chuprikova is working . The basic methodological
technique used by N. I. Chuprikova consists in recording the changes in
the reaction time, in function of the preceding stimulus , (whether pos
itive or inhibitory ). The work of Chuprikova was not aimed at the study
of individual or typological differences . However , she has , in the pro
cess , pointed out certain very important individual differences in the
aftereffect, which , in a number of cases , can be subjected to a definite
interpretation from the standpoint of a study of the typological proper
ties of the nervous system . I want to point out one fact , which is prob
ably the most interesting one . N. I. Chuprikova has demonstrated for the
first time in man individual differences in the speed of motion of neural
processes in a visual analyzer , i.e. in the speed of irradiation and

. 40 -
concentration of excitation and inhibition processes . The entire mo
tion cycle of the excitation process , for example, takes up a different
amount of time according to the individual . In 14 test subjects, on
which a corresponding series of tests was conducted, this time varied
from 4 to 24 seconds .
There is no doubt that here we are gaining access to the study of
one of the most important manifestations of the " complex " property of
mobility , namely the speed of motion of neural processes .
In our laboratory , N. S. Leytes has worked out a special method
intended for the study of the aftereffect of neural processes 527 .
This method consists in the use of the so - called " correction method " in
tests with motor reactions on the basis of a preliminary instruction .
This method was proposed for the first time by the French scientist
Bourdon in 1895 [ 136 ] and has been very widely used by psychologists ,
specifically in studying individual differences ( cf. for example,
Whipple [T21; 281-3018 A. G. Ivanov - Smolenskiy has proposed an inter
pretation of the indices of this method from the standpoint of a study
of the higher neural activity Lo ]. In the laboratory headed by him ,
interesting attempts have been made to use this_method for the pur
poses of a typological study (A. A. Novikov [727 , L. B. Gakkeli [147,
P. G. Popescu -Nevianu, after using this method together with other
methods , came to the conclusion that " the data obtained in correction
tests clearly reflect the state of mobility of neural processes and
less clearly other properties of a generic typen 1927 .
N. S. Leytes has introduced a highly essential improvement into
this old method : letters are shown one by one with the aid of a movie
projector, the time of exposure of the letter is accurately determined
and may change , and the latent reaction period of the test subject is
measured by using two variations of the instruction . In a simple var
iation , the test subject is asked to press a key " right away " each time
the letter " S" appears . In a complex variation of this method, the ad
ditional requirement is added , namely not to press upon " S" if this let
ter follows immediately after "N. " Thus, in this latter variation of
the method , the combination " NS " becomes a conventional brake .
The first task was to establish how the reaction time of pres
sing upon "SN varies, if this " S" follows immediately another "S , " or
is the second letter after this MS, or the third letters after this
MS , " etc. Thus, the aftereffect of the excitation process was studied ,
which , as results have shown , was always expressed ( as in the case of
A. I. Bronshteyn ) in a negative induction , that is , in an increase of
the reaction time. It was possible to determine how great is the neg
ative induction ( how much does the reaction time increase in case of a
" SS" combination ) , and, what is even more important, how long this in
duction is maintained ( for how many frames does the negative effect of
the reaction to " s" manifest itself ) .
The second task was to study the aftereffect of the inhibition
process, which can be expressed both in the form of a positive induc
tion ( reduction of the reaction time ) , as well as in the form of a sub
sequent inhibition ( increase in the reaction time ); here also , the
original data obtained by Bronshteyn have been confirmed .
41
 Thus , it was possible to compare a whole series of indices : a

normal ("background" ) reaction time , characterizing each test subject;

alteration in this "background" reaction time upon transition from a
simple instruction to an instruction with a conditional brake ( in all
test subjects , the reaction time in this case increases , but to a dif
ferent degree ) ; the rate of acceleration of the reaction upon switching
over to a more rapid work tempo , caused by a shorter exposure of the
letters ; the magnitude and duration of the negative induction , as an
aftereffect of the excitation process ; and the nature of the afteref
fect of the conditional brake . A high degree of correlation was estab
lished between many of these indices , which made it possible to talk
about a subdivision of the test subjects according to types.
A detailed analysis of these indices led N. S. Leytes to the con
clusion that this subdivision into types can be interpreted in two dif
ferent ways : the basis for this division can be considered either the
mobility of the neural processes, or the strength of inhibition proces
ses ( the weaker the inhibition process , the more slowly it is concen
trated ) ( Note7 We are talking here about the strength of the inhibition
process because the aftereffect of an excitation, as we have seen , expres
sed itself in the tests conducted by N. C. Leytes in a negative induction ,
that is in the appearance of a inhibition process .) The author refrained
from making a final selection among these two interpretations of the
facts obtained by him , although he has shown sufficiently clearly that
arguments in favor of the " hypothesis" of mobility are stronger than
those in favor of a " hypothesis of the strength of the inhibitory pro
cess . " We believe that such an attitude on the part of the author is
quite correct . Only various comparisons of the results obtained by
one method with the results obtained by other methods can allow us to
adopt a final decision . In our opinion , the study of N. S. Leytes is
of interest not only because of the originality and fruitfulness of the
proposed method , but also in view of the fact that this study gives the
most detailed and extensive analysis of various manifestations of the
aftereffect of excitation and inhibition processes from the standpoint
of a study of typological properties of the nervous system .
N. S. Leytes worked with normal adult test subjects . Recently ,
I. V. Ravich - Shcherbo has made a successful attempt to apply the method
of N. S. Leytes, described above , in its most simple variation without
the use of a conditioned brake, to the study of oligophrenic children
ranging in age from thirteen to sixteen years ( and also , as a control ,
on healthy school children of the same age ). This study is interesting ,
first, from a methodological standpoint. It has shown the possibility
of applying one of our methods , developed under special laboratory con
ditions intended for adult test subjects , to children , and , in addition ,
not under the conditions found in a special laboratory , but under condi
tions found in an auxiliary school . Second , the study of I. V. Ravich
Shcherbo is interesting because it supplies certain additional data
towards the solution of the problem of the interpretation of the after
effect indices , obtained by N. S. Leytes .

. 42 -
 There are reasons to assume that oligophrenic children are char
acterized mainly by an extreme inertness of their neural processes . M.
S. Pevzner , as a result of an extensive clinical study of various forms
of oligophrenia , was led to the assumption that " a lesion in the mobil
ity of the main neural processes represents the physiopathological
mechanism which lies at the base of the major symptom of oligophrenia"
and that magainst a background of underdevelopment of the entire higher
neural activity , a lesion in the mobility of the neural processes plays
the major role in the main symptom during oligophrenia " [90; 360 , 3657.
Blectrophysiological studies conducted by L. A. Novikova and N. N.
Zislina [807 , 136] providestriking facts in confirmationof this as
sumption . The study of V. I. Lubovskiy , devoted to characteristic
features of the higher neural activity of oligophrenics, also indicates
the particularly significant role of the inertness of the neural pro
cesses in those lesions of the higher neural activity which she ob
served in these people [617. Finally, the study conducted by L. B.
Gakke , I. A. Molotkova and N. N. Trofimov confirmed once more " the
great significance of the inertness of neural processes in the phys
iopathological mechanism of oligophrenia [76 ].
I. V. Ravich - Shcherbo has shown that whereas in normal adults
and school children , after a reaction to the letter " S , " only a pro
longation of the time of the following reaction is observed as a
rule in oligophrenics in such cases a complete absence of the second
reaction is very frequently observed , which indicates an extremely
strong negative induction . There is no reason to assume that a char
acteristic feature of oligophrenics is a particularly weak (and there .
fore little concentrated in time) inductive inhibition ( the weakness
of the conditioned inhibition is a different matter ) , but , as has just
been shown , there are reasons to assume that oligophrenics exhibit a
particularly strong inertness of the neural processes . From this , we
can conclude in favor of " the hypothesis of mobility , " at least in re
gard to certain indices which have been studied by N. S. Leytes .
One of the purposes of this section was to show that there is a
sufficiently larse number of methods which can be used in studying the
typological properties of the nervous system .
of major importance at the present time is a planned comparison
(on the same test subjects) of the results obtained by various methods .
Without such a comparison , it is impossible to arrive at a thorough
understanding of the significance of each of these methods, and to learn
how to interpret in an unambiguous manner the results obtained with the
aid of this method .

STUDY OF THE STRENG TH - WEAKNESS PARAMETER OF THE

HUMAN NERVOUS SYSTEM

Strength is the most important property of the nervous system .

A study of this parameter is not only a problem of basic importance in

- 43 -
an investigation of typological properties of the nervous system , but
also a problem upon which very little work has been done until recently ,
since , here , it is most difficult to apply , in experiments conducted with
human beings , the testing principles discovered by the associates of
Pavlovian laboratories in experiments on animals .
The basic characteristic of the strength of the nervous system is
the strength of the stimulatory process , " that is,the working ability
of cells of the great hemispheres (I. P. Pavlov (83; II , 2 , 3447 ). The
experience gained in Pavlov's laboratories shows that there are two main
methods for testing the limits of the working ability of the cortical
cells, and consequently also of the strength of the nervous system :
1 . the testing of the ability of cortical cells to withstand a
concentrated stimulation during a prolonged action of a stimulus , or
during an action of this stimulus frequently recurring , at short inter
vals of time ;
2. the finding of the limit in the intensity of a conditioning
stimulus, at which an excessive inhibition goes into effect ; in such
kinds of tests, a high excitability of the cortical cells is usually
created , usually as a result of the administration of caffeine in var
ious doses , as a result of which the limit of the working ability of
cortical cells is reduced , and consequently can be more easily deter
mined in an experiment .
At the present time, our staff uses two methods for determining
the strength of the nervous system , which correspond best of all to
these two original indices of the limit in working ability .
The purpose of the first method is to test the ability of corti
cal cells to withstand for a long time a frequently recurring stimula
tion , concentrated in one and the same " cortical point . " This is the
method , developed by V. I. Rozhdestvenskaya , based on " an extinction
with reinforcements of a photo - chemical conditioned reflex [ 1017.
A conditioned photo - chemical reflex in response to any kind of
stimulus is produced in the test subject, which expresses itself in
the fact that this stimulus , applied without light reinforcement, causes
a drop of the light sensitivity . In order to make the stimulation more
concentrated , a differentiation is produced .
The testing of the strength of the nervous system , of interest
to us , consists in a conventional stimulus being applied ten times ( at
intervals of two minutes ), during the course of one experimental ses
sion , whereby each time this stimulus is reinforced with light . At
the beginning and at the end of the experiment, the action of one condi .
tioning stimulus without light reinforcement is tested . The following
question arises: Will the effect exerted by the conditioning stimulus
(reduction in light sensitivity ) be greater or smaller after this stim
ulus has been applied ten times in a row with light reinforcement ?
Results have shown that a sufficiently clear differentiation of
individuals can be achieved by means of this test . In some individuals,
a ten - fold recurrence of a conditioning stimulus with light reinforcement
either does not affect at all the magnitude of the conditioned reflex ,

44 .
or causes even a small increase of this reflex ( result of a summation of
the stimulation ) . In other individuals, such a ten - fold recurrence of
the conditioning stimulus with light reinforcement results in a more
or less sharp reduction of the conditioned reflex . This latter effect
is the result of the exhaustion of the neural cells, and apparently , in
dicates that individuals belonging to the second group possess weaker
cortical cells . A proof of the correctness of such an explanation is
the fact that the reduction in the magnitude of the conditioned relfex
in this group of test subjects is more sharply expressed when a stronger
stimulus is selected as the conditioning stimulus , and is even more
sharply expressed when the test subject takes caffeine before the exper
iment .
Audio conditioning stimuli have been used in this method by V.
I. Rozhdestvenskaya . V. D. Nebylitsyn has also shown that this method
is applicable when using visual stimuli [787. Obviously, it will also
be possible to test this method in connection with conditioning stimuli ,
which are addressed to other analyzers. N. A. Rokotova has proposed
using a similar technique in determining the strength of the stimulatory
process, under conditions of an original modification , carried out by
her , of a motor ( that is " voluntary" ) method , [102] . It is indispensable
to perform a careful comparison of the technique based on " extinction
with reinforcement , " when using different methods , since this technique
provides the most direct testing of the " working ability of the neural
cells in the narrow sense of this word , that is , of the ability to with
stand a concentrated stimulation for a long period of time .
The second method , which has also been developed by V. I.
Rozhdestvenskaya, can be called the ergographic method_and involves the
use of a conditioned reflex and acaffeinesample( 1007. The purpose of
this method is to subdivide test subjects according to the symptom of the
onset , under definite conditions, of an excessive inhibition in response
to a single stimulus .
This method is based on the use of an ergograph , an instrument
well -known to every psychologist. The work which must be done by the
test subject consists in a rhythmic ( in time with a metronome) lower
ing and raising of a weight . ( In preliminary tests , a weight is
selected for each test subject, corresponding to his muscular strength .)
The test subject is given the following instruction : following a def
inite audio signal , to increase his efforts and to raise the weight
once as high as possible . The audio signal is given several times dur
ing the test against a background of a fatigue which has already set
in , when height to which the weight is being raised is beginning to fall
off. After the audio signal has been given , all test subjects raise
the weight to a greater height than before hearing the signal . The dif
ference between the height to which the weight has been raised after
the audio signal and before the signal can be called the magnitude of
the reaction to an audio signal . Prior to some of the tests , the test
subjects are administered caffeine in a dose of 0.3 gms .

- 45
 The index of interest to us is obtained by a comparison of the
magnitude of the reaction to the audio signal in tests with and without
caffeine . In respect of this point , the test subjects can be differen
tiated very clearly : in some test subjects , the magnitude of the reaction
to an audio signal is considerably greater ( in some subjects almost twice
as great) in tests with caffeine than in tests without caffeine, while
in other subjects , the magnitude of this reaction , after administration
of caffeine, drops sharply ( in some subjects , more than twice over ) .
There is also an intermediate group of test subjects, in which the magni
tude of the reaction is the same in both series of tests .
How can this difference be explained ? Let us note first of all
that the reaction to the audio stimulus, in which we are interested , is
obtained under conditions of a sufficiently great muscular fatigue , which
is accompanied by a certain exhaustion of the corresponding cortical
cells . In other words, this reaction is obtained under conditions when
the limit in the working ability of cortical cells is probably lovered .
In order to obtain such conditions, we have recourse to the ergographic
method . Caffeine increases the excitability of the neural cells and re
sults in a greater reaction . However , in individuals with a weak ner
vous system , an increase in the excitability of an already fatigued cell
results in the fact that the stimulation caused by the sound signal
transcends the limits of the working ability of the cell and causes an
excessive inhibition . This is the reason for a systematic reduction in
the magnitude of the reaction to the audio signal under the conditions
present in tests with caffeine in individuals with a weak nervous system .
So far this method has been used only with audio stimuli . At
the present time, it is difficult to answer the question as to the
strength of which analyzer -- motor or auditory is determined by this
method . Therefore , the next problem which must be solved includes the
application in the same method of signal stimuli, which are addressed
to various analyzers .
Both methods described above are directly concerned with a deter
mination of the limit in the working ability of the cortical cells . The
first method studies one aspect of this property , namely , " the working
ability in a narrow sense , " that is , the ability of withstanding a con
centrated stimulation for a long time, without exhibiting an excessive
inhibition ; the second method studies another aspect of the same prop
erty , that is , the ability , under conditions involving a certain exhaus
tion and a high excitability , not to exhibit an excessive inhibition in
response to the action of a single stimulus which is excessively strong
under the given conditions .
In 1955 , I advanced an hypothesis , according to which a weak ner
vous system is characterized not only by a negative property , namely a
low limit in working ability , but also by a positive property , namely a
high reactivity . On the basis of theoretical considerations, previously
advanced by I. P. Pavlov, I stated the assumption that a low level of
working ability can be considered as the consequence of a high reactiv
ity [ 116, 1177 .

. 46 -
 The hypothesis of a connection between the weakness of a nervous
system and a high reactivity is not so paradoxical as it would seem at
first glance . If, in the problem of temperaments , we turn to the
" common - sense empiricism " upon which Pavlov based himself primarily
during his comparison of types of nervous systems with traditional psy
chological temperaments [83; III, 2, 857, then , we can easily note that
a melancholic temperament ( that is , according to Pavlov , a weak type)
has been consistently credited with an " easy vulnerability" a " high de
gree of psychological sensitivity " ( Ye._P. Yeres! [28; 1317), a " high
impressionability ( s. L. Rubinshteyn [103; 6527 ) ," " sensitivity" (Yu.
A. Samarin [707; 667), a tendency to experience a weak stimulation as
a strong effect (A. G. Kovalev (44; 217) , etc.
The hypothesis concerning an internal connection between the
weakness of the nervous system and a high reactivity has made it pos
sible for us to introduce techniques used in the study of sensitivity
into the methods used for studying the strength -weakness parameter .
The most natural and simple step in that direction was the study
conducted by V. D. Nebylitsyn (767 , who has demonstrated the presence
of a reverse correlation between the strength of nervous processes in
a visual analyzer and the absolute visual sensitivity , characterized by
the usual technique for determining the threshold of the appearance of
a sensation (according to a verbal reaction ) .
Also significant in this context are facts concerning changes in
sensitivity under the action of caffeine . V. G. Nebylitsyn has shown
that the intake of caffeine by persons with a strong nervous system
either does not cause any kind of change of the sensitivity , or causes
a slight increase of the sensitivity , whereas the intake of caffeine by
persons with a weak nervous system causes either a strong increase in
the sensitivity or a drop in the sensitivity , even though the latter
might be a slight drop[76] , [ 72] and [787. A method for determining
the strength of the nervous system , based on these facts , is widely
used in studies conducted in our laboratory .
The last group of methods used in studying the strength -weakness
parameter of the 'nervous system is associated with a determination of
the effect exerted by an additional ( side ) stimulus on the absolute
visual sensitivity. ([Tło te7 The fact that, in methods belonging to this
group we measure usually the visual sensitivity and not some other kind
of sensitivity , is determined of course , not by basic considerations,
but by considerations of methodological convenience . Recently , we have
begun to use methods of the same type , but based on the measurement of
an auditory sensitivity .) Here , the reactivity of the nervous system
assumes still another form , namely the form of a sensitivity to the ac
tion of side stimuli .
The principal method of this group , which we have already been
using for several years, has been developed by V. I. Rozhdestvenskaya
1977 .

- 47 -
 This method is based on the following fact , which has been pre
viously established by us : the sensitivity of an eye adapted to darkness
to a point- stimulus increases when an additional weak point- stimulus is
present in the field of vision , and drops when an additional strong point
stimulus is present . The higher sensitivity can be explained by the ir
radiation of the stimulation from a focus corresponding to the weak side
stimulus ; the drop in sensitivity can be explained as due to the negative
induction from a stronger, and consequently , a concentrated focus (B. N.
Teplov [111 , 1127) . Let us recall the general law formulated by Pavlov:
" During a weak stimulation process irradiation takes place , during a
medium stimulation process a concentration takes place , and during a
very strong stimulation process , irradiation again takes place " 183;
III , 2, 329 ] .
V. I. Rozhdestvenskaya has shown that caffeine, as a rule , in
creases the effect of a drop in sensitivity in the presence of strong
side stimuli , and reduces ( or even converts into the opposite effect)
the effect of an increase in sensitivity in the presence of weak side
stimuli . This action of caffeine is different in different people .
The most interesting fact is that, in persons with a weak nervous sys
tem (or more accurately , with a weak stimulatory process in the visual
analyzer ), only small doses of caffeine exert such an effect, whereas
stronger doses (0.2 or 0.3 gms) exert an opposite effect: a paradox
ical effect is observed , namely that strong side stimuli cause an in
crease and not a drop in sensitivity , irradiation and not a negative
induction ,
These tests disclosed a further index of the strength , which al
most always coincides with the one just described above . Under normal
conditions, that is , without the use of caffeine , an increase in sensi
tivity from a weak side stimulus is scarcely observed at all in persons
with the strongest process of stimulation , whereas a decrease in sensi
tivity from a strong side stimulus is very clearly expressed in these
persons . In persons with a weak stimulation process , on the contrary ,
an irradiation of stimulation ( that is , an increase in sensitivity ) from
weak side stimuli is very clearly expressed , and a negative induction
( a drop in sensitivity ) from strong side stimuli is poorly expressed .
Let us examine first the first index , namely the paradoxical ac
tion of relatively strong caffeine doses in persons with a weak nervous
system . In later tests , conducted in 1957 , V. I. Rozhdestvenskaya has
shown that such an effect an increase and not a reduction in the sen
sitivity in the presence of a relatively strong side stimulus ( for exam
ple , a stimulus which is a hundred times greater than the magnitude of
the absolute threshold) can be obtained , without having recourse to caf
feine , by two other methods:
1. By means of a multiple repetition of the test ( twenty times
in a row with one - minute intervals ) and a measurement of the sensitivity
in the presence of a given side stimulus . As a result of summation , this
stimulus, it must be assumed , becomes, as it were, " very strong " (in the

- 48 .
same was as it became " very strong as a result of higher exci tability
caused by caffeine ) and causes already , not a concentration and a nega
tive induction , but an irradiation of the stimulation .
2. By means of a multiple measurement of the sensitivity ( twenty
times in a row at one-minute intervals) without any kind of side stimulus .
This results in a temporary weakening of the cells to which the main
stimulus is addressed . The limit of the working ability is reduced , and
their sensitivity drops also . It was found that , in cells which have
been brought into such a condition , the side stimulus , which usually
causes a drop in sensitivity , now, in exactly the same way as in the
result of the use of caffeine or an increase of the side stimulus by
means of a surmation of the stimulation , causes an increase in sensi
tivity . Descriptively , it can be said that, in relation to the debili
tated group of cells, the side stimulus of medium strength acts as a
" very strong stimulus . " It should be recalled that such an effect can
be obtained only in persons with a weak stimulation process in the vis
ual analyzer , and therefore acts as one of the indices of weakness of
neural processes in the visual analyzer .
As shown by tests , the two methods described above are even finer
indicators of the strength of neural processes than is the caffeine
probe in the original variation of this method .
Let us now turn to the second index of this method : in persons
with a weak stimulation process in the visual analyzer , a tendency
towards an increase of the visual sensitivity is observed in the pres
ence of another visual stimulus , while in persons with a strong stim
ulation process a tendency towards a decrease in the visual sensitivity
in the presence of another visual stimulus is observed .
1. B. Yermolayeva - Tomina [ 307 performed the same measurement of
the sensitivity of an eye adapted to darkness towards a point- stimulus,
as was done by V. I. Rozhdestevenskaya, but with the difference that in
some cases the measurements wero performed in complete silence , while in
others the measurements were conducted in the presence of a clicking
eloctrical metronome ; the loudness of the metronome's clicking varied
within a range of loudness exceeding the threshold for each given test
subject by twice over to a loudness fifteen times greater than this
threshold .
It was found that in some test subjects, the clicking of the
metronome ( regardless of its intensity ) increases the visual sensitiv
ity , while in others it reduces this sensitivity. What I have in mind
now is the action of a long -lasting metronome clicking ( 25 to 30 min
utes ), or the action of a shorter dicking ( 20 to 30 seconds) , but one
occurring after the first series of tests , that is , when the test sub
jects have already " gotten used to this type of experiment. The effect
of the click of the metronome at the time it is switched on or switched
off, as well as in the very early tests , that is , when an orientation
reflex plays a predominate role , may be different in many test subjects .

- 49 -
 L. B. Yermolayeva - Tomina also subjected her test subjects to the
main variation of Rozhdestevenskaya's method just described above (invol
ving the use of caffeine) . It was found that all those test subjects ,
in which the click of the metronome caused an increase in sensitivity ,
exhibited a strong stimulation process in the visual analyzer , that is ,
a tendency towards a decrease in the visual sensitivity in the presence
of another visual stimulus . On the contrary, those test subjects in
which the click of the metronome caused a reduction of the visual sensi .
tivity , exhibited a weakness of the stimulation process in the visual
analyzer , that is a tendency towards an increase in visual sensitivity
in the presence of another visual stimulus .
At a considerably earlier date , L. A. Shvarts , in generalizing
the results of her very careful tests, wrote : " Additional visual and
auditory stimuli usually caused reactions involving a change in visual
sensitivity, whereby these reactions varied considerably " [731; 2657.
This fact , established by L. A. Shvarts , was fully confirmed in the
study conducted by L. B. Yermolayeva- Tomina .
The fact of a varied effect being exerted by additional visual
and audi tory stimuli upon the visual sensitivity has not yet been given
an explanation satisfactory to us . At the same time , the diagnostic
importance of this type of tests, from a standpoint of a study of the
strength - weakness parameter is indisputably very great . A primary indi .
cation of this fact is the extremely sharp differentiation of test sub
jects in such a type of test. The achieving of a clear understanding of
these complex and contradictory facts represents one of the most importo
ant tasks confronting our staff at the present time .
The study conducted by L. B. Yermolayeva - Tomina is also of inter
est in view of the fact that it represents the first step toward a study
of the dependence of certain characteristic features of attention upon
the strength of the nervous system . ( The dependence of other character
istic features of attention upon equilibrium and mobility has been
studied by A. A. Makogonova .)
Peculiar features of attention are mentioned very frequently in
the course of considerations dealing with psychological manifestations
of strength or weakness of the nervous system . B. N. Birman 5 points
out three criteria of the strength of a stimulation process , and among
these, in second place after "degree of working ability , " stands " volume
of combined reactivity , " by which are meant certain peculiarities in the
concentration of attention . S. N. Davidenkov has emphasized that one of
the very subtle criteria of the weakness of nervous centers is the in
stinctive urge to avoid a stress of active attention [23; 387. N. I.
Krasnogorskiy has noted that in children of the weak type " a predomi
nance of an external inhibition is observed , which manifests itself in
a long - lasting inhibitory effect of the experimental environment, in
a high sensitivityto changes in this environment, etc ," [50; 1727. P.
G. Popescu - Nevianu writes : " In a weak type of person , attention is
characterized by a small volume or capacity , the tendency to tire

- 50 -
easily , a relatively weak concentration , difficulties in distribution
and a poor capacity to switch over to other subjects , " [93; 667.
The experimental results obtained by L. B. Yermolayeva - Tomina
can be expressed in the following manner : in persons with a weak nervous
system , extraneous audio stimuli results in a distraction of attention ,
whereas in persons with a strong nervous system , the same extraneous stim
uli under the same conditions contribute to an increase in the concentra
tion of attention . These results may be interpreted most simply as fol
lows : in persons with a strong nervous system , during the measurement
of the visual sensitivity , a sufficiently strong dominant focus is
formed in the visual analyzer , which also attracts stimulations coming
from the auditory analyzer . In persons with a weak nervous system , the
dominant focus is too weak and extraneous audio stimuli act simply as
an external brake .
On the basis of data of experimental studies available in our
laboratory , it is possible to conduct a search for psychological mani .
festations of the strength -weakness parameter of the nervous system
first of all in the following three fields: 1 ) in the peculiar features
of the working ability , tendency to fatigue, etc. ( subtle observations
in this direction are found in a study of N. S. Leytes on temperaments
[60; 27; 2) in the peculiar features of sensitivity and, specifically,
in the change of sensitivity under action of additional stimuli ; 3) in
certain peculiar features of attention . Further experimental investi
gations will , naturally, expand the range of psychologioal manifesta
tions of this parameter of the nervous system .
Conclusion

As a summary , I would like to point out certain general features

which characterize the basic trends of our work .
We are not following a course involving a purely empirical and
descriptive collection of individual psychological differences . We
would also like to avoid a subjective approach in the description and
evaluation of these differences .
We are striving to obtain such knowledge concerning individual
differences between people as will form a certain system . We are
striving to present such hypotheses as can be checked experimentally .
We have selected a path leading from the physiology of the
higher neural activity to psychology . We do not believe that this
course is the only possible one , but we are firmly convinced that it
is one of the possible courses ,
The initial subject of our investigation is those typological
properties of the nervous system which constitute the natural basis of
individual - psychological differences both in the field of character
(temperament ), and in the field of abilities . Our first ( in a logical ,
and not in a chronological sense ) task is to understand as clearly as
possible ( in application to man ) the psychological content of these
properties and to find a sufficient number of accurate experimental

- 51 -
methods, the sum total of which will make it possible to study each of
these properties . In our opinion , there can be no question of any sort
of single universal and all -purpose method in this field . A comparison
and correlation of various methods this is the approach which we con
sider the most important one at the present time .
Logically , the second task is the study of psychological manifesta
tions both of each property taken separately and of those combinations
of properties which form " types of nervous system . " In practical work ,
this second task must be performed without delay after obtaining any
data of the least significance concerned with the solution of the
first problem . A postponement of this second task until the time when
the first one has been fully solved would be absurd from the standpoint
of the basic idea of our work .
In solving the second task , the main course which we are follow
ing is to go from the simple to the complex , although we can attempt ,
as an exploratory action , to apply the knowledge which we have already
obtained (which so far is very scanty ) to the analysis of complex psychic
peculiarities of the personality .
Even in its final results, our course of research cannot lead to
the establishment of "psychological types ( for this purpose , a different
course must be followed ), but it should lead us to an understanding of
the natural basis upon which the " psychological types " are built up .
We know well the limits of the field which we are studying . How
ever , we know that this field is an important one, both in a theoretical
and practical sense . In this limited field , we are striving to work by
using the strictest and most accurate methods possible, since we are
firmly convinced that the entire field of psychology can and will become
a strict and exact science .

- 52 -
 LITERATURE

1. I. V. Alekseyev, " Individual Peculiarities in the Phase

Structure of Visual After - Images , " Uchenwe zapiski LGPI ( Academic Re
ports of the Leningrad State Pedagogical Institute) , Vol . XII, 1955 .
2. I. V. Alekseyev, " On the Problem of Individual Differences
in Visual After - Images , " Papers of a Conference on Psychology held on
1-6 July 1955, Moscow, Publishing House of the RSFSR Academy of Peda
gogical Sciences, 1957 .
3. B. G. Ananiyev, Problema formirovaniya kharaktera (Problems
of Character Formation ), Leningrad , 1949 .
4. B. G. Anan'yev, "On Mutual Relations in the Development of
Abilities and Character , " Reports Presented at a Conference on Problems
Dealing with the Psychology of Personality, Moscow , Publishing House
of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences, 1956 .
5. B. N. Birman , " Esperimental Clinical - Physiological Determinan
tion of Types of Higher Neural Activity (Based on Data Obtained at
Pavlov's Nervous Minic ), Zhurnal wsshey nervnoy devatel'nosti ( Journal
of Higher Neural Activity ) , Vol . 1 , No. 6 , 1951.
6. L , S. Bogachenko and V. K. Fadeyeva, " On Typological Peculi
arities of the Higher Neural Activity According to Data Obtained During
Experimental Studies of the Switch - In Function and of the Interaction Be
tween the First and Second Signal Systems in Children , " Ibid ., Vol . III ,
No. 5 , 1953 .
7. Ye . I. Boyko , " Experimental Development of a Motor Method
ology Which Takes Into Account Visual Setting Reflexes , " Izvestiva APN
RSFSR (Gazette of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences ) , No. 53,
1954 .
8. A. Breytburg , " The Importance of the Physiological Doctrine
of Academician I. P. Pavlov in Musical Pedagogy and Musical Performance , "
Annual Journal: Voprosy muzykovedeniya (Problems of Musicology ), No. 2,
State Music Publishing House, 1954 .
9. A. I. Bronshteyn , " The Effect Exerted by Intervals Between
Stimulations Upon the Latent Period of a Motor Conditioned Reflex in
Man , " Russkiy fiziologicheskiy zhurnal (Russian Physiological Journal ),
Vol . 10 , Nos , 3-4, 1927 .
10. G. I. Bukhovets , G. N. Kuz'menko , A. M. Nikitina and N. A.
Rokotova , " On the Problem of the Determination of a Type of Nervous Sys
tem in Man , " Uchentve zapiski LGPI Imeni A. I. Gertsen ( Academic Reports
of the Leningrad State Pedagogical Institute Imeni A. I. Gertsen ) , Vol .
108, 1955 .
11. A. S. Vitenzon , " Individual Differences of Consecutive Images
and Typological Peculiarities of the Higher Neural Activity , " Voprosy
psikhologii ( Problems of Psychology ) , No. 3, 1957.
13. L. G. Voronin and Ye . N. Sokolov, " On the Interaction Between
an Orientation and a Conditioned Reflex in Man , " Vestnik Moskovskogo
miversiteta . Seriya fiziko -matematicheskikh i vestestvennykh nauk
(Herald of Moscow University . Series of Physical -Mathematical and
Natural Sciences ) , No. 9 , 1955 .
- 53 -
 13. L. G. Voronin , " For the Development of Common Efforts on the
Part of Physiologists and Psychologists " ( Concerning the Anthology en
titled " Iypological Peculiarities of the Higher Neural Activity in Man " ) ,
Voprosy psikhologii ( Problems of Psychology ) , No. 1 , 1957 .
14. L. B. Gakkel ' , " Development of Conditioned Reflexes, Condi
tioned Brakes and Differentiations in Hysterical Children . " Anthology :
" An Experiment in the Systematic Investigation of the Conditioned Re
flex Activity of a Child , " Moscow - Leningrad , 1930 .
15. L. B. Gakkel ' , " Method for Studying Guided Speech Reactions, "
Fiziologicheskiy zhurnal SSSR ( Physiological Journal of the USSR ) , Vol .
37 , No. 5 , 1951 .
16. L. B. Gakkel!, I. A. Molotkova and N. M. Torfimov , " Study of
Lesions of Neural Processes in Oligophrenic Patients , " Zhurnal wsshey
nervnoy 'deyatel'nosti (Journal of Higher Neural Activity ) , Vol. VII,
No. 4 , 1957 .
17. G. Hefding , Ocherk psikhologii, osnovannoy na opyte (Outline
of Experimental Psychology) , 6th Russian edition , Moscow , 1914 .
18. E. A. Golubeva , " Concerning the Problem of Certain Reflex
Mechanisms of the Action of Light on a Human Visual Analyzer , " Papers
of a Conference on Psychology held on 1-6 July 1955 , Moscow, Publishing
House of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences, 1957 .
19. V. A. Gorbacheva , " Experimental Study of Individual . Typical
Peculiarities of 3 - Year Old Children , " Izvestiya APN RSFSR (Gazette of
the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences) , No. 52 , 1954 .
20 . V. A. Gorbacheva , " Formation of Child Behavior in a Junior
Group of a Kindergarten , " Ibid ., No. 52, 1954.
21. K. M. Gurevich and T. V. Rozanova , " On the Dependence of the
Latent Reaction Period Upon the Intensity of Audio Stimuli, " Voprosy
psikhologii ( Problems of Psychology ), No. 2, 1955.
22. K. M. Gurevich , " Method for the Development of a Dynamic
Stereotype in Man , " Doklady APN RSFSR (Reports of the RSFSR Academy of
Pedagogical Sciences) , No. 4 , 1958 .
23. S. N. Davidenkov , Evolyutsionno - geneticheskiye problemy v
nevropatologii (Evolutionary -Genetic Problems in Neuropathology) , Lenin
grad , 1947 .
24. A. N. Davydova , "An Experiment in the Monographic Study of
Children With Traits of Different Nervous System Types , " Izvestiya APN
RSFSR (Gazette of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences ) , No. 52 ,
1954,
25. A. S. Dmitriyev, " Concerning the Method for the Investigation
of the Higher Neural Activity of Man , " Zhurnal wsshey nervnov deyatell
nosti ( Journal of the Higher Nervous Activity ) , Vol. VI, No. 6 , 1956 .
26. A. 0. Dolin , " New Facts Toward a Physiological Understanding
of Human Associations (Photo chemical conditioned Reflex From the Eye) ,
Arkhiv biologicheskikh nauk ( Archives of Biological Sciences ), Vol . 42,
Nos . 1-2, 1936 .
27 . T. G. Yegorov, Psikhologiya (Psychology ) , 2d edition , Moscow ,
Military Publishing House , 1955 .
- 54 -
 28. Ye . P. Yeres !, NStudy of Temperaments of School Children , "
Uchenwe zapiski kafedry psikhologii MGPI ( Academic Reports of the Chair
of Psychology of the Moscow State Pedagogical Institute ), No. 1 , 1939 .
29 . L. B. Yermolayeva- Tomina, " Unmasking of Temperament and Its
Pedagogical Significance , " Sovetskaya pedagogika (Soviet Pedagogy ), No.
11 , 1953.
30. L. B. Yermolayeva- Tomina, " Certain Peculiarities of Attention
Connected with the Intensity of Neural Processes , " Doklady APN RSFSR (Re
ports of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences), No. 3 , 1957 .
T. I. Zhukova , " Experimental Study of Individual Differences
31 .
in the Mobility of Neural Processes , " Author's Abstract of Candidate's
Dissertation , Moscow , 1953.
32. L. T. Zagorul'ko , "On After - Images in the Visual System , "
Uspekhi sovremennoy biologii ( Progress of Modern Biology ) , Vol . 25 , No.
2 , 1948 ,
33. A. V. Zaporozhets, Psikhologiya (Psychology) (A Training Man
ual for Pedagogical Schools for Children of Pre- School Age ) , Moscow , State
Training and Pedagogical Literature Publishing House , 1953 .
34. A. M. Zimkina, N. V. Zimkin , A. Ye . Kaplan , A. I. Marenina
and A. A. Mikhel'son , " On the Mobility of Certain Reflex and Sensory
Processes , " Irudy Fiziologicheskogo instituta Im . I. P. Pavlova (Works
of the Physiological Institute Imeni I. P. Pavlov), Vol . IV, 1949 .
35. A. M. Zimkina, " On Typological Peculiarities of the Higher
Neural Activity ( Concerning the Anthology " Typological Peculiarities
of the Higher Neural Activity in Man " ) , Voprosy psikhologii ( Problems of
Psychology ), No. 1 , 1957 .
36. N. N. Zislina, " Electrophysiological Study of the Functional
State of the Brain in Oligophrenics by the Method of Rhythmic Light Stim
ulations . " Anthology : " Problems Concerned with the Higher Neural Activ
ity of Normal and Abnormal Children , " Moscow , Publishing House of the
RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences , 1956 .
37. A. I. Zotov , " Individual Differences in the Interaction of
Visual Sensations in the Dynamics of Consecutive Images , " Uchenyve
zapiski LGPI ( Academic Reports of the Leningrad State Pedagogical In
stitute ) , Vol . XXIII , 1956 .
38. P. I. Ivanov, Psikhologiya ( Psychology) , Moscow , State Train
ing and Pedagogical Literature Publishing House , 1954.
39. A. G. Ivanov - Smolenskiy, " An Esperiment in the Comparative
Study of the Higher Neural Activity of Man and Dogs , " Mediko
biologicheskiy_zhurnal (Medical Biological Journal ) , No. 3, 1926 .
40. A. G , Ivanov - Smolenskiy, Metodika issledovaniya uslovnykh
refleksov u cheloveka (Methods for Studying Human Conditioned Reflex
es ) , 2d edition , Moscow , State Publishing House of Medical Literature ,
1933 .
41. A. G. Ivanov - Smolenskiy , "Main Goals and Problems in the Phys
iology and Physiopathology of the Higher Neural Activity of Children . "
Anthology : " Experimental Studies of the Higher Neural Activity of Chil
dren , " Moscow , State Medical Publishing House , 1933.

- 55 -
 42. A. G. Ivanov - Smolenskiy , Ocherki patofiziologii wsshey
nervnoy deyatel'nosti (Outline of the Physiopathology of the Higher
Neural Activity ) , 2d edition , Moscow , State Publishing House of Med
ical Literature, 1952.
43. A. I. Il'ina , " Certain Peculiarities in the Manifestation of
Sociability in School Children In Function of the Mobility of Neural
Processes , " Reports Presented at a conference Dealing With Problems of
the Psychology of Personality , Moscow , Publishing House of the RSFSR
Academy of Pedagogical Sciences, 1956 .
44. A. G. Kovalev , " The Problem of Temperament in the Light of
Pavlovis Doctrine of Nervous System Types , " Uchenyye zapiski LGU (Aca
demic Reports of the Leningrad State University) , No. 1447, 1953.
45. A. G. Kovalev and V. N. Myasishchev , Psikhicheskiye
osobennosti cheloveka ( Psychic Peculiarities of Man ), Vol. 1 ( Char
acter ) , Leningrad , Publishing House of Leningrad State University , 1957 .
46. K. N. Kornilov, Ucheniye o reaktsiyakh cheloveka ( The Teach
ing of Human Reactions ), Moscow , State Publishing House , 1922 .
47. K. N. Kornilov, Psikhologiya (Psychology) (A Textbook for Sec
ondary Schools ), Moscow, State Training and Pedagogical Literature Pub
lishing House , 1946 .
48. L. I. Kotlyarevskiy , " Orientational - Inestigative conditioned
Reflexes in Response to Simple and Synthetic Stimuli in School - Age
Children . " Anthology : " Experimental Studies of the Higher Neural Ac
tivity of Children , " Moscow , State Medical Publishing House , 1933.
49. N. I. Krasnogorskiy, Rasvitiye ucheniya o fiziologicheskoy
devatel'nosti mozga u detey (Development of the Theory of the Physiolo
gical Activity of the Brain in Children ) , Leningrad , 1939 .
50. N. I. Krasnogorskiy, "On Type Peculiarities of the Higher
Neural Activity in Children , " Zhurnal wsshey nervnoy deyatel'nosti ( Jour
nal of the Higher Nervous Activity ) , Vol . III, No. 2, 1953 .
51. A. N. Krestovnikov, " The Theory of the Higher Neural Activity
as a Natural Scientific Basis of the Theory of Physical Education , " Ibid . ,
Vol . III , No. 5 , 1953.
52. V. A. Krutetskiy and D. B. El'konin , " Conference on the Psy
chology of Personality , " Voprosy psikhologii (Problems of Psychology ),
No , 4, 1956 .
53. P. S. Kupalov, " On Experimental Neuroses in Animals, " Zhurnal
wsshey nervnov deyatel'nosti ( Journal of Higher Neural Activity )Vol
, .
II , No. 4 , 1952 .
54. P. S. Kupalov , " The Theory of Types of Higher Neural Activity
in Animals , " Ibid . , vol . IV, No. 1 , 1954.
55. A. F. Lazurskiy , Ocherk nauki o kharaktere (Outline of a Sci
ence of Character ), 3d edition, Petrograd, 1917 .
56. N. S. Lang- Belonogova and Ye . P. Kok , " The Significance of
Anamnesis in Patients in Determining the Type of Their Higher Neural Ace
tivity and in clarifying the Functional condition of the Central Nervous
System Preceding the Illness , " Trudy Instituta fiziologii Im . I. P.
Pavlova (Works of the Institute of Physiology Imeni. I. P. Pavlov), Vol .
1 , 1952 .

- 56 -
 57. N. S. Lang - Belonogova , " Concerning the Method of Guided Speech
Reactions in the Determination of Typological Peculiarities and of the
Functional Condition of the Nervous System in Patients Suffering from Hy
pertonic and Ulcerous Diseases, " Zhurnal wsshey nervnov devatel'nosti
( Journal of Higher Nervous Activity) , Vol. IV, No. 6 , 1954 .
58. N. D. Levitov , Voprosy psikhologii kharaktera ( Problems of
the Psychology of Character ) , MOSCOW , Publishing House of the RSFSR
Academy of Pedagogical Sciences, 1952 ; 2d edition , State Training and
Pedagogical Literature Publishing House , 1956 .
59. N. S. Leytes , " On the Problem of Typological Differences in
the Aftereffect of the Stimulation and Inhibition Processes . " Anthology:
" Typological Peculiarities of the Higher Neural Activity of Man , " Moscow ,
Publishing House of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences RSFSR , 1956 .
60. N. S. Leytes , " An Experiment in the Psychological Character
istic of Temperaments , " Ibid .
61. V. I. Lubovskiy, " Certain Peculiarities of the Higher Neural
Activity of Oligophrenic Children . " Anthology : " Problems concerned With
the Higher Nervous Activity of Normal and Abnormal Children , " Moscow ,
Publishing House of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences, 1956 .
62. A. R. Luriya, " Certain Problems Concerning the Study of the
Higher Neural Activity of Normal and Abnormal Children , ” Ibid .
63. N. I. Mayzel ' , " Study of Typological Differences In Respect
of the Equilibrium of Stimulation and Inhibition Processes by the Photo
chemical Reflex Method , " Anthology: " Typological Peculiarities of the
Higher Neural Activity of Man , " Moscow , Publishing House of the RSFSR
Academy of Pedagogical Sciences, 1956 .
64. P. 0. Makarov, " Microinterval Analysis of Individual Differ
ences of the Higher Neural Activity of Man , " Voprosy psikhologii ( Prob .
lems of Psychology ) , No. 1 , 1958 .
65. A. A. Makogonova , " Distribution of Attention in Connection Wi.th
Peculiarities of the Neural Activity , " Author's Abstract of a Candidate's
Dissertation , Moscow , 1954 .
66. A. A. Makogonova , " Distribution of Attention in Radio Operators
In Connection With Typological Differences of the Higher Neural Activity , "
Papers of a Conference on Psychology held on 1-6 July 1955 , Moscow , Pub
lishing House of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences RSFSR , 1957 .
67. N. Ye . Malkov, " Individual Differences in the Formation of
Motor Habits in Senior School children , " Ibid .
68. M. V. Matyukhina , " Formation of a conditioned Photo chemical
Reflex in Response to Complex Direct and verbal Stimuli in Man , "
Izvestiya APN RSFSR (Gazette of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences
RSFSR) , No. 81, 1956 .
69. E. Meyman , Intelligentnosti i volya (Culture and will ), Rus
sian translation by N. Ye. Rumyantsev, " Zadruga" Publishing House, 1917 .
70 . V. S. Merlin , " The Role of Temperament in the Emotional Reac
tion Towards School Grades ," Voprosy psikhologii (Problems of Psychology ),
No. 6, 1955 .

- 57 -
 71. V. S. Merlin , "Method for Testing the Properties of a General
Type of Higher Neural Activity in Man According to the Cutaneous - Galvanic
Index , " Ibid ., No. 5 1958 ,
72. V. N. Myasishchev, " The Problem of a Psychological Type in the
Light of Pavlov's Teaching , " Uchenwe zapiski LGU ( Academic Reports of
Leningrad State University ) , Leningrad , No. 185 , 1954 .
73. V. N. Myasishchev, " Problems of Psychology in the Light of the
Opinions Expressed by classical Writers on Marxism - Leninism on Human Ato
titudes , " Ibid . , No. 203, 1955 .
74. V. N. Myasishchev , " On the Problem of the Principles of an Ex
perimental Study of the Higher Neural Activity of Man , " Ibid . , No. 203,
1955 .
75. S. P. Narikashvili , "On Individual Peculiarities in the course
of a Pourquinier Consecutive Image , " Izvestiya AN SSSR Seriya biologiches
kaya (Gazette of the Academy of Sciences USSR , Biological Series) , No.
3, 1944 .
76. V. D. Nebylitsyn , "On the Relation Between Sensitivity and
Strength of the Nervous System , " Anthology : " Typological Peculiarities
of the Higher Neural Activity of Man , " Moscow, Publishing House of the
RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences , 1956.
77. V. D. Nebylitsyn , " Differences Between the Visual and Audi .
tory Analyzers in the Alteration of Absolute Sensitivity Under the Ac
tion of Caffeine , " Doklady APN RSFSR (Reports of the RSFSR Academy of
Pedagogical Sciences) , No. 3 , 1957 .
78. V. D. Nebylitsyn , " Individual Differences in the Visual and
Auditory Analyzers In Respect of the Strength - Sensitivity Parameter , "
Voprosy psikhologii ( Problems of Psychology ) , No. 4, 1957.
79. A. A. Novikova , " Conditioned Inhibition and Its Typological
Peculiarities in School -Age Children . " Anthology
Anthology:: " An Experiment in
the Systematic Study of the Conditioned Reflex Activity of Children , "
Moscow - Leningrad , 1930 .
80. L. A. Novikova, " Study of the Electric Activity of the Brain
of Oligophrenics. Anthology: " Problems Concerned with the Higher Neural
Activity of Normal and Abnormal Children , " Moscow , Publishing House of
the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences, 1956.
81. L. A. Orbeli, "Basic Landmarks in the Study of the Higher Neural
Activity of Children , " Zhurnal vysshey nervov deyatellnosti ( Journal of
Higher Neural Activity ) , Vol . V , No. 5 , 1955 .
02. D. A. Oshanin , " The Curve of the Fluctuations of Latent Periods
of a Simple Psychic Reaction as an Index of Individual Characteristics , "
Voprosy psikhologii ( Problems of Psychology ), No. 2 , 1956 .
83. I. P. Pavlov, Polnoye sobraniye sochineniy ( Complete collected
Works) , 2d edition , 1951-1952 .
84 , " Pavlovskiye sredy . " Protokoly i stenogramy_fiziologicheskikh
besed (" Pavlov's Wednesdays . " Minutes and Verbatim Reports of Physiolog
ical Talks) , Moscow , Leningrad, Publishing House of the Academy of
Sciences USSR , 1949.

- 58 -
1
" Pavlovskiye klinicheskiye sredy . " Stenogrammy zasedaniy v
85 .
nervov i psikhiatricheskoy klinikakh (" Pavlovis Clinical Wednesdays .
Verbatim Reports of Sessions Held at the Nerve and Psychiatric Clinics ),
Vol . I , 19544; Vol . II , 1955, Moscow -Leningrad , Publishing House of the
Academy of Sciences USSR .
86. I. M. Paley and V. V. Pshenichnov , " Pavlov's Teaching on Types
of Higher Neural Activity and the Problem of Temperament, " Voprosy
psikhologii ( Problems of Psychology ), No. 5 , 1955 .
37 . I. M. Paley and A. V. Penskaya , " The Role of Certain Pheno
typical Properties in Limiting the Manifestations of a Generic Type of
Nervous System in Man , " " Reports Presented at a conference on Problems
of the Psychology of Personality , " Moscow , Publishing House of the RSFSR
Academy of Pedagogical Sciences, 1956.
88. I. M. Paley , " On Certain Phenotypical Properties and Factors
Limiting the Manifestation of a Generic Type of Nervous System in Man ,
Uchenyye zapiski Permskogo pedagogicheskogo instituta ( Academic Reports
of the Perm ? Pedagogical Institute) , No. 15 , 1957.
89. I. M. Paley, " Individual Peculiarities of Restraint in Con
nection With Typological Differences in Regard to the Equilibrium of the
Neural Processes , " Voprosy psikhologii (Problems of Psychology ), No. 5 ,
1958.
90. M. S. Pevzner , Clinical Characteristic of the Main Varian
tions of a Defect In Cases of Oligophrenia . " Anthology : " Problems of
the Higher Neural Activity of Normal and Abnormal Children , " Moscow ,
Publishing House of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences, 1956.
91. K. K. Platonov , " Experimental Study of Flight Faculties , "
Reports Presented at a Conference on Problems of the Psychology of Per
sonality , Moscow , Publishing House of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical
Sciences, 1956 .
92. Yu . A. Povorinskiy , Metodika issledovaniya dvigatel'nykh
uslovykh refleksov na recheyom podkreplenii (Method for Studying Motor
Conditioned Reflexes on Spoken Reinforcement), Leningrad , State Publish
ing House of Medical Literature , 1954.
93. P. G. Popescu - Nevianu , " An Experiment in the Study of Typical
Peculiarities of the Higher Neural Activity of Man , " Uchenyye zapiski
IGU ( Academic Reports of Leningrad State University ) , No. 185 , 1954 .
94. Psikholoriya ( Psychology ), (A Textbook for Pedagogical Insti
tutes ) , Editor : A. A. Amirnov et al . , Moscow , State Training and Peda
gogical Literature Publishing House, 1956 .
95. R. M. Pen [or Payne ?], "on the Problem of Typological Peculi
arities of the Reflexogenic Activity of a Child , " Anthology : " Experimen
tal Studies of the Higher Neural Activity of Children , " Moscow, State
Medical Publishing House, 1933 .
96. I. V. Ravich - Shcherbo , " Study of Typological Differences in
the Mobility of Neural Processes in a Visual Analyzer , " Anthology :
" Typological Peculiarities of the Higher Neural Activity of Man , " Mos
cow , Publishing House of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences , 1956 .

- 59 -
 97. V. I. Rozhdestvenskaya, " An Experiment in the Determination
of the Intensity of a Stimulation Process According to the peculiarities
of Its Irradiation and concentration in the Visual Analyzer , " Voprosy
psikhologii ( Problems of Psychology ), No. 3, 1955 .
98. V. I. Rozhdestvenskaya, " Certain Cases In Which It is Impos
sible to produce a Stable Conditioned Photo chemical Reflex . " Anthology:
" Typological Peculiarities of the Higher Neural Activity of Man , " Moscow ,
Publishing House of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences, 1956 .
99. V. I. Rozhdestvenskaya , " Study of Typological Differences of
the Higher Neural Activity During the Development of a Functional Mosaic
in an Auditory Analyzer ." Anthology: " Typological Peculiarities of the
Higher Neural Activity of Man , " Moscow , Publishing House of the RSFSR
Academy of Pedagogical Sciences, 1956 .
100. V. I. Rozhdestvenskaya, " Ergographic Method for Determining
the Intensity of a Stimulation Process in Man , " Doklady APN RSFSR (Re
ports of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences) , No. 1 , 1957 .
101. V. I. Rozhdestvenskaya, " Determination of the Strength of
Cortical Cells According to Their Ability to withstand for a Long Time
the Action of a concentrated Stimulation , " Ibid ., No. 3, 1957 .
102. N. A. Roko tova, " On Methods for Determining the Type of Ner
vous System in Man , " Fiziologicheskiy zhurnal SSSR . (Physiological Journal
of the USSR ) , Vol . 40 , No. 6 , 1954 .
103. S. L. Rubinshteyn , Osnovy obshchey psikhologii ( Fundamentals
of General Psychology ), Moscow , State Training and Pedagogical Literature
Publishing House , 1946 .
104. S. L. Rubinshteyn , " The Teaching of I. P. Pavlov and Problems
of Psychology . " Anthology : " The Teaching of I. P. Pavlov and Philosoph
ical Problems of Psychology , " Moscow , Publishing House of the Academy of
Sciences USSR , 1952 .
105. S. L. Rubinshteyn , " Theoretical Problems of Psychology and
the Problem of Personality , " Voprosy psikhologii (Problems of Psychol
ogy , No. 3, 1957.
106. Ye . A. Rushkevich , " On the Motor - Speech Method with a Verbal
Instruction and an Additional Stimulus , " Zhurnal vysshey nervnov
deyatellnosti ( Journal of Higher Neural Activity ) , Vol . VI , No. 6 , 1956 .
107. Yu. A. Samarin , Vospitaniye voli i kharaktera (Will and Char
acter Training ) , Leningrad , 1952 .
108. Yu . A. Samarin , " Esperimental -Psychological Study of Typologi
cal Peculiarities of the Nervous System of Children , ” Izvestiya APN
RSFSR (Gazette of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences) , No. 52 ,
1954 .
109. P. G. Saprykin and Ye . A. Miloryan , " An Experiment in the
Development of a Method for the Experimental Study of Individual Pecu
liarities of the Higher Neural Activity of Man , " Reports Presented at
a Conference on Problems of Psychology held on 3-8 July 1953 , Moscow ,
Publishing House of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences, 1954 .
110. I. M. Sechenov , Izbrannye proizvedeniya ( Selected Works) ,
2 vol ., Publishing House of the Academy of Sciences USSR , 1952-1956 .
.60
60 .
 111. B. M. Teplov, " Inductive changes in the Absolute and Distinc
tive Sensitivity of the Eye , " Vestnik oftal'mologii (Herald of Ophthal
nology ), Vol . II, No. 1 , 1937 .
112. B. M. Teplov, " On the Problem of Inductive Change in Absolute
Light Sensitivity , " Problemy fiziologicheskoy optiki (Problems of Phys
iological Optics ), Vol . I , 1941.
113. B. M. Teplov , Psikhologiya (Psychology ) ( A Textbook for Sec
ondary Schools ) , Moscow , State Training and Pedagogical Literature Pub
lishing House , eight editions ( 1946-1954 ) .
114. B, M. Teplov, " An Experiment in the Development of Methods
for Studying Typological Differences in the Higher Neural Activity of
Man ." Anthology : " Reports Presented at a conference on Psychology held
on 38 July 1953 , " Publishing House of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical
Sciences , 1954 .
115. B. M. Teplov , " The Theory on Types of Higher Neural Activity
and Psychology , " Voprosy psikhologii ( Problems of Psychology ), No. 1 , 1955 .
116. B. M. Teplov, " On the concepts of Debility and Inertness of
the Nervous System ,” Ibid ., No. 6, 1955.
117. B. M. Teplov, " Certain Problems Concerning the Study of Generic
Types of Higher Neural Activity in Man and Animals . " Anthology : " Typo
logical Peculiarities of the Higher Neural Activity of Man , " Moscow ,
Publishing House of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences , 1956 .
118. B. M. Teplov and N. S. Leytes, " On the Problem of Individual
Psychological Differences , " Reports Presented at a Conference on the
Psychology of Personality , Moscow , Publishing House of the RSFSR Academy
of Pedagogical Sciences, 1956 .
119. B. M. Teplov and M. N. Borisova , " Sensitivity in Discerning
and Sensory Memory , " Voprosy psikhologii (Problems of Psychology ) , No.
1 , 1957 .
120. B. M. Teplov and M. N. Borisova , "On the Problem of the Method
of ' Spoken Reinforcement of A. G. Ivanov -Smolenskiy , " Doklady APN RSFSR
(Reports of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences) , No. 2 , 1959 .
121. G. M , Whipple , Rukovodstvo k issledovaniyu fizicheskoy i psi
khi cheskov deyatellnosti detey shkol'nogo vozrasta (Handbook for Study
ing the Physical and Psychic Activity of School-Age Children ) , Trans
lated by M. V. Raykh , Moscow , 1913 .
122. L. I. Umanskiy , " Experimental Study of Typological Peculi
arities of the Higher Neural Activity of Children Based on the Use of
Play and Games Materials , " Voprosy psikhologii (Problems of Psychology ) ,
No. 4, 1957 .
123. M. V. Chernorutskiy, "On the cortical- Visceral Pathogenesis
of Ulcers, " Zhurnal visshey nervnov deyatel'nosti ( Journal of Higher
Neural Activity) , Vol . III, No. 1 , 1953.
124. N. I. Chuprikova , "On the Irradiation and Concentration of
the Stimulation Process in a Human Visual Analyzer , " Ibid . , Vol . V,
No. 4, 1955 .
125. N. I. Chuprikova , " On Changes in the Dynamics of Neural
Stimulation During the course of Exercises , " Voprosy psikhologii ( Prob
lems of Psychology ), No. 1 , 1956.
- 61 -
 126. N. I. Chuprikova, " The Phenomena of Irradiation and Concen
tration of Neural Processes During the Interaction of Arbitrary Type
Reactions, " Author's Abstract of Candidate's Dissertation , Moscow , 1957 .
127. L. A. Shvarts , " The Meaning of a Word and Its Audio Image as
a Conditioned Stimulus , " Byuleten ! eksperimental'noy biologii i
meditsiny ( Bulletin of Experimental Biology and Medicine), Vol. 25, No.
4 , 1948.
128. L. A. Shvarts , " The Serise of a Word and Its Audio Image as
Conditioned Stimuli , " Ibid . Vol . 27 , No. 6, 1949 .
129. L. A. Shvarts, " On the Problem of Interaction Between the
First and Second Signals Systems, " Izvestiya APN RSFSR (Gazette & the
Academy of Pedagogical Sciences RSFSR ), No. 53 , 1954 .
130. L. A. Shvarts , " On the Typological Significance of Differ
ences in the Relation Between the Thresholds of Appearance and Disap
pearance of Sensations . " Anthology : " Typological Peculiarities of
the Higher Neural Activity of Man , " Moscow , Publishing House of the
RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences, 1956.
131 . L. A. Shvarts , " Individual Differences in the Character of
Alterations Undergone by Visual Sensation Thresholds Under the Action
of Additional Stimuli , " Ibid .
132. D. G. E'kin , " An Experiment in the Study of Types of Higher
Neural Activity of Man , " Reports Presented at a Conference on Problems
of the Psychology of Personality , Moscow , Publishing House of the RSFSR
Academy of Pedagogical Sciences, 1956 .
133. V. V. Yakovleva , " Study of the Mobility of Neural Processes
in a Dog of the Sanguine Type , " Trudy fiziologicheskikh laboratoriy im .
I. P. Pavlov (Works of Physiological Laboratories Imeni I. P. Pavlov)
Vol . XI , 1947.
134. T. G. Yakusheva , " On the Variability of Temperament in Chil .
dren and Adolescents , " Voprosy psikhologii (Problems of Psychology ) , No.
4, 1956,
135. N. Ach , Ueber den Willensakt und das Temperament ( on the Act
of the Will and Temperament) in German , Leipzig , 1910 .
136. B. Bourdon , " Comparative Observations on Recognition , Discrim
ination and Association ," [ in French ], Revue philosophique (Philosophical
Reviev ) , No. 40 , 1895 .
137. F. Galton , " Psychometric Experiments , " Brain, No. 2 , 1879 .
138. J.-P. Le Ny , " Reaction Time of Simple Motor Reaction Consi
dered as a Simple Psychological Indicator ," (in French ), La Raison
( Reason ) , No. 14, 1956 .
139. _H . Siebeck , Geschichte der Psychologie ( History of Psychology ) ,
( in German ), Part I , Section 2 , 1884.
140. C. Spearman , The Abilities of Man , London , 1927 .
141. W. Stern , Die differentielle Psychologie ( Differential Psy
chology ), ( in Germany, Leipzig, 1911.
142. B. Teplov, " Individual Psychological Differences and Typo
logical Properties of the Nervous System , " [ in French ], Journal de
psychologie ( Journal of Psychology ), No. 2 , 1957.
- 62 .
 PROBLEM OF CHARACTER IN SOVIET PSYCHOLOGY

By V. A. Krutetskiy
The problem of character cannot be considered as a problem that
has been worked out in detail . It is a comparatively little researched
field . The wealth of actual material collected by psychologists and
pedagogues still requires an analysis and a generalization, and far from
all aspects of this problem have been covered by theoretical and exper
imental studies . A single unified viewpoint has not yet been worked
out in connection with a number of problems in the field of character
ology . There is no single opinion , for example , in regard to the prob
lem of the typology and classification of character , and discrepancies
are also observed in the treatment of methods for studying character .
Naturally, all that has been said about this does not mean that , in
Soviet psychology, the problem of character is being underestimated or
that it is not being given sufficient attention . The main reason lies
in the well - known fact that the problem of character is one of the most
complex problems of psychology and that development work on this prob
lem is tied inuith the solution of very difficult problems .
At the same time it cannot be denied that Soviet psychology of
character has also scored definite achievements , which should not be
underestimated . Highly valuable material for the psychology of char
acter can be found in studies conducted by pedagogues, and first of
all in studies conducted by A. S. Makarenko .
The development of the Soviet psychology of character was marked
by a difficult struggle with idealistic and vulgarly -mechanistic trends.
Basically , the year 1936 marks the beginning of a truly scientific stage
in development work on the problem of character , when Soviet psychology
became firmly entrenched on the positions of a Marxist - Leninist theory
concerning the essence and the objective conditions necessary for the for
mation and development of personality , the determined nature of character,
as well as of other aspects of the personality , by that social life and
social conditions in which the individual lives and acts .
After 1950 , the theory of character starts to be based on the main
concepts of Pavlov's doctrine concerning the higher neural activity ( the
theory on types of higher neural activity , the systemic nature of the
functioning of the cortex and the two signal systems and their interac
tion ) . Since that time , Soviet psychology of character has in its ac
tive file a considerable number of experimental and theoretical studies,
which cast light on individual aspects of the theory of character .
The following specific problems of Soviet characterology can be
singled out, the solution of which constitutes the main goal of the ef
forts on the part of Soviet psychologists :
1 ) the problem of the essence and structure of character ;
2) character and individual differences in psychic processes
and in the activity of the human individual ;

- 63 -
 3) the problem of the interrelationship between character and other
aspects of the personality ( temperament, abilities );
4 ) the problem of typology and classification of characters;
5) the problem of the formation and development of character;
6) principles and methods for studying character ,
And it is in accordance with this set of problems that we shall
examine the data concerned with the problem of character which have been
obtained by Soviet psychologists .
1. ESSENCE AND STRUCTURE OF CHARACTER

Approximately in the late 1930's, there began to be clearly form

wated in Soviet psychology a number of principles which become_starting
points in the Soviet characterology . In 1941 , B. G. Anan'yev 2 empha
sized the principle that , in analyzing character , one should start from
the principle of unity between consciousness and activity . In touching
upon the problem of the mutual relationship between the concepts of
" personality and character , " B. G. Anan'yev pointed out that it is
indispensable to establish a line of demarcation between these con
cepts . Character expresses a certain integrity and unity of the person
ality . Personality cannot be reduced to character , in the same way as
character cannot be downgraded to the role of a collateral and specific
expression of personality . Character, which originally represents the
product of the development of personality , itself becomes a condition
for a further development, making the personality psychologically mono
lithic , whole, single . Starting from these basic considerations, B. G.
Anan'yev defines character as such a manifestation of the personality
as " expresses basic vital trend or direction and which manifests itself
in a manner of action peculiar to a given personality ," [2; 117.
As a result of studies conducted over a period of many years
[92, 93 ,9307 ,I. v. Strakhov also reached the conclusion that char
acter represents the unity of the content of personality and of the
Character rep
forms of expression of this content in its activity .
resents the uniqueness of a personality , which manifests itself in the
trend or direction pursued by the personality and in its manner of ac
tion [937. The ideological basis of the mode of action of an individ
ual includes his convictions, ideals , interests , needs , and moral
feelings , The mode of action , on the other hand , psychologically rep
resents a complex combination of volitional and emotional personality
traits and forms of behavior , which have become moral habits .
We should also note the studies conducted by L. D. Levitov durs
ing many years which have been generalized in a special monograph (427.
Using as a basis an extensive factual and experimental material , L. D.
Levitov gives a definition of character in the " stricter sense " as
" psychic storehouse of a human personality , finding an expression in
its sense of direction and will . " L. D. Levitov has attempted, on the
basis of a careful study of the works of I. P. Pavlov and his students ,

64 .
to note the physiological mechanisms of character , pointing in this
connection to the role of the types of higher neural activity and to the
systemic nature of the functioning cortex , as well as to the role of the
second signal system as the supreme regulator of human behavior . The
physiological basis of character was also studied by V. S. Filatov [ 100,
101 ] in his theoretical research work . In addition to an investigation
of the problem concerning the way in which character is determined by
social conditions of life, V. S. Filatov gives an interpretation of the
natural - scientific foundations of the theory of character . The type of
higher neural activity is considered by him as a physiological basis of
character , and the significance of dynamic stereotypes in the physiolog
ical mechanism of character is stressed . It must be stated that , in
this problem , V. S. Filatov takes up extreme positions: for example ,
he identifies, essentially , the psychological concept of " character "
with the physiological concepts of " type " and " stereotype. "
The research work conducted by V. N. Myasishchev occupies_a
somewhat specialplace inthe Soviet psychology of character 1587 , 1527,
[ 60 ], [61], [ 62], [63]. This author studies the problemof the attitudes
of man to reality,whic attitudes
h are formed or established in function
of the conditions of the social life of the personality . V. N.
Myasishchev has shown that attitudes by becoming fixed in corresponding
modes of action , begin to determine the peculiar features of the manifes
tations of one or another personality . Character , according to V. N.
Myasishchev , is precisely a system of methods for realizing the attitudes
of the human individual in relation to various aspects of reality around
him ,
Finally must be noted the studies conducted by A. G. Kovalev .
These studies are presented in general form in a number of his works
317 , 1327, including an extensive work , written by him together with
V. N. Myasi shchev [ 36 ]. This last work gives a systematic and consec
utive analysis of the essence of character as a socio -historical phe
nomenon . In addition , the authors cast light on certain aspects of
the problem of the physiological foundations of character . In accord
ance with the spirit of the teachings of Pavlov , it is emphasized that
the physiological foundation of character is an " alloy " of traits of a
type of higher neural activity and acquired neural connections, condi .
tioned by the influence of the external environment .
A definition of character is also given by V. S. Merlin 55a7.
He interprets character as a unity of the relations of a personality
with the surrounding reality and of methods of action of this person
ality , conditioned by these relations, under typical circumstances .
Essentially , this definition darifies somewhat and improves the form
ulation given in a psychology textbook generally accepted at the pres
ent time[69a7.
On the basis of all that has been said above , there is no reason
to believe that Soviet psychologists are unified in their interpretation
of character . However , these differences do not have a basic but rather

. 65 -
a terminological significance . All psychologists agree that the bias
of a human individual ( as a system of his convictions, ideas , interests ,
etc. ) determines his behavior; however , does this bias represent a com
ponent of character ? Most psychologists give an affirmative answer to
this question . But some of them ( for example , N. F. Dobrynin ) believe
that bias must not be included directly into the concept of character .
Disagreement also exists in regard to the question as to whether individ
ual peculiarities of psychic processes such as perception , memory , atten
tion , thought, should be included into the concept of character. Most
psychologists believe that such an inclusion is not advisable . However ,
I. V. Strakhov and certain other psychologists believe that such an in
clusion is indispensable and acknowledge as character traits such qual
ities as power of observation , attentiveness , mental activity , habits,
etc.
A number of studies_conducted by S. L. Rubinshteyn have been pub
lished recently [76], [ 76a7, [7667. These studies are of considerable
interest for the theory of character . The author interprets the concept
of character in an original way . He believes that it is not the modes
of behavior themselves, but rather the impulses and motives implanted
in the personality , which constitute the basis of character . According
to S. L. Rubinshteyn , character is a system , fixed in the individual , of
generalized motives and impulses which manifest themselves in a given
individual , according to definite rules, under similar conditions. This
system is formed on the basis of situational impulses and motives, de
termined by external circumstances.
In Soviet psychology , character is interpreted as a structural
whole, the components of which are present in a state of constant inter
relationship . Each of the components acquires its peculiar quality in
function of the peculiar features of character as a whole . In regard to
the structural analysis of character, Soviet psychology considers that
its main tasks include , first the singling out of basic character com
ponents and a comprehension of their role in its general structure , and
second , the establishment of mutual relations between these components.
It must be admitted that so far Soviet psychology has given very little
attention to an analysis of the interrelations between character compon
ents and of their dynamic .
In his study , mentioned above , B. G. Anan'yev has singled out the
following basic components (or properties) of character: a) uniqueness
of the vital bias (needs , interests, ideals); b) moral customs ( attach
ments, tastes ) ; c) communicative properties of character ( attitudes of
the personality towards other people); d) self -evaluation ( the attitude
of the personality toward itself ); e ) volitional and intellectual prop
erties of character ; f) emotional - dynamic manifestations of character
derived from the temperament [ 2; 587. The above components are used
to define a wide variety of character traits . Having isolated the
basic components of character , B. G. Anan'yev examines them in their
mutual relationship , whereby he illustrates the dynamic of these inter
relations via concrete examples .

- 66 .
 I. V. Strakhov believes that , in the structure of character , the
greatest importance must be given to impulses to action ( convictions,
ideals, interests ), purposefulness, the morally trained will, moral feel
ings , positive moral and intellectual habits [ 92, 93, 93c7. In this con
nection , I. V. Strakhov and his associates have uncovered and systematized
the marks and structure of volitional character traits .
In the opinion of N. G. Levitov , the basic components of character
are the bias of the individual and his will . N. G. Levitov considers
that the foundation of the bias lies in the world outlook . He includes
interests, ideals, feelings into the concept of "bias . "
Starting from the above -mentioned general scheme of the structure
of character , N. G. Levitov has set himself the task of determining a
system of character traits, and of setting up a system of its numerous
qualities and manifestations, having in mind in this case a Soviet
man . In function of the main vital human attitudes, N. G. Levitov sub
divides the features of bias into the following groups : a) devotion to
Communist ideas and principles; b) Soviet patriotism ; c) attitude towards
work ; d) attitude towards science , art, and nature ; e) attitude of the
individual towards himself; f) attitude towards other people , towards
the collective [47; 917 .
In regard to volitional character traits, N. G. Levitov proposes
distinguishing traits of the activity or energy of character , traits
marking its degree of organization and firmness , whereby their intimate
interrelationship is underscored . In addition , N. G. Levitov considers
that it is indispensable to separate specifically traits of the struc
ture of character as a whole, keeping in mind the specificity of char
acter , its wholeness, complexity , originality and dynamic nature .
Within the limits of each of these categories, as the author points
out , there may be a wide variety of characters depending upon the bias
and will . In our opinion , the analysis of the structure of character
given by N. G. Levitov constitutes one of the first successful attempts
to set up a system of character traits ( qualities ). Essentially, the
above scheme of character structure has become generally accepted among
Soviet psychologists. Almost all psychologists without exception , in
general separate the same two components in the structure of character ,
namely bias and will , although they sometimes use different terms ( for
example, instead of a " bias, " they talk about " main vital sets of a per
sonality , " about " a system of attitudes towards reality , " etc) . A some
what different classification of the objects of characterological
relations was given by B. G. Anan ' yev 3. He identifies four categories
on this plane: a) society and social ideas ( ideology ) ; b) labor as a
means of human existence; c) other people ; d) individual activity and per
sonality 13; 297.
The studies conducted by A. G. Kovalev and v. N. Myasishchev (367
must also be noted . The peculiar features of these studies consist in
a deeper ( as compared with the studies of other authors) analysis of
the interrelationship between character components , and also in the fact
that they have devoted more attention to the problem of the development

- 67 -
and dynamics of character and of its structural correlations . In the
structure of character, the above authors identify first of all content
and form , existing in an organic unity . An analysis of the content as
pect of character is essentially an analysis of relations dominating any
given personality , which are formed in function of the way of life of
the personality , his education and social position in the collective .
The form of character manifests itself in the peculiar features of the
mode of action and behavior of the individual ; on this plane may be
isolated such components of the form as temperament , will regulation ,
habits . Also singled out are such basic structural properties of char
acter as, in the first place, equilibrium ( or disequilibrium ) of char
acter [ 367 .
Many psychologists note that behavior habits play a certain role
in the structure of character . An attempt to analyze customary forms
of behavior and their role in the structure of character has been made
by V. A. Krutetskiy .
Using as a basis a number of studies conducted by psychologists
and pedagogists, as well as his own personal observations, the author
has attempted to formulate certain peculiar features of customary forms
of behavior , namely :
1. Customary forms of behavior are formed as a result of the ex
perience of the human individual during corresponding actions;
2. Requirement lies at the base of customary form of behavior ( a
customary form of behavior is a method of realizing relations which has
become a requirement;
3. Customary forms of behavior are not patterned , rigid and
stereotyped actions , but are generalized and very flexible forms which
are characterized by a wide transfer of action ;
4. Customary forms of behavior are not automatic actions, but
are actions which have been consciously realized to a maximum extent and
which are carried under the active participation of the mind and will .
A psychological analysis of various structural elements of char
acter , of its individual features and expressions, occupies a prominent
place in Soviet psychological studies . Here , we have in mind studies
of such properties as conviction , the imposition of high requirements
upon oneself, criticism and self - criticism , a sense of discipline, ini .
tiative , boldness, persistence , endurance , etc. These studies were con
ducted on two different planes ; Soviet psychologists have attempted
to clarify the essence and peculiarities of the manifestation of various
character traits in the context of the Soviet socialist system , to study
typical character traits of Soviet man , to uncover the significance of
certain traits in the structure of personality and in the generic human
psychic image ; side by side with this, Soviet psychologists have at
tempted to establish the concrete content and concrete forms of expres
sion of various character traits and peculiar features of character at
various age levels in the development of the human individual ( convic
tion , boldness and courage , the imposition of high requirements upon
onself , etc. ) . Such studies have most frequently been conducted on

. 68 .
school children . In this connection , should be noted the studies con
ducted by V. I. Ovchinnikov [66], A. K. Perov [677 , v. S. Moskvatin 567 ,
A. A. Bodalev 8 , 07. of interest is the study conducted by L. A.
Men' shikova 154 , 155 ) which discloses the essence of initiati ve as a
character trait of the Soviet worker , and which indicates those concrete
forms in which this quality manifests itself . The concrete content and
forms of expression of initiative in elementary school pupils ( in the
context of Massroom , playground and work activities) was studied by S.
A. Petukhov [717 .
The efforts of a large group of psychologists were directed to the
study of a proper attitude toward the collective , of collectivism as the
most important_trait of human personality in a socialist society . M , N .

Volokitina [ 747 has shown the peculiarity of the expression of this qual
ity in first grade pupils, and A. I. Zhavoronko [ 247 in children of med
school
iu age . A great contribution to the study of this problem was
made by A. L. Shnirman , whose entire series of studies [105] [ 106 ] have
made it possible to identify the peculiar features of the expressions of
collectivism and of attitudes toward the collective , and the various
forms of these attitudes in school children , mostly belonging to the
senior school age group . Ye . A. Ivanova [27 ] has devoted her attention
to a psychological analysis of the content aspect and of the forms
of expression of self- criticism in adolescents . G. I. Bizenkov 7 ,
while investigating the formation and development of criticism and self
criticism in upper - grade school children , noted and described various
types of students in function of the level of development and correla
tions of these properties . Certain forms of manifestation of responsi
bility in junior school children were described and analyzed by A. I.
Zhavoronko[25].
A great deal of attention has been devoted by Soviet psychologists
and certain pedagogists to the analysis of volitional expressions and
volitional character traits of students . In this connection must be
noted the studies_conducted by V. I. Selivanov ( 867, s . N. Rives [757,
V. G. Kotiyarov 1397 , and Ye . A. Serebryakova [B7] . N. I. Sudakov
(947 has described three different forms of expression of persistence
in senior grade school children : a) persistence , as a stable character
trait, manifesting itself in the entire activity of the school child ;
b) persistence only in those types of activity , which are associated
with a field of deep interest to the school child ; and c) episodic
persistence under the influence of special influences or temporary in
terests .
A. V. Poltev [727 has described analogous forms of persistence
in the school work of adolescents. N. S. Lukin 1517 has conducted a
detailed study of the peculiar features of the expression of equanimity
in adolescents , and has described various forms of moderate and immod
erate behavior , contradistinguishing in this aspect several types of
school children . S. I. Ivashchenko [28] , while studying expressions of
self- assurance in school children , has attempted to clarify the

- 69
physiological_mechanism of the corresponding character trait. Finally,
v . I. Asnin [5, 6 has studied the quality of discipline among school
children , understanding under this term an implanted necessity and
skill in making a consistent use of corresponding methods of behavior .
A study conducted by A. P. Larin [947 has been devoted to a detailed
and thorough analysis of a negative character trait in children , namely
stubbornness . He has been able to identify and describe a whole series
of the most varied forms of manifestation of stubbornness in children ,
and has investigated the conditions under which these forms appear ,
whereby the author also took into account the laws governing the higher
neural activity . Additional material for an understanding of certain
types ofstubbornness can be found in a study of V. A. Krutetskiy (417 .
Associates of the Chair for Psychology of the Saratov Pedagogical
Institute (I. V. Strakhov , A. I. Arzhanova , M. S. Kobzev , V. I.
Selivanova , and others) have devoted a great deal of attention to the
psychological analysis of friendship and comradeship [ 865] , [92a7, 1937,
1930]. They have investigated the dynamics of the motivation of friend
ship and mode of action in comradely relationships , the influence of
friendship on the character of school children . The presence has been
shown of a number of stages in the development of friendship , and each
of these stages is characterized by a new function in regard to the in
fluence exerted by friendship on the personality .
In spite of the relatively large number of studies , mentioned
above , we have to admit that there is still no sufficiently thorough
and extensive study of individual character components in Soviet psy
chology , and that the psychological analysis of concrete character
traits is still insufficient .

2. CHARACTER AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN HUMAN PSYCHIC

PROCESSES AND ACTIVITY

N. G. Levitov [427 , after pointing out that individual char

acteristics of processes involving a direct reflection of reality may
have a characterological significance , has confirmed this fact in an ex
perimental study , which was undertaken in order to establish charactero
logical differences in 15-16 year - old students during the perception by
these students of multi - colored reproductions. After analyzing thedata
obtained during this study , N. G. Levitov was able to identify the fol
lowing types of people according to their perception characteristics :
a) those characterized by passive perception and an active observation ;
b ) those whose perception powers allow them to go into details and
generalizations ; c) high - speed and accurate types; d) those capable of
recording and interpreting . The author emphasized that, in the majority
of cases , the above types reflect the psychic constitution of a human
individual , and directed attention to the correlation between these
types and the corresponding character traits .
Studies conducted by A. A. Smirnov, presented in general form in
a monograph entitled , " Psychology of Recalli (897 , contain certain data

- 70 -
which throw light upon the problem of the dependence of recall on the
characterological characteristics of the individual . By analyzing in
such a manner the numerous studies of Soviet psychologists dealing with
problems of memory , imagination and thought, it is possible to arrive
at the well - founded conclusion that every psychic process , under certain
definite conditions, has a characterological significance.
First of all , obviously, it is the specific activity of a man ,
such as work , study , play , which has a characterological significance .
The above mentioned monograph of N. G. Levitov [477 contains observa
tions on the study activities of students in school and at home . Char
acterological differences are clearly expressed in this type of activity .
Yu. A. Samarin [B07 has investigated the connection between character
istic features of the style of the study work done by school children and
their individual characterological traits . In describing various styles
of mental work done by school children , Yu . A. Samarin has shown their
dependence upon the character , and specifically upon the emotional
volitional sphere. He came to the conclusion that a study of the style
of mental work is impossible without studying the actual personality of
the students , that character imparts to the thought processes of stud
ents individual characteristics (depth or superficiality of thought,
stability or instability of the mental activity , methods of organization
of this activity, etc. ). N. A. Lisenkova [507 has pointed out a similar
relationship between the characteristic features of written speech and
characterological human traits . A whole series of studies conducted by
Soviet psychologists in the field of concrete types of activity , speci
fically play and work , also confirm the thesis that , under corresponding
conditions , individual differences in activity are determined by char
acter features, and the more complex and protracted the activity , the
more adequately it expresses character .

3. PROBLEM OF THE INTERRELATON BETWEEN CHARACTER

AND OTHER ASPECTS OF PERSONALITY
TEMPERAMENT, ABILMES

A. Character and Temperament .

There is no single opinion in Soviet psychology in regard to the

The
problem of the interrelationship between character and temperament.
existence of these various viewpoints can be explained as being due
mainly to a different understanding of the essence and significance of
these categories . It should be noted that considerations and opinions
presented during discussions on this problem , are poorly supported by
concrete facts and study data .
Most psychologists, who have analyzed the problem of character
(B. G. Anan [ yev, Ye. P. Yeres !, A. G. Kovalev, v . N. Myasishchev , S.
L. Rubinshteyn , V. S. Filatov and others) are indlined to consider
temperament as a natural and native basis of character and as one of its

- 71 -
components . In their opinion , temperament, representing a dynamic as
pect of character , forms an organic part of the structure of character .
We believe that this opinion has been expressed most dearly by B. G.
Anan'yev 37. This author, specifically, has pointed out that temper
ament is a native basis of character . Character , originating on the
basis of temperament, itself transforms temperament and creates a new
structure of the personality , into which temperament enters as an indis
pensable element , thus becoming a dynamic aspect of character . This
dynamic aspect consists in a definite emotional bias of character prop
erties, in a definite rate of flow of_psychic processes and manifesta
tions of the personality , etc. [ 3; 477 .
In contrast to this point of view , N. G. Levitov considers that
attempts to interpret temperament as a basis or component of character
are radically incorrect . According to Levitov , temperament and character
are different aspects of the personality , which are present in a state
of interrelationship . Temperament manifests itself in the form of an
emotional excitability , it influences the forms of expression of charac
ter by " coloring " them in a unique way . However , the opposite influence
( namely the influence exerted by character upon temperament) is much
more significant and important. In this sense , one can say that temper
ament is subordinated to character , it is qualitatively transformed under
the influence of character . Physiologically this means that, under the
influence of living and education conditions , new systems of relation
are produced , which transform the natural characteristic features of a
person caused by temperament . To substantiate this idea of his, N. D.
Levitov has conducted a special study [47; 57-587 which showed that it
is wrong to assert any kind of unambiguous relationship between certain
properties of the temperament and character traits . For this purpose ,
he investigated several score of 10th grade students which were the
most striking representatives of the four temperaments -- from the
standpoint of a correlation between characteristic temperament features
and manifestations of persistence and equanimity . No such correlation
could be established . A study conducted by L. B. Yermolayeva - Tomina
[23] has also shown that character formation is frequently accompanied
by substantial changes in temperament traits .
I. V. Strakhov , who considers temperament as one of the many pre
requisites of character development, has shown , together with T. G.
Yakusheva, the importance of temperament in certain manifestations of
character , as well as the reverse dependence of a psychological_char
acteristic of temperaments on positive character traits (927 , 1937,
(9307 .
B. Character and Abilities

Only an entirely negligible amount of attention is being given

by Soviet psychologists to the important and complex problem of the
interrelationship between character and abilities .
of a certain significance in this respect is a study conducted
by V. Ye . Syrkina, entitled " Development of Abilities and Character " 1927.
72 -
The author notes the interrelationship between these aspects of the per
sonality , namely that the development of abilities and the training of
character are taking place in the form of an indissoluble single pro
cess . By means of examples, V. Ye . Syrkina shows that the formation and
the successful development of abilities is due to such characterological
personality traits as a creative attitude towards work , a passionate de
sire and capacity to seek out the new , enthusiasm , creative boldness , a
feeling of indissoluble ties with the collective and the realization
that one's work forms a part of a great national purpose , faith in one's
own powers and capacities , combined with modesty , self - criticism and
high requirements upon one's self. The formation and development of
abilities is intimately connected with a skill to stubbornly overcome
difficulties, to work in an organized manner and to display initiative .
The above -mentioned characterological traits frequently make it possible
to compensate a comparative weakness of a certain ability , to compensate
individual gaps and shortcomings in this field . At the same time, a
formalistic and indifferent attitude toward one's job , egotism and indif
ference towards collective interests, a hypertrophy of the ego , " inhibit
the development of abilities and " quench " these abilities .
N. D. Levitov (47; 59-717 has examined the connection between char
acter and a very significant aspect of abilities, namely so - called " gen
eral intelligence . " The author points out that, in case of a proper
education , character develops in close unity with intellect ; cases in
which there is a divergence between character and intellect are ex
plained as being due to deficiencies in education in the broad sense
of the word .
In order to demonstrate the relation between intellect and voli
tional character traits, N. D. Levitov has conducted observations of a
group of school children [47; 687. All of these school children (sixth
grade students ) exhibited a maximum degree of mental development . These
students were carefully observed from the standpoint of the presence
and rate of development of persistence and self - control . These observa
tions showed that, in the vast majority (75 % ) of the selected students,
a high mental development is combined with a sufficiently high level of
development of the will , and the result of such a correspondence was a
very successful study activity . In those cases , on the other hand , in
which no such correspondence was observed , an irregular and even medi
ocre progress took place , that is the weak character of the students
frequently acted as a brake in the manifestation and development of
their abilities .
N. S. Leytes, who has studied several especially gifted stud
ents [497, also stresses the presence in these students of an outstand
ing persistence and diligence .
A study conducted by B. G. Anan'yev , entitled " On Interrelations
in the Development of Abilities and Characters 47, represents a further
development of the problem of the interrelationship between abilities
and character . Examining this problem on a genetic plane, B. G. Anan ' yev
sets himself the task of establishing the internal connections between

- 73 -
the development of character and the development of abilities . The author
considers that the typology of the higher neural activity represents a
general physiological base of development of both character and abilities .
The basic idea of the author consists in the following : a definite sys
tem of organization of psychic processes is formed in each and every type
of activity . During the course of the formation and consolidation of
this system , a number of substantial changes take place , both in the phys
ical and mental , as well as in the moral development of the child , that
is , during the process of a pedagogically organized activity of the
child , there takes place a formation not only of abilities ( physical and
mental ), but also of moral properties of his personality . The genesis
of such character traits as diligence , initiative , quickness of wit,
organizational ability , persistence , etc. , is rooted , according to B.
G. Anan'yev, precisely in the history of the development of the activ
ity of the child , in which his abilities are formed . For example , in
the process of observation , an ability to observe is formed , on the one
hand , and on the other hand , the power of observation as a character
trait . The author emphasizes that a proper training and education , a
real unity of the training - educational process eliminate contradictions
in the development of abilities and character , and ensure a uniform and
mutually related development of abilities and character . Further, B.
G. Anan'yev expresses the thought that the mutual relation between char
acter and abilities results in such extremely complex and valuable psy
chological formations as talent and vocation , the essence of which can
be understood only by means of a combination of the theory of abilities
and the theory of character . These formations must be considered in
the light of a definite correspondence between requirements and abil
ities , motives of activity and real preparedness for such an activity ,
and between a formed character and a combination of abilities necessary
for a creative activity .

4. THE PROBLEM OF TYPOLOGY AND CLASSIFICATION

OF CHARACTERS

A. The Problem of the Relationship Between Individual

and Typical Features of Character .

The problem of the correlation of individual and typical features

in a character is briefly examined in studies conducted by A. G. Kovalev
1311, 1321, 1367, N. D.Levitov477. v.N.Myasishchev 1369, v. Ye.
Syrkina 7987, aná v. C. Filatov Z100 . Soviet psychology stands on posi
tions claiming a unity in character of singular individual and typical
features and of general and group features , and on the positions of a
socio - historical approach to the analysis of character . Every character
expresses not only individual traits , but also traits which are common
to a given group of people , since , side by side individually unique
life course of every person , there run also general conditions of life
and education . Typical aspects , or traits, of character reflect general

- 74 -
and typical circumstances in life, that is , it is possible to speak of
typical characters which are the product of certain definite socio
historical conditions , The studies conducted by the above mentioned
psychologists contribute to the solution of the problem concerning typ
ical characterological life circumstances in various concrete historical
conditions ( specifically under the conditions found in a bourgeois and
in a socialist society) and concerning typical characters formed under
the influence of these conditions .
B. The Problem of the Typology and Classification
of Characters

The identification and analysis of character types constitutes

one of the most complex problems of Soviet character science .
It should be noted that there is no generally recognized , more
or less complete and substantiated_classification of characters in Sov
iet psychology . N. D. Levitov 477 considers the problem of a universal
exhaustive Massification of characters as being altogether an unneces
sary , unfruitful and insoluble problem , in view of the complexity and
great variety of traits and manifestations of human characters, and he
believes that people with such character types as could be classified
under a general_scheme simply do not exist . A. G. Kovalev and V. N.
Myasi shchev 1367 , [B07 believe that a classification of characters, which
is as scientifically grounded and as complete as possible, constitutes
a possible and indispensable task .
We believe that the importance of these disagreements should not
be exaggerated nor should the polarity of the viewpoints held by repre
sentatives of these two trends be stressed . A divergent approach to
this problem does , of course , exist but, after all , A. G. Kovalev and
V. N. Myasi shchev , on the one hand, do not have in mind a universal
scheme which is separated from life , which would include all characters
of people belonging to all ages and all nations, while on the other hand ,
N. D. Levitov also believes that it is not only possible, but indispens
able, to work out character types as empirical generalizations, which
will allow of grouping characters of individuals according to one or
another criterion .
of a certain interest, mostly historical , is a scheme for the
classification of personalities, proposed as far back as 1927 by A. Ye .
Petrova [707. According to her scheme, the type of personality is de
termined by the peculiarity of " psychic constitution , " which expresses
itself in a definite state and interaction of psychic functions . A
typology is represented in the form of two levels of development of the
constitution , an upper and a lower level , whereby each of these levels
is divided accordingly into three basic types of constitution , a con
cretely - emotional, an affectively -abstract, and an intellectually
volitional type , Characteristic features of this scheme , as well as of
many psychological studies conducted at that time, are an abstract and
metaphysical nature, a separation of the personality from the conditions
of life and education , and an inconsistency in the method of obtaining
experimental data .
- 75 -
 On a somewhat different plane is the typology of characters out
lined by A. P. Nechayev in 1929 1657.Starting from the " natural " pe
culiarities of the individual ( actually, from temperaments ), this author
distinguishes three basic types of character : the tranquil , the excit
able, and the impetuous type, and also notes the presence of intermediate
and mixed types . The idea of an innateness and predetermination of char
acter by inborn peculiarities of the organism runs through the entire
classification proposed by A. P. Nechayev . This study also is merely of
historical interest , although credit should be given to the authors of
both studies who made the first attempt in Soviet psychology to classify
material under study and to make it more accessible to analysis .
We should also mention the characterological classification of
personality, proposed in 1945 by the Georgian psychiatrist and psycho
therapeutist D. A. Gotseridze [127 (See A. G. Kovalev and V. N.
Myasishchev [36; 70-727). This classification is based, essentially
upon nervous types ( " well balanced " " energetic , " " tranquil , " which dif
fer from each other by psychophysical tone) with numerous variations.
A. G. Kovalev and v. N. Myasishchev are quite right in noting the lack
of clarity , the abstract nature and lack of substantiation of the above
typology , as well as its clear biologism .
The work of A. G. Kovalev , dealing with a study of objective laws
governing character formation , as well as with an analysis and generali
zation of the literature concerned with this particular problem , has
made it possible for him to formulate principles , according to which a
classification of characters should be set up (327 : 1) the classifica
tion should be set up on the basis of the principle of maximum concrete
ness ; 2 ) it must be set up in such a way as to take into account essential
peculiarities of individuals; 3) the character types must be examined
in the unity of their form and content ; 4) the demarcation of types within
a species must not be a sharp demarcation ; 5 ) the classification system
must make it possible to include any newly discovered transitional and
intermediate types; 6) the classification must provide and indicate the
direction of a possible development of types and their transition from
one level to another .
In accordance with these principles, A. G. Kovalev has set up a
classification of characters of senior students , which is indisputably
of considerable interest [31]. He establishesbasic types ofcharacter
of a senior student according to two levels in function of the degree of
development of a communist bias and the degree of manifestation of a
conscious volitional activity of the student, namely according to a
higher ( socially purposeful type) and a lower ( students with undeter
mined convictions and an unstable behavior ) . A further subdivision is
performed in accord with the peculiarities of the dynamics of behavior ;
the upper level includes four types , corresponding to the following tem
peraments : a passionately active , a quietly active , a mobile - active ,
and an emotionally - active temperament; the lower level includes , respec
tively , an affectively - stubborn , an apathetic , an impulsive , and a
passive - defensive type . Thus, eight types of characters of senior stud
ents are identified . A. G. Kovalev has given a characteristic for each
type, and has illustrated each type by examples.
76 -
 of definite interest is a study conducted by V. N. Myasishchev,
entitled " The Problem_of Psychological Types in the Light of the Teach
ing of I. P. Pavlom (607, in which the author analyzes the problem of
character classification from the position of the teaching on the higher
neural activity . This analysis has made it possible for V. N.
Myasishchev to formulate the following thesis : " A human psychological
type must be examined in the light of an indissoluble relation between
the dynamics of its higher neural activity and the social essence of
its individual experience and of the relations formed by it" [ 60; 417 .
In this connection , attention is directed to specifically human types
of higher neural activity , established by I. P. Pavlov . For example ,
the volitional character type , in the opinion v . N. Myasishchev, is
most closely related to the average human type ; efficiency distinguishes
this type from the intellectual type , and self - control from the artistic
type . From the standpoint of Pavlov's typology , a volitional character
is distinguished by the following four symptoms: " first , by the consider
able role of the second signal system ; second, by an equilibrium of both
the first and second signal systems, as well as of the stimulation and
inhibition processes ; third , by a considerable reserve of strength and
endurance ; fourth , by a sufficient mobility in both signal systems "
[60; 53]. Further the author makes the remark that, although such a
description of characterological categories from the positions held by
Pavlovis theory is indispensable, one should not limit one's self to
this theory and should not base a psychological systematic classification
only on this theory , since in this case a characteristic would only be
a formal one .
In a combined study [ 367, A. G. Kovalev and V. N. Myasishchev
point out that the establishment of typical correlations and typical
combinations of the following psychological properties will constitute
a premise for solving the problem of the classification of character
types .
A. Relations : 1 ) relationship between collective - social and
individual - personal factors; 2) dominating relations; 3) ideological
level ; 4) level and type of intellectual development; 5) creative ca
pacities of the individual ; 6) level of volitional development in its
relationship with the peculiarities of intellectual development and
emotional - temperamental qualities .
B. Dynamics of reactivity: 7) peculiarities of emotionality
and temperament .
C. Basic structural peculiarities; 8) integrity, equilibrium
or disequilibrium , contrariety , stability , instability ; 9) wealth of
the personality ; 10 ) correspondence between the internal content and
the external aspect of behavior .
The authors make the following remarks in connection with this
scheme : the classification must take into account the developmental
differentiation of characters and should be set up genetically , starting

- 77 -
with early age groups ( in which the structure of the personality is rel .
atively simple ) . One cannot but agree with the authors in their conclu
sion that a classification which is satisfactory from the standpoint of
completeness will be the result not only of a thorough theoretical anal
ysis , but also of the accumulation of an extensive factual material .
I. V. Strakhov, as a result of studies conducted over a long per
iod of time, proposed the following lines of characterological differ
ences , which , in his opinion , may be used as a basis for a typology of
characters : 1 ) purposefulness in activity ; 2) creative principle in a
mode of action ; 3) unity and wholeness of character ; 4) wealth and ver
satility of its properties; 5) originality of the leading pivotal mani
festations of character; 6) strength of character; 7) equilibrium of
character ; 3) moral-psychological characteristic of the interrelation
ship between the individual and his human environment; 9) mutual as
sistance in work; 10 ) external expression of character in forms of
dealings ( 9347.
On a somewhat different plane are the studies of N. D. Levitov
and many other psychologists (G : I. Bizenkov, N. S. Lukin , N. I. Sudakov
and others ) . As was already pointed out , another way of solving this
problem is to develop character types as empirical generalizations, which
nakes it possible , on the basis of a certain criterion , to group char
acters by taking into account concrete historical conditions, On this
plane , N. D. Levitov outlines the following three possible ways for con
ducting typological studies [47; 214-2157: as a basis of typology , may
be selected any kind of significant character trait or several inter
related traits, and groups of persons may be isolated in function of the
typological manifestations of a given trait; groups of persons may be
classified in function of the relationship between several character
traits ( for example, types of students may be established from the
standpoint of the correlation between purposefulness and volitional
traits) ; a definite group of persons may be selected and typical char
acter traits of this group found which differentiate it from other per
sons ( for example, progressive workers from other workers ) . It is also
possible to carry out dynamic typological studies , for instance, to
isolate types of character formation . Naturally , all these methods
outlined by N. D. Levitov are not only possible , but are even indis
pensable, and their application will undoubtedly enrich psychological
science . Among such studies, may be mentioned the study conducted by
N. D. Levitov himself [47; 217, who established types of character for
mation of students in function of the various ways in which a personal
example influences these students .
The previously mentioned study of N. I. Sudakov (947 notes three
types of students , in function of the development and peculiarities in
the manifestation of persistence in these students ; in the study of G.
I. Bizenkov I mentioned above, five types of students were established,
in function of the development and interrelation between criticism and
self - criticism .

78 -
 In one of his studies (427, N. D. Levi tov has set up a typology
of students , using as a basis social purposefulness and volitional char
acter traits . N. D. Levitov has investigated 100 senior grade students
and has identified and described the following four types: 1 ) purposeful
and volitional , 2) purposeful , but with certain deficiencies in such
volitional traits, as persistence and equanimity , 3) " not purposeful "
but volitional and 4) "not purposeful" and weakwilled. N. D. Levitov
has given very striking " sketches of school children who are represent
atives of the above mentioned types .
Finally must be noted the fact that N. D. Levitoy has raised the
problem of " characterological biographies" [46; 237-2417 . To determine
typical features in the psychic makeup of an individual is a very dif
ficult problem and a psychological characteristic of an individual be
comes profound and thorough only when it reflects the life course and
the biography of this man .
It has been stressed already above that Soviet psychology is still
far from a solution of the problem of setting up a typology ( or typolo
gies ) of character . However, it is slowly moving towards a solution of
this problem , whereby it is following two different trends, two differ
ent ways .

5. The Problem of the Formation and Development of Character

In working on the problem of the formation and development of

character , Soviet psychologists are attempting first of all to study
motive forces and objective sources of character development, starting
from the basic principle that the character of a personality is deter
mined by society . All attempts to examine character as an inborn and
immutable formation are considered by Soviet psychologists as alien and
hostile . The character of man is determined by the social conditions
in which he lives and acts , and changes with a change in the living con
ditions and activity of the human individual . At the same time, man
is an active being ; not external conditions by themselves, but rather
the activity of man under given conditions, his active interaction with
his environment, play a decisive role in the formation of character .
However , it should be noted here that, in spite of the fact that Soviet
psychology assigns a great importance to the activity of personality it
self in the process of character formation , the principle of the activity
of the personality is still not sufficiently taken into account during
the analysis of this process .
A great contribution to the development of these problems has
been made by A.S. Makarenko 1527, who has demonstrated in a very pal
are manifest the principle of determination
pable way the manner in which
of character by living conditions and the principle of the activity of
children and the role exerted by changes in these conditions, and who has
also shown the importance of an organized activity , directed by the in
structor, of the children themselves in the process of character forma
tion .

- 79 -
 The concepts formulated above , relative to general problems of
the process of character formation , are reflected and illustrated in
studies conductedby B.G. Anan'yev 2, 3 , A.G.Kovalev (317 , 1327,
[367 , K. N. Kornilov 1377, N. D. Levitov 7477 , 487, v. N. Myasi shchev
[ 36] [ 597. [60] , [637, Yu.A. Samarin [81] [ 82 ] , v. S. Filatov [100]
and other researchers .
A. G. Kovalev has collected a large amount of concrete data, dis
closing various aspects of the process of formation and development of
character [31], [327, [ 367. A large number of " psychographs," drawn up
by this author , show concretely that the formation of character of the
children observed by him represents a complex and protracted process
which is conditioned by the whole history of their life , that character
develops " gradually, irregularly and non - simultaneously in its various
properties , ” that character formation is a process involving a quanti
tative and qualitative change of personality . A. G. Kovalev has at
tempted to show how the assimilation of external infuences and their
transformation into internal human motives takes place ,
Analyzing this material and generalizing the data obtained by
other Soviet psychologists , A. G. Kovalev formulates certain general
rules governing the formation of character ; 1. Character is formed
by circumstances in life , and changes , undergoes a qualitative trans
formation together with a change in the circumstances of life; 2 . The
rate and quality of character formation are directly determined by the
activity and versatility of man , by his personal participation in work
aimed at changing the circumstances of life; 3. At a definite stage
in the development of character , the self- training by man of his char
acter assumes a great importance . This last factor was emphasized in a
study by B. G. Anan'yev, conducted as early as 1941 2 ) . Pointing out
that, for the purpose of character formation , a child should be in
volved in actual relations and activity , B. G. Anan'yev notes that , dur
ing the process of education , convictions and qualities of will are
formed in the personality , which provide the latter with the possibility
of regulating its own behavior , that is , as a result of character forma
tion , the personality is converted from a regulated into a auto -regulating
element .
N. D. Levitov (427 devotes attention to the role of real - life con
flicts , which temper the character of man . He identified four basic
types of contradictions in life which may cause such conflicts :
1. contradiction between new and old requirements of life ; 2 . Contra
diction between an advanced and a retarded personality ; 3) contradico
tions caused by influences exerted upon the personality ; and 4. Con
tradictions between feelings and duties, between the long range life
plan and immediate goals (47; 268-2717 .
Among the general problems relative to the question of character
formation , let us consider separately the problem of psychic states,
advanced by N. D. Levitov . In our opinion , this problem is very closely
related to the problem examined here , and from this standpoint appears
to be very promising .

. 80 -
 In speaking about psychic states [467, N. D. Levitov has in mind
a general characteristic of psyshic activity during a definite period of
time, showing the peculiarity of the course of psychic processes in func
tion of various conditions. Psychic states represent a kind of temporary
syndrome, which is determined by external and internal actions and which
exerts an effect upon the course of psychic processes ( for example, the
state of cheerfulness or depression , of intellectual activity of passiv
ity, of concentration or distraction , of decisiveness or indecisiveness ,
of dreaminess, attentiveness, etc. ) . N. D. Levitov also points out the
physiological mechanisms of psychic states , proceeding from the theory
of I. P. Pavlov on higher neural activity : these are temporary states
of the cerebral cortex which depend upon the peculiar course of stim
ulation and inhibition processes taking place in the cortex at a given
time, and which are determined by various external and internal stimuli .
N. D. Levitoy emphasizes that psychic states represent more stable phe
nomena in the psychic life of a man , and consequently , have a charactero
logical significance . They represent sui generis " intermediate formations
between psychic processes and stable character traits . It is precisely
via psychic states that a " transition " is effected from psychic processes
to psychic properties of the personality : if the psychic state frequently
takes place, it becomes fixed , and is transferred to other situations
and gradually becomes a characterological human trait . It is precisely
these basic principles which make the problem of psychic states one of
the most important problems of character formation , N. D. Levitov empha
sizes that the education of character follows to a considerable extent
a course which involves a determined creation in children of definite
states , which are important from a characterological standpoint . For
example, in order to develop resolution as a character trait, the prime
requirement is that a child should frequently be subjected to at least
temporary states of resoluteness ,
This principle is described in a somewhat more concrete manner in
an article by A. K. Perov 1897. This article also examines the problem
of the necessity of filling up the gap between psychic processes and
character traits , which is formed in the course of research studies .
The author makes an attempt to show the origin and manner of appearance
of character traits . He has been able to trace the way in which boldness
as a characterological trait originates from temporary states of bold
ness [68].
A study of certain stable psychic states and of their conversion
into character traits has been conducted by associates of the Chair of
Psychology at the Saratov Pedagogical Institute (937. They have stud
ied various manifestations of the state of equilibrium and attention in
connection with an analysis of emotional - volitional character traits in
students . Developmental peculiarities in the state of equilibrium have
been established in seven - year - old children and adults ( specifically, of
teacher's during the course of interrogation of students) . In the latter
case , a number of types has been established , having a characterological
significance ( types with a predomination of a tranquil equilibrium , or
a lively emotional equilibrium , etc. ) .
- 81 -
 The problem of psychic states has a great future ; however , Soviet
psychologists have so far unfortunately devoted an extremely negligible
amount of attention to this problem .
The problem of character formation is examined in a somewhat dif
ferent aspect in studies conducted by V. N. Myasishchev , B. G. Anan'yev
and certain other psychologists . They have developed a theory concern
ing the formation of character from the vital attitudes of the person
ality . Character properties ,as was shown in a large series of studies
27, B , D , 9 , 1367 , 6587 5597 , [62] [63 ] [105] [ 106], are
formed through the development and training of definite essential at
titudes . B. G. Anan'yev has formulated the conditions under which at
titudes are converted into character traits . He considers that such
conditions include the following: a) formation of a world outlook ,
b ) development of real material and spiritual needs and interests , which
are satisfied by means of one or another action and c) formation of a
method of concrete activity as a practically realizable attitude . An
attitude which can be realized in practice by_the individual takes deep
roots and thereby becomes a character trait (3; 487.
S. L. Rubinshteyn has an original conception of the process of
character formation ; directing attention to the new aspects of this
problem and proceeding from his interpretation of character as a cer
tain system of generalized impulses toward the performance of definite
acts under uniform conditions [76] , [767. [7667, s. L. Rubinshteyn con
siders that character is formed in the process of development of person
ality on the basis of situation - conditioned impulses and motives deter
mined by the concurrence of external circumstances . These motives
constitute precisely , according to the expression used by Rubinshteyn ,
the " building material " out of which character is formed . The above
mentioned situational impulses , under certain definite conditions, are
generalized in relation to the original primary situation , and extend to
all situations similar to the first one and are gradually converted into
personality properties fixed in the individual . Therefore, the problem
of character formation , stresses S. L. Rubinshteyn , can be reduced to
the problem of a transition of impulses caused by concurrences of exter
nal circumstances , into stable personality motives . This fact determines
also the specificity of educational work at character formation . The
main thing in this plan is a selection and Winoculation " ( according to
the expression used by S. L. Rubinshteyn ) of the necessary mo tives by set
ting up conditions for their generalization and stereotyping.
The problem of significance , upon which N. F. Dobrynin and his
associates 179, 207 are working, has a direct bearing on problems of
character formation . In the reinforcement of actions and acts , the so
cial and individual significance of a man's actions is of great import
ance this is the basic idea of N. F. Dobrynin . In this connection ,
social significance must be understood as an objective necessity of act
ing in a certain definite manner . As N. F. Dobrynin points out , this is
precisely the reason why certain things are accepted and consolidated
or fixed , while others are not .

- 82 -
 A study of the regular connections between the mode of life of a
child , the peculiar features of his activity and the formation of var
ious character traits is presented in some of the research studies con
ducted by L. I. Bozhovich and his associates [ 10 ]. They were able to
establish certain principles in the organization of activity , during the
course of which definite character traits are formed . Thus, for example ,
L. I. Bozhovich and his associates have established experimentally the
following interesting fact : the same activity forms various properties
of the personality , various character traits in function of the various
motives for which this activity is carried out . Consequently, exercises
in proper behavior will lead to their goal only when they are performed
for definite motives [ 10 ]. From this, an important conclusion can be
derived : during the course of formation of character traits in a child ,
not only a definite form of behavior, but also the appropriate motive,
becomes fixed . The above concepts have been confirmed by experimental
studies conducted by L. S. Slavina [88], who has worked on the formation
of the quality of responsibility in school children .
While observing and analyzing the process of character formation ,
as well as conditions and methods of character reconstruction , A. G.
Kovalev drew attention to the fact that, in this complex process , a num
ber of qualitatively unique stages can be isolated [ 347. He has identi.
fied and described , specifically, three stages in the development of
character . The first stage, which is characteristic for children of
pre- school age , is a stage of a situational character development. At
this stage , the behavior of children depends directly upon concrete real
life situations, and directly reflects external influences . The absence
of stable firmly fixed attitudes makes it possible to reconstruct the be
havior of a child in a relatively easy manner . The second stage is char
acteristic for children in the junior and medium school age brackets .
This is the stage of formation of a stable external and internal action .
At this stage , stable habits of behavior are formed , and in this connec
tion , a reconstruction of character is more difficult. Finally , the
third stage is a stage of internally conditioned behavior and of set
habits . At this stage , the task of character reconstruction is even
more complicated .
A study of immediate process of character formation has been car
ried out and is being carried out in the USSR along two different lines .
It was already mentioned that character is formed under the manifold and
various action of training - educational work done in the school by teach
ers , under the influence of the student collective directed by the
teacher , under the influence of Pioneer and Komsomol organizations, dur
ing socially useful work , under conditions involving new relations in
the family , etc. One line of investigation is directed precisely to
the study of the role of each of these factors and conditions in the
matter of character formation or formation of individual character
traits , to the study of the manner in which the process of character
formation takes place under their influence . The second group includes

- 83 -
studies in which the task to be solved consisted in establishing the
conditions ( all conditions taken together or individual conditions) of
the formation of the various character traits . In the great majority
of cases , children constituted the object of both of these investigations ,
whereby they includes mainly school - age children , and these studies were
conducted from the viewpoint of the specificity of character formation
at various age levels .
In the first group , a large place is taken up by studies of the
role and influence of the school staff or collective on the process of
character formation . What are the most important conditions which den
termine the educational importance of a student collective ? This proba
lem was considered by N. D , Levitov, A. L. Shnirman and P. A. Prosetskiy .
N. D. Levitov [47; 342-3437 points out four most generic traits: single
minded purposefulness, coordination and organization of actions , unity
of leadership and equal rights of the members of the collective together
with differences in responsibilities . A. L. Shnirman has given a more
detailed and concrete characteristic of a pupil collective, singling out
the following traits : a correct and clear - cut social bias , exigency upon
members of the collective , a sense of discipline on the basis of a high
activity and initiative , and finally an intimate association_or_relation
between the class collective andthe over - all school group[ 102], [ 109] .
P. A. Prosetskiy has highlighted " an intensity of positive collective
activity on the part of the students , " the presence of positive tradi
tions and a high degree of organization and coordination on the part of
the collective ,
The role of the school collective and of a Komsomol organization
in the process of character formation is described in detail by V. S.
Filatov (1007.
A. G. Kovalev, on the basis of factual data, has shown the influ
ence exerted by a well organized and purposeful collective upon its mem
bers [317, 1327, [37. By means of a number of "psychographs," he has
illustrated the importance of the attitudes assumed by students in the
collective in the matter of character formation . The influence exerted
by a student collective , having a different level of development, upon
the_formation of volitional qualities has been studied by V. M. Lapik
[437 . We should also note the study conducted by A. A. Bodalev, who
has shown how , with the development of attitudes in the collective ,
exacting demands addressed to themselves are developed by its mem
bers [8, 97. Also of interest is the study conducted by M. N.
Volokatina [ 747, in which the author was able to show how, in the proc
ess of development of mutual relations between first- grade pupils,
these pupils acquired the skill of controlling their behavior during
the process of formation of the collective .
A quite insignificant number of studies have been devoted to the
analysis of the role played by industrial labor in an industrial collec
tive during the course of the formation and transformation of the char
acter of adult workers . M. A. Men ' shikova [ 547, 5557 has demonstrated

84 .
this factor by an example showing the formation of initiative , and A.
V. Timofeyeva [ 99 ] an example showing the formation of volitional qual
ities ; the development of personality in an industrial collective is
treated by Ye. D. Varnakova [717 .
Recently , in connection with the reconstruction of the national
education system in the USSR , psychologists have started to devote a
much greater amount of attention to problems concerned with the forma
tion of character in school children during the labor process . In an
alyzing and generalizing advanced pedagogical experience , as well as
the results of psychological natural experiments , psychologists are
attempting to show the " polishing " of the character under the influm
ence of labor , and to show , how , under this influence , there are formed
not only a proper attitude towards work , but also the will and all the
other character traits . Psychologists , together with pedagogues , have
shown that not every kind of labor has an educational value , but that
it is mainly labor performed under definite conditions and organized
in a proper manner which results in the development of a productive ,
collective , initiative and creative labor , a labor which can be mas
tered by students and which is organically connected with their study
activities . At this point , we must mention the important study con
ducted by I. F. Svadkovskiy (857. The author discloses certain condi
tions for the formation of a need to work , describes a pedagogical
experiment , which shows how productive work " straightens out " the
characters of children . On this plane , the author points up the role
of an emotional experience by pupils of their successes .
The studies conducted by A. V. Vedenov [13] and S. M. Rives
[75 ] throw light upon the problem of character formation in the con
text of alassroom activity . They have established general conditions
and premises for the formation of volitional qualities of the person
ality during the course of instruction in school . A certain amount of
material connected with this problem is also given in the numerous
published studies of Soviet teachers , among which may be named A. Ye .
Andrianova , A. D. Leonskaya , L. N. Leonchukova and others. The above
comrades have shown how work done by schools and teachers influences
in a purposeful manner the formation of certain character traits of
school children ( sense of discipline, diligence, sense of organization ,
responsibility , etc. ) . L. Ya . Myshko [527 has studied the problem of
the effect exerted upon the character of
students by certain external
aspects of organization of the instruction process , specifically , the
organization of the style and " technique " of the lesson itself.
These and other studies , which will be mentioned below, supply
a certain material for a psychological analysis of the role of the school
in the process of character formation , although there is no doubt that
the number of such studies is still highly insufficient . Soviet psy
chology has not yet shown to a full extent under which conditions a
study of the fundamentals of the sciences represents a process not only
of an intellectual education , but also of a character development, and
which are the psychological premises in the development of character
during courses , which are the paths of character formation in the
struggle to achieve progress and discipline, etc.
- 85 -
 A certain number of studies have been devoted to the role of
the_family in the formation of character . A. G. Kovalev ( 31], [ 32 ],
[ 347, [ 367, in analyzing concretedata, has shown the manner in which
certain circumstances of family training, peculiar features of rela
tions or attitudes in the family exert an effect upon the formation of
character in children , how , depending upon the type of family training ,
a certain type of character is formed . For example , in the event of
" an authoritarian " training , based upon the suppression of activity and
initiative in the child , there is formed a down - trodden , passive human
type , which is not sure of his strength ; in the absence of skill at
forming inhibitions there is formed an impulsive and cheeky type of
child . A prolonged (over a period of four years) observation of the
behavior of enzygotic twin sisters , carried out by A. G. Kovalev, has
enabled him to establish how a different attitude of parents towards
children influences the formation of certain character traits ( in spite
of similar natural dispositions and identical general living conditions
in the family , the twins differed sharply from each other in their char
acter , and this difference was entirely determined by the fact that one
of the girls was placed by her parents in the situation of " the elder ,
" the guide ," " the one responsible ." Ye . P. Yeres ! [ 227 has studied the
manifestation of a lack of discipline in school children in connection
with defects in family training . On the basis of a generalization of
factual material at her disposal , Ye . P. Yeres ' was able to draw up a
systematic list of the above defects and to analyze their influence upon
the character formation of the school children . An analysis of defects
in family training , as one of the reasons responsible for child stubborn
ness , has been carried out by A. P. Larin (1947. A. V. Vedenov [T27 has
theoretically illuminated and illustrated a number of principles relative
to the process of training volitional character traits in a child in the
family .
A comparatively great amount of attention has been devoted by
Soviet psychologists to the analysis of such " ideal " factors in character
formation, as world outlook , self-knowledge , moral knowledge and convic
tions , etc. A. L. Maliovanov [53] has analyzed the role of moral convic
tions in the process of formation of a sense of discipline as a character
trait , and has reached the conclusion that these convictions play an
extremely important role . He has shown that the character development
of children is significantly inhibited by their inability to comprehend
or interpret their behavior . Teachers must explain to children the so
cial consequences of their acts , combining this activity with the or
ganization of a moral practical work with the children . The importance
of self - knowledge in the character formation of adolescent school chil
dren is indirectly demonstarted in an entire series of studies devoted
to the problem of self - awareness . For example , certain data are found
in the studies conducted by A.L. Shnirman [ 105],T.V. Dragunova [217 ,
G. A. Sobiyeva [917 .
A number of studies are devoted to the analysis of several moral
psychological concepts and notions held by school children and to their
influence on the process of character formation ,

- 86 .
 V. A. Krutetskiy [417 has attempted to analyze the factual con
tent of certain concepts in school children , specifically of concepts re
garding character traits , and to establish the level of development of
these concepts and to show their influence upon the behavior of school
children .
A. P. Gurkina [ 187 has studied a number of moral -psychological
qualities of personality, which are comprehended by adolescents, and has
outlined the shifts which take place in this regard on the developmental
plane. In the same category is the study of T. V. Rubtsova [77, 787 ,
devoted to the peculiarities in the realization by school children of
moral properties of personality and to the discovery of ways for the
development of this realization . An understanding of honor by school
children and the influence exerted by this understanding upon their be
havior has been studied by A. S. Alyakrinskaya [ a ]; I. E. Strelkova
[93e ] has studied the way in which the concept of friendship is under
stood by adolescents . A. N. Chebotarev (1027 has analyzed the process
of development of the concepts of honesty and truthfulness in students
of Suvorov schools .
The above studies indicate that moral - psychological knowledge
and convictions play a very significant role in the process of character
formation and development. In this connection , Soviet psychology and
pedagogy are interested in the problem of the various forms of moral en
lightenment, specifically in connection with various types of ethical
conversations, which are organically included into the educational sys
tem . Great merit in this respect must be attributed to S. M. Rives (747,
0. I. Rute [797 , N. P. Galitskiy [75] and many others, who have worked
out and substantiated methods for conducting such chats and who have
shown the influence exerted by these chats on the behavior of school
children .
An original form of ethical chats ( " ethical lectures" ) and their
practical significance are described by I. N. Krasnobayev (407 .
Moral education and the formation of a moral conscience represent
only one aspect of the process of character formation . Another aspect
of this process is a corresponding organization of experience in the
child , the organization of exercises in proper behavior , a " calisthenic
of behavior " (A. S. Mararenko ) , the formation of " behavior habits . " This
aspect of the matter is reflected in one plane or another in the great
majority of studies , devoted to an analysis of the conditions and methods
of formation of individual character traits ( these studies will be exam
ined below ) . At this point, however , we can mention studies, especially
devoted to the problem concerned with the role of exercises in the proc
ess of formation_of_behavior habits, conducted by P. I. Samoukov [847,
V. P. Chubukov [103] and V. Sukhomlinskiy 1967 .
The role of example, as one of the factors in character formation ,
is described in studies conducted by N. D. Levitov and P. A. Prosetskiy .
N. D. Levitov [45] has studied general and individual psychological con
ditions of the influence of personal example upon the character formam
tion of school children .

- 87
 He showed that there are both objective and subjective factors in
the " selection " of an example or model , and that there are different ways
in which a personal example may exert its influence , and that, in func
tion of these different ways, there are also different types of character
formation in various school children . N. D. Levitov has also observed
a developmental " dynamic of examples . " P. A. Prosetskiy [73], using
data published in psychological literature and data obtained through his
own research work , has determined the basic forms of the influence ex
erted by example during the course of their development and has studied
the peculiarities of imitation as the basic form in which example exerts
its influence in childhood . He attempted to formulate the conditions
upon which the bias and character of imitation depend, namely: a) condi
tions of life , b ) peculiarities of the object of imitation , c) peculiar
ities of the subject of imitation . He also attempted to outline the
basic trends of the development of imitation : a) from an imitation prox
imate of models to an imitation of remote models, b) from an unconscious
imitation to conscious imitation , c) from an external imitation to an in
ternal imitation , d) from imitation as an end in itself to an imitation
as a means to an end , and o) from a playful imitation to a vitally prac
tical imitation .
Soviet psychologists have been and still are definitely devoting
an insufficient amount of attention , to the problem of self - training as
a factor in the formation and development of character . This is com
pletely unjustified , since the process of development of personality is
a process involving a gradual transformation of the personality from a
" regulated ) to an " auto - regulating " personality . A. S. Makarenko con
stantly emphasized and applied in his practical work the concept that
man is not only an object but also a subject of education . In this
connection , mention should be made of the book published by V. I.
Selivanov , entitled " Training of the Will of the School Child " [86] .
The author is concerned both with the more general and more specific
problems of self - training , and analyzes the essence and significance
of certain methods of " self- stimulation " ( self - approval, self - obliga
tion , auto - commands, auto - checking , etc. ) . A. G. Kovalev and A. A.
Bodalev (45a7 have disclosed the complex interrelationship between
training and self - training, and have shown via a number of examples
the conditions for the emergence of a need for self - training . A
certain amount of material concerned with the problem of self
training of the character is found in the studies of K. N.
Kornilov [327, Yu . A. Samarin [82 ] and v. A. Krutetskiy [42].
The second line followed by studies dealing with the problem
of character formation , which is intimately connected with the first
one , is concerned with a psychological analysis of the conditions,
ways and methods of formation of certain specific character traits .
Almost all of the most important character traits have been covered by
such a type of research , although this does not mean in any way that
such an analysis has been an exhaustive and detailed one in any re
spect . This type of work is really only beginning .
88 .
 The conditions , ways and methods of formation of collectivism ,
conviction , sense of duty, criticism and self - criticism , diligence
and other qualities have been studied by A. L. Shnirman [106 ] , [ 1027 ,
[ 1087 , [109]. A. I. Zhavoronko [ 247,v. I.Ovchinnikov [6T , Ř. N.
Ibragimova [26] , G. I. Bizenkov 7
[ _Ye . A. Ivanova [227,and Ya . 2.
Neverovich [ 647. A. I. Zhavoronko [25] has studied methods for cultiva
ting the quality of responsibility in young school children and has
shown that the main path lies via an enrichment and activation of the
moral experience during the course of fulfillment by the school chil
dren of study assignments and communal duties, accompanied by a check
and evaluation of this fulfillment with participation of the class col
lective . The same problem has been studied by L. S. Slavina [88], who
has developed the above -mentioned quality by means of an organization
of appropriate forms of activity in combination with an educational
program having a corresponding orientation .
A. A. Bodalev 8 , 9 , has established that personal exacting
ness , as a character trait, is formed in senior school children under
conditions involving consequential persistent demands on the part of
the teacher and student groups ; in the absence of this condition , there
is developed , as a rule, a high degree of exactingness towards others ,
together with an indulgent attitude towards one's self .
K. A. Men' shikova [55], 5567 studied concrete methods and tech
niques for inducing initiative and for developing this quality into a
stable character trait in adult workers . She was able to show that the
most important conditions for this process include the assignment to
the individual of more complex responsibilities, and the putting of him
into a responsible position in relation to the collective.
A comparatively large number of studies are devoted to the anal .
ysis of the conditions and ways of formation of volitional traits of
character . In this respect we may note the studies conducted by V. I.
Selivanov (807 , A.V. Vedenoy [127, [13] , S. N. Rives (757, v. I. Asnin
57, 67, Ā, V. Surovtseva [95] , F. I. Ivashchenko [28], V. D.
Kotiyarov [327, v. M. Lapik 1437 , N. S. Lukin [51] , V. S. Moskvitin
567, Ye . A. Serebryakova 877, N. I. Sudakov 7947, A. K. Perov (677 ,
and A. V. Poltev [ 72 ].
Summarizing the results obtained in all of the above - mentioned
studies , it can be considered as an established fact that character
traits are formed and consolidated via the organization and enrichment
of a corresponding experience , during the course of a specific activity,
in unison with the formation of a definite system of convictions. The
conditions required for the training of the various volitional character
traits have two mutually related aspects: the fostering of correspond
ing motives in school children and the formation of volitional skills
and habits of consciously directing and regulating their own behavior or
acts . In other words, the will of students is formed under the influence
of the entire structure of school work and of the student body .

- 89
 It must be stated that Soviet psychology is devoting attention
also to processes involving a reconstruction of character in school
children , to the investigation of causes leading to deviations in char
acter development, and to the study of the nature of certain negative
qualities of the personality , and on this basis , to the study of condi
tions and ways of avoiding or overcoming these factors . This type of
work includes the study of A. P. Larin 447, who has analyzed the nature
of stubbornness in school children and has substantiated concrete methods
for preventing and overcoming this defect (method involving the switching
of attention , the method of suggestion , the method of postponing the ex
ecution of a requirement, the method of ignoring , etc. ) . Corresponding
data dealing with ways of overcoming various types of weakness of will
are found in studies performed by A. Gi_Kovalev ( 347, N. S. Lukin [51] ,
N. I. Sudakov ( 947, F. I. Ivashchenko [287, A. K. Perov [677 , and
others.
Unfortunately , Soviet psychologists have almost completely neg
lected the problem of the taking into account, during the course of
character training, of certain neurophysiological factors, in the first
place of the type of higher neural activity in the child . The necessity
of taking this type into account is openly declared and proclaimed in a
large number of studies , but specific investigations of this problem are
almost entirely absent .
A positive example of_such a type of study is the research per
formed by V. A. Gorbacheva [ 76. This author has shown that, in the de
velopment of equanimity and a sense of discipline in pre - school age
children , it is indispensable to take into account their type of higher
neural activity , and to modify , in function of it , the type of instruc
tion given to these children . In this connection , V. A. Gorbacheva
gives a whole series of recormendations on the methodological ( peda
gogical) plane .
6. The Problem of Principles and Methods of Studying Character

The possibility of conducting characterological studies based on

various types of tests and questionnaire forms is categorically re
jected by Soviet psychology . The mechanistic approach to man , the sub
jective nature of the interpretation of the results, the attempt to
" study , " by means of primitive and standardized techniques, an extremely
complex and volatile object, and the attempt to give a quantitative char
acteristic of personality traits and manifestations all these factors ,
which are organically inherent in methods involving the use of tests and
questionnaire forms, have forced Soviet psychologists to reject once and
for all this anti - scientific method .
The basic task of Soviet psychology on this plane included the task
of realizing, formulating and substantiating the basic principles which
should be used as starting points during the development of methods for
a characterological study . Such principles are formulated and substanti
ated by N. D. Levi tov [477 and K. N. Kornilov ( 38 ). An analysis of

- 90 -
methodological techniques for investigating character is found in a num
ber of studies performed by A. G. Kovalev [29, 31 , 32, 33, 367 , I. V.
Strakhov ( 92, 937, A. L. Shnirman [ 1047, and G. F. Sambros 20.
Soviet psychologists have established a number of principles for
a scientific characterological study :
1. Character should be examined , starting from the principle of
its wholeness , in an analytic - synthetic manner ; it should be examined in
an intimate association with other aspects of personality ; 2 . Character
can be studied only on objective data , that is , during a study of char
acter, one should proceed from a concrete reality , and human actions,
with a disclosure of their motivation ; 3. Character can be studied
only by taking into account the deterministic influence exerted by ex
ternal and internal conditions ( conditions of life and education , con
dition of the organism and its vital activity ); 4. Character traits
should be examined in their development and changes; 5. An individual
character can be studied only in a collective , through a collective,
against a background of the collective in which the personality is
formed and developed; the study should be a relatively typological
one ( a given personality should be studied in comparison with others) ;
6. Character should be studied on a plane involving the perspectives
of its development, and a well - substantiated " projection of the per
sonality ” must take place (A. S. Makarenko ) . This means that the per
sonality must be considered on a plane not only of an object of study ,
but also of an object of education ; the study must have an active char
acter , and its purpose must be the mastering of the processes involving
the formation of a personality .
Of considerable interest in this respect is an article by K , N.
Kornilov ( 387, in which the author presents and substantiates in detail
a number of principles for studying the psychology of the personality
of Soviet man , and shows how these principles are realized in concrete ,
and specifically , in characterological studies .
Concrete methods for studying character , adopted in Soviet psy
chology , are determined by the principles listed above . Such methods
include observation , natural experiments , laboratory experiments , as well
as biographical methods, talks, and of an analysis of the products of
activity , which are usually utilized in the form of a combination of at
least several methods, which supplement, correct and control each other .
The basic method for studying character in Soviet psychology in
volves observation under natural conditions of life and activity of the
individual , and the observation of his acts , behavior , and peculiarities
of his activities . The technique used in the method of observation is
described by A. G. Kovalev and v . N. Myasishchev (36; 230-2357. An exam
ple of a plan used in a characterological observation , is also presented
by Il.D. Levitov (47; 171-1747 in the same study. As examples of the ap
plication of this method , we might cite the_studies conducted_by N. D.
Levitov 577, A. G. Kovalev [22,_31 , 32 , 337, A. P. Larin (447, n. S.
Lukin [51 / and N. I. Sudakov [947 .

- 91 -
 Another method for studying character , which has been adopted and
is widely used in Soviet psychology , involves natural experiments, the
basis of which had been developed by a man as early as the outstanding
Russian psychologist A. F. Lazurskiy . In Soviet characterology , natural
experiment usually assumes the form of an instructional or transformation
experiment , representing a combination of a psychological study of a child
together with a realization of instructive effects . This method has been
described by N. D. Levitov (47; 176-1787. As an example of the applica
tion of this method , we might cite the studies conducted by L. S.
Slavina [887 and M. A. Menishikova [ 54, 557.
The method involving laboratory experiments is not being used to
a sufficient extent in Soviet characterology . The level of development
of this method is still extremely low in Soviet characterology . In
part, this is due to the fact , in the opinion of the majority of Soviet
psychologists, laboratory experiments in characterology are considered
in general to have a limited application in view of the complexity of
the object of a characterological study and in view of the artificial
ity of a laboratory situation .
The requirements imposed upon a characterological experiment,
the basic ways , possibilities and long - range prospects of this method
are described by A. G. Kovalev and v . N. Myasishchev [ 36; 235-2407. As
an example of the application of this method may be cited the investiga
tions performed by F.I. Ivashchenko [287and Ye . A. Serebryakova [877 .
F. I. Ivashchenko has used the method of voluntary associations and in
voluntary inter - associative connections ( during recall of word pairs,
designating various colors) in studying certain manifestations of a
feeling of assurance ( or lack of it) of their own powers of pupils
not making normal progress in school . Ye . A. Serebryakova has used ,
for the same purpose ( study of self - confidence in school children )
the method involving the solution by the school children of experimen
tal problems, having the same type of character , but differing in their
degree of difficulty; these problems were freely selected by the school
children themselves according to their self - appraisal .
Development work on methods involving the use of laboratory ex
periments , for the purposes of character studies, is one of the import
ant problems confronting Soviet characterology .
The biographical (psychographic) method is rather well developed
in Soviet characterology ; major credit in the development of this method
must be given to N. A. Rybikov . This method has been used , specifically ,
by N.D. Levitov [ 77 and A.G. Kovalev [31],[327, 1367 .
The conversational method is used in Soviet characterology mainly
as an auxiliary method . A substantiation and description of this method
has been given by N. D. Levitov ( 97; 178_1817. As an example of the ap
plication of this method, we might cite the studies performed by T. V.
Dragunova [21], A. P. Gurkina [187 and T. v. Rubtsova 1777. Another aux
iliary method in Soviet characterology is the method of study of the
products of human activity .

• 92 -
 A new field in characterology is the method of study of specific
forms of a psychological analysis of characters, impulses and motives
and character manifestations, which is being developed by associates of
the Chair of Psychology at the Saratov Pedagogical Institute (I. V.
Strakhov , V. I. Strakhov, V. M. Belyayeva, N. A. Dementiyeva and others );
this method is used in the writings of outstanding writers , such as L.
N. Tolstoy , I. A. Goncharov, A. P. Chekhov , N. G. Chernyshevskiy , in cor
relation with their views on the problem of character , its nature and
structure .
It cannot be stated that Soviet psychology has finally solved
the problem concerned with methods used in characterological studies .
As L. I. Bozhovich [ 707 correctly points out, the most important prob
lem confronting Soviet psychology has been , and still is , the problem
of finding such methods of investigation and such modifications of
these methods, as will make it possible to establish the internal
psychological nature of individual personality properties, their struc
ture and peculiarities, which will make it possible not only to form
various personality qualities , but also to determine its essence ,
Such is the status of Soviet psychology of character .

. 93 -
 LITERATURE

T. I. Agafonov , " Activation of the Will of Students During

the course of Agricultural Work , " Abstracts of Reports Presented at the
First Congress of the Society of Psychologists , No. 1 , Moscow , Publish
ing House of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences , 1959 .
1a . A. S. Alyakrinskaya, " Understanding of Honor by Pupils and
Honor as a Motive of their Behavior , Author's Abstract of Candidate's
Dissertation , Moscow , 1953.
2 . B. G. Anan'yev, Vospitaniye kharaktera shkol'nikov ( Character
Training in School Children ) , Leningrad , Publishing House of the All
Union Society for the Dissemination of Political and Scientific know
ledge , 1941 .
3. B. G. Anan'yev , Problema formirovayiya kharaktera ( The Prob
lem of Character Formation ) , Leningrad , Publishing House of the All - Union
Society for the Dissemination of Political and Scientific knowledge , 1949.
4. B. G. Anan'yev, " On Interrelationships in the Development of
Abilities and Character , " Reports Presented at a Conference on Problems
of the Psychology of Personality , Moscow , Publishing House of the RSFSK
Academy of Pedagogical Sciences, 1956 .
4a . T. N. Anastasiyeva and Yu . V. Rusov, "On the Educational Ef
fectiveness of Productive Work Done by School Children , " Sovetskaya
pedagogika (Soviet Pedagogy ) , No. 9 , 1959 .
5. V. I. Asnin , " Problems concerned with a Study of the Degree
of Discipline Among Students , " Reports Presented at a conference on
Problems of the Psychology of Personality , Moscow , Publishing House of
the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences, 1956.
6. V. I. Asnin , " On Conditions Governing the Formation of Dis
cipline Among School Children , " Papers of a Conference on Psychology ,
Moscow , Publishing House of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences ,
1957 .
7. G. I. Bizenkov , "On the Formation and Development of Criticism
and Self - Criticism in Senior -Grade Students of a Secondary School , "
Author's Abstract of Candidates Dissertation , Moscow , 1953 .
8. A. A. Bodalev , "On the Formation of Self - Exactingness in
School Children , " Uchenve zapiski LGU ( Academic Reports of Leningrad
State University ) , Leningrad , No. 203, 1955 .
9. A. A. Bodalev , " On the Development of a Self- Exactingness in
School Children , ” Papers of a Conference on Psychology , Moscow , Publish
ing House of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences, 1957 .
10. L. I. Bozhovich , " Certain Problems concerning the Formation
of Personality of School Children and Methods of Studying Such Problems, "
Voprosy psikhologii (Problems of Psychology ), No. 5 , 1956.
11. Ye . D. Varnakova , "On the Development of Personality in a Pro
duction Collective , " Reports Presented at a Conference on Problems of the
Psychology of Personality , Moscow , Publishing House of the RSFSR Academy
of Pedagogical Sciences , 1956 .

- 94 -
 12 . A. V. Vedenov , Vospitaniye voli u rebenka v semive ( Develop
mentofthe will of a child in the Family) , Moscow, Publishing House of
the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences, 1952 .
13. A. V. Vedenov , Vospitaniye voli shkol'nikov v protsesse uch
ebnoy deyatel'nosti (Development of the will of School Children During
the course of Study Activities ) , Moscow , Publishing House of the RSFSR
Acaderny of Pedagogical Sciences , 1957 .
14. M. N. Volokitina , Ocherki psikhologii shkol'nikov pervogo
klassa ( Outline of the Psychology of First- Grade Pupils) , Moscow , State
Training and Pedagogical Literature Publishing House , 1951 .
15. N. P. Galitskiy, " Educational Talks With Students . " Anthol
ogy : " Educational and Training Work in Schools , " Moscow , Publishing House
of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences RSFSR , 1950 .
16. v. A. Gorbacheva , " Formation of Human Behavior in a Junior
Kindergarten Group , " Izvestiya APN RSFSR (Gazette of the RSFSR Academy
of Pedagogical Sciences) , No. 62, 1954 .
17. D. A. Gotseridze, " On a Characterological Classification of
Personality . " Anthology : " Psychology , " Publishing House of the Academy
of Sciences Georgian SSR , 1945.
18. A. P. Gurkina, " Realization of Moral - Psychological Qualities
of the Personality by School Children of the 5th to 7th Grades," Author's
Abstract of a Candidate's Dissertation , Moscow , 1950 .
19. N. F. Dobrynin , " The Problem of the Activity of the Personal .
ity and the Principle of Social Significance in Psychology , " Reports of
a Conference on Problems of the Psychology of Personality , Moscow , Pube
lishing House of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences , 1956 .
20. N.F. Dobrynin, " The Problem
ofSignificancein Psychology ,"
Papers of a Conference on Psychology , Moscow , Publishing House of the
RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences , 1957 .
21. T. V. Dragunova , "On the Characteristic of Certain Psycho
logical Peculiarities of Soviet Adolescents , " Author's Abstract of Can
didate's Dissertation , Moscow , 1951 .
22 . Ye . P. Yeres !, " Manifestations of a Lack of Discipline in
School Children Connected with a Deficient Home Training , " Reports Pre
sented at a Conference on Problems of the Psychology of Personality , Mos
cow , Publishing House of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences, 1956 .
23. L, B. Yermolayeva Tomina, " The Unmasking of Temperament and
Its Pedagogical Significance ," Sovetskaya pedagogika ( Soviet Pedagogy ) ,
No. 11 , 1953 .
24. A. I. Zhavoronko , " Psychological Characteristics in the Fos
tering of collectivism in Children of Medium School Age , " Author's Ab
stract of Candidate's Dissertation , Kiev, 1953.
25. A. I. Zhavoronko , " On the Formation of Responsibility in
Junior School Children , " Papers of a Conference on Psychology , Moscow ,
Publishing House of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences, 1957 .
26. R. N. Ibragimova , " First Rudiments of the Feeling of Duty in
Pre- School Age Children , " Author's Abstract of Candidate's Dissertation ,
1952 .
- 95 -
 27 . Ye . A. Ivanova , " Peculiar Features of a Critical Attitude
Towards Oneself in 5th - 7th Grade Students , " Author's Abstract of Candi
date's Dissertation , Moscow , 1955 .
28. F. I. Ivashchenko , " Development of Self - Confidence in Poorly
Progressing School children , " Author's Abstract of a Candidate's Disser
tation , Moscow , 1952.
28a. V. I. Kireyanko , " Personality Formation of Students During
the course of Work in Pupil's Brigades , " Abstracts of Reports Presented
at the First Congress of the Society of Psychologists, No. 1 , Moscow ,
Publishing House of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences , 1959 .
29. A. G. Kovalev , Orabo te klassnogo rukovoditelya po izucheniyu
shkol'nika (On the work of a class Instructor At the Study of School
Children ) , Crimea State Publishing House , 1949 .
30 . A. G. Kovalev , " World Outlook as a Factor in Character Forma
tion , " Izvestiya Krymskogo Pedagogicheskogo Institute (Gazette of the
Crimean Pedagogical Institute) , Vol . 15, Crimea State Publishing House ,
1950 .
31. A. G. Kovalev , " Typical Characteristics of the Character of
Senior School Children , " Author's Abstract of Candidate's Dissertation ,
Leningrad , 1953.
32. A. G. Kovalev , Kharakter i zakonomernosti ego formirovaniya
( Character and Rules Governing Its Formation ) , Leningrad, 1954 .
33. A. G. Kovalev , "Methods for Studying the Character of School
Children , " Uchenwe zapiski LGU ( Academic Reports of Leningrad State Uni
versity ), Leningrad , N. 203, 1955 .
34. A. G. Kovalev , " The Process of Character Reconstruction in
School Children , " Reports Presented at a conference on Problems of the
Psychology of Personality , Moscow , Publishing House of the RSFSR Academy
of Pedagogical Sciences, 1956 .
35. A. G. Kovalev, " Problems concerned with the Characterology
of School Children , " Papers of a Conference on Psychology , Moscow , Pub
lishing House of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences , 1957 .
35a. A. G. Kovalev and A. A. Bodalev, Psikholígiya i pedagogika
samo - vospitaniya ( Psychology and Pedagogy of Self- Training) , Leningrad ,
Publishing House of Leningrad State University , 1957.
36. A. G. Kovalev and V. N. Myasishchev , Psikhicheskive
osobennosti cheloveka ( Psychic Characteristics of Man ) , Vol. I (Char
acter ), Leningrad, Publishing House of Leningrad State University ,
1957 .
37. K. N. Kornilov, Vospitaniye voli i kharaktera ( Training of
Will and Character) , Moscow - Leningrad , State Children's Literature Pub
lishing House , 1948 ,
38. K. N. Kornilov , " Principles for Studying the Psychology of
the Personality of Soviet Man , " Voprosy psikhologii ( Problems of Psychol
ogy) , No. 5, 1957 .
39 . V. D. Kotlyarov , " The Problem of the Volitional Character
Traits of Students , " Author's Abstract of Candidate's Dissertation ,
Leningrad , 1956.

- 96 -
 40. I. M. Krasnobayev, " Formation of Ethical Concepts in Senior
School children , " Reports Presented at a conference on Problems of the
Psychology of Personality , Moscow , Publishing House of the RSFSR Academy
of Pedagogical Sciences , 1956 .
41. V. A. Krutetskiy , " Understanding and Evaluation of Certain
Moral qualities of the Personality by School Children , " Voprosy psikholo
gii ( Problems of Psychology ), No. 2 , 1956.
42. v. A. Krutetskiy , Vospitaniye voli ( Training of the Will ) ,
Moscow , State Training and Pedagogical Literature Publishing House , 1957 .
43. V. M. Lapik , " Psychological Foundations for Training Voli .
tional qualities of the Personality of a School Child in a Collective , "
Author's Abstract of Candidate's Dissertation , Moscow , 1956.
44 . A. P. Larin , " Concerning the Essence and Reasons of Child
Stubbornness , " Author's Abstract of Candidate's Dissertation , Moscow ,
1953 .
45. N. D. Levitov , " The Influence of Personal Example Upon the
Formation of Character in 10th Grade Students, " Uchenye zapiski GIP
( Academic Reports of the State Scientific Research Institute of Psy
chiatry ) , Vol . II , Moscow , 1941 .
46. N. D. Levitov , " The Problem of Psychic States , " Voprosy
psikhologii ( Problems of Psychology ) , No. 2, 1955.
47. N. D. Levitov , Voprosy psikhologii kharaktera ( Problems of
the Psychology of Character ) , Moscow , State Training and Pedagogical
Literature Publishing House , 1956 .
48. N. D. Levitov, Kharakter i ego formirovaniye ( Character and
Its Formation ), Moscow , Publishing House " Pravda, " 1950 .
49. N. S. Leytes, " Disposition to work as a Factor of Talent, "
Izvestiya APN RSFSR (Gazette of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences),
NO . 25 , 1950 .
50. N. A. Lisenkova , " Psychological Analysis of Typological Char
acteristics of the Written Speech of Senior School Children , " Author's
Abstract of Candidate's Dissertation , Moscow , 1950 .
51. N. S. Lukin , Vospitaniye wderzhki u podrostkov ( Development
of Equanimity in Adolescents ) , Moscow , State Training and Pedagogical
Literature Publishing House , 1955 .
52. A. S. Makarenko , Izbrannve pedagogicheskiye sochineniya
sochineniya (Selected Pedagogical Works) , Moscow , 1949 .
53. A. L. Maliovanov , " The Role of Moral Conviction in the For .
mation of a Disciplined Behavior in Soviet Adolescents , " Author's Ab
stract of Candidate's Dissertation , Moscow , 1954 .
54. M. A. Men’shikova , " Development of Initiative as a Character
Trait , " Voprosy psikhologii ( Problems of Psychology ), No. 5 , 1956.
55. M. A. Men'shikova, " The Formation of Initiative as a Char
acter Trait of the Soviet Worker , " Reports Presented at a conference on
Problems of the Psychology of Personality , Moscow , Publishing House of
the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences, 1956.
55a . V. S. Merlin , Ocherk psikhologii lichnosti (Outline of a Psy
chology of Personality) , Perm , Perm ' Publishing House, 1959 .

- 97
 56. V. S. Moskvitin , "On Boldness and Its Training, " Author's
Abstract of Candidate's Dissertation , Moscow , 1950 .
57 . L. Ya . Myshko , " Psychological Analysis of Methods for Train
ing the Will at the Level of the First and Second Grades, " Author's Ab..
stract of Candidate's Dissertation , Moscow , 1943 .
58. V. N. lyasishchev , " The Problem of Attitudes in the Psychol
ogy of Individual Differences, " Anthology : " Problems of Psychology , "
Leningrad , Publishing House of Leningrad State University , 1948 .
59. V. N. Myasishchev , " Problems of Human Psychology in the Light
of the Teaching of I. P. Pavlov on the Relation of the Organism Towards
its Environment , " Uchenwe zapiski LGU ( Academic Reports of Leningrad
State University ), Leningrad , No. 174 , 1953.
60. v. N. Myasishchev, " The Problem of a Psychological Type in
the Light of Pavlovis Teaching , " Ibid ., Leningrad , No. 185, 1954 .
61. v. N. Myasi shchev, " Problems of Psychology in the Light of
the Opinions Expressed by Classical Writers on Marxism -Leninism in Regard
to Human Relations, " Ibid . , Leningrad , No. 203, 1955 .
62. V, N. Myasi shchev, " The Structure of Personality and Human
Attitudes Towards Reality , " Reports Presented at a Conference on Problems
of the Psychology of Personality, Moscow , Publishing House of the RSFSR
Academy of Pedagogical Sciences, 1956.
63. v. N. Myasishchev , " The Problem of Human Personality and Re
lations, " Papers of a Conference on Psychology, Moscow , Publishing House
of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences , 1957 .
64. Ya . 2. Neverovich, " Psychological Analysis of the Process of
the Formation of Diligence in Older Children of Pre - School Age , "
Izvestiya APN RSFSR (Gazette of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences RSFSR ),
No. 64 , 1955 .
65 . A. P. Nechayev , Kharakter cheloveka (Human Character ) , Moscow
Leningrad , State Publishing House , 1929 .
66. V. I. Ovchinnikov , " Concerning the Psychology of the Develop
ment and Formation of Convictions in Soviet Youth , " Author's Abstract of
Candidate's Dissertation , Moscow , 1950 .
67 . A. K. Perov, " Psychology of Boldness and Fear in Connection
With the Problem of Character , " Candidate's Dissertation , Moscow , 1946 .
68. A. K. Perov , " On the Formation of Character of Soviet Man , "
Uchenyve zapiski Sverdlovskogo GPI (Academic Reports of the Sverdlovsk
State Pedagogical Institute) , No. 9 , 1954 .
69 . A. K. Perov, " Development of Character Traits Out of Psychic
Processes and Temporary States of the Individual , " Papers of a Conference
on Psychology , Moscow , Publishing House of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogi
cal Sciences , 1957 .
69a. Psikhologiya ( Psychology ) . A textbook for pedagogical insti .
tutes. (Chapter on " Character" ) , Moscow , State Training and Pedagogical
Literature Publishing House , 1956 .
70 . A. Ye . Petrova , Psikhologicheskaya klassifikatsiya lichnostev
( Psychological Classification of Personalities ) , Leningrad , 1927 .

- 98 .
 71. S. A. Petukhov , " Display of Initiative by 3d Grade Stud
ents , " Author's Abstract of Candidate's Dissertation , Moscow , 1954 .
72. A. V, Poltev , " Persistence of Teen - Age School Children
and Its Development During the course of Studies, " Author's Abstract
of Candidate's Dissertation , Moscow , 1956.
73. P. A. Prosetskiy , " Example as One of the Factors in the
Formation of Personality , " Reports Presented at a Conference on Prob
lems of the Psychology of Personality , Moscow , Publishing House of
the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences , 1956 .
74. S. M. Rives , "On the Problem of Methods for Conducting
Ethical Talks , " Sovetskaya pedagogika ( Soviet Pedagogy ) , No. 4, 1948 .
75. S. M. Rives , Vospitaniye voli uchashchikhsya v protsesse
obucheniya ( Training the Will of Students During the course of In
struction ), Moscow , Publishing House of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagog
ical Sciences, 1958 .
76. S. L. Rubinshteyn , " Theoretical Problems of Psychology and
the Problem of Personality , " Voprosy psikhologii ( Problems of Psychology ),
No. 3, 1957 .
76a . S. L. Rubinshteyn , Bytiye i so znaniye ( Being and Conscious
ness) , Moscow , Publishing House of the Academy of Sciences USSR , 1957 .
76b . S. L. Rubinshteyn , Printsipy i puti razvitiya psikhologii
( Principles and Courses of Development of Psychology) , Moscow , Publish
ing House of the USSR Academy of Sciences , 1959 .
77. T. V. Rubtsova , N Peculiarities in the Realization of Moral
Properties of Personality by School Children of Various Age , " Voprosy
psikhologii ( Problems of Psychology ), No. 4, 1956 .
78. T. V. Rubtsova , " On the Recognition of Moral Properties of
Personality by School children , " Papers of a Conference on Psychology ,
Moscow , Publishing House of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences,
1957 .
79 . 0. I. Ruta , " Peculiar Features of Ethical Talks in Ele .
mentary Schools, " Sovetskava pedagogika (Soviet Pedagogy ), No. 5, 1949.
80. Yu . A. Samarin , " Style of Mental Work of Senior School
Children , " Izvestiya APN RSFSR (Gazette of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagog
ical Sciences) , No. 17, 1948 .
81. Yu . A. Samarin , Razvitiye i vospitaniye detey v perekhodnom
vozraste (Development and Education of Children at the Age of Puberty) ,
Leningrad, Publishing House of the Society for the Dissemination of Po
litical and Scientific Knowledge, 1950 .
82. Yu , A. Samarin , Vospitaniye voli i kharaktera ( Development
of Will and Character ) , Leningrad , Publishing House of the Society for
the Dissemination of Political and Scientific knowledge , 1952 .
83. G. F. Sambros, " The Study of Students by Teachers and the
Compilation of Psychological - Pedagogical Characteristics of Students , "
Author's Abstract of Candidate's Dissertation , Moscow , 1954.
84 . P. I. Samoukov , " content and Principal Forms of the Work
Done by a Mass Leader in Connection with the Explanation of ' Student

99 -
Rules' in the 5th Grade and the Training of the Students in Complying
With These Rules , " Author's Abstract of Candidate's Dissertation , Mos
cow , 1954 .
85. I. F. Svadkovskiy, o vospitanii trudolgubiva u detev (on the
Development of Diligence in Children ) , Moscow , State Training and Peda
gogical Literature Publishing House , 1959 .
86. V. I. Selivanov , Vospitaniye voli shkol'nikov ( Training of
the Will of School Children ), Moscow , State Training and Pedagogical
Literature Publishing House , 1954 .
86а . V. I. Selivanov , " Changes in the Personality of School Chil
dren During the course of Their Participation in Agricultural Work , " Ab
stracts of Reports Presented at the First Congress of the Society of
Psychologists , No. 1 , Moscow , Publishing House of the Academy of Peda
gogical Sciences RSFSR , 1959 .
86b . R. G. Selivanova , " The Influence of Friendship Upon the
Formation of Character in Teen - Age School Children , " Uchenye zapiski
Saratovskogo GPI (Academic Reports of the Saratov State Pedagogical In
stitute ) , No. 29 , 1957 .
87 . Ye . A. Serebryakova, " Confidence in Oneself and Conditions
for Its Formation in School Children , " Author's Abstract of Candidate's
Dissertation , Moscow , 1955 .
88. L. S. Slavina, " Formation of a Responsible Fulfillment of
Study Duties in School Children Belonging to the First Grades , " Voprosy
psikhologii ( Problems of Psychology) , No. 5 , 1956 .
89. A. A. Amirnov , Psikhologiya zapominaniya ( Psychology of Re
call ) , Moscow , Publishing House of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical
Sciences , 1948 .
90. A. A. Smirnov , " Problems of the Psychology of Personality
of Soviet School Children , " Sovetskaya pedagogika (Soviet Pedagogy ) , No.
2 , 1950 .
91. G. A. Sobiyeva, " Formation of Self-Knowledge and Self
Appraisal in Adolescents , " Reports Presented at a conference on Prob
lems of the Psychology of Personality , Moscow , Publishing House of the
RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences, 1956.
92. I. V. Strakhov, " Emotional Components of the Character of
School Children in Connection With General Characterology , " Doctoral
Dissertation , Moscow , 1940 ,
92a . I. V. Strakhov, O druzhbe shkol'nikov ( Concerning Friend
ship Among School Children ), Saratov , Oblast Publishing House, 1946 .
92b . I. V. Strakhov , "L. N. Tolstoy on the Structure of Char
acter, " Nauchrn brulleten ! LGU ( Scientific Bulletin of Leningrad State
University) , No. 13, 1946 .
92c . I. V. Strakhov , " Internal Monologs in the Writings of L. N.
Tolstoy as a Source for Studying Emotional - Volitional Processes , "
Sovetskaya pedagogika ( Soviet Pedagogy ), No. 3, 1946 .
93. I. V. Strakhov, "On the Psychological Analysis of Char
acter, " Ucherwe zapiski Saratovskogo GPI (Academic Reports of Saratov
State Pedagogical Institute ) , No. 9 , 1947 .

100
 93a , I. V. Strakhov, " Character and Its Stable Expressive Symp
toms in the Description of L. N. Tolstoy , " Anthology : " Problems of Psy
chology , " Moscow , Publishing House of the Leningrad State University,
1948 .
93b . I. V. Strakhov , "L. N. Tolstoy on the Psychology of Char
acter , " Ucheme zapiski. Saratovskogo GPI ( Academic Reports of Saratov
State Pedagogical Institute ) , No. 12 , 1948 .
93c. I. V. Strakhov , " Problems of the Psychology of Friendship
Among School Children , " Ibid . , No. 29 , 1957 .
93d . I. V. Strakhov , " The Problem of Character in the Works Pub
lished by the Chair of Psychology at the Saratov Pedagogical Institute , "
Voprosy psikhologii (Problems of Psychology ), No. 5 , 1958 .
93e . I. E. Strelkova , " The Meaning of Friendship to Teen - Age
School Children As Shown By Certain Peculiarities in Their Behavior , "
Uchenye zapiski Saratovskogo GPI (Academic Reports of Saratov State
Pedagogical Institute ), No. 29, 1957.
94 . N. I. Sudakov , " Psychological characteristic of the Persisto
ence Displayed by Senior Grade Students , " Author's Abstract of Candidate's
Dissertation , Moscow , 1950 .
95. A. V. Surovtseva, Vospitaniye voli detey ( Training of Chil
dren's Wills ) , Moscow , State Training and Pedagogical Literature Publish
ing House , 1952.
96. V. Sukhomlinskiy , " Exercise - One of the Methods for the De
velopment of a conscious Discipline, " Sovetskava pedagogika ( Soviet
Pedagogy ) , No. 5, 1952.
97. V. Ye . Syrkina, " Development of Abilities and Character , "
Ibid . , No. 2, 1947 .
98. V. Ye . Syrkina, " Typical Character Traits Under Various con
crete Historical conditions, " Ibid ., No. 4, 1948 .
99. A. V. Timofeyeva , " Development of Volitional Qualities in
Soviet Man During the course of Production Work , Author's Abstract of
Candidate's Dissertation , Moscow , 1953.
100. V. S. Filatov , " The Teaching of Character and Its Formation
Under the conditions Found in a Socialist Society , " Author's Abstract
of Candidate's Dissertation , Moscow , 1952 .
101. V. S. Filatov, " The Psychology of Character in the Light of
Pavlov's Teaching on the Physiology of the Higher Neural Activity , "
Anthology : " The Teaching of I. P. Pavlov and Philosophical Problems of
Psychology , " Moscow , Publishing House of the USSR Academy of Sciences,
1952 .
102. A. N. Chebotarev , " The Development of the Concepts of Honesty
and truthfulness in Senior Grade Suvorov Cadets , " Author's Abstract of
Candidate's Dissertation , Moscow , 1952 .
103. V. P. Chubukov, " Psychology of Mental Work Habits of Senior
School children , " Author's Abstract of Candidate's Dissertation , Moscow ,
1953 .

. 101 -
 104. A. L. Shnirman , " Psychological Foundations of the Study of
the Personality of Students , " Sovetskava pedagogika ( Soviet Pedagogy ),
No. 10 , 1948 .
105. A. L. Shnirman , " Formation of Attitudes Towards the collec
tive and Development of Self -Knowledge in Senior School Children , "
Izvestiya APN RSFSR (Gazette of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences
RSFSR ) , No. 26 , 1950 .
106. A. L. Shnirman , " On the Problem of the Training in Collecti
vism of Senior School Children , " Ibid ., No. 26 , 1950 .
107. A. L. Shnirman , " On the Study of Personality Development in
a Collective , " Voprosy psikhologii ( Problems of Psychology ) , No. 2, 1955 .
108. A. L. Shnirman , “ The Collective as a Vital Condition for
the Formation of the Personality of School Children , " Reports Presented
at a Conference on Problems of the Psychology of Personality , Moscow ,
Publishing House of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences, 1956 .
109. A. L. Shnirman , " The Role of the Primary Collective in the
Formation of the Personality of Secondary School Students , " Papers of
a Conference on Psychology , Moscow , Publishing House of the RSFSR Acad
emy of Pedagogical Sciences , 1957 .
110. V. A. Yakovlev , " Productive Labor as a Crucial Factor in
the Formation of the Personality of Students , " Abstracts of Reports Pre
sented at the First Congress of the Society of Psychologists, No. 1 ,
Moscow , Publishing House of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences ,
1959 .
111. T. G. Yakusheva, " Psychological Characteristics of Socia
bility in School Children with Different Types of Temperament , "
Uchenyyezapiski Saratovskogo GPI ( Academic Reports of the Saratov
State Pedagogical Institute) , No. 29 , 1957 .

• 102 -
 INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN APTITUDES

By N. S. Leytes

The study of aptitudes constitutes one of the main subdivisions

in the psychology of personality .
Questions of basic significance for this particular problem , con
cerned with the role of heredity , environment, education and motive
forces of psychic development, have been treated in studies conducted
by G. S , Kostyuk [ 20 , 217, A. N. Leont'yev [ 34, 367, s. L. Rubinshteyn
[ 48, 497 and B. M. Teplov [58, 59). In these studies is expressed a
dialectical -materialist approach to an understanding of the nature of
aptitudes and the generic laws governing the formation of aptitudes are
noted . The above -mentioned authors have shown that a study of aptitudes
is possible only within the framework of an investigation of concrete
types of activity , which have been formed during the course of history
and which have a social significance , Aptitudes as such cannot be given
in finished form from the time of birth . Natural data , or dispositions,
are of great significance, but they only represent one of the conditions
in the very complex process of the development of aptitudes . The latter
are formed and developed during the course of an interaction between the
individual and the reality around him . Social and historical conditions
are of major importance for the development of aptitudes .
The foundations of the theory of aptitudes were formulated by K.
Marx ( a review of early works by K. Marx , from the standpoint of the
problems encountered in psychology , has been given by S. L. Rubinshteyn
[ 507 ) . Exceptionally important is the Marxist principle stating that
Communism will enable the realization of " the vocation , purpose and
task of every man namely the all - round development of his aptitudes"
(K. Marx and F. Engels, Works, Second Edition , Vol. 3, 1955 , page 282) .
In contrast to bourgeois theories, which provide arguments in support
of class , national and racial inequality , Soviet psychology approaches
the problem of aptitudes from the standpoint of " generic potentials
for the development of psychic properties , common to all people , and from
the standpoint of individual differences . Marxist theory and the exper
ience gained by the Soviet state show that, in the context of a class
less society , as the gap between mental and physical work is overcome ,
the performance of all mass types of human activity becomes practically
possible for all persons who are not suffering from some kind of organic
defect . At the same time , it is precisely this all - round development of
aptitudes which favors the manifestation of all creative powers of man ,
which makes it possible for an individual uniqueness of aptitudes to ex
press itself most fully_and strikingly .
B. M. Teplov [59] has conducted a detailed critical analysis of
the positions held by bourgeois authors, who have been using , for the
purpose of determining aptitudes , tests and " the method for measuring
known factors . " The formal establishment of " levels" in aptitudes and
the calculation of " intelligence quotients have become , in bourgeois

- 103 -
countries, a means for justifying the class and national inequality
engendered by the conditions of a capitalist society . In his study, B.
M. Teplov, has convincingly shown the scientific inconsistency of the
above methods and the class narrowmindedness of bourgeois concepts . A
critical analysis of one of the recent bourgeois studies dealing with
talent has been given in an article published by A. V. Yarmolenko [ 757.
Data dealing with the study of general mental faculties are being
accipulated in Soviet psychology ; detailed studies have been conducted
on the subject of certain special aptitudes, such as musical and drawing
aptitudes ; abilities in the technical field , in the field of sports ,
etc. , are being studied . These research studies are characterized by
a wide variety of methods used .
The most complete and apodictic studies are those concerned with
musical aptitudes . The study conducted by B. M. Petlov, entitled " Psy
chology of Musical Aptitudes [61], in addition to its special signif
icance, has supplied a wealth of material for the development of
problems concerned with the general theory of abilities . The following
principles are especially important .
Musical talent, understood as the total set of abilities which
are necessary for engaging precisely in musical activities , and especially
in the most beloved forms of music , represents a combination of emotional
response to music and of special peculiarities of auditory perception ,
an Near " for music . The identification of individual musical aptitudes
is possible only on the basis of a study of the peculiar features of mu
sical activity .
B. M. Teplov has established the following three basic musical
aptitudes: 1) sense of harmony (see Note], that is, the abilityto dis
tinguish the harmonious nature of the individual sounds of a melody,
their stability and instability , the degree of these properties, the
" attraction of sounds to each other . This feeling is directly expres
sed in a recognition of a melody , in an emotional response to this mel
ody , in a sensitivity to the accuracy of intonation . 2) an auditory
imagination , the ability to utilize at will auditory representations,
reflecting tone and pitch relations . This aptitude manifests itself in
an ability to reproduce a melody by ear , primarily to sing it . At higher
levels of development, this aptitude constitutes what is usually called
" internal ear . " 3) a musical - rhythmic sense , namely the ability to ex
perience music actively ( in a motor sense ), to feel the expressiveness
of a musical rhythm and to reproduce this rhythm accurately . A musical
rhythmic sense lies at the base of those aspects of a musical talent ,
which are connected with the perception and reproduction of time rela
tions in music . A musical - rhythmic sense , along with a sense of harmony ,
represents the basis of an emotional response to music .
( Note7 Harmony is a concordance of musicalsounds, determined by
the dependence of unstable sounds on stable ones . )
The ratio between the above -mentioned abilities may be different
in different people , This means that progress in musical work can be
achieved in different ways . It has been established that , among

. 104 .
pre - school age children who are successfully engaged in a study of music,
some children display a considerable sense of harmony and aptitude for
auditory imagination , while having an insufficient sense of rhythm , while
others display an aptitude for auditory imagination and a well -developed
sense of rhythm , while having a relatively weak sense of harmony , while
a third group is characterized by a strong sense of harmony and musical
rhythm with a meager aptitude for audi tory imagination . Thus, the com
plexes of musical abilities may differ not only in degree but also in
their qualitative specificity .
Musical abilities are developed during the actual process of mu
sical activity , they cannot " mature " in advance, independently of a per
ception of music and musical exercises ( in all studied cases of a very
early development of musical talent, either à direct concern on the part
of parents for a musical development of their child , or at least a suffi
cient wealth of musical impressions, were observed ) .
Musical talent may develop on a varied natural basis ; for example,
it may be formed both in the context of the possession of an absolute ear
and in the absence of this aptitude ; this means that some abilities may
be compensated by others .
A thorough study of musical abilities has exerted a significant
effect on the state of the problem concerned with abilities in general .
Many of the conclusions mentioned above have an importance which tran
scends the limits of problems of musical talent . Thus, obviously , in
regard to abilities in any field , the following principles are appli
cable : 1 ) abilities can be established or detected only on the basis of
an analysis of concrete activity; 2) the development of abilities takes
place during the actual process of activity ; 3) the successful progress
of an activity depends upon a complex of abilities ; 4 ) great achievements
in the same type of activity may be conditioned by a combination of var
ious abilities ; and 5) a compensation of certain abilities by others is
possible within a wide range . All of these principles have become start
ing points for subsequent studies on the psychology of abilities .
In the field of drawing aptitudes, experimental research work is
being conducted by V. I. Kireyenko. In one of his studies [ 12 ], a spe
cial instrument built by the author is used, which makes it possible to
establish the accuracy of " an estimation by sight" ( the latter expresses
itself in an estimate of the size or magnitude , in the finding of a fig
ure equal to the prescribed figure ) and the accuracy of " an estimate of
proportions" (which expresses itself in the perception and reproduction
of ratios of magnitude ) . Two contrasting groups of test subjects were
selected : one group included persons who did not manifest any apti .
tude for drawing nor engage in this type of activity , while the other
group included persons known to have a drawing talent . These tests
showed that an estimation by sight is not directly related to success
in drawing . In regard to the estimate of proportions, it was found that
persons having drawing abilities have a lower threshhold than persons in
capable of drawing; in various modifications of tests ( establishment of
a similarity between two figures , proportional division of rectangles,

105 -
proportional division of a portrait, etc. ) , similar results were ob
tained : a relatively small fluctuation in the magnitude of the thresh
hold within each group , and a sharp divergence between test subjects
belonging to the various groups . Thus , it was established that an es
timate of proportions is a specific ability connected with imaginative
activity . At the same time it was found that the accuracy in the es
timate of proportions is by no means proportional to age ( the test
subjects included persons of various ages, starting with seven -year -old
children ), and that this estimate of proportion cannot be reduced merely
to drawing knacks or habits; in the group consisting of " the drawers, "
the lowest threshholds in the estimate of proportions were found in a
mature professional artist and in a seven - year - old boy , who had never
received any instruction but who was highly interested in and enthusi
astic about drawing . This particular study disclosed that persons with
drawing aptitudes achieve the solution of the problems presented to them
in a different manner than do persons who have no imaginative ability ,
namely : the former find proportions directly , by means of a direct com
parison , whereas the latter are forced to have recourse to a comparison
of sizes or magnitudes and calculations ,
Another research projectof V.I. Kireyenko [137 was concerned
with a study of an evaluation of luminosity ratios . The author proceeded
from the fact that the form of objects is always revealed under condi
tions of a certain definite illumination ; in this case , the task of the
person who is drawing does not consist in the reproduction of the abso
lute strength of the light, but rather in a reproduction of the Iuminos
ity ratios of various surfaces of the form being represented . The
author has worked out an original method , which makes it possible, by
means of a special instrument, to judge the accuracy in the evaluation
of luminosity ratios . The test subjects were again divided into two
groups : persons , who disclosed definite abilities and success in draw
ing , and persons having no aptitude for drawing . These experiments
showed significant individual differences in the evaluation of luminos
ity ratios . And in the process , a striking advantage of those people
who were successful in drawing was observed : on an average , the test
subjects of this group were able to estimate luminosity ratios four
and one half times more accurately than the test subjects belonging to
the group of non - drawers . Thus an estimate of luminosity ratios also
represents a specific aptitude for drawing .
The same study also presents tests , showing the accuracy with
which vertical and horizontal lines can be found by the eye , and the ac
curacy inestimating deviations from these lines , In these tests also ,
the results obtained with the first group differ significantly from the
results obtained with the second group : the magnitude of the error made
by each #drawer " test subject is several times smaller than the magnitude
of the errors made by each test subject belonging to the group of non
drawers . In this study, it was also possible to establish ( in the same
way as in the study concerned with an estimate of proportions) that test

. 106 .
subjects , exhibiting drawing abilities, performed their experimental
tasks by being guided by a direct impression , whereas the test subjects
which do not exhibit any progress in drawing, have recourse to judgments
and supplementary constructs .
The strong aspects of the studies belonging to this cycle include
an isolation of the simplest and at the same time key components of a
complex activity , the creation of new experimental methods, the utiliza
tion of quantitative indices for characterizing individual differences ,
and the discovery of various methods of performing one and the same type
of activity .
V. I. Kireyenko also has conducted a study concerned with the
problem
of the integrity of perception in connection with artistic abil
ities [147. The author, starting mainly from certain statements made
by I. P. Pavlov, believes that " the ability to record or get an impres
sion of an object as a whole and the absence of a tendency to analyze "
must be characteristic for persons of an artistic type . ( This principle
is a debatable one In this study a " volume- exposure apparatus ( con
structed by the author ) was used , with the aid of which a definite group
of objects is shown to the test subjects for a limited period of time
( two seconds ); during the further part of the test , it is established
whether the test subject has been able to perceive the group of objects
as a single visual image or whether each object has been perceived sep
arately . Tests, conducted with two specially selected groups of test
subjects -- an " artistic" and " non - artistich group -- have shown that
all test subjects of the first group , in comparison with the test sub
jects of the second group , are capable of better solving this particular
problem and retain more strongly in their memory the picture of the ar
rangement of objects , in other words, the visual images have a greater
degree of fullness as perceived by people belonging to the first group .
( Similar results have been obtained_in tests involving a recognition of
people according to photographs [ 157.) These facts are of undoubted
scientific interest. However, it does not appear that on the basis of
these tests , the principle can be confirmed that persons of the first
group do not exhibit a " tendency towards analysis . "
The above -mentioned study of V. I. Kireyenko , in regard to the
character of the method used and its initial principles, is closely re
lated to the research work done by M. N. Borisova 27, devoted to a
determination of the relations between the first and second signal sys
tems . In this research , the role of the first signal system was clar
ified , mainly in experiments requiring a direct integral visual percep
tion . The method proposed by M. N. Borisova , allowing a judgment of
the relative predominance of one of these two signal systems ( under
special test conditions), was used, specifically on students attending
an art school . It was found that a relative predominance of the first
signal system was observed in 23 out of 34 beginner artists , while in
11 of them a relative equilibrium of the signal systems was observed ;
among the beginner artists , not one could be found with a relative pre
dominance of the second signal system . The results of these tests also
indicate the connection between the integrity of perception and drawing
aptitudes .
- 107 -
 Thus , the tests conducted by V. I. Kireyenko and M. N. Borisova
have shown a special fullness and integrity of visual perception ( and
accordingly of recall) in persons of an artistic type. However, in
spite of the fact that the factual aspect of both of these studies can
not be argued , we believe that there is no reason to assume the absence
of analysis or a weakness or analysis in persons engaged in drawing.
The above authors may be reproached with absolutizing individual state
ments made by I. P. Pavlov , which contained such a train of thought.
Numerous data available on the composition works of artists rather con
vince us of the opposite fact : an artistic process is unthinkable with
out a constant and very subtle analysis . It may be assumed that further
research work will supplement this picture: along with peculiarities of
integral perception , specific characteristics of an artistic analysis
will also be studied .
Interesting data on the problem of the development of drawing
abilities in pre- school - age children are given in a study conducted by
N. P. Sakulina (52). TheThis
inative faculties ,
study analyzes the initial emergence of imag
principal content of this study is the presen
tation of the results of observations conducted on two children during
the course of drawing lessons, involving the use of various forms of
natural experiments performed over a period of three years ( from ages
4 to 7 years ) .The author gives an extremely detailed description of
the peculiarities of the drawing process in each child , as well as of
the drawings proper made by the children , and also of the behavior ac
companying the drawing process . On the basis of this study, a judgment
can be made on certain developmental elements of the imaginative facul
ties , as well as the individual uniqueness of their development. On a
theoretical plane , special attention should be given to the subdivision
of drawing aptitudes into " aptitudes of portrayal " and " aptitudes of
artistic expression , " which is made by the author . Abilities to portray
are responsible for those features of the drawing , on the basis of which
it is possible to recognize concrete objects and phenomena in this draw
ing ; these abilities assume the presence of the following components :
1 ) a fullness of perception and of images associated with this percep
tion ; 2) a mastery of means of graphic expression ; 3) a mastery of the
technique of drawing . As for the aptitudes of artistic expression ,
these are responsible for conveying a definite general idea in the draw
ing, as well as a personal attitude . They develop on the basis of an
esthetic perception of reality . There is no doubt that the difference
between the abilities to portray and abilities of expression is of con
siderable importance not only in the creative work of children .
Certain data relative to abilities to portray in their highest
manifestation , namely in the works of art of great artists , are given in
studies conducted by S. G. Kaplanova . One of these studies 9
analysis of the creative process of V. I. Surikov, and another study [107
gives a comparative characteristic of the creative imagination of I. Ye .
Repin and V. I. Surikov , The results of a psychological analysis of the
creative peculiarities of great realistic artists may be instructive in
properly guiding the development of the figurative aptitudes of beginner
artists .
108 -
 A number of studies are devoted to problems of the formation of
abilities and aptitudes towards other types of art . A number of subtle
observations on the development of artistic abilities in pre - school - age
children during the process of dramatic play are found in a study of N.
S. Karpinskaya [117 ; a great amount of attention is devoted by the
author to the development of aptitudes for expressive speech . Very val
uable in this respect are factual data on the interrelation between the
development of special abilities and the general development of a child .
Specifically , the problem of the relationship between abilities and
knowledge and skills is discussed in this study on the basis of concrete
data .
Certain problems of the development of artistic abilities of
school children during their activities in a dramatic group_ (adolescent
age ) are examined in a study conducted by Yu . I. Rubina [477. In giving
a general review of her many years of experience in the study of stud
ents , the author shows how a systematic participation in stage plays en
riches the perception of understanding of literary works , and develops
abilities " to hear better" ( to grasp the meaning and subtext) and " to
see better " ( to represent in one's imagination ).
In regard to the problem of manifestations of literary abilities
in children , interesting data are presented in the psychological sketches
of N. A. Chernikova [ 68 ]. These sketches, specifically, present a discus
sion of the problem of typological differences in the literary creative
work of children Studies conducted by E. G. Leybovskaya [ 30 ] and I. G.
Krivoshapkin [23] are concerned with the development of literary creative
abilities of school children . These studies present a general summary
of the experience gained during a practical guidance of the development
of literary abilities .
The problem of the interrelationship between literary abilities
and drawing aptitudes is described in a study by V. L. Drankov 6. This
study was conducted on an unusual material : the author studied the avail .
able data on the role played by drawing abilities in the creative work
of Pushkin and Lermontov . This study shows that clear ideas and their
graphic portrayal act as sort of " strong points" of the creative imag
ination of the writer . Thus , Pushkin very frequently had recourse to
drawings and sketches on the margins of his manuscript; such sketches
and drawings outlined the images of literary heroes , place of action
and individual poetical thoughts . In the numerous drawings made by
Lermontov, can be found the prototypes of almost all literary char
acters which are found in his works. A special analysis has shown the
most intimate interconnection between literary and properly descriptive
abilities in both great poets and the exceptionally favorable effect
of such a combination of abilities ,
Questions relative to the problem of artistic abilities as a whole ,
are examined in an article by B. M. Teplov entitled " Psychological Probo
lems of Artistic Training" (627, as well as in a book entitled "General
Problems of Esthetic Training in School " ( Chapter : " Training of Artistic

. 109 -
Abilities" ; the authors of this chapter are V. N. Shatskaya, Ye . G.
Savchenko, P. M. Yakobson [ 27 ). In these general studies, major at
tention is devoted to artistic aptitudes in childhood . The authors
proceed from the fact that the development of artistic abilities is a
potent means for effecting an all - round and harmonious development of
the personality . And in the process , the formation of artistic abil
ities is examined each time in its application to concrete conditions
of training and instruction .
The study of general mental faculties occupies a prominent
place in the elaboration of the psychology of abilities . In this
field , the unfavorable effects of mechanistic and " biologicalizing "
theories of intellect have been overcome . Oversimplified attempts
to measure mental ability by the methods of tests is already a thing
of the past , and the scientific inconsistency and practical harmfulness
of a considerable portion of the test methods has been clarified . The
decree of the Central Committee of the All - Union Communist Party (Bol
sheviks) , " Concerning Pedagogical Distortions Within the System of the
People's Commissariats of Public Education , " dated 4 July 1936 , has
played a decisive role in overcoming alien theories and pseudo
scientific methods . A characteristic feature of Soviet psychology is
the study of mental faculties in fieri, in process of development and in
intimate connection with other aspects of personality [35]. It should
be noted that the accumulation of scientific facts relative to mental
faculties is taking place not only in research projects which are es
pecially devoted to this problem , but also in a number of research
studies being conducted in the field of the psychology of instruction ,
A psychological analysis of several cases of outstanding mental
ability in children is presented in a study conducted by N. S. Leytes
[317 . This study gives a detailed description of three boys , ages nine
to eleven , characterized by an exceptionally high mental development and
extraordinary achievements for their ages . The intellectual data proper
for each child are presented against a background of a general character
stic of their personality . The study shows that a characteristic of
gifted children , and their basic psychological property , in addition to
all of the originality of mind and character of each such child , consists
in the need for a mental activity , a greater attraction towards work .
By means of specific data, the study shows how a striving to work , an
intense inclination towards some type of activity , contribute to the de
velopment of abilities and are responsible for the achievement of suc
cess a disposition to work stands out as a factor of a gifted nature .
It is noted in the above study that the thesis concerning the disposi
tion or inclination towards work as a factor of a gifted nature refers
not only to outstanding children , but also has a general significance ,
An analysis of outstanding mental faculties , which manifest them
selves in the field of " practical" thought, is given in the study of B.
M. Teplov on great military leaders [607. In this study , on the basis
of an extensive military -historical material, those psychological qual
ities are examined , which are indispensable for the activity of a military

- 110 -
leader . The study shows the unity between intellectual characteristics
proper and volitional characteristics . The author examines in detail
such mental traits, as concreteness of thought, ability to find a rapid
solution , a capacity for forecasting, etc. In this connection , a pecul
iar dialectic of mental faculties is disclosed , namely the need for com
bining opposite qualities of thought: speed and deliberation , caution
and boldness, flexibility and persistence , etc. The study also shows
the role played by knowledge and training in the matter of development
of mental faculties , Carried out on the basis of special data , this
study is of great general psychological interest .
Certain data on senior school children , characterized by high
mental faculties , may be found in a study of N. S. Leytes , devoted to
the problem of temperament [ 327 .
Abilities to assimilate mathematics in school were studied by
V. A. Krutetskiy ( 247. This author has disclosed and analyzed the pe
culiarities of the mental activity in the process of solving algebra
problems by students with various degrees of ability in the assimila
tion of mathematics , The method of research used was a comparative
analysis of the process of solution by students of sixth , seventh , and
eighth grades of specially selected experimental problems. V. A.
Krutetskiy has established that a significant place in the structure of
mathematical abilities is occupied by the rapidity of generalizing math
ematical data , rapidity of " convoluting" the thought process ( abbrevia
tion of the process of reasoning and of the system of corresponding acts) ,
as well as an ease of transition from direct operations to reverse opera
tions; the specific nature of the analytico - synthetic activity of stud
ents is expressed in the above characteristics ( abilities ) .
L. W. Landa [ 26 ] has studied individual differences between
eighth grade students in their assimilation of a new method of reason
ing during the solution of geometry problems. He has pointed out cer
tain " quantitative" characteristics in the formation of individual
mental faculties . Specifically , individual differences in the amount
of exercises required , differences in the work rate or tempo , differ
ences in the degree of difficulty experienced when it was necessary to
vary the operations, differences in the ease and success in which cer
tain operations were mastered , etc. , were taken into account. L. N.
Landa notes that, when we are dealing with individual differences, we
have to consider not only what a student has already achieved, i.e.,
his level of development, but we must also consider the capacity of
definite psychic properties for further development.
The problem of abilities, naturally , does not only have a
quantitative aspect: we cannot consider the problem merely from the
standpoint of how great are the abilities . of great significance are
differences in the abilities of the identically developed , i.e. , dif
ferences not in the degree , but in the uniqueness of abilities . ( The
above statements, obviously , refer not only to general mental faculties,
but also to an equal extent to any other faculties .)

. 111 -
 Directly related to the problem of the peculiar nature of mental
faculties are the principles, stated by I. P. Pavlov, concerning the
typological differences in the relation between the first and second
signals systems ( the hypothesis of " peculiarly human " types has al
ready been confirmed to a pretty great extent). Undoubtedly, the
fact that a person is classified as an artistic or " intellectual "
type may be reflected not only in his perception of art and in his
corresponding creative activities, but also has a broader meaning, and
leaves an imprint upon all of his psychic activity . Interesting ideas
concerning the importance of these_types for intellectual activity are
found in a study by A. T. Gubko 4 . In particular, this author has
correctly stressed the fact that in order to understand differences
in analytico - synthetic activity , it is indispensable to take into ac
count the signal nature of the objects being analyzed and systematically
classified .
In regard to mental faculties, the varying correlation between
signal systems is responsible, not for the magnitude or the level of
abilities, but merely for a certain peculiarity of the mind : lan
artistich type is inclined towards a more concrete , pictorial mode of
thought, while an " intellectual " type is disposed to think in a more
general abstract manner . Such_differences between school children were
studied by T. P. Terekhova [66] in connection with history classes and
by A. N. Turpanov [ 67 ] in connection with geography classes.
In a study conducted by N. A. Lisenkova [ 38 ] is shown how the
relationship between the signals systems is responsible for the pecu
liarity of literary abilities . By means of an analysis of numerous
compositions written by the students and a prolonged period of work with
individual students , the author has established two contrasting types
of written speech in senior pupils: 1 ) the type of expressive speech ,
where pictorial and emotional themes run through the entire text and the
method of exposition is conditioned to a great extent by an unfolding
of an image and the transmission of a mood ; 2) the type of logically co
herent speech , where the exposition has an exclusively conceptual char
acter , and the transition from one part of the text to another is deter
mined by generalized logical connections . According to the author, the
first type of speech is an expression of a relative predominance of the
first signals system , whereas the second type of speech expresses a
relative predominance of the second signals system . The study shows
that pictorial words and turns of speech are formed not all by them
selves , but as a result of a seeing of the image, i.e. , as a result of
the vividness and concreteness of sensory representations.
Yu . A. Samarin 547 has studied certain elements of the formation
of aptitudes for a foreign language . By using various types of associ
ative experiments ( the test subjects were students ), he was able to show
that " the growth in the rate of the associative process ( the naming of
words in the foreign language in response to a given stimulus word ) has
a nonuniform nature . For example , the more concrete associations may be

112 -
formed at a more rapid rate , or , on the contrary , it may be the more abo
stracts one which are more rapidly formed , this depends primarily upon
the instruction experience . The individual differences observed in this
connection are also associated by the author of this study, specifically ,
with peculiarities in the relationship between the first and second sig
nals systems,
It is known that the second signals system faithfully reflects
reality only so long as it is properly correlated with " the first sig
nals of reality . As a result of the research work done by N. A.
Menchinskaya ( 327 , it was established that an insufficient development
of aptitudes for arithmetic ( in junior pupils) is conditioned , specifi .
cally , by the absence of a necessary connection between graphic (pic
torial ) and abstract elements of thought: children with lower aptitudes
for arithmetic cannot get a sufficiently clear idea of which actual mag
nitude corresponds to a certain number , as a result of which they may
not notice glaring mistakes in the course of solution of the problem
and in the correlation of these magnitudes. Such a phenomenon , namely
a discrepancy between general concepts and concrete representations,
has also been described by means of data of other courses of subjects
of instruction ( history , grammar ) in the study of R. L. Ginzburg 37.
N. A. Menchinskaya ( 327 , by means of prolonged observations of
individual students, has shown individual peculiarities of arithmetic
students in certain other aspects as well : in the speed of assimilation
of the instruction material , in the ease of adaptation to changes in the
conditions of the problem , and to a switching from one kind of arithmet
ical operations to others .
The process of switching from one mental operation to another in
junior age pupils (based on data relative to problems in arithmetics ) has
become the subject of a special investigation by T. V. Kudryavtsev [25] .
This author has established that children clearly differ from each other
in regard to their disposition to make switching mistakes . T. V.
Kudryavtsev has shown differences between pupils in regard to their
capacity to be trained in making switches .
Individual characteristics of the mental activity of pupils in
elementary schools are described in a study conducted by K. G. Pavlova
[43]. By an example showing the assimilation of grammar, this study
shows the extent to which pupils differ from each other in regard to
the speed with which they can solve problems requiring the use of
thought . At the same time, it was established that the high mobility of
thought processes is intimately connected with broad potentials for ab
stracting and generalizing , whereas an inertness of thought processes
(" the fact of being stuck " on certain specific signs) results in in
complete and erroneous generalizations.
The conclusions reached by K. G. Pavlova are closely related to
the results of a research study conducted by 2. I. Kalmykova 8, den
voted to a clarification of the manner in which a knowledge of physics
is applied to a solution of classroom problems ( in the sixth and ninth
grades ) . The author has noted significant individual differences in

- 113 -
" the rate of advance . " In this case , it was established that " the
rate of advance " is determined primarily by the formation of general
ized connections, which make it possible for the students to go beyond
the range of the material presented to them in class . Pupils , who are
capable of forming rapidly generalized associations, are characterized
also by a speed and accuracy in their process of differentiation , and by
their ease in switch -over .
Individual differences in pupils, established in the studies con
cerned with the psychology of education , cannot always be considered as
being due to aptitudes: a lot here , of course , depends upon the methods
of instruction , upon the knowledge and degree of preparation of the
student, etc. However , there is no doubt that a careful analysis of
the instruction activity , presented in these studies , and the finding
of stable individual characteristics in the assimilation and applica
tion of knowledge (under relatively identical conditions of training
and instruction ) constitute a substantial contribution to the develop
ment of the problem of abilities . Without the accumulation of such
data , it is impossible to conduct a study of learning aptitudes which
would be truly meaningful and of practical significance .
From the standpoint of the problem of the all - round development
of aptitudes , for example, in the context of polytechnical instruction ,
the_study of technical abilities is of special interest . N. D. Levitov
[227 has given an analysis of the psychological components of a con
structive technical activity . As is known , in connection with the mech
anization and automation of production , higher technical requirements are
being imposed upon technical activity . This refers first of all to its
intellectual components . N. D. Levitov has clarified in detail the re
lationship between " general intelligence" and special technical aptitudes .
According to this author, the latter include : 1 ) technical understanding ,
2) technical proficiency , 3) technical inventiveness .
Certain data concerned with the development of technical aptitudes
of school children are found in studies conducted by P. M. Yakobson .
One of these studies [727 examines the psychological characteristics of
the constructive activity of seventh grade pupils. During the course of
experimental exercises , in which the pupils performed tasks of various
degrees of complexity ( assembly of models, drawing up of a technical pro
ject) , considerable individual differences were observed in the working
speed , in the character of the thought activity , in the transfer of know
ledge from the theory into a practical situation , in manual operations ,
etc. Other studies of P. M. Yakobson [ 70, 71 , 73 ] are especially con
cerned with an examination of those psychological qualities which are
needed in order to achieve success in the technical field . First of
all , is shown the need of a " technical power of observation" : it is
not sufficient to have a general impression of what is seen , it is neces
sary to differentiate and distinguish individual parts and units and to
perceive their mutual relationship ( one must see the elements of construc
tion , the structural units, and ways in which parts are connected ), one
must notice the distinctive features of a given machine which differentiate

- 114 .
it from others , and also the principles of its operation . Further ,
the author discloses the importance of " technical thinking , " which pre
supposes a good degree of orientation in certain laws of mechanics , an
approach to the problem based upon the requirements of the material and
upon technical possibilities , the most expedient planning of actions,
the development of spatial structural - technical representations, etc.
The studies of P. M. Yakobson provide information in regard to the ex
perience of cultivating the above -mentioned psychological characteris
tics , in particular , certain types of exercises with the students are
pointed out, which contribute to the development of creative abilities
in the technical field . Facts referring to the formation of technical
interests by students ( of significance for the development of techni
cal aptitudes) are presented in a study performed by M. G. Davletshin
5.
Ye. A. Klimov /767 has studied individual characteristics of
female multi - loom weavers, which , as the study has shown , included per
sons differing sharply from each other in their type of nervous system .
It was found that outstanding production achievements ( during work on
several looms ) , and a high degree of development of special aptitudes
are possible both in workers with a mobile nervous system as well as
in workers with an inert nervous system ; outstanding production work
ers are able to develop their aptitudes and to organize their work
activity by taking into consideration their own individual characteris
tics .
In the field of the study of professional aptitudes of adults ,
we should note the studies of " flight" faculties which have been con
ducted over a period of many years under the leadership of K. K.
Platonov (4:47 . These studies have clarified and established certain
components in the activity of a flier , and methods have been worked
out for determining individual characteristics of trainees and pilots
(with an excellent performance and a poor performance ). In this con
nection , the main object of concern was the study of " the personality
structures as a whole , with a special highlighting of qualities having
a professional significance . These studies have shown , specifically,
that persons qualified for flying activity , differ greatly in regard to
their individual -psychological characteristics, and that compensatory
possibilities of the personality are exceptionally great .
At a conference on problems of the psychology of labor held in
1957 , problems connected with the study of professions and occupational
aptitudes were discussed in reports presented by N. D. Levitov [ 237 and
K. K. Platonov [45].
Interesting data on the problem of aptitudes are found in re
search studies dealing with the psychology of sports. A. Ts. Puni (467
has conducted a detailed study of the individual - psychological character
istics of fencing sportsmen . It was found that some fencing athletes,
who did not have a great speed of reaction , are able to utilize a highly
developed power of observation , " a sense for the moment " ( they can prop
erly evaluate a situation and can act at the proper moment ); in others,

115 -
a special characteristic is a general mobility and endurance ; others,
finally, are characterized by the force of their attack and by an un
usual will to win . It was established that characteristic features of
the nervous system type of the sportsman manifest themselves in these
differences . It is indicative that such widely divergent characteris
tics refer to athletes having the same qualifications, possessing ap
proximately the same degree of proficiency and with the same win
record . The author of this study has come to the conclusion , which co
incides with the results of the study of aptitudes in other types of
activity , namely, that a high proficiency and sport achievements, in
this particular case in fencing , can be achieved not by means of cer
tain exclusively requisite characteristics but by means of a wide va
riety of combinations of personality qualities .
There are a number of studies which are especially devoted to
problems of the compensation of individual abilities and dispositions.
First must be mentioned here the achievements of I. A. Sokolyanskiy , who
has elaborated principles for working with children unable to see or
hear . According to I._A. Sokolyanskiy ( see the preface to the book by
0. I. Skorokhodova 557 ), the essential object of early work with a
blind - deaf -mute child consists in fostering in this child direct ade
quate relations with the surrounding material environment ( independent
locomotion , orientation in time, etc. ) . Only in such a way is it pos
sible to create a sensory experience , which later makes it possible to
designate objects and phenomena by means of words . As a result of a
properly organized system of influences, it is possible to transform
blind - deaf -mute children into organized and highly cultured human be
ings . The scientific- practical work done by I. A. Sokolyanskiy is a
convincing proof of the extremely great compensatory_possibilities of
the nervous system . A study by A. v . Yarmolenko [747 is devoted to
the clarification of compensatory mechanisms in cases of the loss of
sight and hearing . This study shows the crucial role played by motor
sensations in the sensory cognition of blind and deaf persons ,
Interesting data , concerned with the compensation of abilities,
are found in a study of N. M. Kostomarova [12], dealing with peculiari
ties of the imagination in people with affection of the visual analyzer .
It was found that the second signals system , in virtue of a special as
sociation between words and visual representations, constitutes , in
people who have gone blind late in life , a means of effecting a pre
meditated actualization of visual representations. The author has
studied processes of the creative visual imagination in a blind writer
( G. V. Dobrzhinskiy ) and in a blind sculptor (Lin Po ) ; it was revealed
in the case of both of these creative workers , what an enormous import
ance attaches to the ability to conceive vivid visual images on the basis
of the remaining stock of their visual impressions obtained during the
period of their life when they could see . The study of N. M. Kostomarova
also clarifies the mechanisms of compensation of vision in persons with
an injury of the cerebral terminal of the visual analyzer .

. 116 .
 There is no doubt that the brain of every healthy child makes it
possible to develop all his abilities, indispensable for a successful
instruction in school . The research conducted by Soviet psychologists
has disclosed certain causes responsible for such cases , when a psy
chically fully capable pupil still gives the impression of being " com
pletely untalented , " " inept . " Thus, in studies conducted under the
direction of A. N. Leontiyev [367 , the importance has been shown of
the fact that sometimes students switch to the performance of a new
and more complex activity , without having mastered the methods needed
for this purpose ; in such a case , they are still able, at first , with
the aid of means assimilated during the preceding stage of instruc
tion , to achieve the necessary result (for example , to perform an ad
dition by simply adding one unit at a time ), and since , in the practice
of instruction , the efficiency of performing a task is frequently
judged only according to the results achieved, the students who use
techniques that do not correspond to the new stage of instruction ap
pear to be making good progress ; however, upon making the transition
to the next stage of instruction , these students are completely unable
to cope with their instruction assignments, and manifest " a complete
inepti tude" to master further skills; it is clear that this is an
imaginary ineptitude , that it can be easily overcome if the knowledge
which has been missed is restored .
In a study conducted by L. S. Slavina 567 , it was established
that the lack of progress and poor performance of individual first
grade pupils can be explained exclusively by the incorrect nature of
the preceding mental instruction , and that in case of a proper individ
ual approach , these " inepth children may be transformed and may catch
up in their development with pupils who are making good progress .
The same conclusion concerning the inadmissibility of classify
ing pupils who have a low rate of performance and are unsuccessful in
their work as " inept" also follows from a study conducted by R. L.
Ginzburg 3 ). On the basis of very extensive material (over 3,000
pupils from the fifth to the seventh grades were investigated ) , the
author has examined various levels of progress in instruction , which
are due to the degree of development on the part of the students of
habits of analysis and synthesis. The study gives a characteristic of
four such levels . At the same time it is shown that by means of an in
struction in correct methods of mental work , it is possible to transfer
the pupil from a lower to a higher level , and in any case to take him
out of the category of " inept" pupils. In this respect , this study is
very instructive . (However it should be noted that in this study the
author does not draw a distinction between habits of analysis and gen
eralization of the instruction material on the one hand and mental
faculties on the other ; thus the real differences in the abilities of
pupils are not clarified in this study .)
A number of research studies conducted by Soviet psychologists
are concerned with the problem of the connection between abilities and

. 117 -
other aspects of the personality . Here, must be mentioned the studies
of V. N. Myasishchev (407, [417, which have established the influence
exerted by human attitudes towards reality upon the productivity of
psychic activity . The study of G. N. Kovani ko [ 17 is devoted to the
problem of the interrelationship between requirements and abilities in
the creative activity of production innovators . The study of V. Ye .
Syrkina[ 527 examines in detail the influence exerted on abilitiesby
certain highly important aspects of character ( attitude of the individ
ual toward his work , attitude of the individual toward other people ,
attitude toward himself ) . On the basis of biographies of leading pro
duction workers, as well as by means of an analysis of certain literary
characters, the author clarifies the importance for the development of
abilities of such traits as a creative attitude towards work , a feeling
of association with the people , faith in one's powers ; special atten
tion is devoted to the educational significance of the evaluation of
the activity of children . A discussion of theoretical problems con
cerned with the mutual relationship between abilities and character ,
of the unity and contradictions in their development, is given in the
studies of B. G. Anan'yev 1, N. D. Levitov [ 277 and v. N. Myasishchev
[427. Problems dealing with the cultivation and fostering of abilities.
in children are described in a brochure published by Yu . X. Samarin 537.
The above studies , in spite of the fact that they have been con
ducted on different planes , are in harmony with each other in view of
the common nature of their methodological positions . A dialectical
materialist approach to psychic properties has been responsible, in
particular , for the fact that aptitudes are studied mainly during the
course of their formation and development. A crucial importance is as
signed to socio - historical conditions in the life and activity of human
individuals. In studies conducted by Soviet psychologists, when aptitudes
are mentioned , what is had in mind is not some kind of immutable essences ,
not " limits , " but rather steadily expanding potentials of the personality .
While recognizing the fact of the real distinction between " physical pow
ers and mental aptitudes , " Soviet psychology still proceeds from the ad
mission of the tremendous role played by education and instruction in
the broad sense of these words, [337, 177.
In the struggle with idealist distortions, the ground has been
cleared for a truly scientific study of aptitudes . However the develop
ment work on the problem of abilities is still completely insufficient .
The entry of our Soviet country into a period of extensive build
ing of Communism imposes new requirements on the training and education
of the rising generations, on the development of abilities among young
people . The reorganization of the system of national education , the
inclusion of students into productive labor for the purpose of achieving
a better preparation of these people for life assume an improvement of
the whole system of pedagogical influences, in particular , the necessity
of " devoting a greater amount of attention to the development of aptitudes

. 118 -
and talents in all children " ( " Theses of the Central Committee of the
Communist Party of the Soviet Union and of the Council of Ministers
USSR on the strengthening of the liaison between schools and everyday
life " ) . Special attention should be given to children displaying spe
cial abilities in the field of science, technology , and art [ 22]. How
ever , practical problems, associated with individual differences in
abilities (methods for establishing these differences, problems of in
dividual approach ) have not yet been solved in a satisfactory manner .
The low level of development work concerned with the theory of
this problem is not least among the reasons responsible for shortcomings
in the study of abilities . It should be noted that so far there has been
no fully satisfactory definition of the actual concept of " ability " or
aptitude . " The traditional definition ( ability as " a condition for the
successful performance of an activity" ) , since it is indefinitely broad ,
by no means clarifies the psychological nature of abilities .
Unclear and debatable is the problem concerning the significance
of individual -natural prerequisites of development ( talents ) in relation
to one or another form of aptitude . However , we believe that the main
difficulty in an understanding of abilities is associated with the con
tradictory nature of the relationship between abilities and skills . On
the one hand , obviously , we cannot say that abilities and concrete skills
are the same thing , on the other hand, an excessive opposition of these
concepts is also unjustified , since the formation and development of apti
tudes take place only as a result of the mastery of skills and knowledge .
The reasons for the development of certain abilities represents an ex
tremely complex problem . Among the many conditions, we should take
into account the effect of such social factors as the historical devel .
opment of various fields of application of abilities , the presence of
definite means and forms of organization of activity , etc. A number
of good observations in this connection can be found in an article pub
lished by S. F. Kozlov [ 12 ].
The necessity , during an examination of individual abilities ,
of taking into account human abilities ( potentials ) in general has been
particularly stressed by S. L. Rubinshteyn [49], [507, 51], who has
pointed out that, if we do not stand upon this " ground , " the outstanding
abilities exhibited by individual people are made into a mystery and
the path to be followed for studying these abilities is blocked . A. N.
Leontiyev [ 327 , while noting that a study of abilities may proceed both
from an analysis of special abilities in their most highly developed in
dividual expressions toward a clarification of the general nature of
abilities, as well as from an analysis of the nature of human abilities
in their general expression to an analysis of cases in which these abil
ities have reached a maximum state of development in individual people,
believes that the second course is the cardinal one . In this connection ,
of considerable interest are studies, concerned with the nature and for .
mation of certain psychic properties, conducted under the direction of
A. N. Leontiyev [36, 377. It is true, that so far this investigation

119 -
includes only relatively simple and most generic properties , and that
the conceptions held by the authors are far from having been worked out
in all of their individual stages . However , the trend of these studies
is such that, precisely here , there may be expected the discovery of
the true relations between abilities which differ in their level of com
plexity , as well as ( and this is especially important ), between abilities
and skills . However , in order that this cycle of research studies may
be directly linked with studies aimed at an investigation of individual
differences in abilities , it will be necessary not only to conduct fur
ther experimental research work , but also to conduct a considerable
amount of theoretical work .
The fact that psychologists turned their attention to the data
available in Pavlov's physiology concerning types of higher neural
activity was of great importance for understanding the natural premises
of the development of aptitudes (B. M. Teplov [63] [647, 657). Ex
perimental studies conducted in the laboratory of B.M. Teplov have
made it possible to substantiate the hypothesis to the effect that , side
by side with generic typological properties differentiating the nervous
system as a whole , there exist more specific and particular typological
properties, characterizing individual regions of the cortex ( visual ,
auditory , motor ) . Whereas generic typological properties are expressed
in peculiarities of temperament and exert an effect on the development
of the most generic properties of the psyche of an individual , specific
typological properties can be referred to dispositions lying at the
base of special abilities . The properties of a type of nervous system
constitute the natural premise for individual -psychological differences.
The physiological basis of aptitudes constitutes in many respect an
" alloy of typological traits and stable conditioned connections, re
flecting external influences . In this manner , we become aware of the
concept of the " ambiguity of natural data . Specifically , definite
properties of the type of nervous system may affect the process of for
mation of widely different systems of connections . And , moreover , the
typological properties themselves do not remain constant. They may be
strengthened and may undergo a change to a certain extent under the
influence of the conditions of life and activity . All of these princi
ples are being subjected at the present time to an experimental check .
It should be noted that the problem concerning the relative role
played by typological properties and systems of connections in the for
mation of abilities, in the same way as the more generic problem of a
natural scientific approach to abilities and the relations of this ap
proach to a socio - historical approach , has not yet formed the subject
of a serious theoretical discussion . The insufficiency and the lack of
concreteness of the theoretical elucidation of the problem of abilities
cannot help but inhibit research work in this field .
However , no matter how serious are the shortcomings in the field
of the psychology of aptitudes, these shortcomings cannot overshadow the
achievements which have been made so far . Soviet psychologists, relying
upon the Marxist - Leninist ideas of the personality , have noted

120 -
progressive general principles for the study of aptitudes; they are using
in their research work quite reliable methods of study and are gradually
accumulating a system of facts . These facts even now have both a scien
tific as well as a practical interest . It can be assumed with certainty
that further work will result in the creation of a theory of aptitudes,
which will serve in full measure the cause of a well - rounded development
of the rising generations .

- 121
 LITERATURE

1. B , G. Anan'yev , "On Mutual Relations in the Development of

Aptitudes and Character , " Reports Presented at a Conference on Problems
of the Psychology of Personality , Moscow , Publishing House of the RSFSR
Academy of Pedagogical Sciences, 1956.
2. M. N. Borisova, " Method for Determining the Ratio Between
the First and Second Signals Systems in the context of Visual Recall , "
Anthology : " Typological Characteristics of the Higher Nervous Activity
of Man , " Moscow , Publishing House of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical
Sciences , 1956.
3. R. L. Ginzburg , "On the Typology of Assimilation of class
room Material by School Children , " Voprosy psikhologii ( Problems of
Psychology ), No. 5 , 1956.
4. A. T. Gubko , " On Specifically Human Types of Higher Neural
Activity , " Ibid . , No. 3 , 1958 ,
5. M. G. Davletshin , " Formation of Technical Interests in
5th - 7th Grade Secondary School Students, " Uchenwe zapiski Tashkentskogo
GPI (Academic Reports of the Tashkent State Pedagogical Institute ) , No.
5 , 1956 ,
6. V. L. Drankov , " On the Problem of Combination of Aptitudes in
Creative Activity , " Reports Presented at a Conference on Problems of
the Psychology of Personality , Moscow , Publishing House of the RSFSR
Academy of Pedagogical Sciences , 1956 .
7. Ye . P. Yeres ', Sposobnosti i ikh razvitiye (Aptitudes and
Their Development) , Moscow , Publishing House " Znaniye," 1957 .
8. 2. I. Kalmykova, " Psychological Characteristics of the Appli
cation of Knowledge in Solving Physical Problems , " Doklady APN RSFSR
(Reports of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences RSFSR ), No. 4 , 1957 .
9. S. G. Kaplanova, " Psychological Analysis of an Artist's Work
on his Painting , " Anthology : " Psychology of Drawing and Painting , "
Moscow , Publishing House of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences ,
1954.
10. S. G. Kaplanova, " Processes of Imagination in the Creation
of Paintings , " Ibid .
11. N. S. Karpinskaya, " Development of Artistic Talents in Pre
School Age Children During the course of Dramatic Play , " Izvestiya APN
RSFSR ( Gazette of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences) , No. 100 ,
1959 .
12. V. I. Kireyenko , " Study of Basic Drawing Aptitudes ( Evalua
tion of Proportions) " , Ibid ., No. 13, 1948 .
13. V. I. Kireyenko , " Study of Basic Drawing Aptitudes , " Anthol
ogy : " Psychology of Drawing and Painting , " Moscow, Publishing House of
the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences , 1954.
14. V. I. Kireyenko , " Integrity of Perception and Artistic Apti .
tudes , " Voprosy psikhologii ( Problems of Psychology ), No. 5 , 1956 .
15. V. I. Kireyenko , " Typological Differences Between Test Sub
jects Belonging to an ' Artistic ' and 'Non - Artistic Group During Tests

• 122 -
Involving the Identification of People on the Basis of Photographs, "
Doklady APN RSFSR (Reports of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences ),
No. 2 , 1957 .
16. Ye . A. Klimov, " Individual Characteristics of the Work Per
formed by Female Multi - Loom Weavers In Connection With The Mobility of
Neural Processes , " Voprosy psikhologii ( Problems of Psychology ) , No. 2,
1959 .
17. G. N. Kovan'ko , won the Problem of the Ratio Between Require
ments and Abilities in the Creative Work Done by Production Innovators , "
Uchenyje zapiski LGU ( Academic Reports of Leningrad State University ),
Leningrad, Publishing House of Leningrad State University, No. 265 ,
1959 .
18. S. F. Kozlov , " Aptitudes and Talent, " Sovetskaya pedagogika
( Soviet Pedagogy ), No. 6 , 1940 .
19. N. M. Kostomarova , " Peculiarities of Visual Imagination in
People With Affection of the Visual Analyzer," Izvestiya APN RSFSR ( Ga
zette of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences) , No. 76 , 1956 .
G. S. Kostyuk , " On the Role of Heredity , Environment and
20 .
Education in the Psychic Development of a Child , " Sovetskaya pedagogika
(Soviet Pedagogy ), No. 6, 1940 .
21. G. S. Kostyuk, " Urgent Problems concerned with the Formation
of a Child's Personality , " Ibid ., No. 11 , 1949 .
G. S. Kostyuk , " Psychological Problems concerned with the
22 .
Guidance of the Development of Aptitudes , " Abstracts of Reports Pre
sented at the First Congress of the Society of Psychologists , No. 3,
Moscow , 1959 .
23. I. G. Krivoshapkin , " Development of Literary Creative Work
of School Children , " Izvestiya APN RSFSR (Gazette of the Academy of
Pedagogical Sciences RSFSR ) , No. 100 , 1959 .
24. V. A. Krutetskiy, " An Experiment in the Analysisof Abil
ities to Assimilate Mathematics in School Children , " Voprosy psikhologii
( Problems of Psychology ) , No. 1 , 1959 .
25. T. V. Kudryavtsev , " The Process of Switching Over From One
Mental Operation to Another in the Study Work Done by Junior School Chil
dren , " Doklady APN RSFSR (Reports of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical
Sciences ) , No. 3 , 1957 .
26. L. N. Landa , " Certain Data Concerned with the Development of
Mental Aptitudes , " Ibid . , No. 3 , 1957 .
27. N. D. Levitov, Voprosy psikhologii kharaktera ( Problems of
the Psychology of Character) , 2d edition , Moscow , State Training and
Pedagogical Literature Publishing House , 1956 .
28. N. D. Levitov, " Psychological Study of Professions , " Ab
stracts of Reports Presented at a Conference on Problems of the Psychol
ogy of Labor , " Moscow , Publishing House of the RSFSR Academy of
Pedagogical Sciences , 1957.
29. N. D. Levitov, " On the Psychological components of Technical
Activity , " Voprosy psikhologii ( Problems of Psychology) , No. 6, 1958.

123 -
 30. E, G. Leybovskaya, " Development of Literary - Creative Abil
ities of Students , " Anthology : " Artistic Training During class Work
and Outside the classroom , " Moscow , Publishing House of the RSFSR Acad
emy of Pedagogical Sciences, 1952.
31. N. S. Leytes, " Inclination to work as a Factor of a Gifted
Nature , " Izvestiya APN RSFSR (Gazette of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagog
ical Sciences ) , No. 25 , 1950 .
32. N. S. Leytes, " An Experiment in the Psychological Character
istic of Temperaments , " Anthology : " Typological Characteristics of the
Higher Nervous Activity of Man , " Moscow , Publishing House of the RSFSR
Academy of Pedagogical Sciences, 1956 .
33. N. S , Leytes, " Aptitudes . " Chapter in a textbook entitled ,
" Psikhologiya " (Psychology ) , Editors: A. A. Smirnov et al . , Moscow , State
Training and Pedagogical Literature Publishing House , 1956 .
34. A. N. Leontiyev , " Soviet Psychology After the Decree ' On
Pediological Distortions within the System of People's Commissariats
of Public Education , ' Issued on 4 July 1936 by the Central Committee
of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks ) , " Sovetskaya pedagogika
( Soviet Pedagogy ), No. 7 , 1946 .
35. A. N. Leont'yev, Umstvennove razvitiye rebenka (Mental De
velopment of the Child ), Moscow , Publishing House " Pravda ," 1950 .
36. A. N. Leont'yev , " Nature and Formation of Human Psychic
Properties and Processes, " Voprosy psikhologii ( Problems of Psychology ),
No. 1 , 1955 .
37. A. N. Leontyev , "On the Formation of Aptitudes , " Abstracts
of Reports Presented at the First Congress of the Society of Psycholo
gists , " No. 3, Moscow , 1959 .
38. N. A. Lisenkova , " Psychological Analysis of Typological Char
acteristics of the Written Speech of Senior School Children , " Author's
Abstract of Candidate's Dissertation , Moscow , 1950 .
39. N. A. Menchinskaya , Psikhologiya obucheniya arifmetike (Psy
chology of Teaching Arithmetic ) , Moscow , State Training and Pedagogical
Literature Publishing House , 1955 .
40. V. N. Myasishchev, " The Problem of Attitudes in the Psychol
ogy of Individual Differences , " Anthology : " Problems of Psychology , "
Leningrad , 1948,
41. V. N. Myasishchev , " Structure of Personality and Human Ato
titudes Towards Reality , " Reports Presented at a Conference on Problems
of the Psychology of Personality , Moscow , Publishing House of the RSFSR
Academy of Pedagogical Sciences , 1956,
42. V. N. Myasishchev , " The Problem of Aptitudes in Soviet Psy
chology and the Most Urgent Tasks in the Development of this problem , "
Abstracts of Reports Presented at the First Congress of the Society of
Psychologists, No. 3, Moscow , 1956 .
43. K. G. Pavlova, " Individual Characteristics of Thought Activ
ity During the Assimilation of Grammar by Elementary School Pupils , "
Author's Abstract of Candidate's Dissertation , Moscow , 1954.

124 .
 44. K. K. Platonov, " Experiment in the Study of Flight Faculties , "
Reports Presented at a Conference on Problems of the Psychology of Per
sonality , Moscow, Publishing House of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical
Sciences, 1956 .
45. K. K. Platonov, " On the Problem of Professional Aptitudes , "
Abstracts of Reports Presented at a conference on Problems of the Psy
chology of Labor , Moscow , Publishing House of the RSFSR Academy of
Pedagogical Sciences, 1957 .
46. A. Ts. Puni, " Psychology of Sports , " Author's Abstract of
Doctoral Dissertation , Leningrad , 1952 .
47 . Yu , I. Rubina, " On the Development of Artistic Abilities of
School Children During Studies in a Dramatic Cirde, " Izvestiya APN RSFSR
(Gazette of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences) , No. 100, 1959 .
48. S. L. Rubinshteyn , Osnow obshchey psikhologii ( Fundamentals
of General Psychology ), Moscow , State Training and Pedagogical Literature
Publishing House , 1946 .
49. S. L. Rubinshteyn , " Bytie i somaniye (Being and Consciousness ),
Moscow , Publishing House of the USSR Academy of Sciences, 1957 .
50.S. L. Rubinshteyn , Printsipy i puti razvitiva psikhologii
( Principles and Paths of Development of Psychology) , Moscow , Publishing
House of the USSR Academy of Sciences , 1959 .
51. S. L. Rubinshteyn , " The Problem of Aptitudes and Basic Prob
lems of Psychological Theory , " Abstracts of Reports Presented at the
First Congress of the Society of Psychologists, No. 3, Moscow , 1959 .
52. N. P. Sakulina , " Development of Artistic and Creative Abil
ities in Pre- School Age Children During Drawing Lessons , " Izvestiya APN
RSFSR (Gazette of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences) , No. 100 ,
1959 .
53. Yu , A. Samarin , Vospitaniye sposobnostey u detey ( Training
of Aptitudes in Children ) , Leningrad , 1954 .
54. Yu , A. Samarin , " Experimental Study of the Tempo of the As
sociative Process During the Formation of Abilities to Master a Foreign
Language , " Uchenyve zapiski LGU ( Academic Reports of Leningrad State Un
iversity ) , Leningrad , Publishing House of Leningrad State University,
No. 265 , 1959 .
55. 0. I. Skorokhodova , Kak ya vosprinimayu i predstavlyavu
okruzha_yushchiy mir (How I Perceive and Represent to Myself the World
About lie ) , Hoscow , Publishing House of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical
Sciences, 1954.
56. L. S. Slavina, " On Certain Characteristics of the Mental
Work Performed by School Children Making Poor Progress , " Reports Pre
sented at a Conference on Problems of Psychology , Moscow , Publishing
House of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences, 1954.
57. V. Ye . Syrkina , " The Development of Aptitudes and Char
acter, " Sovetskava pedagogika ( Soviet Pedagogy ), No. 2 , 1947 .
58 . B. M. Teplov , “ The Problem of Talent , " Ibid ., Nos . 405,
1940 .

125 -
 59. B , M , Teplov , " Aptitudes and Talent, " Uchenye zapiski GNIIP
(Academic Reports of the State Scientific Research Institute of Pedagocy) ,
Vol . II , Moscow , 1941 .
60. B. M. Teplov, " On the Problem of Practical Thought , ” Uchenye
zapiski MGU ( Academic Reports of Moscow State University ) , No. 90, 1945 .
61. B. M. Teplov , Psikhologiya muzykal'nykh sposobnostey ( Psy
chology of Muscial Talents), MOSCOW , Publishing House of the RSFSR Acada
emy of Pedagogical Sciences, 1947 .
62. B. M. Teplov, " Psychological Problems of Artistic Training , "
Izvestiya APN RSFSR (Gazette of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences
RSFSR ) , NO . 11, 1947 .
63. B. M. Teplov, " Certain Problems of the Study of Types of
Higher Neural Activity Common to Man and Animals , " Anthology: " Typo
logical characteristics of the Higher Neural Activity of Man , " Moscow ,
Publishing House of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences , 1956 .
64. B. M. Teplov, " Study of Individual - Psychological Differ
ences , " Narodnove obrazovanive ( Popular Education ), No. 1 , 1957 .
65. B. M. Teplov, " On the Study of Typological Properties of
the Nervous System and of Their Psychological Manifestations, " Voprosy
psikhologii ( Problems of Psychology ), No. 5 , 1957.
66. T. P. Terekhova, " Individual Characteristics of the Thought
Activity of Students During the course of Assimilation of Historical
Knowledge , " Uchenye zapiski Tambovskogo GPI ( Academic Reports of the
Tambov State Pedagogical Institute) , No. 10, 1956 .
67. A. N. Turpanov, " Psychological Analysis of the Formation and
Development of Geographical Ideas in School Children , " Reports Presented
at a Conference on Problems of Psychology , Moscow , Publishing House of
the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences , 1954.
68, N. A. Chernikova , " Two Sketches on the Psychology of Lito
erary Creative Work Performed by Adolescents ," Izvestiya APN RSFSR
(Gazette of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences RSFSR ) , No. 25 , 1950 .
69. V. N. Shatskaya, Ye . G. Savchenko and P , M. Yakobson ,
" Training of Artistic Abilities" ; Chapter in a book entitled :
Obshchiye vorrosy esteticheskogo vospitaniya v shkole (General Problems
Concerned With Esthetic Training in the School) , Moscow , Publishing House
of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences , 1955 .
70. P. M. Yakobson, " Development of Initiative and Technical Cre
ative Work in Students Outside the hassroom, " Sovetskaya pedagogika
( Soviet Pedagogy ), No. 1 , 1954.
71. P. M. Yakobson , " Training in Technical Creative Work , "
Professionallno - tekhnicheskove obrazovaniye ( Professional and Technical
Education ) , No. 1 , 1955 .
72. P. 11. Yakobson , " Psychological Characteristic of the Con
structive and Technical Activity of 7th Grade Students , " Voprosy
psikhologii (Problems of Psychology ), No. 3, 1956.
73. P. M. Yakobson , " Development of Constructive and Technical
Thought in Students During the course of Polytechnical Instruction , "

126 .
Abstracts of Reports at a Conference on Problems of the Psychology of
Labor , Moscow , Publishing House of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical
Sciences, 1957 .
74, A. V. Yarmolenko , " The Role of Motor Sensations in Sensory
Perceptions During a Loss of Hearing and Vision , " Papers of a Conference
on Psychology , Moscow , Publishing House of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagog
ical Sciences , 1957 .
75 . A. V. Yarmolenko , " Concerning One Attempt to Set Up a Theory
of Aptitude, " Uchenye zapiski LGU ( Academia Reports of Leningrad State
University , NO , 265 , 1959 .

· 127
 PROBLEMS CONCERNED WITH THE SELF - AWARENESS
OF THE PERSONALITY IN SOVIET PSYCHOLOGY

By P. R. Chamata

The problem of the self - awareness of the personality occupies an

important place among the problems upon which Soviet psychologists have
been and are now working successfully . Research studies in this field ,
in shedding light on problems concerned with the cognition by man of him .
self and of his mutual relations with the external world and with other
people, are of great theoretical importance . At the same time, these
studies also are of great practical importance , particularly in solving
problems concerned with the self - training of the personality , in develop
ing in children a conscious attitude towards their studies , as well as
initiative , independent action , self- appraisal , self- checking , self
command , and other moral qualities .
From the very beginning , scientific development work on the prob
lem of self- awareness in Soviet psychology has met with serious difficul
ties . These difficulties were determined not only by the complexity of
the problem , but also by the fact that idealist inclined philosophers
and psychologists who , for a long period of time , had almost monopolized
development work in this field , had introduced many unclear elements,
which confused and distorted this problem . Instead of considering self
awareness as a human property these philosophers and psychologists, as
was pointed out by K. Marx and F. Engels, had converted self -awareness
into an independent subject , which was " the source of all being , the
basis of every existence . " By considering self- awareness as some sort
of self - enclosed circle of psychic phenomena, having no outside manifes
tation , idealists are denying the possibility of an objective cognition
or understanding of these phenomena .
By mastering the theory of Marxism - Leninism and applying this
theory in a creative manner in their research , Soviet psychologists have
performed a considerable amount of work aimed at overcoming the idealist
concept of self - awareness . By using as a basis in their work the theory
of K. Marx and F. Engels concerning the historical development of human
consciousness and the social essence of the human personality , Soviet
psychologists have realized that self - awareness is simply a property of
the personality, resulting from the whole life of the personality .
As S. L. Rubinshteyn has noted , " self - awareness is not a primor
dial given fact, inherent to man, but a product of development" [25; 6827 .
Using as a starting point a theory developed by classical Marxist
writers, Soviet psychologists have correctly solved the problem concerned
with the relation between self - awareness and consciousness . They have
shown that self - awareness is not something different from consciousness .
It is merely an sui generis form of consciousness, which consists in the
cognizing by a human individual of himself . Self - awareness, as well as
human consciousness as a whole, has a social character and is conditioned
by social factors . The recognition by man of himself as a social

. 128 .
individu
ment in
ale a memberofof a humancollective, L.is a highly important mor
in
expressing the following idea: "The solution of the problem of individ
ual self - awareness in psychology is intimately connected with the solu
tion of the problem of historical development of the self - awareness of
the popular masses," [467 .
If we understand self - awareness in this manner , it does not con
tain any mysterious or mystical elements . Self - awareness has arisen
and developed during the process of historical development of human
society . The basis for its development has been labor and social rela .
tions between human individuals . The cognition by man of himself was
just the same kind of vital necessity as the cognition by man of the ex
ternal world and other people .
The assimilation and creative utilization by Soviet psychologists
working in this field of the scientific heritage left by I. M. Sechenov
and I. P. Pavlov was of great importance in the materialist development
on problems concerned with the self - awareness of the individual per
sonality . In this heritage , our psychologists were able to find new and
convincing data for clarifying the material foundations of self
awareness .
A study and analysis of the psychological heritage left by I.
M. Sechenov [ 2 , 38 , 477 has disclosed in his works an original concep
tion of the self - awareness of personality , which has retained its
scientific importance even in our days . Proceeding from the materialist
doctrine of the reflex nature of the psyche , I. M. Sechenov has shown
that man's cognition of himself is also based upon a reflex , analytico
synthetic activity of the brain , an activity which is determined by ma
terial causes and is subordinated to objective rules . At the same time ,
he attempted to disclose the nature of the process involving the forma
tion of self - arrareness of the child and to determine its basic conditions
and stages .
The work done by I. P. Pavlov disclosed that the cerebral cortex
contains, along with an impressive representation of the external world,
also an extensive_and broad representation of the " internal world of
the organism " [22]; it was also established that the activity of the
cortex of the great hemispheres in man is mediated by speech . Of great
significance for an understanding of self - awareness of personality were
the conclusions reached by I. P. Pavlov that man is a system " which is
capable of controlling , supporting , restoring , repairing , and even im
proving itself, " [23; 1887 .
By clarifying the problem concerned with the nature of the self
awareness of personality , Soviet psychologists were also able to deter
mine in a sufficiently clear manner the structure of its content , in
which the personality of man himself takes part, its physical and psy
chic organization , actions and acts , their motives and purposes, its
relations toward the external world, toward other people and toward
itself . By being conscious of himself, man also becomes conscious of his
place in life , in the collective, in work , in society , and is conscious
of his life cycle, his own personal formation and development.
129 -
 However , not all moments of this content have an identical sig
nificance in the characteristic of self - awareness . The realization of
one's self as a social figure occupies the most important place in the
content of self - awareness . As A. L. Shnirman has noted , " by being
conscious of himself as a social individual , man is conscious of him
self first of all as a subject engaged in one or another type of social
or public activity " [46; 607.
Every type of human activity is either directly or indirectly as
sociated with the collective , For this reason , in the activity of every
man , an extremely important factor is the realization of one's own re
sponsibility and of one's responsibilities to the collective . In this
connection , moral aspects play a very important role in the development
of self- awareness, namely the notions held by man concerning his rights
and duties , his feeling of duty and responsibility , his notions of
honor and conscience (467.
As S. L. Rubinshteyn has pointed out, a characteristic feature
of the self - arrareness of Soviet man is not his attitude toward his own
property , but rather his attitude toward his work . In our country ,
along with an outstanding and famous scientist, we also give credit to
the best milkmaid , because both of these people exhibit the same con
scious attitude towards their work . The public evaluation of a man is
based in our country upon what kind of man he is , and what he does for
society . Therefore, his self -evaluation is also determined by what he
is doing for society as a social individual . This new attitude toward
work represents a pivot, around which the entire self - awareness of the
personality rearranges itself [25; 6317 .
Having determined the structure of the content of self - awareness ,
Soviet psychologists have also done an extensive amount of work in con
nection with the determination of its forms. It was established that
the forms of self- awareness are the same as those by means of which a
man is conscious of the external world . A man becomes conscious of
himself by means of sensations, perceptions, thought, speech , while re
lying in the process on feelings and will .
Self - awareness , like human consciousness as a whole , expresses
itself in a cognitive , emotional and volitional form . The cognitive
form includes personal sensations, personal observations , personal ideas
about one's self , self - analysis, self- criticism , etc. The emo tional
form includes such factors as internal sensation , self - love , modesty ,
pride , a feeling of responsibility , duty , personal worth , etc .; the
attitude of man toward himself , his evaluation of himself in comparison
with other people express themselves in this form . And , finally , the
volitional form includes such factors as restraint , self - domination ,
self - control, individual action , self -discipline, etc .; a conscious
regulation by the personality of its own actions and acts , of its at
titude toward other people , toward one's self, etc. are expressed in
this form . Consequently , the self - awareness of the personality is a
reflective activity of the brain , which is realized in different forms .

- 130 -
All of these forms of the manifestation of self - awareness in its total .
ity and mutual relations constitute the central nucleus of the personal
ity , that which is usually considered to be the "I" of the personality
[31 ], [ 407, [417 .
Soviet psychologists have also clarified the problem of the con
ditions and ways in which the personality becomes aware of itself .
After criticizing idealist psychologists for their attempts to consider
self - awareness as an introspection as " a direct cognition by the soul of
its own activity , " they have shown conclusively that the cognition by
man of himself cannot rest merely upon his internal experience , that it
represents a process mediated in the same way as every other process of
scientific cognition . " The self - awareness of a human individual , " writes
S. L. Rubinshteyn , "is not given to him directly in the form of feelings
and emotions, but is the result of a cognition requiring the realization
of the actual conditionedness' of his feelings and emotions" [25; 682) .
By gaining a mediated cognition of the external world , the human individ
ual is able to be conscious of himself also only in a mediated and re
flected manner through others [217.
Struggling against subjectivism in psychology , Soviet psychologists
come out in favor of objective methods for studying the human psyche .
" The objective method in psychology , " writes B. M. Teplov, " assumes an
uncompromising rejection of all surviving remnants of faith in the fact
that a scientific research study can be based on a so - called introspec
tion , ynderstood as a means for an immediate cognition of psychic proc
esses" [ 37; 23 .
The objective method in psychology is a method involving a med
iated cognition of the psyche . B. M. Teplov notes correctly that the
most important knowledge about himself is obtained by man likewise in a
mediated fashion , that is , basically by means of the same methods which
are available to other people .
Without denying the abilities of man to engage in self -observa
tion , B. M. Teplov points out that self - observation data can be cor
rectly used in an objective investigation only when they are expressed
in words. Indications given by self - observation exist in reality only
in the form of verbal reports . " Not every statement, " he writes , " is
an indication of self -observation , but on the other hand , every indica
tion of self- observation represents a statement" [ 37; 367 .
Such a view of self - observation is also shared by other psychol
ogists . Thus, while criticizing self - observation in its idealist inter
pretation , G. S. Kostyuk writes : " Erroneous is the idea , according to
which it appears that it is possible to gain a knowledge of one's own
psychic properties by means of self -observation ( for example, to recog
nize the peculiar features of one's sense of observation , memory ,
thought, feelings, will , abilities , character , etc. ) . In reality , how
ever , in order to gain a knowledge of these faculties, it is necessary
to take part in the performance of various tasks, which require observa
tion , memory and recall , to participate in the solution of intellectual

· 131 -
and other types of problems, and to judge , according to the results of
this activity , one's own psychic characteristics in the same manner as
we judge the psychic characteristics of other people " [19; 117 .
Only isolated psychologists in our country are inclined to con
sider self - observation as a method of scientific study of the human
psyche, and to consider this method as being equal to other methods used
in such type of studies 7. However , even these psychologists restrict
the importance of this method , considering that, with the aid of self
observation , it is possible only to describe psychic phenomena, and not
to explain these phenomena.
In denying the subjective - idealist understanding of the ways in
which man can become conscious of himself , and in substantiating objec
tive ways for gaining such a cognition , Soviet psychologists are proceed
ing from the classical concept of K. Marx that , in becoming conscious of
himself, man , as a rule, compares himself with other people , and examines
another man as if through a mirror . By comparing himself with other peo
ple during the course of his working studying and other types of activity ,
man notices in himself those things which he first notices in others , as
a result of which he comes to the realization of his acts and actions,
of their motives and purposes, of the products of his activity , of his
attitude towards other people, and learns to evaluate properly his phy
sical and mental forces .
This comparison of one's self with other people constitutes an
indispensable general premise for a human self- cognition . Man discovers
in himself those properties which he first abserved in others, and this
helps him to overcome those difficulties in his self- cognition which
arise in connection with the fact that he is at the same time both a
subject and object of cognition . B. G. Anan'yev has correctly observed
that here we are dealing with a peculiar " transfer " to one's self of
various properties of the personality , observed in another man 27 .
This " transfer " takes place first of all in the context of a
direct communication of a man with other people during various types of
activity , which offer him the possibility of evaluating his physical
and intellectual powers and aptitudes , as well as his various moral qual
ities . This " transfer " also takes place during the process of reading
lit era ry works , during visits to theatrical performances , during the
showing of cinema films, etc. , in which the internal world of human be
ings , their interrelations with each other , etc. , are pictured by artis .
tic means . This " transfer " also takes place , finally , during the study
of special sciences concerned with man , such as anatomy , physiology ,
psychology , etc. , in which the knowledge of physical and psychic propa
erties of man , of his activity , are disclosed in the form of scientific
concepts . In assimilating these concepts , the person studying them re
alizes what he has in himself that is common with other people , and
gradually rises to_a_recognition in himself of general human personal
ity traits [40], [417 .
On the basis of the above statements, we can conclude that the
basic knowledge about himself is obtained by man not as a result of

. 132 -
self - observation and introspection , but by means of an analysis of his
behavior and activity , as a result of a comparison of his behavior with
the behavior of other people, and the realization of evaluations, which
are given to him by other people , a collective of people , in which he
lives , works, or studies, as a result of the reading of literary works ,
theatrical visits, watching cinema films, studying special sciences con
cerned with man , etc. In becoming aware of himself, the human individ
ual undoubtedly also uses data obtained by self - observation , but even
these data do not express themselves in this case in a so - called "neat"
form , but are mediated by the social experience of the individual , by
his knowledge about himself, obtained from a ther sources .
On the basis of a correct understanding of the nature and es
sence of the self- awareness of the personality , Soviet psychologists
have also clarified the problem concerned with the development of self
awareness in children . In contrast to idealist psychologists, who
hold to the belief that self - awareness is an inborn factor , our psy
chologists consider that it is not self - awareness which is inborn , but
only the premises for its development. Such premises include, first,
the brain of the child with its extremely high plasticity and ability
for self -regulation , and , second , those sensations and feelings (" dark "
sensations , according to I. M. Sechenov) , in which the organic life of
a child is reflected . These premises gradually undergo development in
the process of interaction between the child and his environment .
Therefore, as S. L. Rubinshteyn correctly notes, we should look
for the actual source and motive forces behind the development of self
awareness , not in inborn premises , but in the growing real independence
of the individual , which expresses itself in changes of his mutual rela
tions with the people around him [ 25 ; 6727. By controlling the relation
of the child with his environment , education and instruction thereby
also plays a leading role in the development of self - awareness .
In conducting their research work in the field of the self
awareness of the child , Soviet psychologists have confirmed and de
veloped further the highly valuable materialist ideas of I. M. Sechenov
concerning the conditions governing the appearance and development of
self - awareness in the child , concerning the relation between the forma
tion of his " ego " and his acquisition of knowledge about the external
world and about himself, concerning the sensory basis of this process ,
concerning the role which the so - called associated feelings play in this
process , concerning the mechanism governing the separation by the child
of himself from the external world , the creation of an " ego " and a " non
ego , " and concerning the significance of mastery of speech by children
during the formation of their self -awareness . The ideas of I. M. Sechenov
have helped our psychologists to overcome incorrect idealist opinions and
concepts concerning the development of self - awareness , and to set up on
a scientific basis the work on the development of problems dealing with
this development.
An entire series of research studies have been conducted in Sov
iet psychology , devoted to a study of the development of self - awareness

- 133 -
in children belonging to different age groups . One of the earliest was
the research study conducted by N. Adamishvili [. After collecting,
by means of self- characteristics , data on the content of the self
awareness of children ranging in age from seven to eighteen years, and
after analyzing these data , the author has established that the develop
ment of the self - awareness of school age children begins at the time
these children become conscious of their own behavior . It is precisely
the facts of behavior, evaluated from the standpoint of the way in which
they correspond to the requirements made by adults , which represent the
content of the self - awareness of junior age school children . However ,
during the course of development, new factors are rapidly incorporated
into the sphere of the self - awareness of the children , such as interests ,
desires , strivings, wishes, intentions. By occupying a steadily increas
ing place, these factors, with the passage of time, acquire a dominant
influence in the self - awareness of school children . According to the
data obtained by N. Adami shvili, particularly great changes take place
in the self - awareness of adolescents . During this period , the children
are conscious not only of various moral qualities, but also of their
character traits , their abilities , etc.
N. Adami shvili came to the conclusion that a person becomes aware
of himself in exactly the same way as he becomes aware of other people:
beginning with an awareness of phenomena and proceeding to a recogni
tion of their essence , beginning with a consciousness of external be
havior and proceeding to a recognition of internal , intimate aspects
of the psychic life of the human individuai .
A large series of research studies, conducted under the direction
of V. G. Ananiyev in Leningrad , and performed by R. Ya. Abramovich
Lekhtman 47. Ř. I. Zhukovskiy [147, V. A. Gorbacheva [ 10 ], [ 1], A. L.
Shnirman (467, Yu. A. Samarin [ 317, [327, and others, have been summarized
and presented in general form by B. G. Anan'yev in his work entitled " Con
cerning the Formulation of the Problem of the Development of Child Self
Awareness " 2 , which gives a general characteristic of the formation of
self- awareness in children and outlines " a step - by - step diagram of the
development and training of self- awareness in children i [2; 1027.
In this particular work , B. G. Anan'yev first examines the prob
lem of the genesis of self - awareness . It would be incorrect, he points
out , to discern an expression of self - awareness already during the first
manipulations of the child with the organs of his body, in his first
voluntary movements and actions . At first, these manipulations, move
ments and actions are merely felt and lived through , but are not real
ized consciously by the child . However , it would be incorrect to refer
the appearance of a self - awareness to a very late period , and to con
nect it with some sort of excessively high and special forms of the in
dependent activity of the child .
In examining the genesis of self- consciousness as a process which
includes a number of preliminary stages, B. G. Anan'yev , relying upon the
data obtained during the research work of R. Ya. Abramovich - Lekhtman , A.

- 134 -
I. Davydova and upon his own observations, associates the appearance
of self - awareness with the ability of a child to separate his actions
from the objects of action , an ability which emerges at the end of the
first year of life . This ability is formed during the process of an
elementary play activity , which is organized and directed by adults .
When children's games are conducted under the supervision of
adults, situations requiring a sense of appraisal are created , which
constitute an important condition for fostering in children the abil
ity of separating their actions from the objects of action . And even
more important for this purpose is an inhibition , a retardation of
the action in the presence of the desired object, Under these condi
tions takes place an initial realization by the children of their
actions , their motives and goals , that is , an initial self - awareness
makes its appearance .
Following this first stage of development of self- awareness , B.
G. Anan'yev , following Sechenov singles out a subsequent, more complex
stage , which consists in an isolation of the child by himself from his
actions, that is , in the realization that the actions performed by him
are " his own actions, " that he is the cause of these actions , that he
is the subject engaged in a particular activity .
Referring , in the same way as I. M. Sechenov, the beginning of
the formation of the child as a subject of activity to a relatively
early age , B. G. Anan'yev notes that, nevertheless , during the course
of a relatively long period of time, the child , when talking about him
self, doos not use the personal pronoun " I , " bat calls himself by
name . Disagreeing with those psychologists who believe that at this
given stage of development, children still have no self - awareness at
all , B. G. Anan'yev notes correctly that " from a genetic standpoint
the usage of one's own name represents a tremendous leap forward in
the development of the child's consciousness and constitutes a transi
tion towards the separation of himself as a constant whole from the
current stream of changing actions . This is the way in which the ac
tive verbal use of his own name differs from the sensory reaction of
the child to his name when it is spoken by an adult, already during
the first six months of the child's life" [2 ; 1107. While considering
the ability of the child to call himself by name as the most important
moment in the formation of self - awareness, B. G. Anan'yev associates
with this moment the appearance of the ability to transform his " per
sonal sensations" into generic ideas and notions about his desires
and action .
The importance of this moment in the formation of self- awareness
was clarified by R. Z. Shukovskaya , who has shown that if small children
are told to reproduce poems , after replacing other names by the chil :
dren's own names , these children manifest a much greater activity dur
ing the perception and reproduction of these poems than under usual
conditions . In repeating or reproducing such converted poems , the
children never forget to insert their names , whereby these names , in

- 135 -
most cases , are used in a diminutive , affectionate form . R. I.
Zhukovskaya notes that even those children who are usually silent, ret
icent and shy and who generally do not participate in usual games , also
take part in these games with poems [74; 297.
The following important stage in the formation of self- awareness ,
according to B. G. Anan'yev, takes place at the time when children
switch from calling themselves by name to the use in talks about them
selves of pronouns such as " my , " "I have , " and especially personal pro
nouns " I. " The conscious use by the child during conversation of the
pronoun " I , " according to B. G. Anan'yev, characterizes the transition
from a notion about one's self to a thought about one's self.
While assigning a great importance in the development of self
awareness of the child to a normal training in the family circle , the
members of which , by properly evaluating the actions and behavior of
a child , contribute to the formation of a correct self - evaluation in
the child , B. G. Anan'yev still emphasizes the role in this process of
changes in the living conditions of a child . An important factor , for
example , is the enrollment of the child into kindergarten which leads
to the formation in the child of a certain type of personal independent
life , which in certain respects does not coincide with life in the fam
ily . During this new life, through the process of a new activity ( play
activity with instruction elements ) and during exposure to new conditions
of communication (pre - school_collective ), the child acquires his own in
ternal world outlook [ 2; 111] . According to B. G. Anan'yev, of crucial
importance in the formation of notions and thoughts about themselves in
children is life in a collective and a correct development in this col
lective of relations based on a sense of appraisal , which form in the
child a proper self - evaluation .
In examining the development of self - evaluation as a complex pro
duct of the conscious activity , B. G. Anan'yev , on the basis of data ob
tained during the research work of V. A. Gorbacheva , and on the basis of
his own data, shows that, originally , en evaluation of self and of one's
acts is a simple expression of an evaluation of other people who control
his development (parents, teachers, friends , leaders) [2 ; 115] . However ,
this factor is , actually, not yet a self - estimate but merely a " pre- self
estimate . "The development of a true self - estimate in children clearly
discloses the following two stages : during the first stage , the chil
dren , in evaluating themselves , are limited mainly to an estimate or
evaluation of objective external actions and symptoms, while during the
second stage, the sphere of self evaluation of the child includes inter
nal states and moral qualities.
A pedagogical estimate of the activity of children plays a par
ticularly important role in the formation of their self -evaluation . V.
A. Gorbacheva [11], [12), studied the conditions under which a pedagog
ical evaluation is effective for pre - school age children . She was able
to show that this evaluation is most effective when the instructor, in
daily life, constantly fixes the attention of the children on different
aspects of the behavior of a given child during the course of various

- 136 -
types of activity , when the instructor forms in the child's con
sciousness generic criteria for evaluating the fulfillment of rules
governing mutual relations , when she calls upon the children to make a
general estimate, stresses in her own evaluation the progress of a
child and his moral growth .
A study of the effect exerted by a pedagogical evaluation on
the self- evaluation of school age children has shown that the former
performs two functions in this respect: it orients and stimulates the
child , that is , it causes the child to recognize his own skills and
the results of instruction , and , in determining the way in which the
child reacts or feels about progress or failure in instruction , en
courageshim towards a further activity [737. Thus ,in developing his
self- awareness, the child proceeds from a realization of his own actions
through an evaluation to a self- evaluation . In this way , the child pre
pares himself for a new type of activity, namely school studies and a
school - type life 2.
While emphasizing that in the junior school age , a self
evaluation is inseparable from an evaluation of adults and mutual
evaluations of friends , B. G. Anan'yev notes that considerable changes
in this respect take place in adolescents; these display already a
greater degree of independence in their self- evaluations, and they
strive to separate themselves from an evaluation by others, and learn
to look at themselves " through their own eyes . " While expressing an
interest in other people and in themselves, in the internal world of
other people and in their own personal interpal, life , adolescents fre
quently create their own personal images for themselves . These images
are transformed images of people which they would like to resemble . In
the adolescent age , self - evaluation is already of a higher order ; it
contains a system of evaluational notions about themselves, connected
with " a life plan " and memories of the past, with a level of pretensions
and a level of psychic development 2 .
This change in self - evaluation is determined not simply by age ,
but by a change in the character of their activity , which , during in
struction in a secondary school , becomes more responsible and takes
place on the basis of a conscious discipline . This activity leads to a
further development of self - awareness and self -evaluation , specifically ,
to a realization of being members of a class, school , or society collec
tive , to a realization of being a subject of a socio - political activity .
A. L. Shnirman describes in detail those conditions under which
this takes place . According to his data , the favorable effect of a col
lective upon the development of the self - awareness of students , upon the
formation of the correct relationship towards their school and social
activity , depends upon the following factors : a) upon a proper ideo
logical bias of the entire activity of the collective ; b) upon the or
ganization of a proper public opinion in the collective ; c) upon the
cultivation of high demands and exigencies on the part of the members of
the collective towards their friends and towards themselves; d) upon a
broad development of the initiative and independence of the students
(477.
- 137 -
 The effectiveness of the influence exerted by the collective
upon an individual pupil depends also upon the extent to which the pu
pil participates in the activity of the collective, how he expresses
himself in this activity as an individual with his own inclinations ,
abilities , etc.
The formation of the personality of school children in the con
text of a collective , the realization by these children that they are
members of a school and of a broad social collective , the realization
of public and social ideals , etc. , find their expression in a realiza
tion of their future course of life, of their future independent social
and working activities , and in their self - determination .
According to B , G. Anan'yev , studies in school , particularly in
the senior grades, which essentially represent a complex form of mental
activity , lead to the formation in the students of one additional spe
cific form of self - awareness, namely , " educational or school self
awareness. " This form consists in the realization of motives and pur
poses , means and techniques of study, and in the realization of being
a subject of mental activity . During the course of instruction , senior
school children are conscious not only of their school accessories , but
also of their own study activities . Pupils not only perceive the in
struction material , but also become observant, by mastering their own
perception and cognition . The pupil not only learns, but also organizes
his own process of recall , not only comprehends, but also verifies , eval
uates and directs the development of his thought, etc. [ 2; 123] . In re
alizing that they are subjects of educational activity, learning to
control their own mental processes, mastering the most rational methods
of instruction and study , students , as was shown by Yu . A. Samarin ,
gradually develop in themselves a given style of mental activity , man
ifesting in this respect not only their knowledge and skills, but also
the peculiar_features of their feelings , will , character , abilities ,
etc. [ 31 , 327 .
While realizing and being conscious of the various properties and
qualities of the personality , as well as realizing themselves as a whole
as subjects of cognition and activity , adolescents and young people , as
was shown by A. G. Kovalev , A. N. Bodylev and others, actively engage in
work on themselves, begin to engage in self- training [207. A number of
research studies, devoted to the study of the development of self
awareness in children of different ages, were conducted at the Scientific
Research Institute of Psychology of the Ukrainian SSR . One of the first
of these studies was the research study conducted by P. R. Chamata [42].
The author , after criticizing the idealist understanding of the self
awareness of the personality and its development in children , has at
tempted to track down the appearance and development of individual forms
of manifestation of self - awareness in an early age . On the basis of
theoretical and experimental data , the author objects to the opinion ,
found in literature, concerning a divergence in the development of con
sciousness and self- awareness during the first stages of development

- 138 -
of the cognitive activity of the child . He proves that these proco
esses , from the very beginning , are interrelated , that the conscious
ness of a child of himself, originating at the same time with his
consciousness of the external world , is becoming broader and deeper
all the time in accordance with a broadening and deepening of cognition
as a whole .
On the basis of dataobtained during observations of children
ranging in age from 8 months to 32-4 years, who were educated in a
children's home, the development of a self - awareness in a child be .
gins with the recognition by him of his body , of its various organs
and with the creation of an exteroceptive image of himself . This
self -realization takes place during the process of an active activ
ity , connected with a mastery of his own body , the acquisition of
skills and habits of using its individual parts as working organs . In
becoming conscious of his body and creating an image of his own " physi
cal self , " the child is guided by a cognition of the external appearance
of other people . These observations have recorded numerous facts , when
children already at eight months of age, attentively observe and watch
the faces of surrounding people , examine their mimics , the movements of
their mouths when they talk , the movements of their hands, legs , etc.
The external appearance of other people constitutes a sort of mirror ,
into which the child looks carefully , thereby creating a notion of his
own external appearance . This is shown precisely by facts indicating
that children are able to recognize their own image in a mirror somewhat
later than the images of other people familiar to them .
The data obtained in the research work of B. R. Chamata have
shown that the mastery of speech plays a great role in the realization
by children of their own body . As soon as sensory speech is present,
children , in response to questions, are capable of correctly pointing
out their hands, legs , eyes , ears , and other parts of their body . Dur
ing the course of a further mastery of speech , at the age of two or
three years , children are capable not only of showing , but also of nam
ing the parts of their body and of determining their functions, etc.
This helps children to realize their own actions . The beginning of
this process coincides in time with the appearance in children of an
ability to perform voluntary actions . During the process of " practic
ing " these actions, the child gradually forms a realization of himself
as a subject of action , can " appropriate " these actions, and can assume
a definite responsibility for these actions . Already when they are
3-4 years old , and in some cases even earlier , children are capable of
correlating their acts and actions with their own personality, of con
sidering these acts as their own , which is very clearly expressed in
their answers to questions: " Who has done this?" " Why did you do
this ? " . Already when they are 34 years old , children are in part
capable not only of pointing out the reasons for their acts , but also
of giving certain evaluations and estimates of these acts (427 .

- 139 -
 From a realization of their actions, children gradually switch to
a realization of some of their own psychic states, desires , wishes, mo
tives and purposes. Acquiring a psychological experience in communica
tion with adults , they first learn how to discern psychic states in
other people , and then also their own , manifesting this both in their
statements and in their behavior , adapting themselves to the require
ments of adults . The fact that small children are capable of realiz
ing some of their own psychic states is shown also by the formation in
these children of such complex psyshic properties as self- love, vanity ,
shame, sympathy , pride , self - esteem , etc. Consequently , a psychological
characteristic of pre - school age children must include not only peculi .
arities in the development of their consciousness , but also peculiarities
in the development of their self - awareness .
In the research studies_conducted by the same author, performed
on pre- school age children (437, attempts have been made to clarify the
question as to from what time precisely do children , when talking about
themselves, begin consciously to use personal pronouns . It was found
that personal pronouns in the form of " my , " " mine, " etc. , are rather
often used by children already at the age of two or three years .
In regard to the pronoun "I , " children begin to use this pro
noun somewhat later , approximately at the age of three to four years,
although considerable individual divergencies or deviations are ob
served in this case . In some cases , children make use of this pro
noun already between the first and the second year of their life ,
while in other cases they only use it after their fourth year . These
deviations are determined by a number of causes : the level of their
mental development, peculiarities of their emotional - volitional sphere ,
the rate of development of speech , the nature of their communications
with adults , etc. This study has established that children include var
ious content into statements in which the pronoun " I " is used . Some of
these statements reflect what the child has done , others what he thought,
and others what he felt . It follows from this that children have a suf
ficiently differentiated idea about themselves , as beings capable of act
ing , thinking and feeling .
Data have also been obtained in this study , which characterize
the development of self - awareness in pre - school age children in the con
text of play . In case of complex games, particularly when these games
have a competitive nature ( " who is faster , " " who is more agile , " " who is
more attentive," who can think better , " etc. ) , situations are created in
volving an appraisal ( an appraisal of the achievements in games of some
children by others, an appraisal of the participants in a game by the
teacher , etc. ) , which to a considerable extent, contribute to the forma
tion of a self - evaluation in children . These games also contribute to
the formation of such manifestations of self- awareness as self- discipline,
self - control , self - checking , etc.
Another study conducted by P. R. Chamata was concerned with the
task of clarifying the role played by speech in the formation of

. 140 .
self - awareness in a child (447. On the basis of literature and exper
imental data , the author shows that the role of speech manifests itself
at all stages of development of the self - awareness whereby this role is
the greater , the higher is the degree in which this self - awareness is
mastered . The development of the child's speech is one of the import
ant criteria in the development of self - awareness .
P. R. Chamata outlines the basic stages in the development of
self - awareness in children (457. A self- awareness on the part of a
child begins with sensations ( personal sensations) , which arise already
in the period preceding speech . In mastering speech , the child creates
an image of himself . At first these images have a fragmentary nature ;
the formation of an integral synthetic image or representation coincides
with the beginning of a conscious use of the personal pronoun "I. " These
images are further differentiated , and enriched , thereby preparing the
ground for the appearance of a self - awareness based on thought. In the
transition from a representation of himself to a thought about himself,
an important role is played by the further mastery of speech , specif
ically grammar , during which the objects being consciously realized by
the children include not only objects designated by means of words, but
also the words themselves and the child's own speech process as a
whole , By generalizing in words all of his knowledge, a child gradually
shifts from a representation of himself to a thought about himself .
T. V. Rubtsova has studied the problem of the recognition by
school children of moral qualities of personality [277. [28], [297. As
a result of individual talks with 1st to 10th grade students and special
tests with 1st to 4th grade students , in which the children were confront
ed with the task of evaluating various moral acts of heroes described in
literary works, of classmates and their own moral acts , the author has
collected data indicating that, in the process of recognition of the
moral acts of other people, children gradually come to a realization of
their own moral qualities .
Junior grade pupils also have recourse to a comparison of their
behavior and their acts with the behavior and acts of literary heroes
and classmates , but in most cases they do this only when forced to do
so by their teacher . Pupils of medium school age , in which an interest
in the psychic life of other people and in their own gradually arises,
frequently do this already upon their own initiative , in an effort to
imitate their favorite heroes . And , finally , students belonging to
the senior school age group not only compare their behavior and their
moral qualities with the behavior and moral qualities of literary he
roes and classmates , but also persistently search in books and real
life for objects which they can imitate, and begin to look at
themselves as it were from outside , " through the eyes of somebody
else , " and at the same time actively look for ways of self - training .
Considering that the process involving a realization by
school children of the moral qualities of other people and of their own
depends to a great extent upon the training and educational work done at
school , the author also outlines certain ways for directing this process
on the part of the teachers .
141
 A number of candidate's dissertations have been presented at the
Institute of Psychology of the Ukrainian SSR , which are devoted to a
study of the development of various forms of manifestation of self
awareness in children of the pre- school and school age group .
The dissertation of Ye . I. Kull chitskaya (21) attempted to dlar
ify the peculiar features of the development of shame and bashfulness
in pre- school age children . Considering this feeling as being a special
form of manifestation of self- awareness, and associating its appearance
with the beginning of a realization by children of the moral aspect of
their acts , the author tracks down the manner in which this feeling
gradually becomes more complex as the children begin to realize the stan
dards and rules of social behavior , discloses the conditions governing
the appearance or manifestation of this feeling , its inhibiting influ
ence on the behavior of children , and individual characteristics of its
manifestations in children of different ages , etc. The author shows
that a gradual complication of the feeling of shame leads to the forma
tion in senior pre - school age children of such forms of its manifesta
tion as give reasons to assume the presence in these children of
rudiments of that complex moral quality which is called conscience . On
the basis of the data obtained in her study , the author expresses some
interesting ideas concerning the fostering of the feeling of bashfulness
in children , concerning the re - training of those children who are char
acterized by an excessive shyness , etc.
The research work done by L. M. Zapryagolova [75 ] was devoted to
a clarification of the peculiarities in the formation of a self- appraisal
in junior age school children , when the latter are able to master rules
of conduct and during the performance of various types of study assign
ments ,
For this purpose , observations were conducted of the work and be
havior of 1st to 3d grade students, individual talls were conducted with
these pupils , with their teachers and parents . The pupils were given
the assignment of evaluating their own work and the work of others, which
had been performed in class ( in writing and arithmetic ) .
The data obtained show that the ability in junior age school chil .
dren to evaluate or appraise their behavior and their activity is formed
during the process of an educational - instruction work , under the guidance
of the teacher . In mastering rules of conduct, and also knowledge , skills
and habits , the pupils in this process learn correctly to evaluate the
extent to which their behavior and work corresponds to the requirements
of the teacher. An important role in the formation of a self - appraisal
in junior school children also belongs to an appraisal of their behav
ior and activity by parents, classmates, and to a comparison of them
selves with heroes described in literary works, etc.
The development of a self - appraisal in junior age school children
follows first of all the direction of a gradual expansion of its scope .
Evaluating at first only their external acts, children gradually include
into the sphere of self -evaluation also internal , specifically , moral

- 142 -
qualities of their personality ( for example, truthfulness, honesty , mod
esty , politeness , fairness, collectivism , etc. ) . The range of applica
tion of self - appraisal in study work begins to expand . At first ,
children evaluate merely the concrete result of this activity, then they
include into the self- appraisal also the actual process of the activity ,
and finally their own study behavior as a whole .
During the course of instruction and education , an increase in
the critical attitude towards self- evaluation is observed in junior
school age children . In first graders, a tendency to evaluate their
behavior and their study activities mostly in a favorable manner is ex
pressed rather clearly . Second graders are more critical in this re
spect, and exhibit a tendency to evaluate not only their good, but also
their bad , deeds, and not only their progress but also their failures in
their studies . A further increase in a critical attitude towards self
evaluation is expressed in the form of a realization of shortcomings in
their behavior and activity , in censure of these shortcomings , in an at
tempt to correct them through personal efforts, and in a gradual weaken
ing in the tendency on the part of junior school children to evaluate
too highly the work performed by them .
In connection with a critical attitude towards self -evaluation ,
the school children also exhibit a gradual increase in the independent
way in which they evaluate themselves . In their self- evaluation , pupils
of the first grades are almost completely dependent upon the evaluations
of their behavior and activity given by teachers and parents . Pupils of
the second grade and even more pupils of the third grade, already express
a certain independent attitude in their self - evaluation , relying in this
connection upon a comparison of their behavior and study activities with
the behavior and the activity of other school children , as well as upon
a comparison of their present activity with a past activity . While eval
uating themselves at frst only upon the request of adults , school chil
dren gradually begin to do this upon their own initiative .
A development in their ability to perform a self - evaluation in
junior school children lags considerably behind the development of their
ability to evaluate others, specifically to evaluate their classmates.
While being able successfully to evaluate the acts , actions and work of
their friends , the children frequently experience considerable difficul .
ties in evaluating themselves . With age , this is gradually overcome, but
still remains a significant fact even in connection with third grade stud
ents .
In the dissertation of A. K. Serdyuk [ 33], a characteristic is
given of the peculiar features in the formation of self - checking in jun
ior school children . Examining self - checking as an important form of
manifestation of the self - awareness of the personality , the author has
observed two basic stages in the formation of self - checking in junior
school children in the context of study . At first , self - checks are per
formed by the children as an activity, which , although it is associated
with instruction , still does not constitute an indispensable component

- 143 -
of instruction ; the children turn to self - checks only upon the request
of adults . Gradually , the children develop a habit of checking on them
selves during work , that is , there arises a need for self - checking . At
this stage , self- checking is already being utilized upon their own inito
iative, without their being reminded by adults ( at the end of the third
year of instruction ) .
During the process of instruction , the sphere of self - checking is
gradually expanded , the quality of self- checking is also improved , which
manifests itself in the development of an ability in children not only
to detect defects in their work , but also in an ability to correct these
defects through their own efforts .
V. F. Ivanova has studied the formation of self - restraint and
self- control in junior school children(167 ,[ 127. In examining the abil
ity of children to restrain and control themselves as a form of manifes
tation of self - awareness, this author has shown that self - restraint or
self- control is formed in children under the influence of concrete re
quirements in school and in the family . In fostering self - restraint,
the realization by the children of these requirements , the formation
of correct notions concerning a self - restrained behavior and exercises
in self - restraint play an important role . An external reminder that one
has to be self - restrained does not yield a great effect . To make such
reminders effective , it is necessary not only to give the children as
signments in self -restraint, but also to strive by all means that these
assignments are properly realized and adopted by the children , that the
fostering of self - control should stimulate a desire towards self .
training . A pedagogical experiment, conducted by the author with the
participation of teachers of junior grades, has shown that the creation
of such conditions increases considerably the effectiveness of measures
aimed at the fostering in children of self - control and self - restraint .
According to the data obtained by the author , the strength of
self - restraint, its motives , its field of application , and the role of
speech in its formation undergo a change with age .
The successful development of self - restraint and self - control in
junior school children depends to a very great extent upon a correct
understanding and consideration of their individual abilities.
The research study conducted by L. G. Podolyak [247 was concerned
with the problem of determining the influence of work in school workshops
upon the formation of a self - evaluation in adolescents ,
For this purpose , protracted observations and talks were conducted ,
difficulties with which students were confronted during the fulfillment
of their work assignments were determined , the effect of failure or suc
cess in the work of the students upon the evaluation of their own work
ing possibilities was studied , and the role of socially useful work in
the formation of qualities necessary during work was investigated , etc.
The data obtained show that the work done by children in school
workshops exerts a great influence upon the formation of their self
appraisal . This type of work expands the sphere of the adolescent's
knowledge of himself; discloses new potentials and aptitudes in him .

144 .
During the course of the acquisition of working skills and habits and
during the course of manufacture of specific objects , new working qual
ities or properties of the personalities are formed . During the course
of work , these qualities are realized and appraised by the students ,
In this respect, the achievement of success in acquiring skills and
habits , in overcoming difficulties , plays an important role . The higher
is the level of development of labor skills and habits, the more deeply
are those qualities of personality realized and consciously understood ,
with the aid of which these skills and habits are acquired .
The achievement of the greatest possible success under the work
ing conditions found in workshops , namely the manufacture of objects
which can be used for practical purposes , experts a considerable in
fluence upon the self - appraisal of students . Experimental data have
shown that the effectiveness of the instructive action exerted by the re
sults of labor upon the self - awareness of students increases during the
performance of tasks having a socially useful purpose . In realizing the
actual practical value of objects manufactured with their own hands,
the students also realize their own value as workers, evaluating in this
case not only their physical potentials but also their moral
psychological qualities .
On the basis of an analysis of their activity and a qualitative
evaluation of the results of their work , students switch from a global
non - differentiated self - appraisal to a proper differentiated one . In
the process, they first evaluate or appraise the qualities of their own
personality relative to each concrete situation , then in regard to each
type of activity . This is followed by an appraisal of the personality
as a whole . Self- appraisal gradually acquires a sense of stability ,
which characterizes it as a completely formed quality of the personal
ity .
Under the effect of direct results of their work , a self - appraisal
of adolescents as workers becomes more objective , Under the influence
of the requirements imposed by a working activity , such qualities of self
appraisal as activity and efficiency are also developed ; in evaluating
their qualities and shortcomings, students begin to cultivate in them
selves certain qualities of value for a practical actitivity . All these
facts contribute to a strengthening of confidence in their own powers .
As a result of research studies conducted at the Institute of
Psychology of the Ukrainian SSR , data have been obtained which , undoubt
edly , increase our understanding of the development of self- awareness
in children , and at the same time , create the necessary premises for a
more thorough study of it .
A great contribution to development work on problems concerned
with the development of self - awareness in children has been made by
Moscow psychologists , such as N. Ye . Ankudinova , T. V. Dragunova, G.
A. Sobiyeva, L. I. Bozhovich , Ye . A. Serebryakova , A. P. Gurkina, Ye .
A. Ivano va and others .
In studying the peculiarities of self - awareness in pre - school
age children , N. Ye . Ankudinova 5 has established certain tendencies

- 145 -
in the development of appraisal and self- appraisal in children . She
was able to establish that pre- school age children are capable of ap
raising their physical potentials more accurately than their moral
qualities . In evaluating their moral qualities , pre - school age chil
dren frequently make use of inadequate concepts , whereby they do this
in a general non - differentiated form . A characteristic of the self
appraisal of pre- school age children is also its emotional character .
In clarifying the developmental characteristics of self - awareness in
children , the author emphasizes their dependence upon individual char
acteristics of the children and mainly their dependence on the condi .
tions of their life , training, and instruction .
of interest are the data obtained by Van Ven ! -Nin on the pecu
liar features of_the realization by pre- school age children of their
working duties 9. The author sees a mutual connection between the
self - appraisal of children and the formation of a proper attitude to
wards working duties . Self- appraisal and mutual appraisal , according
to the data obtained by the author , are not only a manifestation of the
attitude disp ].ayed by children towards working duties, but also a means
for a proper development of this attitude . Mutual relations in a child
collective group exert a great influence upon self - appraisal . The more
deeply the children realize their connection and ties with the collec
tive , the more responsible becomes their attitude towards working du
ties , the higher is the criterion of appraisal and self- appraisal . Van
Ven ' - Nin concludes that there is a direct dependence between the criteria
for the evaluation of their own working potentials and the degree of par .
ticipation of children in the practical fulfillment of their working
duties .
T. V. Dragunova [137 has given a characteristic of the self
awareness of Soviet adolescents in comparison with those characteris
tics which are given of children of this age in bourgeois psychology .
According to the data obtained by this author , Soviet adolescents or
teenagers , possessing a number of features which are characteristic for
adolescents in general ( interest in their own personality , in its dif
ferent properties, in feelings and potentials), at the same time also
exhibit distinctive features , which are due to new socialist conditions
of life, new forms and content of instruction and training .
Noting that a Soviet adolescent exhibits a high interest in his
own personality , the author shows in a convincing manner that this in
terest is based not on introspection , not on " self - analysis" and " self
introspection , " but on an observation of their behavior, on an analysis
of their actions and acts , on a comparison with other people .
Data obtained in the study show that the aspiration of teenagers
to understand themselves does not represent in them an end in itself and
does not lead to " a self- isolation , " a reticence , and a contrasting of
themselves with other people . This aspiration is merely a means of re
alizing and understanding their position in a collective , both school
and home , a means for understanding which characteristic features of

. 146 .
their personality stand in the way of or, on the contrary, insure the
fulfillment of the business entrusted to them , which help or stand in
the way of establishing mutual relations with the collective , etc. In
other words , our youth have recourse to an analysis of their personal .
ity as a means, indispensable for the organization of their activity and
mutual relations with other people in their environment. While noting
that our youth also exhibits sometimes traits which create definite
difficulties in instruction and training , the author does not consider
that these traits are developmental characteristics , but interprets
them as individual characteristics of youth , caused by an improper and
wrong type of training . The author shows that when these conditions
are eliminated , the children can be improved .
G. A. Sobiyeva [ 347 ,(357 was interested in finding out which
properties of the personality can be consciously realized and under
stood by youth , and in which sequence , what correspondence exists bem
tween that which they realize as being the qualities of their
personality and the actual nature of these qualities, and finally , what
is the character of the judgments made by youth in regard to the prop
erties of their personality and the qualities of another person . In
judgments about themselves, adolescents note different qualities:
qualities, associated with definite typos of their activity, qualities
which characterize their relations with other people, their ordinary
everyday relations. First , they realize the qualities associated with
any kind of activity and primarily with instruction . Later , moral
qualities are also included into the field of self - awareness . The
range of these qualities expands considerably with age .
The self - realization by adolescents of the qualities of their
personality , as it passes through a definite course of development, has
its own peculiar features at each stage . These peculiarities express
themselves not only in the sequence of the realization by adolescents
of their various qualities , but also in the nature of their judgments
about themselves, the fullness, degree of generalization , etc. , of
these judgments ,
As data obtained by the author in his study have shown , there
is no noticeable difference in the capacity with which adolescents can
realize their ow qualities and the qualities of other people . However ,
there is a substantial difference in the level or degree of this cogni
tion . The qualities of other people are realized or consciously under
stood by adolescents more deeply than they are capable of realizing their
ow qualities . This fact enabled the author to draw the conclusion that
students begin to realize their qualities later than the qualities of
other people .
1. I. Bozhovich 6, by using the research studies conducted by
T. V. Dragunova , G. A. Sobiyeva and others , has attempted to give a
more complete and full characteristic of the self - awareness of an adoles
cent and to disclose the most important features in this self - awareness.
Among such features , emerges in the first place a high interest towards

- 147 O
his own internal life , a striving to understand himself , to realize
consciously the strong and weak aspects of his personality , its positive
and negative qualities . In the adolescent age , there arises in young
sters the need to " think about themselves, " a need to understand them
selves . The appearance of this need , in the opinion of the author , is
determined by a number of causes : the greater requirements imposed
upon their behavior and study activities, the striving of the adolescent
to find his place in a system of acceptable social relations, the ap
pearance of an interest in other people , specifically , in persons of the
opposite sex . All these factors impel the adolescent to reach an under
standing of himself , to compare himself with others, to evaluate the
qualities of his personality . The adolescent enters into a new stage
of his development, which is determined not only by training , but also
by self - training .
An important factor , which affects the formation of a self
awareness in the adolescent, is , according to L. I. Bozhovich , the con
tradiction between the need to know himself and his actual level of
knowledge . Insofar as his knowledge about himself clearly does not cor
respond to his need, this is precisely the cause of the lack of confi .
dence on the part of adolescents in a self - appraisal , of the high
sensitivity towards being appraised by others, etc. Certain peculiari
ties of the self - awareness of adolescents, as was correctly noted by
L. I. Bozhovich , are engendered likewise by a contradiction between
the realization that they are already " grown up and their actual po
tentials .
The possibilities open to adolescents to do everything that adults
do are considerably lagging behind their pretensions to become adults ;
this fact alone already sometimes causes certain conflicts between adoles
cents and adults . However , these conflicts arise particularly often when
adults, in their relations towards adolescents, do not take into account
at all their developmental potentials and continue to look upon them as
if they were little children ,
Ye. A. Serebryakova [37 has devoted her research study to the
problem of the formation of self- confidence in school children of the
fourth , fifth and sixth grades. Believing that this quality in school
children is based upon a self - appraisal , the author has worked out an
original method which has enabled her to achieve an objective account
ing of the manifestation of this aspect of personality in school chil
dren in different types of activity . By varying her study conditions,
Ye , A. Serebryakova has obtained data , which have made it possible for
her to determine in her test subjects various aspects and properties
of their self - appraisal , its stability , level of development, degree of
adequacy , etc.
After isolating at first among her test subjects two groups
namely those exhibiting a stable and unstable self - appraisal the
author, as a result of a further analysis, has shown that each of these
groups includes subgroups , differing both in regard to the level of de
velopment of self- appraisal and in its degree of adequacy : some

• 148 .
children , while performing certain assignments, are able correctly to
evaluate their potentials ; others overestimate their potentials, and a
third group underestimate them .
Material collected by the author has made it possible for her to
give a characteristic of changes in self- appraisal of students in the
fourth , fifth , and sixth grades , depending upon the life experience of
the students , upon the evaluation of their knowledge and their activity
by the teacher , etc.
Data on the influence exerted by a realization by adolescents of
moral qualities of other people upon their self - realization have been
obtained in a study conducted by A. P. Gurkina entitled " Recognition of
Moral - Psychological Properties of the Personality by School Children
of the Fifth to the Seventh Grades" ( 27. Starting from the concept of
K. Marx that the individual achieves self- realization by becoming con
sciously aware of other people, A. P. Gurkina , by means of various
methodical techniques ( compositions on the subject " What should a true
friend be like , " special talks with the authors of these essays , discus
sion of the novel by M. Prilezhayeva " Your Friends Are With You , " etc. ) ,
has collected a considerable amount of data , an analysis of which has
enabled her to draw conclusions on the course of the recognition by ado
lescents of the moral qualities of other people and of their own .
The study of this author has shown that, in being conscious of
other people, adolescents first of all realize those properties of these
people in which are expressed their attitudes towards their responsibil
ities as well as their attitudes towards other people , towards themselves ,
and also qualities which characterize their general behavior . The author
shows that , during the adolescent age period significant shifts take
place in the realization of moral psychological qualities of personality .
These shifts are expressed in an expansion of the circle of properties
realized by adolescents , in their penetration into internal aspects of
the life of a personality , in a tendency of examining in a more general
way the qualities of the personality , etc. However , the greatest shifts
are expressed in attempts to compare the qualities of other people with
traits of the adolescent's own personality . In evaluating positive or
negative aspects in another person , adolescents more and more frequently
compare other people with themselves , and in this connection are able to
evaluate more consciously their own positive qualities and defects .
The problem of the ways of development of self - awareness in chil
dren is also examined in a research study conducted by P. I. Razmyslov ,
who studied the role played by_a_collective in the formation of self
awareness in school children ( 307. After separating, as a result of
his research , three groups of students with different levels of develop
ment of self - awareness , the author has shown that the collective formed
by the classmates helps individual students to realize their positive
and negative qualities , helps them to find their place in the collective ,
and, together with other members of the collective , to fight for the honor
and achievements of the collective .

- 149 -
 New data on the formation in children of a critical attitude
towards themselves have been obtained in the studies conducted by Ye .
A. Ivanova and G. I. Bizenkov . The study of Ye. A.Ivanova [16 has
disclosed that the students of the fifth to the seventh grades , investi .
gated by her , can be subdivided into three groups according to the level
of development of their critical attitude towards themselves . The first
group includes students who , during the performance of all their assign
ment, as a rule, are guided by a feeling of duty , responsibility towards
parents , and towards their school collective , towards their country .
The third group includes school children , who , in their activity and be
havior , are primarily guided by personal and mercenary motives, and
fleeting desires . And , finally , the second group includes all those
students in whose behavior and activity a complex interlacing of personal
and social mo tives was observed . Now one set of motives, now another
played a dominant role in their behavior and activity , in their attitude
towards other people and towards themselves , depending upon various given
conditions .
The data obtained by the author have shown that a critical atti
tude towards themselves in adolescents has a highly selective character .
This selectivity is expressed in the fact that they exhibit a different
attitude toward the fulfillment of various study and social tasks and
impose different demands upon their behavior in school and at home . In
this connection , their critical attitude toward themselves likewise var
ies : in some cases , it intensifies , in others, it relaxes . In addition
to selectivity , the author also points out certain other characteristics
of a self - criticism in adolescents, namely an insufficient steadfastness ,
a low efficiency , etc.
In the research study conducted by G , I. Bizenkov , which was con
cerned with the problem of the formation of a critical and self- critical
attitude in senior school children of a secondary school 8, it was
established that, in regard to the nature of a critical attitude towards
themselves, the students can be subdivided into several groups . The first
group includes students in which the critical attitude toward themselves
and toward others was already formed to a sufficient extent, and had be
come a rather stable character trait . The critical and self - critical
attitude in this particular group of school children , according to the
data obtained by the author of this research study , were found to be
equally stable and in all cases exerted their effect with a similar
force . In the fifth group , the author included students in which a
critical attitude towards themselves as well as towards others was
not yet completely formed , and only manifested itself in individual
cases . The second , third and fourth groups included all students, whose
criticism and self - criticism , while being sufficiently stable properties
of the personality , still manifested themselves in an irregular manner ,
as a result of which in some cases criticism predominated , and in others
self - criticism ,

. 150 -
 In concluding this review , we are fully entitled to draw the con
clusion that , although the problem of the self - awareness of the person
ality has been developed in Soviet psychology in a less active manner
than a number of other problems, still , the work done by our psycholo
gists in this field has been successful . The results obtained during
this work throw light upon a whole series of theoretical problems con
nected with the self - awareness of the personality , specifically on
problems concerned with the nature and essence , the content and the
basic forms of manifestation , conditions and ways of arriving at human
self - awareness . As a result of the factual data obtained in these
studies , it is possible to formulate in a new manner and to clarify the
cardinal problems concerned with the development of self - awareness in
children . These data help to solve in a more successful manner practi
cal problems concerned with the cultivation of a self - awareness in a
growing personality .

- 151 -
 LITERATURE

1. N. Adami shvili , "On the Problem of the Development of Self

Awareness in School Age Children , " Trudy Instituta psikhologii Gruz SSR
Tbilisi, No. 1 , 1942 .
2. B. G. Anan'yev, " On the Formulation of the Problem Concerned
With the Development of Self - Awareness in Children , " Izvestiya APN RSFSR
( Gazette of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences) , No. 18 , 1948 .
3. B. G. Anan'yev , Psikhologiya pedagogicheskoy otsenki (Psychol
ogy of Pedagogical Evaluation ) , Leningrad , 1935 .
4. R. Ya . Abramovich - Lekhtman , " On the Problem of the Early De
velopment Stages of a Child , " Voprosy okhrany materinstva i detstva
( Problems of Mother and Child Care) , Leningrad , 1946 .
5. N. Ye . Ankundinova , "On the Development of Self - Awareness in
Children , " Do shkol'noye vospitaniye ( Pre- School Training ), No. 2 , 1958 .
6. L. I. Bozhovich , " Characteristic Features of Self - Awareness
in Adolescents , " Voprosy psikhologii ( Problems of Psychology ), No. 1 ,
1955 .
7. A. T. Bochorishvili , "On the Method of Self- Observation and
Its Basic Potentials , " Anthology: Psikhologiya (Psychology ), Tbilisi ,
1956 .
8. G. I. Bizenkov , "On the Formation and Development of Criti
cism and Self -Criticism in Senior Grade Students of Secondary Schools , "
Author's Abstract of Candidate's Dissertation , Moscow , 1953 .
9 Van Ven ' - Nin , #Peculiar Features of the Realization of Their
Work Duties by Pre - School Age Children , " Author's Abstract of Candi
date's Dissertation , Moscow , 1959 .
10. V. A. Gorbacheva, " On the Mastery of Behavior by Pre - School
Age Children , " Izvestiya APN RSFSR (Gazette of the RSFSR Academy of
Pedagogical Sciences) , No. 1 , 1945 .
11. v . A. Gorbacheva, " On the Problem of the Formation of an Eval
uation and Self - Appraisal in Children , ” Ibid ., No. 18, 1948 .
12. A. P. Gurkina, " Realization of Moral and Psychological Qual
ities of the Personality by 5th - 7th Grade School Children , " Author's
Abstract of Candidate's Dissertation , Moscow , 1950 .
13. T. V. Dragunova , " On the Characteristic of Certain Psycho
logical characteristics of Soviet Youth , " Author's Abstract of Candi
date's Dissertation , Moscow , 1951 .
14. R. I. Zhukovskaya, " The Effect Exerted by Poems in Overcoming
a Silent and Reticent Attitude, " Izvestiya APN RSFSR ( Gazette of the RSFSR
Academy of Pedagogical Sciences) , No. 18, 1948 .
15. L. M. Zapryagalova, " Certain Peculiar Features in the Formation
of Self - Appraisal in Junior School Children , " Naukovi zapiski Institutu
psikhologii URSR ( Academic Reports of the Institute of Psychology of the
Ukrainian SSR ) Tin Ukrainiant, Vol . XIV, Kiev , 1959 .
16. V. F. Ivanova , " Peculiar Features in the Formation of Restraint
( Self - Control ) in 1st- 3d Grade Pupils, " Author's Abstract of Candidate's
Dissertation , Kiev, 1956 .
152 -
 17 . V. F. Ivanova , " On Certain Peculiarities in the Formation
of Self - Restraint in Junior School Children , " Naukovi zapiski Institutu
psikhologii URSR (Academic Reports of the Institute of Psychology of
the Ukrainian SSR ) [in Ukrainian ], Vol . VI , Kiev, 1956.
18 . Ye . A. Ivanova , " Peculiarities of the Critical Attitude To
wards One's Self on the Part of 5th - 7th Grade Students , " Author's Ab
stract of Candidate's Dissertation , Moscow , 1956.
19 . G. S. Kostyuk (Editor ), Psikhologiya (Psychology ) [in Ukrain
ian ), Kiev , 1955 .
20 . A. G. Kovalev and A. N. Bodylev, Psikhologiya i pedagogika
samo - vospitaniya ( Psychology and Pedagogy of Self- Training ), Leningrad ,
1958 .
21 . 0. I. Kul'chits'ka , " Feeling of Shame and Its Development in
Pre - School Age Children , " Naukovi zapiski Institutu psikhologii URSR ( AC
ademic Reports of the Institute of Psychology of the Ukrainian SSR ) [in
Ukrainian , Vol . XIV, Kiev , 1959 .
22 . I. P. Pavlov, Polnoye sobraniye sochineniy ( Complete Collec
tion of Works) , Vol . III , Book 1, Moscow-Leningrad , Publishing House of
the USSR Academy of Sciences, 1951 .
23. I. P. Pavlov, Ibid . , Vol . III , Book 2, Moscow -Leningrad ,
Publishing House of the USSR Academy of Sciences, 1951 .
24. L. G. Podolyak , ” The Influence of work in Training Work
shops Upon the Formation of Self - Appraisal in 5th - 7th Grade Students , "
Naukovi zapiski Institutu psikhologii URSR (AcademicReports of the
Institute of Psychology Ukrainian SSR ) Zin Ukrainian ], Vol . XIV , Kiev,
1959 .
S. L. Rubinshteyn , Osnovy obshchey psikhologii ( Fundamentals
25 .
of General Psychology ), 2d edition , Moscow , State Training and Pedagog
ical Literature Publishing House , 1946 .
26. S. L. Rubinshteyn , " The Problem of Consciousness in the
Light of Dialectical Materialism , " Izvestiya AN SSSR , Seriya istorii i
filosofii (Gazette of the USSR Academy of Sciences. Series on History
and Philosophy ) , No. 3, 1945.
27 . T. V. Rubtsova , " Peculiarities in the Realization of Moral
Qualities of the Personality by School Children of Various Ages, "
Voprosy psikhologii (Problems of Psychology ), No. 4, 1956.
28 . T. V. Rubtsova, " Developmental Peculiarities in the Reali
zation of Moral Qualities of the Personality by Students , " Naukovi
zapiski Institutu psikhologii URSR (Academic Reports of the Institute
of Psychology of the Ukrainian SSR ) (in Ukrainian ], Vol . VI , Kiev,
1956 ,
29 . T. V. Rubtsova, " Psychological Analysis of the Influence
Exerted by Fiction Literature Upon the_Formation of the Personality of
Junior School Children , " in Ukrainian ), Ibid . , vol . XIV, Kiev , 1959.
30 . P. Razmyslov , " The Role of the Collective in the Formation
of Self -Awareness in School Children , " Semya i shkola ( Family and School ),
No. 6, 1951 .

153 -
 31. Yu . A. Samarin , " The Style of Mental Work Performed by Senior
School Children , " Izvestiya APN RSFSR (Gazette of the Academy of Pedagog
ical Sciences RSFSR ) , No. 17 , 1948 .
32. Yu . A. Samarin , " Psychological Foundations of the Systematic
and Dynamic Character of the Mental Activity of School Children , " Author's
Abstract of Doctoral Dissertation , Leningrad , 1955 .
33. A. K. Serdyuk , " Psychological Characteristics of Self - Checking
in 1st- 3d Grade Students in Secondary Schools , " Anthology : The Problem
of the Psychology of Educational Work in Junior Grades of the Secondary
School, " (in Ukrainian ), Editor : P. R. Chamata , Kiev , 1953.
34. G. A. Sobiyeva, " Formation of Self- Awareness and Self
Appraisal in Adolescents , " Reports Presented at a Conference on Problems
of the Psychology of Personality , Moscow , Publishing House of the RSFSR
Academy of Pedagogical Sciences, 1956 .
35. G. A. Sobiyeva , " Characteristics of the Formation of Self
Awareness and Self- Appraisal in Soviet School children , " Uchenye zapiski
GPI gor. Ordzhonikidze (Academic Reports of the Ordzhonikidze State Ped
agogical Institute ) , Vol . 20 .
36. Ye . A. Serebryakova, " Self - Confidence and Conditions Govern
ing Its Formation in School children , Author's Abstract of Candidate's
Dissertation , Moscow , 1955 .
37. B. M. Teplov , Ob ob'ektivnom metode v psikhologii (On an Ob
jective Method in Psychology ) , Moscow , 1952 .
38. P. R. Chamata , "I. M. Sechenov's Ideas on the Development of
Self- Awareness in a Child , " Anthology : " Sketches from the History of
Domestic (Soviet ) Psychology , " Part II, " Psychological Heritage of I.
M. Sechenov , " ſin Ukrainian ), Kiev, 1955 .
39. P. R. Chamata , " On the Nature and Essence of Self - Awareness
of Personality , " Naukovi zapiski Institutu psikhologii URSR ( Academic
Reports of the SSR Institute of Psychology of the Ukrainian ), [ in Ukrain
ian , Vol . VI , Kiev, 1956 ,
40. P. R. Chamata , " On the conditions and Ways of Formation of
a Child's Self - Awareness , " Reports Presented at a Conference on Problems
of the Psychology of Personality , Moscow , Publishing House of the RSFSR
Academy of Pedagogical Sciences, 1956 .
41 . P. R. Chamata , " Ways of Formation of a Child's Self - Awareness, "
Naukovi zapiski Insti tutu psikhologii URSR (Academic Reports of the SSR
Institute of Psychology of the Ukrainian ) [ in Ukrainian ], Vol . XIV, Kiev,
1959 .
42. P. R. Chamata , "On the Genesis of Self - Awarensss in a Child , "
Ibid ., [t1in3. Ukrainian ), vol. I, Kiev, 1949.
P. R. Chamata, " Characteristics of the Development of Self
Awareness in Pre- School Age Children , " Doshkil'ne vikhovannya ( Pre- School
Education ) [ in Ukrainian ) , No. 3, 1952 .
44. P. R. Chamata, " The Role of Language ( or Speech ) in the For
mation of Child Self - Consciousness , " Radyans'ka shkola ( Soviet School)
[in Ukrainian ], No. 10 , 1952.

- 154 .
 45. P. R. Chamata , " Characteristics of the Development of Self
Awareness in Children ," Ibid ., [in Ukrainian ], No. 7 , 1956 .
46. A. L. Shnirman , " Formation of Attitudes towards the Collec
tive and Development of Self - Awareness in Senior School Children , "
Izvestiya APN RSFSR (Gazette of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogica !
Sciences ) , No. 18 , 1948 ,
47 . A. L. Shnirman , The Role of the Collective in the Forma
tion of Self - Awareness in Senior School Children , " Candidates Disserta
tion , Leningrad , 1957 .
48. A. L. Shnirman , " On the Study of Personality Development
in a collective, " Voprosy psikhologii (Problems of Psychology ), No. 2,
1955 .

155 -
 BASIC PROBLEMS AND PRESENT STATE OF THE PSYCHOLOGY
OF HUMAN RELATIONS

By V. N., Myasishchev
One of the most important tasks confronting psychology is the
study of the laws governing the formation of the personality . The
formation of the personality is a pedagogical process of training under
the guidance of society . Communist society cultivates a personality
which is characterized primarily by a Communist attitude towards work
and towards the collective .
The problem of the psychology of human relations must be con
sidered as a new trend in psychological research work .
As is known , the so - called natural scientific psychology , which
has taken the place of introspective psychology , has tended to " biolo
gizer the problem of personality . The historical -materialist interpre
tation of human nature, based upon the doctrine of Marxism -Leninism ,
naturally, required the overcoming of this position in psychology and
an approach to the study of man based upon an understanding of his es
sence as an aggregate of social relations . Hence arose the necessity
of examining the problem of human relations in a philosophical and
concrete- psychological way , and consequently , also a number of psy
chological problems in which this concept plays a vital part. In the
present article, we shall attempt to describe briefly the course of de
velopment of this problem .
The methodological principle for studying inanimate and animate
nature is based on an investigation of its objects in the process of
their interrelations with the surrounding world . Naturally, man in his
properties and potentials is also cognized in correlation with objective
reality .
The most complex and dynamic relations between man and the sur
rounding world find their expression in human psychic activity . An ob
jective psychological research , which is the course followed by Marxist
psychology , requires therefore a study of the relations between man and
reality surrounding him . In contrast to animals, the relations of man
with the surrounding environment have a special character , in view of
man's social and labor history of development. The human psyche repre
sents a conscious reflection of reality and , in his relations with his
environment, man stands out in the role of an active subject capable of
consciously transforming reality . A study of man and of his relations
with his environment discloses these special properties, and makes it
possible , during an objective study of man , to gain insight into his
internal world .
It must be pointed out that the concept of correlation presupposes
such a connection , in which no difference is observed in the role of two
objects of the nexus . On the other hand, the concept of relation ,
strictly speaking , arises in those cases where there is a subject and an
object having a certain relationship with each other . It is precisely

- 156 -
in the case of man that such a sort of nexus is observed very clearly,
and only from this standpoint can we understand the thought expressed
by K. Marx and F. Engels that " an animal has no relations with anything
and in general cannot relater ; in the case of an animal , its relation
with others do not exist as a relation " [ T; 297.
A conscious relationship merely represents the highest level of
relation to reality , and the actual recognition of this relationship
includes a number of stages, through which man passes in the course of
his development process . In studying man from the standpoint of his
relations, we establish his meaningful connections with the surrounding
social reality . It is impossible to have relations in general, and re
lations require an examination of the objects of relations ,
Being a product of a natural and socio - historical development of
man , man's attitudes towards reality require not only a psychological
characteristic, but also a physiological and socio -historical explanam
tion , The natural foundation of these relations can be explained by
means of comparative biology , physiology , and particularly by means of
I. P. Pavlov's teaching concerning higher neural activity . The basis
of a socio -historical understanding of human relations lies in historical
materialism , and in the facts and principles of the general history of
human development, of the history of culture and of scientific anthro
pology , seen in the light of this historical materialism .
The psychological relations or attitudes of man , in their fully
developed form , constitute an integral system of individual , selective,
conscious connections of the personality with various aspects of objec
tive reality . This system can be derived from the entire history of
human development; it expresses man's personal experience and determines
inwardly his actions and his personal feelings. We have used the term
" integral , " because it is man as a whole who has relations with reality .
We use the term " system of connections " because an object or a person ,
towards which a man has a certain attitude or relationship , does not con
stitute a stimulus or even a combination of stimuli , but rather their
systemic unity, in the same way as human actions do not represent a com
bination of muscular contractions, but rather their synthesis ( either in
a simultaneous or consecutive sense) . But the most important fact is
that an object , a person or any kind of circumstance represent not only
a sensory combination , but have , in the same way as human actions, a
definite meaning , which characterizes the essence of the object and
which cannot be reduced to a sum total of properties . Relations bind
man not so much with external aspects of things, as with the object ito
self as a whole , although in a relation to an object or a person differ
ent aspects may be expressed in connection with different aspects of an
object, for example, in connection with negative or positive properties
of an object . Since the properties of an object exist for everybody ,
while the actions and feelings caused by this object in various people
are selective and various , it is obvious that the source of the char
acteristic features of an experience or action lies in the individual,
in man as a subject of relations, in view of the peculiar nature of his
significant and characteristic fact is the
The signi:
ndividual experience . The
individually selective character of connections .
157 -
1
 While taking into account the tremendous and crucial role played
by individual experience in the development of human activity and rela
tions, we must emphasize at the same time that human relations are con
ditioned by a socio -historical experience , which represents the basis
of an extremely rich internal world in man . This experience , representa
ing a system of temporary human connections, also determines the med
iated nature of man's reactions to the actions exerted by the
surrounding world and his apparant initiative and independent behavior .
In studying human activities , we must not forget that man has a person
ality , and in studying the personality we must not forget that person
ality can be studied only in the form of some kind of activity . The
investigation of activity represents the functional or " processual "
plane, while the study of personality represents the potential plane of
the analysis of the subject under study .
The psychic life of man represents a whole, in which a scientific
analysis can isolate individual aspects and factors worthy of examination .
Such basic aspects of psychic life include psychic processes , relations,
states, and properties of the personality . Without discussing in detail
this problem , we cannot completely ignore it . The term " process is
understood by us as meaning a sequence of changes in psychic activity
during a certain type of interaction between man and the outside world ,
starting with the activity involved in thought and ending with motor
reactions . The term " state " is used to mean a general functional level ,
against a background of which a process takes place . A state may be an
excited , depressed , sluggish , active, tired state, etc. Extreme changes
in this background emerge as important in psychiatric clinics, where
they are studied as an independent object of investigation , for example ,
when we speak about manic, depressive, shock , confused and other similar
states . However , from the examples of normal states mentioned above ,
we can see clearly enough their importance within the limits of a normal
psychic activity . A definition of relations ( or attitudes ) has been
given above . The difference between these three psychological concepts
is significant not only from an empirical , but also from a logical stand
point. These three concepts throw light upon three basic elements in
the characteristic of a human activity : the process of activity always
takes place against a definite functional - dynamic background of a
state , and , in regard to the level of its activity , is determined by a
relation to the object, as the problem or the goal of the activity . In
actual life , these elements emerge in unified fashion ; in a theoretical
research study, we separate these elements arbitrarily , but we must never
forget their connection .
The problem of properties was usually examined in psychology
within the plane of properties of character or personality . The problem
must, of course , be examined in this mamer , but we must point out that
properties are manifested both in processes , and in human relations and
states . Therefore, in the problem concerned with the properties of per
sonality , various planes of psychological categories intersect each
other . Thus, the property of stability - instability refers both to rela
tions , to states , and to the nature of activity . The properties of

158 -
relations , states, and activities must be considered as properties of
the personality . This, on the one hand , underscores the central char
acter of the concept of personality , and on the other hand requires that
the concept of psychological properties should be used with a sufficient
degree of accuracy and definiteness .

Concerning the Problem of Types of Relations

There exist various types of relations , or more accurately , as

pects of a single object relation , which are determined by the many
sided possibilities of human reactions and the many - sidedness of objects .
Relation , as a connection between subject and object, is a single
phenomenon , but in the wide variety of relations there stand out more
or less clearly individual components , which can be called partial rela
tions or aspects or types of relations. These aspects are intimately
connected with the character of vital interaction , which includes a wide
variety of factors ranging from metabolism to a communication of ideas .
The basic aspects of relations are deeply rooted in the phylo
genetic and historical past of man . They differ from each other first
of all in the positive or negative character of active human reactions,
representing the basis of the selective and objective bias of his psy
chic activity . From the simplest positive or negative chemo taxis,
through instincts and complex human inclinations and needs , we can es
tablish a qualitative variety of these vital tendencies . In this series
of evolutionary stages , Soviet psychology emphasizes their qualitative
difference and the socio -historical, and not simply biological, nature
of human needs .
Needs represent one aspect of a basic relation . It can best be
defined as a conative tendency of possessing ( from the Latin word
" conare " which means to strive , to solicit) .
The concept of a need has been existing for a long time and has ,
as is as well known , a significance not only in the field of psychology .
We refer this concept to relations in view of the fact that the basic ,
so to say , constituent components of this concept are the following :
a) a subject experiencing a need; b) the object of the need; c) a pe
culiar nexus between the subject and the object, a nexus having a def
inite functional neurodynamic structure, which manifests itself in a
feeling of attraction to the object and in an active pursuit to possess
this object .
As is known , needs have been examined by certain authors as an
independent psychological category, while others have classified them
as volitional manifestations, and a third group of authors have included
needs into a system characterizing the personality . All of these defini
tions were partly justified , but the most correct procedure is to examine
needs in a system of relations to reality . A special set of studies has
been devoted to this problem by a staff of our collaborators [ 32 ], and
we refer the reader to this source .

- 159 -
 During early (primitive) stages of development, relations ( or
attitudes) still have a non - differentiated character . During the proc
ess of development, at the level of a highly organized animal ( dog ,
monkey ) , in which relations are still not consciously recognized , a
second aspect of an emotional - volitional relation , namely an emotional
attitude , can be identified . In the case of man , this attitude expres
ses tself in affection , love , sympathy , and in the opposites, hostil
ity , animosity , antipathy .
The emotional aspect of attitudes , the most striking example of
which is love and hostility , was referred in psychology to the category
of feelings . However , one should take into account the fact that the
field of feelings ( or emotions) includes three different groups of phe
nomena, namely emotional reactions, emotional states, and emotional re
lations . The latter represent to a considerable extent what is usually
called a feeling , but this has not yet been clarified and has not been
elucidated to a sufficient extent from a genetic standpoint.
The effects of anger , fear and melancholy constitute the most
striking expression of an emotional reaction . As is known , I. P.
Pavlov drew a distinction between feelings and emotions . The phys
iological basis of emotions is the activity of the subcortical region,
while the physiological basis of feelings satisfaction or frustra
tion lies in the facilitation or complication of the course of corti
cal processes . Naturally , this idea must be further developed . For
example , there are so - called higher feelings, such as intellectual , es
thetic and moral feelings . Obviously , to designate these feelings
simply as feelings in the sense of a simplification or complication of
the cortical activity , in the same way as a feeling of satisfaction or
dissatisfaction , would constitute a considerable over - simplification of
these complex , rich , and meaningful psychic facts . It is obvious,
moreover , that friendship and love , or hostility and hate , cannot be
dassified under the two above mentioned groups of phenomena . Although
in everyday speech , the word feeling is used to designate both the con
dition of satisfaction and dissatisfaction and also at the same time the
relations of love and hostility , however these are merely every - day indisc
criminate word usages, which result in a confusion of various concepts .
However , this every -day expression is not an accidental one : it combines
various facts according to the categorical sign of an emotional component
common to both . The old psychological subdivision ( so - called triad of
Tetens) asserted the independent nature of the three basic aspects , or
The
elements , of spiritual activity , namely mind , feeling and will .
denial of this triad as an integral whole did not, however , exclude
the actual presence of three aspects, namely a cognitive, volitional and
emotional aspect . Therefore , in every psychological fact, these three
sides , or three aspects , or three components are included to a certain
extent , while these aspects have a different meaning in different types
of processes of the psychic activity, of psychic conditions, states, and
relations . The fall - out of any links in this structure imparts a path
ological character to psychic activity ; such , for example , is a blind

• 160 .
rury and a blind passion , devoid of reason , such is also a pathological
emotional dullness or an inactive - aboulic mentality . The error commit
ted by Gestalt psychologists consists not in the principle of a struc
tural and integral study, but rather in a one- sided denial of the role
played by analysis and in a formalistic attitude .
According to what has just been said , one of the important proba
lems of psychology in general, and of the psychology of relations in
particular , is the further development of a system of concepts and of
structural problems in the field of psychic formations, specifically in
the field of relations .
A number of relations or attitudes stand out in man as relatively
independent formations , This category includes first of all interests,
evaluations and convictions .
In examining interests as a special type of relation , we have done
special development work on this problem in the form of a research study
conducted by our colleague V. G. Ivanov 57, 16 , who has studied the in
terests of students from the standpoint of attitudes , has clarified the
genesis of interests and has given a certain systematic classification
of interests . Recently , certain authors have overcome the one - sided
functional nature of understanding interests, and have started success
fully to examine interests as a relation (B. M. Teplov (417; P. I.
Ivanov [ 18]; A. D. Arkhipov 47 ). In a number of studies , problems
concerned with interests areintimately connected with the problem of
motivation of behavior (A. N. Leont'yev [25] [ 267; L. I. Bozhovich 7,
8) .
In the work done by V. G. Ivanov, the problem of interest is
elucidated in connection with school subjects. However , the present
tasks concerned with the conversion of schools into polytechnic insti .
tutions urgently call for an examination of problems of the formation
industrial labor . As was shown in
of interests in different types of a
study conducted by A. F. Esaulov (457, a characteristic feature of
students with a highly expressed professional interest is a striking
emotional attitude towards their profession , while the formation of
this interest is associated with an active and successful participation
in a corresponding activity carried out outside the class and outside
the school . At the same time, the above study shows that the participa
tion of students in industrial labor ( at an affiliated industrial enter
prise) contributes to the formation of an interest in this type of work .
At the present time, a growing volume of data is being obtained concern
ing the formation of an attitude toward work based on a practical effi
cient participation in this work [22] [23].
Efforts made in relation to study duties represent a particular
form of human efforts , resulting from a responsible attitude towards
those of one's obligations which characterize moral - legal human rela
tions . A responsible attitude toward one's obligations, resulting from
requirements levied by parents , teachers, and superiors , assumes the
form of duty and conscience .

. 161 -
 Education represents a process of interaction between the in
structor and the instructed subject. In this dual process , the in
structor can display an exacting , indulgent, affectionate , unpleasantly
attentive, scornful and just or a partial attitude toward his pupil ,
while the pupil may respond to the instructor in the form of respect,
affection , fear , hostility , distrust , secretiveness, frankness, or by
means of a frank or a hypocritical attitude . Mutual relations play
a substantial role in the character of the process of interaction , and ,
in turn , constitute the result of this interaction .Those experiences
which arise during the process of interaction strengthen , destroy , and
reorganize these relations . A " blow - up , " which has been so vividly de
scribed by A. S. Kakarenko, who has made it a significant link in the
retraining of personality , represents a critical turning point in rem
lations .
Under conditions in which a free interaction is possible, true
relations can manifest themselves; however , under conditions where an
inhibition or a suppression takes place , under conditions marked by a
lack of freedom and dependence of one person upon another , relations
during the course of a mutual relationship are not expressed , but are
hidden and masked . The essence of hypocrisy consists in the fact that
true relations are not disclosed in a mutual relationship , but, on
the contrary , the external form of a mutual relationship does not cor
respond to the internal content of the relationship . Relations have an
effect on the character of a mutual or reciprocal action ; this is under
standable, but this character depends not only on the relations, but
also upon external circumstances and the situation of those who inter
act upon each other . Thus , although there is an intimate connection
between the process of interaction between people and their mutual re
lations, these two concepts are not identical and cannot replace each
other . Mutual relationship is an internal personality basis of inter
action , and the latter is the realization or consequence and expression
of the former .
The moral formation of the personality is based not only on re
quirements , but also on a knowledge of models and on a process involving
a comparison of one's actions and acts with models and with an evalua
tion . This internal process leads to the formation of appraisal rela
tions, which are formed in connection with ethical , esthetic, judicial
and other criteria of human acts and experiences .
As ethical appraisals are made and criticism of oneself and
others is engaged in there arises a property of exactingness or exacting
attitude toward those around one and toward oneself .
From here there follows also a special type of ethical attitude
toward other people , namely a feeling of respect in a positive case and
a scomful or despising attitude in the opposite case . The importance
of these phenomena in all aspects of life , and specifically in the
field of mutual relations between students in school and in their atti.
tude towards teachers and their authority , is sufficiently clear . The
relationship of direction and execution or subordination , which is an

- 162 .
important factor in mutual relations between individuals should also be
mentioned . In the case of subordination , the formal status of individ
uals and their actual relations toward each other may not coincide .
Cases involving " a commanding position " among formally equal individuals
are quite frequent.
The system of requirements , in combination with a knowledge of re .
ality and especially of social reality , results in the formation of human
convictions, which cannot be represented in any way in the plane of a
functional - analytical psychology, and which constitute not only a repre
sentation of the actual nature of the existing reality , but also express
a notion of what this reality should be like . In accordance with convic
tions, are formed emotional reactions and an active ( volitional ) readiness
to fight for the realization of established convictions in life . These
problems , which have not been developed to a great extent from a psycho
logical standpoint, are described in a number of studies conducted by
our associate A. A. Bodalev 5, 6, showing the process of formation
of attitudes of students towards the school, towards the student body ,
towards the requirements imposed upon them and their duties as students ,
and towards individual school subjects .
Under these conditions, school children develop a system of re
quirements upon mutual relations between people , upon their attitude
towards their work , towards themselves , and towards their duties . The
school collective plays a leading and major role in this process . New
attitudes and specifically new requirements, arise on the basis of pre
vious attitudes. Such qualities of a pupil as initiative , perseverance ,
persistence ( or, on the contrary, a passive, impatient, or inactive ato
titude) originate in part from a responsible and exacting attitude to
wards work , and are formed in the process of a continuous exercise and
fulfillment of those requirements which are imposed upon the pupil ( by
the teachers) and of those requirements which a pupil imposes upon him
self . These qualities refer just as much to his behavior and activity,
as to his attitude : for example, his attitude towards work , his feel
ing of respect for teachers , his attentiveness to others, his attentive
attitude towards his duties , etc.

Psychic Processes and Attitudes

The potential plane of personality and attitudes does not exclude

a " processual " or functional , plane of examination of the psyche, but ,
on the contrary , is intimately associated with this plane , and raises
the problem of the connection between attitudes and psychic functions,
or psychic processes , a subject which we have treated previously . A
number of studies conducted by Soviet psychologists have already shown
the peculiarities of processes involving perception , memory , attention ,
thought, fantasy , and will in function of the attitude towards the ob
jective content of these processes . It is a generally known fact that
memory depends on interest or an emotional attitude (A. A. Smirnov (407
and others) . Studies
Studies of perceptio
perceptionn , carried out by our staff, show the

. 163 -
great variety and stability of this trait in case of an active and pos
itive attitude, and the poverty and instability of perception in case
of an indifferent attitude towards its content . A negative attitude
towards the content of perception is characterized by medium reproduc
tion results ( that is , results lying between a positive and an indif
ferent attitude in regard to quantity and quality ) .
A high positive or negative activity , characterizing attitudes,
is intimately connected with the emotional nature of reactions , in the
study of which , as was already pointed out, there has not been a suffi
cient articulation of the intrinsically unified but still threefold
plane of the characteristic of human emotionality into a) emotional re
actions; b ) emotional states; c) emotional attitudes.
Of great importance is the problem of the nature , on a psycholog
ical plane, of the processes of self -regulation of the higher neural
activity . It is known that will and attention are processes which reg
ulate and guide our activities. A. S. Yegorov [ 11], while studying the
problem of the development of volitional qualities, has shown that the
expression and formation of these qualities during physical culture exer
cises are intimately associated with the character of the attitude as
sumed towards a certain section of physical culture . There is a direct
connection between the level of progress , the selective volitional activ
ity and characteristic features of the attitude assumed by the student
towards a physical education assignment. Dividing the students into four
groups according to their progress , the author shows that these groups ,
being characterized by different degrees of an active - positive attitude ,
differ from each other in regard to their degree of understanding of the
significance of physical education , in their degree of inclusion of a
sport activity into a system having personal significance , and in regard
to the level of activity of efforts exerted during physical education
exercises . The author shows how , in case of an initial negative atti
tude, the skill and tact of the instructor make it possible gradually
to reorganize and transform this attitude, and by transforming it into
a steadily more positive attitude up to the stage of enthusiasm , how it
is possible to increase the activity and rate of progress of students .
In this connection is established the direct role played by the tactics
used by an instructor , a trainer or by the collective . It was also found
that decisiveness and boldness , as character traits which are vividly ex
pressed during physical education exercises , constitute an expression
and consequence of the attitude towards this subject . Contests in phy
sical education , by subjecting students to a special system of practical
relations, express the attitude towards the purpose pursued by physical
education exercises or towards their system , and , by mobilizing efforts ,
constitute a stimulus for the development of volitional qualities . These
principles , which are clearly expressed in the field of physical educa
tion , are just as significant in regard to any kind of school subject .
During early school age , the formation of volitional effort is
intimately associated with direct emotional relations. In a study con
ducted by A. G. Kovalev (217, devoted to the problem of the will and

- 164 .
the psychology of relations, it is shown how an attitude determines
the nature of a volitional effort . The author gives an example , which
is interesting for pedagogical practice, involving attempts to improve
the writing of a pupil . These attempts were found to be unsuccessful
if they are limited only to repeated exercises, and , on the contrary ,
they yield successful results , when a pupil gets an encouragement for
having written his text in a satisfactory manner , whereby this encourage
nent changes his attitude toward his writing and toward the task of cor
recting his writing . The author points out that the center of gravity
of the problem of the will consists not simply in action and not in a
struggle of motives , but rather in the achievement of a goal , which is
the object of an active attitude or relation , expressing the need for
a real or intellectual possession .
The problem of motivation , as is known , has attracted and contin
ues to attract attention in view of its connection not only with the
problem of the will , but also with the study of the entire activity of
man . A motive , as the basis of an action , decision or effort , is
simply the expression of an attitude toward the object of action , emerg
ing subjectively as a desire , striving , need , realization of duty , nec
essity , etc.
The most significant differences in the structures of volitional
behavior consist in the fact that effort , under primitive conditions,
is nobilized by a direct impulse from an emotional and a conative rela
tion . Under these conditions, rational motives of necessity or duty
are not very efficient . Only within the structure of a well - developed
volitional act do these motives acquire a predominant strength . Their
role increases according to the development of personality and is char
acterized by a growing intellectualization of behavior and the forma
tion of ideological -moral motives . We have already pointed out that the
behavior of an adolescent clearly discloses the role of_such formations
as a feeling of duty, responsibility and conviction ( 21). However, nei
ther a functional nor a structural psychology , nor even the psychology
of activity , have devoted or are devo ting to problems of the psychology
of duty , conviction , and responsibility the attention which these prob
lems deserve .
A wide variety of types of human activity can constitute the sub
ject of relations . There are many transitional stages between a revul
sion and a passionate enthusiasm for a certain activity , whereby a
mediate relation or attitude exists alongside an immediate relation or
attitude . A direct relation or attitude is determined by the attitude
assumed towards the process, goal or environment of an activity ; it is
also determined by the psycho - physiological state , which is characterized
as an active or passive state . All these factors result in the formation
of a direct active - positive attitude of a need for an activity . A medi
ate relation is determined by the place occupied by the expected result
of the activity within the system of purposes of the personality . The
main motives , characteristic for this type of relation , are motives of
duty or moral motives in general such as motives of honor, attitudes

- 165 -
towards a person for the sake of whom a certain activity is carried
out, motives involving social usefulness, objective necessity or per
sonal benefit . The complex combination of elements , which result in
the formation of a relation , can be defined as the structure of the
relation or attitude .
In one study, we have pointed out that the attitude towards ac
rying degrees . The metaphoric term " saturation , "
tivity is dynamic in varying
which has been used by K. Levin , designates a change in the attitude
towards objects and the process of activity during the course and under
the influence of the process of the activity itself. Without touching
upon the weak points of the entire conception of K. Levin , it should
be noted that, by operating with data referring to activity conditioned
only by direct interest motives , K. Levin has completely failed to take
into account the fact that activity is conditioned by the realization of
an objective necessity . On the contrary , E. Krepelin , who originated
the concept of the work curve , has completely failed to take into ac
count either the role played by direct personal interests or the sig
nificance of a responsible attitude towards work , whereas, even under
experimental conditions, as was shown in the research work carried out
by our colleagues (R. I , Meyerovich , Ye . Ye . Plotnikova, T. Ya.
Khvilivitskiy ), work is done differently in function of the correla
tion of these elements and various phases can be discovered in it .
Particularly characteristic is the phase of fluctuating indices , which ,
was not observed by either K. Levin or E. Krepelin , when the loss of
direct interest or reserve of energy comes into conflict with the re
alization of the necessity of performing the work . In this connection ,
a fluctuation is observed not only in the objective work indices, but
also sharp fluctuations are observed in the neurosomatic vegatative
functions of the organism , especially in the respiratory and cutaneous
electrical functions .
The following general law is quite clearly observed both during
experimental and during study and production work : the functional pos
sibilities of an individual in any direction of his activity can be
determined only in the presence of an active - positive attitude on his
part towards the problem .
When a person is fed - up with or overtired by his work , what is
the source of his continuation of this work ? It is a realization that
this work is necessary , which mobilizes the efforts of the individual or
stimulates him to make an effort of the will .

Problems of Human Typology in Connection with the Psychology

of Human Relations or Attitudes

Temperament , or , according to I. P. Pavlov, the generic type of

higher neural activity, is reflected in all aspects of the personality ,
or its behavior and activity . Temperament is not only a dynamic of re
actions, but also a dynamic of relations or attitudes . Indifference and
a passionate concern , stability and persistence manifest themselves both

- 166 -
 in reactions and in attitudes . The idea that attitudes are converted
into character traits (v. N. Myasishchev [297; B. G. Anan' yev 37)
means that attitudes , by acquiring a certain stability , a definite stamp,
and a greater significance , become characteristic features of a person
ality .In this sense , they also become character traits , while still
remaining attitudes or relations .
Definiteness and constancy of character are associated with def
initeness and constancy of relations or attitudes; however, whereas a
number of character traits are direct expressions of attitudes ( for ex
aple , strong principles, egotism , conscientiousness ), a number of other
properties ( for example, straightforwardness, decisiveness , integrity ,
volitional character traits) are not relations or attitudes in the true
sense of the word . Nevertheless , these properties are also associated
with human relations and attitudes and express a method of their reali
zation , and therefore we believe that it is possible to consider char
acter as representing a unity of a system and a method of relations or
attitudes . We wish to recall what has been pointed out by us pre
viously [ 31] : the properties of the reaction of a human individual ,
expressing his temperament and character , are manifested only in case
of an active relation towards the object causing the reaction . We
can even say that the absence of a reaction towards any thing is an in
dication not so much of temperament or character , as an indication of
the attitude assumed by a person . A person reacts to something import
1
ant or significant, and does not react to some thing which is not importa
ant and indifferent to him .
It is true that cases are known in psychology , and especially
in psychopathology , when insignificant facts elicit an intensive re
action , while important events appear to leave a person indifferent .
If we exclude pettiness or triviality as a property of the character ,
then such a " paradoxical " character of the reaction is frequently ex
!
plained by a morbid (parabiotic) state of the nervous system , an expla
nation which is not without a foundation in a number of pathological
cases . However , the main reason for such facts is that the dynamic of
behavior in response to insignificant causes represents a direct expres
sion of temperament, whereas a behavior in response to serious causes
is associated with the character of the person , which , in case of a
serious situation , mobilizes all the spiritual strength of a person ,
including his self - control .
The problem of the classification of types of personalities or
characters in connection with attitudes or relations has long since
been put by A. F. Lazurskiy [247. With a certain amount of justifica
tion , this problem was associated with the concept of personality lev
els. A. Adler , in his " situational psychology , " derived essentially
all character properties from the dynamic of human relations or atti
tudes , which are determined , according to his theory, by the correlation
between a feeling of inferiority and a social feeling . However , in
speaking about a feeling of " inferiority " and " a feeling of community, "

- 167 -
Adler not only wrongly designated the attitude towards oneself and
toward others as feelings , but made an ever greater mistake by con
sidering that both of these are inborn qualities ,
In connection with the development of society , the character
istic features of a psychological type are indices not only of individ
ual relations or attitudes , but also of attitudes characteristic for a
definite social epoch or period ( V. N. Myasishchev [ 29 ] ; A. G. Kovalev
[ TIT, [207 ). Thus, individualism is basically a type of attitude found
during the period of capitalism , while collectivism is a type of atti
tude prevailing during the period of socialism .
Finally , we have to point out that many psychological studies
( essentially, the whole of pedagogical psychology) show that the char
acteristics of the personality constitute the product of its interrela
tion with other human beings during the process of development, a
product of the influence exerted by example, attachment and authority
both of individuals and collectives ( school or industrial ), that is ,
they express in the most direct sense of the word the thesis of K.
Marx daiming that man is an ensemble of social relations .
Development of Human Relations or Attitudes

The relations or attitudes of each individual person, like his con

scious selective connections, are the product of an individual develop
ment .
Essentially , the problem of the development of the human individ
ual is inextricably connected with the formation of his attitudes or
relations. Here we are confronted with extremely difficult problems,
which have , indeed , been raised previously , but which have been eluci
dated rather differently .
A number of studies ( V. M. Bekhterev, N. M. Shchelovanov , N. L.
Figurin , M. P. Denisov, N. I. Kasatkin and others) described the first
stages of this development from an objective - psychological standpoint .
At the same time, attempts have been made to analyze this problem from
a psycho - social standpoint ( Buhler , Getzer and others) . These observa
tions and naturally experimental investigations show that , a selective
reactivity with a clearly conditioned reflex character begins to be ob
served at an early stage on the basis of unconditioned reflexes . The
problem concerning the interrelationship between this selectivity and
relations proper must still be investigated . It is intimately assoc
iated with the old problem of the psychology of the moment of formam
tion of self - awareness . The original period of a growing selectivity ,
which expresses itself in various fields and becomes integrated , can be
called a pre - relation or pre - attitude , that is , a conscious attitude or
relation which has not yet been formed as such but which shows already
a clear selectivity . A child , in the course of development, begins to
be conscious, i.e. a consciously relating being , only from a certain
point in his development . However , after mastering speech to a cer
tain extent , he enters into a phase, in which he not only reacts in a

168 .
 selective manner in response to certain situations in life, but also
expresses his attitude in the form of speech . In 2 - year old children ,
it is possible to note still unstable but definite reactions accompanied
1 by the words : "I want- I do not want, " "It is interesting -it is not in
teresting , " "I like - I do not like . " It is not here a question of the
child realizing the meaning of these words, but rather a question of
the meaning of his reaction corresponding to the meaning of these
words . As a result of research conducted on pre - school age children ,
it is possible to establish characteristic features of attitudes assumed
by 2 to 3 year old children (R. N. Vershinina and Ye . F. Rybalko [ 107 ).
Here we can speak about expressed and definite selective attitudes ,
among which attitudes towards parents, towards children , towards in
structors , towards games are most clearly expressed . Certain proper
ties of attitudes at this age already appear to be character traits ,
such as independent action , initiative, conscientiousness, sociability .
During this period of development, attitudes are characterized by a
situational mobility , and are easily subject to contrasting changes
under the influence of changing or fleeting emotional states . Atti
tudes are firmly linked with acts and with a reaction . They are ex
pressed in acts . The character and the level of development of atti
tudes are determined during this age primarily by adults ( parents,
instructors ) .
Changes in the situation of the child during school age entail ,
in addition to a functional development, enrichment of experience and
great variety of relations, a new factor as well , namely duties outside
the family and compulsory school work . The child's control over his own
actions and the structure of attitudes, determined by the requirements
of objective necessity , rise to a new level . The formation of princi
ples , of basic attitudes and behavior , of convictions and ideals char
acterizes the development of attitudes during the senior school age
years . The highest level of development of the ideological and basic
behavior is the consequence not only of a functional development, but
also of a social structure, of conditions governing communication with
others and social education .

Problems concerned with the Pedagogy and Psychology

of Relations or Attitudes

There are two highly important problems, which must be considered

by general, and especially pedagogical , psychology . A Communist society
is built on the principle : from each according to his abilities , to each
according to his needs. The aspect of this doctrine which is of the
greatest importance for psychology is the fact that society, not only
makes requirements according to abilities , but also develops and culti
vates abilities, in the same way as it not only satisfies needs, but
also forms and cultivates these needs. We shall touch here upon the
complex problem of human abilities only in connection with the problem
- 169 -
concerning attitudes and relations. An extensive volume of historical
biographical and psychological -pedagogical data shows that, under condi
tions of normal development , abilities are in a state of normal correla
tion with inclinations which represent the motive force for the develop
ment of abilities . At the same time , an inclination is simply a
selectively positive attitude towards an activity , and represents a
more or less stable and firm need for a definite type of activity .
Abilities develop into activities , which are mobilized by inclination .
Efforts in a study of professional activity, as a manifestation of the
will and as a condition of its development , are in turn determined by
interests , mental activity , the fulfillment of a need and by a respon
sible attitude towards duties . We have already spoken about interests
as an attitude . A number of problems , connected with questions con
cerned with an attitude towards a study activity and motivation , have
been described in studies conducted by Ye . 0. Zeyliger and Sh . I.
Ganelin [137, A. N. Leontiyev [257, 1267_L. I._Bozhovich, N. G.
Morodova , L. S. Slavina 8 and others 17 , [ 317 , 1397. These studies
show that both progress in studies and interest in studies are intimately
connected with a comprehension of these studies, i.e. with the fact that
the objective sense of studying acquires a subjective sense as well for
the student .
An interest in studies expresses a direct need for a cognitive
assimilation and mastery of the subject being studied . As a factor of
progress , this interest stands in a certain relationship with a realiza
tion of the necessity for studying , with the formation of a responsible
attitude towards school work . However , whereas this interest has a
tendency to become concentrated on certain definite fields, the realiza
tion of necessity and responsibility , on the contrary, extends to all
school subjects . The inextricable connection between education and for
mation work at this point is quite clear . It is also worthy of atten
tion that mental activity and study activity , although they are closely
related with each other , still may not coincide . A study conducted by
L. M. Zyubin [ 747 has shown the connection between intellectual activ
ity and a conscious attitude toward studies . The author outlines the
following groups of students according to the correlations between
these elements : 1 ) active students who have a conscious attitude to
wards their study activities; 2) students who have a conscious atti
tude towards their study activities but who are intellectually
passive ; 3) students who have an indifferent attitude towards study,
in spite of a high intellectual activity; and finally , 4) students,
who are intellectually passive and who have an indifferent attitude
towards study activity . The author shows the various correlation in
these cases between the mental and the moral influences and the var
ious correlation between the influence exerted by the family and by
the school . The process of development of an attitude towards study in
adolescent school children has been carefully investigated and very
clearly described in an extensive article recently published by G.
P. Ivanov ( 127.

- 170 -
 The problem of school discipline has always been connected with
attitudes of the pupils towards the requirements made by the school and
towards instructors, although the psychological aspect of this problem
has not been sufficiently clearly described . The opposition between a
free and a conscious discipline , between rigorous training and habit, is
quite clear in problems concerned with education . It may only be added
that a recognition alone ( in the sense merely of an understanding of
requirements) is not sufficient, a fact which has been pointed out fre
quently by A. S. Makarenko . An efficient mastery of the tasks which
have been consciously recognized is indispensable .
Sometimes attitudes or relations are examined as a stereotype .
However , as is knoin , a dynamic stereo type or in other words a set is
entirely determined by past experience , whereas, as was clearly pointed
out by A. S. Makarenko, the most important lever of educational work
consists in perspectives . A conscious attitude, growing out of the
past, becomes oriented towards future prospects . For this reason, it
cannot be identified either with a stereotype or with a set.
The discipline of students constitutes the expression of their
conscious attitude towards the school and its requirements , At the
basis of the formation of this attitude , there lies the attitude to
wards leadership in school, which is represented initially , i.e. in
the junior crades, in the person of the teacher and class leader . This
fact could , one could think , be considered as completely clear , undis
putable and generally knom . Surely that is the way the majority of
pedagogues understand it, However , since the concept of relation has
not been worked out ei ther in pedagocy or psychology , we cannot but
underscore this point . And accordingly , we must direct attention ,
first , to the fact that a disciplined behavior is based on relations;
second , to the fact that relations and the attitudes growing out of
them constitute a hierarchic system , which combines emotional links
with the school (devotion to the school ), the authority of individual
pedagogues and pedagogues as a whole , the realization of the necessity
of fulfilling the school requirements , the training in the observation
of rules and requirements, and , finally , an attitude towards the stud
ents and their behavior ; third , that the forms of development of these
attitudes depend upon the mutual relations between the pupil and the
teacher - instructor which are formed in the very first grades , and be
tween the requirements made by the teacher and instructor and the be
havior of the pupil .
As A. S. Malcarenko has shown , the collective assumes a steadily
growing importance in the formation of the behavior and personality of
individual students at various stages of the formation of the school
collective . A number of studies , devoted to educational work carried out
in a mass school , show here also the high productivity resulting from the
application of the educational principles proposed by A ._ $ , Makarenko ,
1. A.Bodalev U; V. 17. Fedosova [437 ;A. L. Shnirnan (47 and others) .
This indicates that, in his pedagogical system , A. S. Makarenko relied
mostly upon the psychology of relations and attitudes. Among his

- 171 -
numerous principles , to which we could refer , we shall only cite one
here : " Since we are always dealing with attitudes , in view of the fact
that attitudes constitute precisely the true object of our pedagogical
work , we are always confronted with a dual object , namely the individual
personality and society . To exclude the individual personality , to is
olate and separate it from relations, is quite impossible, is technically
impossible" [28]
In concluding this portion of the article, we cannot but say that ,
from a psychological standpoint, the success achieved in production work
and production discipline also rests upon an attitude towards production .
A highly characteristic feature is that leading production workers, in
novators and inventors are models of a selfless devoted attitude towards
production , which determines the mobilization of their creative poten
tials and the continuous development of them . If I. P. Pavlov called
his outstanding works the fruit of " tireless thinking, " here we are
dealing with the results of a tireless thinking and doing , with a cre
ative labor , which reorganizes all human attitudes and motives of a
man's behavior and activity . A study of innovators and leading produc
tion workers shows a unity in the process of production - technical im
provement, of a selfless passion for work , of a conscious socialist
attitude torrards work ( P. N. Kovan 'ko [237 ). A true education in work
in which the production collective is of major significance, plays a
cardinal role in the formation of such an attitude ( Ye. D. Varnakova
197) . The number of psychological studies, reflecting the role of the
production element and the role of the collective , is still small . How
ever , even now it is possible to find striking descriptions of personal
ity attitudes undergoing formation in the process of a study activity ,
of communal and production labor ( s . V. Kondradıyeva (227 ) . The most
important tasks of psychology and pedagogy is the study of the formation
of attitudes towards production labor . However , only isolated studies
are devoted to this problem (A. F. Esaulov (457 ). Without touching upon
the problem of the reasons for this situation in the field of pedagogy ,
we believe that in the field of psychology this expresses an insufficient
attention to the study of the concrete personality under concrete condi
tions of life , and , consequently, in its attitudes towards these condi
tions , and thus represents one of the most significant reasons for this
defect. Undoubtedly , there will be a greater number of studies of this
type within the near future, and there will be shown the crucial role
of a synthesis of study , communal and production work in the formation
of Communist attitudes , assumed by a new Soviet type of man .
On the Role of Human Attitudes in Psychopathology
and Psychotherapy

This problem must be briefly mentioned here , in view of the fact

that many physicians usually " biologize " the notion of man . The ideas
of I. P. Pavlov on the physiology of the higher neural activity

- 172 -
synthesized with Soviet materialist psychology , make it possible to
overcome this biologizing trend and to see in a patient not only an
organism but also a personality . Only by means of such a synthesis is
it possible to overcome the idealist positions held by the psychosomatic
trend widely found abroad , and to understand the personality as a social
and organic unity , some thing which is most important in understanding ata
ti tudes and relations .
Certain psychologists interpret relations and attitudes in a one
sided way , as merely socio - ethical attitudes, whereas these latter
al though they do constitute an important part, still are of course not
the only part of attitudes and relations ( as can be seen from the above
exposition ) . An investigation of the relations between the psychic life
and the somatic life indicates that a lesion of human attitudes can en
tail a serious lesion of the entire vital activity of the organism . In
one of our previous articles , we have already touched upon this problem
[35] , pointing out the importance of disturbed relations and attitudes
and to the experiences connected with such disturbances for the genesis
and course of morbid processes ( whereby , their importance was shown not
only in connection with neuroses , but also in connection with all types
of diseases in general ) . Naturally, in this connection , characteristic
features of the types of higher neural activity of the individual are
taken into account , whereby this type is understood not only in a phys
siological , but also in a psychological sense , as his temperament and
character in connection with his attitudes towards reality ( cf. also R.
A. Zachepitskiy and Ye. K. Yakovleva [127 ; Ye .Ye . Plotnikova
( 377).
In neuroses , a lesion of attitudes or relations plays a patho
genic causal role . This refers also to all psychogenic illnesses ,
even to such illnesses as paranoia . It is not by chance that I. P.
Pavlov considered obsessive neuroses and paranoia together , and em
phasized the role which distorted lesions of an attitude play in the
pathogenesis of delirium [ 367 .
However , in a number of illnesses of the brain , disturbed rela
tions or attitudes are not the cause but the consequence of the illness .
This group includes morbid states , in which , with a regression in per
sonality , the individual method of attitudes characteristic for a per
son , undergoes a change . This is particularly dearly expressed in
the so - called frontal syndrome (as was shown in a number of studies deal .
ing_with this problem , especially the studies conducted by A. R. Luriya
[ 277 and his associates) .
In states involving a psychic underdevelopment, attitudes or
relations are the less differentiated , the greater is the degree of
underdevelopment. As Ye . Ye . Plotnikova has shown , attempts to study
the working ability of oligophrenics in a debility state disclose the
presence of an exercise and fatigue curve , although this curve is re
duced and poorly expressed . No rules at all are observed in imbeciles,
since the latter exhibit no definite attitude towards work and no stress
or fatigue .

- 173 -
 Psychogenic neuro - psychic diseases require in the first place
psychotherapy . As we have frequently demonstrated , together with our
associates, a so - called deep , or rational , psychotherapy is based on
a reconstruction of attitudes .
Usually , problems concerned with suggestion therapy were not
examined on this plane. However , it is instructive that suggestibility ,
as was shown in a study by V. A. Chasov (427, constitutes not so much
an intellectually characterological and stable characteristic of the
individual as the result of a dynamic interrelationship between human
beings . Taking account of the connection between suggestibility and
hypnosis , it can be assumed that the appearance of a hypnotic state is
made possible in many respects by the relation existing between the per
son being hypnotized and the hypnotizing person .
Thus, all branches of psychotherapy of great significance for the
whole of medicine, are associated with human attitudes and relations .
These fields of medical practice are based primarily on the mutual rela
tions between the doctor and the patient and are directed towards a rem
construction of morbidly disturbed attitudes and of the methods by which
the patient reacts to these disturbances .
The clarification of the role of disturbed attitudes and relations
in the pathogenesis of a neurosis and in therapy makes it clear that
neuropsychic preventive and hygenic measures not only cannot disregard
a consideration of the peculiarities of the personality and its atti
tudes , and relations but also raises problems concerned with the forma
tion of certain definite human properties and attitudes . We may point
out that individualism and egocentrism , reticence and secretiveness , a
biased , emotional ( " catathymich ) processing of impressions, an insuffi
ciently critical attitude towards one's self and self- admiration act not
only as a source of a psychic traumatization , but also as a cause of a
morbidly inadequate and pathologically one - sided processing of difficul
ties in life ,
Without forgetting the need for strengthening physical health ,
we must stress the importance of developing psychological measures aimed
against the traits similar to those which have just been listed . Here ,
medicine is closely connected with pedagogy and psychology . Unfortunately,
the vast majority of psychiatrists in our country have no psychological
education or instruction , and therefore either are not familiar with the
modern materialist psychology , or only know it according to those old
psychiatric textbooks which described functional - analytical psychology ,
while the physicians in all other special fields have no knowledge at
all of any kind of psychology . From here , there follows the task ( of
great importance for public health services) of propagandi zing among
physicians a knowledge of psychology , and, specifically, of the psychol
ogy of human attitudes and relations . The requirement stating that the
psychology of a patient must be taken into consideration constitutes one
of the best traditions of our Soviet clinical school , which must be de
veloped on a new level , on the basis of a physiology and physiopathology
of the higher neural activity of man , and on the basis of a materialist
theory of the personality .
174 -
 Scientifically based development work on the psychology of at
titudes has become possible only on the basis of an assimilation of
the methodology of Marxism - Leninism , on the basis of a development of
the theory concerning the higher neural activity and on the basis of
the experience gained by Marxist pedagogy . This development work is
being carried out by fighting the opinions of those foreign scientists
who have adopted ideological positions alien to us ( Adler , Strasser ,
Dessauer, Saliven , [ Sullivan ?], Moreno and others ) .
The present state of the psychology of attitudes and relations
is only the initial stage of its development . We are confronted with
a number of problems some of which have a more theoretical or some a
more practical nature . Foremost are problems concerned with the study
of the factual material available on human relations and attitudes under
various conditions and processes of activity , primarily during work in
production enterprises, in everyday life , in the family and in the
school . This primary factual material must serve as a basis for solv
ing the important problem of the laws governing the development of human
relations and attitudes under the conditions present in a Communist so
ciety under construction . These laws are established , first of all , by
studying the human individual in processes involving a production - labor ,
a study -labor , and a communal activity . Obviously a knowledge of these
rules constitutes the basis for the cultivation of a Communist attitude
toward work , toward the collective , toward schools, toward the family ,
etc. , in accordance with what has been stated above . The tasks con
cerned with the organization of communal labor and the communal - labor
training of children are varied and far - reaching . They require the skill
to see the unity formed by the collective and the individual personality .
The unity of a collective is the connections, interactions and mutual
relations between the members of the collective . Soviet materialist psy
chology proceeds from the unity of the individual personality and the
collective; a study of the individual in his relations is first of all
a study of that individual in his connections and relations with other
human beings, i.e. , involves the overcoming of the " Robinson Crusoe at
titude , " which was rightly criticized by the founders of Marxism .

- 175 -
 LITERATURE

1. K. Marx and F. Engels, Sochineniya (Works ) , 2d edition , Vol .

3, 1955 .
2. V. I. Lenin , Sochineniya (Works ) , 4th edition , Vol . 38 .
3. B. G. Anan'yev , Dinamika obrazovaniya kharaktera ( Dynamics
of Character Formation ) , Leningrad , 1947 .
H. A. P. Arkhipov , " Relationship Between the knowledge of Stud
ents and Their Study Interests , " Author's Abstract of Candidate's Dis
sertation , Moscow , 1958 .
5. A. A. Bodalev, " On the Cultivation of Certain Moral Qualities
in School Children , " Uchenyve zapiski LGU (Academic Reports of Leningrad
State University ), No. 214 , 1956 .
6. A. A. Bodalev , " On the Formation of Self - Exactingness in
School Children , " Ibid . , No. 203, 1955 .
7. L. I. Bozhovich , " The Attitude of School Children Towards
Study as a Psychological Problem , " Izvestiya APN RSFSR (Gazette of the
RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences) , No. 36 , 1951.
8. L. I , Bozhovich , N. G. Morozova and L. S. Slavina , " The
Development of Study Motives in Soviet School children , " Ibid ., No. 36 ,
1951 .
9. Ye . D. Varnakova, " On the Development of Personality in a
Production Collective , " Reports Presented at a Conference on Problems
of the Psychology of Personality , Moscow , Publishing House of the
RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences, 1956.
10. R. N. Vershinina and Ye . F. Rybalko, " On the Problem of
Attitudes of 2 - Year Old Children , " Uchenyye zapiski LGU ( Academic Re
ports of Leningrad State University) , No. 214, 1956 .
A. S. Yegorov, " On the Problem of Cultivation of Volitional
11 .
Qualities During Physical Culture Exercises in Senior Grades , " Ibid .,
No. 214, 1956.
12. R. A. Zachepitskiy and Ye , K. Yakovleva , " The Role of Per
sonality Characteristics in the Pathology and Therapy of Neuroses , "
Reports Presented at a Conference on Problems of the Psychology of Per
sonality , Moscow , Publishing House of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical
Sciences, 1956.
13. Ye . 0. Zeyliger and Sh . I. Ganelin , " Attitude of a Student
Towards His Study Work , " Pedagogicheskoye obrazovanive ( Pedagogical In
struction ) , No. 2, 1936 .
14. L. M. Zyubin , " On the connection Between Intellectual Activ
ity and the Conscious Attitude of School Children Towards Their Studies, "
Uchenye zapiski LGU ( Academic Reports of Leningrad State University ) ,
No. 214 , 1956 ,
15. V. G. Ivanov, " Basic Principles of the Theory of Interest in
the Light of the Problem of Human Attitudes ," Ibid . , No. 214, 1956.
16. V. G. Ivanov, " The Development and Cultivation of Interests
in Senior Grade Students of Secondary Schools , " Author's Abstract of
Candidate's Dissertation , Leningrad , 1956 .
- 176 -
 17. G. P. Ivanov, "On the Development of Study Attitudes in
Teen - Age School Children , " Uchenwe zapiski Blagov . gos . ped . in - t
( Academic Reports of Blagoveshchensk State Pedagogical Institute),
1957 .
18 . P. I. Ivanov, Psikhologiya ( Psychology ), 1954 .
19 . A. G. Kovalev, Kharakter i zakonomernosti vego razvitiya
( Character and Laws Governing Its Development) , Leningrad, Publishing
House of Leningrad State University , 1954 .
20 . A. G. Kovalev, " The Problem of Will in the Light of the Psy
chology of Attitudes , " Uchenyye zapiski LGU ( Academic Reports of Lenin
grad State University ) , No. 214, 1956 .
21 . A. G. Kovalev and V. N. Myasishchev , Psikhologicheskive
osobennosti cheloveka , T. I. Kharakter (Psychological characteristics
of Man , Vol. I , Character ) , Leningrad , Publishing House of Leningrad
State University , 1957 .
22.
S. V.
S. V. Kondratiyeva , " Cultivation of Attitudes in a Collec
tive During the course of Organizational Work , " Author's Abstract of
Dissertation , 1957 .
23. T. N. Kovan ko , " The Role of New Motives in the Development
of the Creative Activity Displayed by Leading Production Workers, " (Manu .
script) .
24. A. F. Lazurskiy , Klassifikatsiya lichnostey ( Classification
of Personalities ) , Petrograd , 1919 .
25. A. N. Leont' yev , " Psychological Problems of the Conscious
ness of Studying, " Izvestiya APN RSFSR ( Gazette of the RSFSR Academy of
Pedagogical Sciences) , No. 7 , 1947 .
26. A. N. Leontiyev, Ocherk razvitiya psikhiki ( Outline of the
Development of the Psyche ), Moscow , All- Union Scientific Publishing As
sociation , 1946 .
27 . A. R. Luriya, Travmaticheskaya afaziya ( Traumatic Aphasia ) ,
Moscow , Publishing House of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences ,
1949 .
28. A. S , Makarenko, Izbrannyve pedagogicheskiye sochineniya
( Selected Pedagogical Works) , 7th edition , Book 4, Moscow , Publishing
House of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences , 1949 .
29 . V. N. Myasishchev , " Types of Modern Worker Youth , " Anthol .
ogy : " Worker Youth As It Is , " Leningrad , " Priboyu Publishing House ,
1924 .
30. V. N. Myasishchev , " The Psyche of An Abnormal Child , "
Trudy Instituta po izucheniyu mozga ( Works of the Institute for the
Study of the Brain ), NO . VI , 1936 .
31 . V. N. Myasishchev , " The Problem of Attitudes in the Psy
chology of Individual Differences , " Anthology : " Problems of Psychol
ogy , " Leningrad , Publishing House of Leningrad State University , 1948 .
32 . V. N. Myasishchev , " Psychic Functions and Attitudes , "
Uchenye zapiski LGU ( Academic Reports of Leningrad State University ),
Leningrad , No. 119 , 1949 .
- 177
 33. V. N. Myasishchev , " Problems of Human Psychology in the
Light of Pavlov's Teaching on the Relationship of the Organism To the
Environment, " Ibid . , No. 147 , 1953.
34. V. N. Myasishchev, " Problems of Psychology in the Light of
the Opinions Held by Classical Writers on Marxism - Leninism on Human Re
lations, " Ibid ., No. 203, 1955 .
35. V. N. Myasishchev , " On the Significance of Psychology for
Medicine , " Voprosy psikhologii (Problems of Psychology ), No. 3 , 1956 .
36. I. P. Pavlov, " An Attempt to Achieve a Physiological Under
standing of a Persistent Neurosis and Paranoia , " Polnoye sobraniye
so chineniy ( Complete Collected Works ) , 2d edition , Vol. 3, Book 2 , 1957 ,
page 257 .
37. Ye . Ye . Plotnikova , "On the Role of Peculiar Features of
the Personality and Its Relations in the Development of Neurasthenia,
Uchenvye zapiski LGU ( Academic Reports of Leningrad State University ),
No. 214 , 1956 .
38. Anthology : " Cognitive Interests and Conditions Governing
the Formation of Such Interests in Childhood , " Editor , L. I. Bozhovich ,
Izvestiya APN RSFSR (Gazette of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences ) ,
No. 73 , 1955 .
39. L. S. Slavina, " The Role of the Family in the Formation of
a Pupil's Attitude Towards School Studies , " Izvestiya APN RSFSR ( Gazette
of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences ), No. 36 , 1951 .
40 . A. A. Smirnov , Psikhologiya zapominaniya (Psychology of Re
call ), Moscow , Publishing House of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical
Sciences, 1948 .
41. B. M. Teplov , "General Characteristic of Interest , "
Psikhologiya Rukovodstvo dlya pedinstitutov ( Psychology , A Handbook
for Pedagogical Institutes) , Eds . K. N. Kornilov , A. A. Smirnov,
B , M. Teplov, 1948 .
42. V. A, Chasov, " Suggestion as a Method for the Treatment of
Neuroses , " Problemy klinicheskoy psikhonevrologii (Problems of clinical
Psychoneurology) , 1957 .
43. V. N. Fedosova , " The Influence Exerted by the Development of
Mo tives Upon the Formation of a Communist Attitude on the part of Students
Towards Studies and Social Work , " Chair of Psychology of Leningrad State
University , Diploma Project , 1956 .
46. A. L. Shnirman , The Collective as a Vital Condition for
the Formation of a Pupil's Personality , " Reports Presented at a confer
ence on Problems of Psychology , Moscow , Publishing House of the Academy
of Pedagogical Sciences RSFSR , 1956 .
45. A. F. Esaulov , " On the Formation of Professional Interests
of Senior School Children , " Uchenye zapiski LGU (Academic Reports of
Leningrad State University ) , No. 214 , 1956 .

- 178 -
 GENERAL PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORY OF SET

By A. S. Prangishvili

During the entire period of development of Soviet psychology ,

the history of which was a process of creative assimilation of Marxist
Leninist theory and which was intimately connected with the solution of
problems dealing with the construction of a socialist society in our
country , questions of the psychological theory of personality reprem
sented one of the basic problems of scientific research work in the
field of psycholowy .
In particular , the problem of personality formed the subject of
a systematic study on the part of a staff of Georgian psychologists,
working under the direction of D. N. Uznadze .
As a result of intensive research work , conducted along this line
by D. N. Uzadze and his pupils, a special field of the psychology of
personality , namely set, was studied ; a definite system of the psychology
of set was developed , which included a general , genetic, and pathological
psychology of set . The concept of set became a specific problem of in
vestigation at the Institute of Psychology Imeni D. N. Uznadze of the
Academy of Sciences of the Georgian SSR .
The purpose of the present article is to give a description of
certain basic principles in the general psychological theory of set.
1. General Psychological Problem of the Activity
of Personality

Set is a concept in the general psychological theory of the activ

ity of the personality . It is precisely in this aspect that we shall
examine the concept of set in this article .
( 1 ) In the first place , we must clarify the manner in which the
psychological problem of personality is set up and interpreted in the
conception of D. N. Uznadze , which includes , as was pointed out above,
the general psychological concept of set. In order to give a clear pre
sentation of the specific nature of that trend in the psychological study
of the problem of personality , which was outlined in the doctrine of
set formulated by D. N. Uznadze and his pupils, we consider it essential
to outline certain basic notions of the Marxist- Leninist theory of psy
chology , which determine the formulations of the psychological problem
of personality .
It is known that Marxist - Leninist materialist monism , which con
siders that the psychic life is a property of the brain , does not idento
ify consciousness with matter and thereby acknowledges the validity of
their relative gnosiological opposition , within the limits of which a
philosophical study of consciousness differs from a psychological study .
Gnosiology studies the reflection of reality in consciousness from the
standpoint of veracity . As a subject of psychological study, the reflec
tion of reality in human consciousness must be understood as a process
179 -
of formation of a subjective image of objective reality . Psychology is
concerned with a process , i.e. with an activity and a reflection , pre
cisely as a real process .
The principle that a reflection is a subjective image of the ob
jective world in the light of the Marxist- Leninist theory of reflection
means in the first place that consciousness cannot be examined or con
sidered as some sort of an essence , separated from man , as a certain
lifeless " abstract ion. " In contrast to idealists , who proceed from
nconsciousness as if it were a living individual , " Marx and Engels con
sidered that the peculiar feature of a materialist approach to the prob
lem of consciousness resided in the fact that this approach proceeds
from actual real life individuals and examines consciousness only as
the consciousness of these individuals ( Note7 K. Marx and F. Engels,
Works, Vol . 3, 1955 , p . 25) .
To consider or examine consciousness as the consciousness of real
living individuals means to consider consciousness as something which is
dependent upon the objective living conditions of " real living individ
uals . "
However , the most essential feature of the Marxist- Leninist ap
proach to these problems consists precisely in the fact that living
conditions are examined not only in the form of an object or in the form
of contemplation , but rather as a human sensual activity and practice ( K ,
Marx and F. Engels , Works, Vol . 3, p . 1 , 1955) .
S. Engels considered that the main defect of the entire pre
Marxist philosophy and natural science consisted precisely in the fact
that research studies disregarded the influence exerted by the activity
of the human individual upon his thought ( consciousness) , whereas " the
most essential primary basis of human thought consists precisely in
the alteration of nature by man , and not nature alone as such ; the
development of the human mind was likewise proportional to the manner
in which man learned to change nature " ( K. Marx and F. Engels , Works,
Vol . XIV, p . 406 , 1931 ) . " Circumstances create people to the same
extent as people create circumstances" ( K. Marx and F. Engels, Works,
Vol . III, p . 37, 1955 ) .
According to the definition of Marx and Engels, bourgeois psy
chology was a science that was unreal and had no content ( K. Marx and F.
Engels, Works , Vol . III, p . 629 , 1929 ) . Idealist psychology, " which
came down out of the blue , " did not proceed from the concept of " a real
man , " but from a dead abstraction " made up of invented , imaginary , con
ceived people who existed only in words ( K. Marx and F. Engels, Works,
Vol . III, p . 25, 1955) . These principles established by Marx and Engels,
wrote D. N. Uznadze , point to the fact that " traditional psychological
science, in formulating the question of the object of its investigations,
proceeds from concepts of psychic states which do not represent phenom
ena of a concrete psychic activity , but rather some thing undoubtedly ab
stract which is radically different from the living reality of human ac
tivity . Yet the task of psychology consists in the first place in
studying precisely this human activity, on the basis of which the entire

- 180 .
structure of our psychic actions is erected, namely our cognition , our
feelings, and our will . In adopting ( as it must) this position , psy
chology must at first ask itself the following question : what is this
activity and what is its concrete content , which can be discovered and
studied by means of our usual scientific methods ? This means that our
science is called upon to formulate the problem of the psychological
analysis and study of the laws governing human activity . In such an
understanding of human psychic activity , according to which this activ
ity includes the activity of the subject as an integral whole ( " activ
ity of a real individual" ) , it is assumed that psychology must begin its
work by studying in the first place the subject and personality as a
whole , as a really acting individual [207.
On the basis of the principles of Marxist- Leninist methodology ,
it is quite clear that the concept of the activity of a personality is
an initial concept of general psychology ; therefore, a study of the
problem of the concept of the activity of a personality must be con
sidered as the main trend of scientific research in the field of gen
eral psychology .
( 2) However, what was the situation in regard to the problem
of personality in traditional psychology ?
As was correctly pointed out by D. N. Uznadze ( [207 ;; para
graph 2 : " the starting point in psychology is not psychic phenomena ,
but actual living individuals exhibiting these psychic phenomena" ),
the dominant trend in traditional psychology was " the conviction that
there is no kind of psychic life outside of cognition , feelings and
will , " and when the question was raised as to " what is personality ? "
traditional psychology turned to the initial concepts of psychic proc
esses and attempted to elaborate the idea of personality on the basis
of these processes . This conviction led representatives of traditional
psychological science to a de facto denial of the existence of an inte
gral active subject of the psychic life , and to a reduction of the con
cept of personality to the sum total of its psychic experiences .
"However , there is no doubt , " writes D. N. Uznadze , " that it is the sub
ject himself who enters directly into an active relationship with real
ity , and not individual acts of the subject's psychic activity , and if
this undoubted fact is adopted as an initial postulate , then it is in
disputable that psychology as a science must proceed not from a concept
of individual psychic processes , but from a concept of an actual really
acting individual as an integral whole , who , by entering into a mutual
relationship with reality , is forced to have recoursel to the faid '
of individual psychic processes" [ 207 .
Thus , .D . N. Uznadze has outlined his line of study of the gen
eral psychological problem of personality ( subject of activity ) . In
sofar as the personality , in its unity and wholeness , cannot be
reduced to a simple conglomerate of individual psychic processes, psy
chic properties and separate actions, and insofar as the concept of
the subject of activity ( personality ) can neither be divorced from
the concept of activity nor be identified with this concept, therefore ,

• 181 -
according to the views held by D. N. Uznadze , the investigation of the
concept of personality as an initial concept should be understood in
the first place as a study -- which had not attracted the attention of
traditional psychology and which heretofore had almost not been studied
at all of that absolutely real sphere of the psychic , which is the
personality ( subject of activity ) , precisely as a unity and an integral
whole irreducible to specific psychic processes .
( Note Marx had in mind precisely the personality as a certain
type of unity as an integral whole , irreducible to a sum of states of
consciousness , when he criticized Hegel , who had reduced the human per
sonality to self - awareness ( See K , Marx and F. Engels, Works, 2nd edi
tion , Vol . II , pp . 210-211 , 1955) , Marx said outright that a human
individual acquires his versatile essence by means of versatile methods ,
i.e. , as an integral human individual . In characterizing individual
psychic processes as "organs of individuality ( K. Marx and F. Engels,
Works, Vol. III, p . 625 , 1929) , Marx thereby points directly to the
fact that individuality represents a unity, an integral whole , ir
reducible to a simple conglomerate of " physical and spiritual facul
ties" ) .
The following problem is formulated as a concrete task for
scientific study: into which form , into which dynamic structural
" unit " of an integral - personality measurement, if we may so express
ourselves , does this integral acting personality incorporate itself;
the problem is formulated , concerning the general psychological concept
of the mode of a subject ( personality ) as a whole in each concrete mo
ment of its activity . The concepts of traditional psychology , whether
those concerning the psychological properties of the personality ( char
acter , temperament, etc. ) , or those concerning differentiated psychic
processes ( cognition , feelings and will ) , are of course not suitable for
a determination , in a general psychological aspect, of the mode of the
state of the personality ( subject of activity ) as a whole .
( 3) Research studies on the psychology of set present a further
clarification of the above outlined trend in the study of the general
psychological problem of an integral personality in connection with a
critique of the formulation of the problem of personality in personalis
tic psychology .
A number of theories in bourgeois psychology oppose general psy
chology to the theory on individual properties of the personality , and
reduce the psychological problem of the personality to the problem of
individual -psychological characteristics of the personality on the
contention that personality in its integrity expresses itself only in
individual characteristics ( character, etc. ) . These theories do not
refer the problem of the activity of the integral personality to the
field of general psychology . It is assumed that the study of this
problem does not consist in the establishment of a general psychological
rule , but rather in the investigation of individual -psychological char
acteristics, in which alone is represented the personality , as a unique
individuality which cannot be repeated in its genus .
- 182 -
 Research in the field of the psychology of set proceeds from the
fact that the concept of the activity of the integral personality ( sub
ject of activity) must permeate the entire system of general psychology.
General psychology is not a branch of knowledge which examines psychic
processes apart from their concrete and specific carrier , namely person
ality . In divorce from concept of personality , it is impossible to elab
orate not only a theory of individual characteristics of the personality ,
but even a general psychology . It is known that all those processes
which are studied by general psychology , such as vision , taste , thought,
volition , etc. , are , according to Marx's apt expression , " organs of in
dividuality , " " human attitudes towards the world , " i.e. actions of an
integral personality ( K. Marx and F. Engels, Works, Vol . III , p . 625 ,
1929 ) . Hence it is clear that not a single psychological concept can
be elaborated apart from the general psychological concept of a subject
of activity , and in this sense , apart from the concept of personality .
Consequently , in studying psychic processes , the problem of personality
( subject of activity ), of its unity and integrity arises not only within
the plane of manifestation of individual psychic characteristics , but
also when it is not differentially -psychological , but precisely general
psychological miles of psychic activity which are being studied . The
subject of activity , the personality , stands out as an indispensable link
in the determination of psychic processes . Therefore, general psychology
cannot be opposed to the theory concerning individual characteristics of
the personality by giving as a reason the fact that general psychology
appears to be unconcerned with characteristics of the personality as a
whole .
At this point , we should probably point out the fact that research
studies conducted by D. N. Uznadze and his pupils in connection with so
called psychological properties of_the_personality , especially_character
and temperament (D. N. Uznadze [227 , [237 , V. G.Norakidze[117, and also
concerning the psychopathology of psychological properties of the person
ality during neuroses and psychoses ( I. T. Bzhalava 9, V. G. Norakidze
[117), present data directed against theories which deny the validity of
a general psychological problem of the personality; for example , accord
ing to the data of V. G. Norakidze, it emerges that there is quite a def
inite connection between general psychological rules of setting and
characterological characteristics of the personality . V. G. Norakidze
has presented a typology of character on the basis of the general psy
chological rules of setting [ 117 .
Without slipping into the positions held by personalism , it is
not possible to oppose the specific and particular to the general , and to
examine specific and particular forms of " relations of personality
apart from the basic and essential relations or attitudes , which deter
mine in general the bias of the activity of the personality, including
also the bias of the activity of perception , thought , and similar ahu
man attitudes towards the world . " Marxist materialist monism does not
tolerate a divorce of specific laws from general ones . Laws of

- 183 -
individual - psychological characteristics must be represented not as
laws of the personality ( subject of activity ), existing side by side
with laws of " impersonal " psychic processes (perception, thought,
etc. ) as non - individual characteristics , but must be presented pre
cisely as specific manifestations of the general psychological laws
of the activity of a subject ( 16 .
In the research work done by the Georgian psychologists, the
specific , individual -psychological characteristics of the personality
were represented precisely as specific forms of expression of general
psychological laiss of the personality . V. N. Uznadze developed the
thesis that the areas of psychological knowledge concerned with
individual - psychological characteristics of the personality ( char
acterology, etc. ) and general psychology cannot be separated from each
other on the basis of a difference in the concepts of personality , upon
which these different areas of knowledge must allegedly be elaborated .
Both general psychology and those areas of psychological knowledge con
cerned with individual characteristics of the personality must proceed
from one and the same concept of personality , namely a concept of per
sonality in general , which reflects its " law or essence . " Thus, the
psychological problem concerned with the activity of an integral per
sonality is not only a problem which concerns special branches of psy
chological science, studying individual characteristics of man , but it
is also primarily and precisely a general psychological problem ( D, N.
Uznadze [23]; A. S. Prangishvili [17).
The characteristic feature of the trend outlined by D. N.
Uznadze in studying the problem of personality consisted in the fact
that, in the research work of D. N. Uznadze and his students , the prob
lem of personality was formulated first of all precisely as a general
psychological problem .
( 4 ) In studies devoted to the psychology of set, characteristic
features were noted , which differentiated the formulation of a general
psychological problem of personality from the formulation of the psycho
logical problem of personality in personalistic theories, elaborated from
the positions of teleologism.
The validity of a general psychological concept of personality is
denied by personalistic theories on the grounds that, from their stand
point , there really exists only an individual psychic life, which is
special and not to be repeated in its genus , as a manifestation of a
reality existing in itself, of a " pure ego . "
In his book on personalism , Braun has written that " personality
cannot be interpreted by any means as some thing which is derived or
composite : it can be perceived as a fact. " According to the view
point expressed in personalism , the psychology of the personality in
general is a " lifeless abstraction , a myth " ( Alport ), and for this
reason , the psychology of personality can be concerned only with the
equivalence in the behavior of one person , and not with elements of
uniformity in the activity of various persons . The general concepts of
the psychology of personality represent empty means of oversimplifying

184 .
the complex reality of personality . From their standpoint ( Alport and
Serston ), nothing actually real corresponds to general concepts of per
sonality .
Thus, personalists come to the conclusion that the psychology of
personality cannot be included among those sciences which are studying
objective laws of the objects and phenomena of reality . According to
Stern and Alport , personality is an asympto te of those sciences which
are concerned with the study of general laws .
Thus , the validity of a general psychological trend of research
and the study of general psychological concepts are denied on the ground
that personality is acknowledged something which exists in itself , and
must be considered as a kind of unique life , a manifestation of " pure
ego . "
In general, as is known , the idealist methodology represents
psychology as an independent science of " the subjective , " of " an in
tegral spiritual subject , " a science which can be imagined only in case
one admits the existence of a pure subjective reality (opposed to
everything objective and material ), which can be described or character
ized in the categories of inborn characteristics .
To counterbalance this methodology , Marxist- Leninist philosophy
has built a solid foundation for the development of psychology as a
science by proving the following facts : " the subjective world " does not
constitute a life which existing itself, is indissolubly connected with
objective factors , in relation to which it is secondary and derived , and
therefore belongs to the sphere of action of objective laws . A scientific
study of " the subjective world " is the study of laws of its conditioning
by the objective world, of which it constitutes a reflection ,
Marxism - Leninism , for the first time in the history of science ,
has placed the study of the human personality and of its consciousness
on a scientific basis by proving not only the fact that man is a social
being , but also the fact that man , as a personality , can be individual
ized only in society ; at the same time, Marxism - Leninism has determined
that " the individualization " of the personality , i.e. the process of
the formation , development and activity of the personality , is a process
which is strictly determined by the material conditions of life and by
the " objecth activity of individuals .
If we proceed from the materialistic principle of determinism ,
it is clear that the task of a scientific investigation of the activity
of the integral personality must be understood not as a description or
teleological comprehension of " the sense of the realization by the per
sonality of its own purposes , as this is represented by personalistic
theories, but rather as a task of explanation and study of the laws
governing the process of formation and development of the activity of
a personality in society , i.e. as a task involving the study of essen
tial relations or attitudes of a determined process of activity of an
integral personality .
The general psychological concept of personality in studies on
the psychology of set, in contrast to personalistic psychology , was
- 185 -
treated not as an " empty " concept which " oversimplified " the reality of
the personality as a whole , but rather as a concept reflecting precisely
the inherent tendency , i.e. the essence of the activity of the integral
personality as determined by material conditions .
Thus, in the light of the theory of set examined here, the psy
chological nature of the activity of the personality as a whole consti
tutes a specific subject of a general psychological study, which differs
from the subject of other sciences ( philosophy, sociology , physiology ,
biochemistry, legal sciences, and the like ) , which are also engaged in
a study of such a many - sided reality as the personality .
2. The Concept of Set

In the research studies conducted by D. N. Uznadze and his stud

ents , the concept of set is represented as a concept which generalizes
the results of experimental studies of the general psychological nature
of the activity of the integral personality . The fact of Man illusion
of set, " discovered by D. N. Uznadze , represented the starting point of
these research studies ,
1. The illusions of weight, well known in psychology ( Char
pentieris illusion , Fechner's illusion , Ach's illusion ), cannot be ex
plained as being due to an element of collateral experiences of " an
upward take- off , " " a sticking to the support base" or " an unjustified
expectation " : according to the data of D. N. Uznadze , these illusions
also take place in those cases when all of the above - mentioned collateral
experiences are absent. An analog of Charpentieris illusion can no doubt
be found in the baric field ( the tests conducted in this direction by A.
G. Bochorishvili 5 are well knom ) . D. N. Uznadze discovered new illum
sions ( similar to Fechner's illusions): the illusion of volume in the
haptic and visual fields, the illusion of weight- volume ( the opposite of
Charpentieris illusion ), the illusion of pressure , an audi tory illusion ,
the illusion of illumination , the illusion of quantity , etc. In general
izing and summarizing the data obtained in these experiments, D. N.
Uznadze came to the conclusion that illusions, similar to the illusions
of Fechner , etc. , can be detected not only in the sphere of perception ,
but " everywhere where there is a conflict between the actual set of the
subject and the stimulations acting upon this subject" [207. Therefore ,
according to the conception of D. N. Uznadze, illusions having such an
origin should be designated " illusions of set . " Thus did D. N. Uznadze
bring out the fact of " an illusion of set . "
2. According to the data obtained by D. N. Uznadze and his
students , the fact of the presence of a set is manifested in the most
varied types of activity , in case of a certain insignificant change
in the situation in which the realization of a certain activity was
assumed to be going to take place ( for example, when we move along a
stairway , we have a certain predisposition , namely a set, and this
expresses itself in the fact that we trip when any step is missing) .

- 186 .
Similar changes in the situation involving the realization of a type
of behavior (especially in illusions of set) , according to the concep
tion of D. N. Uznadze, " bare " the fact that every kind of behavior is ,
in the final analysis , the realization of a specific and concrete pre
paredness or predisposition , and that not a single activity starts from
a " vacuum . " Thus , by analyzing facts in the illusion of set, D. N.
Uznadze came to the conclusion that the direction of an activity is de
termined by a predisposition to it -- namely by a set. The readiness
( set) to a definite type of behavior , as its constituent moment, was
treated by D. N. Uznadze as a basic peculiarity and a basic general
psychological characteristic of the personality in its own content, in
sofar as it cannot be reduced to a simple sum of psychic processes and
in view of the fact that the concept of the activity of the personality
cannot be derived from the concepts of particular psychic properties.
Thus, the fact of the illusion of set, according to the concep
tion of D. N. Uznadze , constitutes the manifestation of an inherent ten
dency , associated with the fact that the essential general psychological
characteristic feature of an activity is the appearance of this activity
on the basis of preparedness , of set . From here , it is clear that D. N.
Umadze admitted the possibility of an experimental study of the general
psychological nature of the activity of the personality, of its essential
characteristic feature, namely set, on the basis of the role which set
plays in illusions of perception and in other forms of behavior . Set,
as a constituent element of activity , can be experimentally demon
strated and established in all cases when the situation , in which the
realization of a certain activity was assumed to be going to take place ,
changes in a definite way .
In this tray , a whole series of experimental methods was set up for
studying in a wide variety of spheres of activity of the personality .
The method for the experimental study of set, developed by D. N. Uznadze ,
made it possible to conduct a systematic study of this specific area of
the psychic field . The basic method for the investigation of a fixed
set, introduced into scientific practice by D. N. Uznadze , consists in
the following : a subject develops a need to solve an experimental prob
lem presented to him ( to indicate, for example, which of two spheres
given to him appears to be larger ) . The exposure of these objects is re
peated several times ( 10 to 15 times ) , in order that the set arising in
each individual case ( the set to an evaluation " larger " or " smaller " ) all
become fixed in his mind to a sufficient extent ( set tests ) . Following
this , in a regular exposure (let us say , for example, during the 16th ex
posure) the usual spheres, by means of which the set was fixed , are re
placed by two of equal size and the subject is asked to identify them .
This test discloses the presence in the test subject of a fixed set in
accordance with preceding tests -- the test subject evaluates one of
the two balls of equal size as "larger" or " smaller , " and therefore this
test is designated as the critical test . Set tests have created in the
test subject a state which caused him to perceive spheres of equal size
as being of different size . This state is simply the preparedness for

- 187
a definite activity , i.e. a set. This method has made it possible to
characterize set as a specific sphere of the psychic field ( for details
see D. N. Uznadze [ 20], [ 227).
As a result of the development of such experimental research
methods , D. N. Uznadze and his pupils have studied the basic character
istic features of set.
3. In emeriments conducted by D. N. Uznadze and in studies
performed under his direction , it was found that a set, created in a
sphere of any one modality , is manifested not only in the same modality
but also in others ( for example, after the conduct of set tests with
spheres in the haptic sphere , test subjects , during a tachystoscopic
visual presentation of circles of equal size , perceived these circles
as being of a different size ) .
These and similar experimental studies have shown that individ
ual actions, which are component parts of an integral activity , may
undergo a change within definite limits, while the bias of the activity
as a whole may remain the same : These facts indicate precisely the exist
ence of a disposition , a readiness to act, a set, intrinsically determin
ing the bias of the activity .
D , N. Uznadze, in generalizing the data obtained during such ex
perimental studies , writes : " We can conclude that a set does not repre
sent a particular psychic phenomena among other similar phenomena, but
something integral , which characterizes, so to speak , the personality
state of the subject . "
Thus , according to the conception of D. N. Uznadze , set as a
readiness to act represents a state of precisely the personality as a
whole , an integral - personal state , and not some kind of individual psy
chic process . This fact distinguishes precisely the conception of D.
1. Uznadze concerning a set from the interpretation of this concept in
traditional psychology , which considers set precisely as an individual
psychic fact , for example, only as a fact of the influence of the bias
of a preceding activity upon a subsequent one .
The integral-personal nature of set ( according to the conception
of D. N. Uznad ze) is confirmed by the experimentally established fact
that the effect of a set can occur without a realization of its action ,
D. N. Uznadze has conducted set tests with test subjects in a state of
hypnotic sleep . It was found these test subjects, who did not remember
anything about the set tests, developed a corresponding set during the
course of these tests , as a result of which , during critical tests ( af
ter being atrakened ), they perceived spheres of equal size as being of a
different size .
In tests conducted by 2. I. Khodzhava, test subjects , after read
ing meaningless words written in Latin script, read the Russian word
pochva ( soil ) which was written out by hand ( norba) as " norba , " i.e.
they read this word under the unconscious influence of a set which had
become fixed as a result of the reading of Latin script [ 317. In tests
conducted by N. L. Eliava , after the test subject had classified a cer
tain material according to one principle, he was unable to find or

. 188 .
experienced difficulties , again as a result of the action of an uncon
scious fixed set, in finding another principle , according to which to
classify material presented during subsequent tests [ 36 ]. D. N.
Uznadze writes : "A set is developed in test subjects, which , inasmuch
as the test subject knows nothing about its existence, cannot represent
the content of his consciousness or cannot be considered as an individ
ual psychic fact; this setting must, unquestionably , be understood as
a state of the subject himself, as a whole . " A set in a human individ
ual , according to the conception of D. N. Uznadze , constitutes han en
tire sphere of activity , which precedes his usual conscious psychic
activity " [22; 717.
According to the conception of D. N. Uznadze, the concept of
set makes it possible to clarify the problem of the " unconscious and
to find a positive solution to this problem . D. N. Uznadze writes:
"Set cannot be a separate or isolated act of the consciousness of the
subject. It is merely a mode of his state as a whole . Therefore it
is quite natural to believe that if there is really something in us
which occurs really unconsciously ( determining the operation of the
subject in the direction of an activity which leads him to a satisfac
tion of his needs) , then this is certainly , in the first instance , our
set. Consequently , the concept of the unconscious is no longer merely
a negative concept, it acquires a positive meaning and must be worked
out in science on the basis of usual methods of study [ 207.
4. The next peculiarity of set, according to experimental data
adduced in the research studies of D. N. Uznadze and his students , con
sists in the fact that set represents an integral -personal state having
a dynamic nature . By the dynamic nature of set is understood first of
all the peculiarity that set is a readiness ( tendency , disposition ) which
must manifest itself precisely in an activity of a definite nature [23;
697 At the same time, set is a dynamic state, since it is formed in
each specific case as a readiness for a concrete activity , in accordance
with concrete conditions of activity , a concrete need and a concrete sit
uation for satisfying this activity ; subsequently , set undergoes a develop
ment ( is differentiated ) and then may become a fixed state ( for more
details, cf. [22; 24-717 .
The reason why set is a dynamic state is that, as an integral state
of predisposition toward a definite activity , it is a disposition , a sort
of dynamic organization of " the essential forces of the individual , im
parting a unity , a single direction , and consequently , an integral
personal character to the action .
5. Set is the readiness for a definite activity. This means
that , on the basis of a set, there arises an activity having a definite
character , a definite bias , A definite bias of the activity arising on
the basis of an integral -personal predisposition represents an essential
characteristic of the activity of a personality as a whole .
Thus , it becomes clear that the unity and difference between per
sonality and activity are disclosed in the fact that an individual is a
subject of a purposeful activity so far as he is " organized " not at the

- 189
moment of a given activity , but rather inasmuch as he is " pre - readied "
for it . On the other hand , a predisposition or readiness itself is
precisely an element of the activity, a purposeful activity is possible
only in the presence of a predisposition or readiness on the part of
the subject, which determines the integral peculiarity nature of the
bias of the activity . The purposefulness of an activity , on the other
hand , consists in nothing else than a correspondence between a need
and the objective situation by means of which this need can be fulfil
led . Hence , it is clear that the concept of the mode of the personal
ity which is being sought must be represented as a concept of set in
each concrete moment of its activity . According to the research work
done by D. N. Uznadze and his students, the state of predisposition or
readiness of a subject to undertake an activity constitutes precisely
a set . It is precisely the set, which , as D. N. Uznadze writes, " is
the psychological content" of the mutual relationship between a concrete
need and the objective situation required for the fulfillment of this
need which determines the concrete bias of an activity as a means for
achieving a state of equilibrium in the relations of an individual with
his environment .
Set is " a mode of the subject in each moment of his activity as
a state of the subject as a whole , which differs basically from all his
differentiated psychic powers and faculties" (D. N. Uznadze [20; p . 147 ) .
As D. N. Uznadze writes , the general psychological essence of a
subject and of a personality as a whole is disclosed to us in each indi
vidual instance of his activity in the form of certain definite modifi
cations of his set" [20 ; chapter 1, paragraph 5. Therefore, we must
makes it possible to dis
consider the concept of set as a concept which
close the foundations, forms and rules or inherent tendencies of the
activity of a subject as a whole .
3. Theory of Set

1. The initial principle, upon which rests the general psycho

logical theory of set is basically different, as D. N. Uznadze has wri
tten , from "the postulate of spontaneity " [23; 34-38 , 22 ; 37-47.
Traditional psychology was built on this postulate . This type of psy
chology considered psychic factors as a self - existent life and admitted
that every external action or influence , completely isolated from the
internal dynamic vital system of the whole personality , determines the
effect of the action exerted by individual psychic functions . Thereby ,
the positive significance of the concept of subject and personality
as a whole was excluded . Also based on this postulate was the mechanis
tic psychology , which reduced activity to a mechanistic pattern of
" stimulus- reaction , " and which thereby also excluded the positive sig
nificance of the concept of personality .
The theory of set proceeds from the dialectic -materialist prin
ciple of determinism (see s. L. Rubinshteyn [ 19; 27 ).

· 190 -
 Whereas the postulate of " spontaneity " leads to a complete ignor
ing of the concept of integral personality , the dialectical principle of
determinism imparts a central role to the concept of activity of the per
sonality, since the personality interacts with the objective world , while
psychic processes are included into the activity of the personality as
" organs of individuality (Marx ) . The concept of the activity of a per
sonality occupies a central spot in the elucidation of the rules or in
herent properties of dynamic correlations, by means of which external
actions determine the activity of the individual .
According to the theory of set developed by D. N. Uznadze , the
general psychological essence of the activity of a personality is ex
pressed in each concrete case in a definite modification of the set.
This fact also determines the general psychological essence of internal ,
precisely integral -personal , dynamic correlations, by means of which
external actions or effects are refracted in man .
If a subject of activity is indeed such a subject inasmuch as he
is prepared in advance for an activity , then we have to admit that it
is precisely a concrete preparedness or readiness OS
a set toward a con
crete activity ( intrinsically determining the bias of the activity ), as
an integral - personal state , which constitutes the mode of the personal
ity in which , if we may so express ourselves, all those connections and
relations , which are internal conditions of a concrete activity of an
individual as a personality , have in the final analysis become incor
porated . It is precisely in such a sense that set has been studied on
the basis of the data of various types of psychic activity : percep
tion (D. N. Uznadze [26 ], [287; A. T. Bochorishvili 57; B. I.
Khachapuridze [29]; N. G. Ādamashvili [ 1] ), after - images SI, T.
Bzhalava 37) , stage_transformation (R. G. Natadze 8 ) ,1107) , habits
(2. I. Khodzhava ( 317 ), speech (D. I. Ramishvili [ 18 N. v . Chrelashvili
1337 , 1347 ) , musical experiences (G.N. Kechkhuashvili 7) , certainty
in recall (A. S. Prangishvili[15] ), will ( Sh . N. Chkhartishvili( 357),
etc.
Tests conducted by 2. I. Khodzhava [ 32], [ 317, have shown in a
likewise in the field of
very convincing manner the importance of set
the development and functioning of a habit, i.e. precisely in a field
where the correctness of the postulate of spontaneity ( upon which are
built the formula " stimulus- reaction , " the conception of " a structure
of a sensory field ," etc. , appeared to be the most invulnerable .
2. Set, represented in the research studies of Soviet psychol
ogists as an internal condition for the development of psychic phenom
ena, is itself treated precisely as a factor which has arisen during
the course of interaction of an individual with his environment . This
is one of the most important and essential features of the concept of
set . If set is not understood in this manner , then it cannot be a
general psychological concept of the mode of personality . For per
sonalistic theories ( Alport) deny the validity of a general psychologi
cal concept of personality , and specifically also the general psycho
logical concept of " a mode of the state of personality , " only because

- 191 -
they acknowledge " personality as a fact, " as the manifestation sub
stance subsisting in itself, of a " pure ego . "
The general psychological concept of personality must be con
sidered valid because , in contrast to personalistic theories, the
integral -personal " factor , " as an internal condition representing the
basis of the development of activity , is not the manifestation of the
substance subsisting in itself of " a pure ego " itself, but rather a
factor which arises in a regular way during the process of interaction
of an individual with his environment,
3 . How is the appearance of set during the process of interac
tion of an individual with his environment conceived in the theory of
set developed by D. N. Uznadze ?
According to the conception of D. N. Uznadze, a requirement and
an objective reality represent the conditions necessary for every kind
of activity . It is impossible to conceive an activity of a living
individual -organism without a need ; life is inconceivable without needs
or requirements . However , activity arises from and depends upon not
only needs , but also objective conditions of the environment, upon an
objective reality . D. N. Uznadze writes : " Between a living organism
and the surrounding environment, an interaction of an active character
arises and develops only in case some kind of definite need appears in
the organism and in case a means capable of satisfying this need is
present in the surrounding environment . "
"If we trace the entire complex combination of the development of
a living organism up to the stage of the human organism inclusively , we
shall find that behavior is based everywhere upon these two main factors .
Certainly, without a need and conditions for satisfying this need , with
out subjective and objective factors , no behavior of any kind is possible .
There can be no doubt whatsoever that , with the course of development of
life , needs change to a considerable degree , completely new needs make
their appearance , while old needs or necessities are complicated some
times to such an extent that they become almost unrecognizable , but
their essence precisely the fact that they are needs -- remains the
same" [20; 9-107 . This also applies to means for satisfying needs .
I. M. Sechenov has written that life represents , " a coordination
of vital requirements or needs and conditions of the environment. " If
activity is nothing else but a coordination of historically developed
needs with conditions of the environment, then , in order to characterize
the concrete nature of an activity , it is not sufficient to use only the
mental concepts of the requirement of a need and objective reality , con
sidered separately from each other . There arises the question of the
psychological content of the mutual relationship between a need and a
situation , on the basis of which there develops an activity correspond
ing to concrete needs and to a concrete objective reality .
According to D. N. Uznadze , the concept of set constitutes pre
cisely an expression of the psychological content of the mutual relation
ship (unity ) between a need and a situation , on the basis of which there
arises an activityhaving a definite bias[20 ] , [ 74; 101- 1027

- 192 -
 D. N. Uznadze emphasizes that the appearance of a set , i.e. a
readiness to act along a certain definite line , requires " a sort of
unity , " consisting in the fact that the need and the objective reality
for satisfying this need are determined as concrete facts connected
with each other . The need becomes a concrete need when a concrete objec
tive situation for satisfying this need is established [22] .
Thus , a set represents a readiness to perform a certain activity ,
namely an activity directed towards the satisfaction of concrete needs
in the context of a concrete environment .
D. N. Uznadze , after examining in a critical manner the interpre
tations of the concept of set most commonly found in modern bourgeois
psychology , came to the following conclusion : if the concept of set
does not disclose a way for establishing the rules governing the ap
pearance of the bias of the activity of a personality according to the
needs of the individual and the objective situation for satisfying this
individual , then the concept of set is a superfluous concept .
The concept of set, according to the conception of D. N. Uznadze ,
explains the general psychological nature of the appearance of a bias
in activity according to the needs and objective conditions for satisfy
ing these needs .
Thus , set is presented not as a barrier which separates psychic
activity from objective reality , but as a link in the process of reflect
ing being . Set is a reflection ( in the form of a bias of activity ) of
historically established needs and objective possibilities for satisfy
ing these needs .
In contrast to theories, representing set as a purely subjective
factor , D. N. Uznadze wrote : " Set is the reflection of objective real
ity , this is an essential fact , for otherwise , the concept of set would
have no meaning at all in the system of a scientific psychology . "
In generalizing experimental data on a fixed set , D. N. Uznadze
pointed out that " the activity of a person can be activated apart from
the participation of his individual conscious psychic functions , apart
from the participation of his cognitive emotional and volitional acts
can be activated on the basis of a set, expressing not any sort of
individual psychic functions, but the state of the whole subject as
such "[ 20 ; 127 .
Data exist which indicate that, in these cases also , the set de
termines the activity precisely as a reflection of objective reality .
This fact was noted particularly clearly in the research work done by
D. I. Ramishvili dealing with the psychology of speech . While investi
gating the nature of non - scientific concepts used in speech , D. I.
Ramishvili has shown , on the basis of experimental data , that usually
a word is used in the spoken activity of an individual always in rela
tion to a definite object , i.e. this word has a definite objective mean
ing, while the recognition of this object , i.e. the question of the
basis of which generic marks the isolation of a given phenomenon is ef
fected by means of this word is not always given in consciousness . The

- 193 -
object directs the course and the flow of the word usage in speech activ
ity without a constant control and interference on the part of conscious
ness . Precisely such a concept of set can throw light on the psychological
mechanism of the above mentioned characteristic feature of word usage in
human speech activities / 787.
N. V. Chrelashvili has established that, even at the age of four
to five years , a child is not capable of perceiving the difference in
the grammatical form of words, In spite of this fact , the speech of a
child of this age is characterized by a specific orderly manner in using
word forms . And this author is of the opinion that the concept of set
can be adopted as a concept which clarifies the psychological mechanism
of the above phenomenon , if set is understood in the way it was under
stood by D. N. Uznadze , i.e. precisely as a form of reflection of objec
tive factors, as a readiness directing activity , a readiness which has
arisen on the basis of definite needs in accordance with an objective
reality ( 337 .
4. Set refers to concepts which clarify the psychological prob
lem concerning the expedient behavior of an animal and which overcome
the defective position held by the psychological conceptions of vital
ism and mechanicism [23].
However , in this article, we are limited to a discussion of
problems concerned with the concept of set as a general psychological
concept, i.e. , we are examining data which characterize peculiarities
of set at the human stage of development ,
When , in the presence of an actual need and a situation capable
of satisfying this need , a readiness - set to perform an activity arises
in the subject, whereby this activity is directed to the satisfaction
of this need , and the activity takes place on the basis of an impulse ,
depending only upon such a set -- this is not a form of activity specif
ic for man . An activity on the level of an impulsive and fixed set is ,
it is true, inherent to man , but it does not characterize the peculiar
features of activity at the human stage of development ( D. N. Uznad ze ) .
A human activity is characterized by a specific attitude towards
reality . In case of a human being , the specific thing is precisely the
fact that where there exists some kind of relation or attitude , it exists
for a man precisely as a rektion or attitude , as his attitude towards ob
jective reality . "An animal does not have any relations or attitudes
towards anything, and in general ' does not relate ' ; for an animal , its
relation with others does not exist as a relation" ( Karl Marx and F.
Engels, Works, Vol . 3 , page 29 , 1955 ) .
Since this is so , writes D. N. Uznadze, psychological science
must " show the structure of a psychological mechanism which makes it
possible for man not only to act in this world but also to see that both
of them exist : this world , and he himself in it " [20; 507 .
The act involving " the extrapolation " of an action (experience )
from " a unity with the subject " ( the latter takes place during the re
alization of an activity under the impulse of an activated set) into
"the field of objects confronting the subject" is designated by D. N.
Uznadze as objectification and is considered by him as an activity of
which man only is capable .
194
 The specific human activity " objectification " according to
3. N. Uznadze , is the product of the social nature of man , of his social
labor activity . In defining objectification , D. N. Uznadze wrote the
following : "When we experience something which appears to us as being
given , when we experience reality as some thing which exists independently
of us , as something objective, ... we perform an act of objectification ,
an act which makes it possible to experience something as some thing which
is given , as some sort of an object . This is a very significant element
in human activity : not only do we experience while we act, but we exper
ience some thing several times over and for a long time " [20; 547.
In considering objectification as a psychological mechanism of
fundamental importance, D. N. Uznadze has developed the principle that
the activity of objectification ( a holdback , a recurrent experience, an
experience of reality as something which exists independently of me) is
associated with the development of such peculiarities as determine the
specificity of human activity, such as , first, the consciousness of an
identity of an object which later developed into the axiomatic law of
identity , upon which , as is known , all of our logical thinking is based ,
and second , the development of speech .
5. Insofar as our task in this case is the exposition of a gen
eral psychological theory of set , we are interested in the concept of
" objectification " in connection with a clarification of the problem
concerning the peculiarities of set in man .
At first, we have to emphasize especially the fact that the con
cept of objectification , as a concept of a specifically human activity ,
is inextricably associated with the concept of set . First of all , in
view of the fact that a plane of objectification arises only when that
bias of the activity , i.e. a set to the realization , which represents
an actual activity , in view of its lack of expediency , i.e. in view of
its lack of correspondence to the objective situation of things, en
counters an obstacle , which results in a retardation of the activity .
( sic! Sentence is unsyntachical in original .] Objectification , as an
active concentration on something , always includes an element of re
tardation . Retardation , in turn , is precisely the result of the action
of objective factors. On the other hand, an interruption of a "practical"
attitude tovrards reality , of " a practical activity," which is the realiza
tion of a definite set , is associated with a replacement of this set by
ano ther set , corresponding to the altered needs or to the altered objec
tive reality . A replacement of the set under altered circumstances
this is a manifestation of the inherent tendency of a set since a set
is a readiness which directs activity in accordance with objective re
ality .
In order to prolong a "retarded ," " practical " activity , the sub
ject must develop another bias of activity , which replaces an inadequate ,
impulsive or fixed set, and for this purpose objectification , as a plane
of " theoretical activity ," makes its appearance (D. N. Uznadzet .
As a result of those processes , which arise on an objectification
plane, a set toward an activity is again developed , as a mode of the

195 -
personality ( readiness ), on the basis of which activity arises, which is
aimed at balancing the relations of an individual and the surrounding
reality . On the objectification plane , the individual makes his vital
activity an object of his will and of his " consciousness , " an object of
" theoretical clarification , " in a broad sense , which includes also a deci
sion of the will . In general , an objectified reality is reflected in
" one's stipulations . " Thus, the psychological mechanism which makes it
possible to " turn away from an action on the basis of activated , fixed
or impulsive settings , and to act through a realization of one's relation
or attitude toward what is happening , this is an act of objectification
( an act, which is inextricably connected with speech , according to the
conception of D. N. Uznadze) .
S. L. Rubinshteyn writes that " every psychic process is included
into the interaction of man with the world and participates in control
ling his actions (behavior ). Every psychic phenomenon is both a reflec
tion of being and a link in the regulation of conduct" [ 79; 127.
In the light of the concept of set , these principles are inter
preted in a definite manner . A psychic action is a partial process , in
aluded into the integral activity - conduct , directed at balancing the
relations of the individual with the environment . Psychic actions
arise on the plane of cbjectification , i.e , in connection with the ne
cessity of replacing the existing set by a set corresponding to the
altered needs or to a change in the objective reality ( for this reason ,
it is impossible to achieve a complete cognition of the nature of individ
ual psychic processes without taking into consideration the general psy
chological concept of the subject of activity ) . At the same time ,
individual psychic actions, such as observation , representation , memory ,
attention , thought, feeling, will and others , are processes involving a
reflection of objective reality and of the motivation sphere , and thereby
also are conditions for the formation of factors allowing a replacement
of the set and the production of a set toward à definite activity as a
behavior , aimed at balancing relations between the organism and the en
vironment. Thus , psychic processes represent a reflection of being and
at the same time a link in the regulation of behavior .
The rules or inherent tendencies of a fixed set , specific for
man , created on the basis of imagination ( verbal situation ), were ex
perimentally studied by R._G , Natadze 8. The method of " neutral
script " (2. I. Khodzhava (317) ,the_production of a set on the basis of
a_representation (R. G. Natadze [707 ), of a "mixed text" (L. N. Eliava
[ 367 ), and others have made it possible to conduct an experimental study
of the act of objectification ,
6. If the following principle is correct , namely that the psy
chological essence of personality as an integral whole is disclosed to
us in definite modifications of set , and if we admit at the same time
that a specific feature of man is , so to speak , an ability to turn away ,
to overcome , to stop impulsive , fixed and already actualized set , and
to act on the basis of set which have been formed on the basis of an

- 196 -
objectification , then it is clear that in the modification of set, the
above interrelationship of these different planes of activity must be
the basic one . It must , for example, have a differentially -psychological
significance during the determination of individual -psychological char
acteristics; the interrelationship of these planes must be represented
in a sui generis manner during psychoses and neuroses , which are pre
cisely lesions of the integrity ( " organization " ) of the personality .
These problems have been examined in research studies conducted
by V. G. Norakidze [11; 127, I. G. Bzhalava 47, and others.
V, G. Norakidze has used an original interrelationship between
the above -mentioned two planes of reality as a basis for a character
ological typology . I. G. Bzhalava has shown that , during epilepsy , the
fixed set is very stable and inert . This is responsible for the fact
that the fixation of a new set on the basis of an objectification in these
patients is very weakly expressed; in regard to the fixed set in schizo
phrenics , it is characterized by the fact that it loses every possibility
of fixation on the basis of an objectification in a verbal situation
in this respect a splitting of the psyche of schizophrenics has been ob
served . Thus, studies of a fixed set during psychoses and neuroses have
shown its specific changes and the specificity of the " disorganization "
of the interrelationship between the two planes of activation of the set.
In connection with the principle that the psychological absence
of integral -personal internal dynamic relations and the mode of the per
sonality in each concrete moment of life are determined as a set by D.
N. Uznadze and his students, there naturally arises a question about the
interrelationship between the concept of set and those concepts which
are known in psychology as reflective principles , principles which " or
ganize " activity . This problem has also been studied in the research
work done by D. N. Uznadze and his students . In this particular case ,
since we are unable to examine this problem in detail , we shall note in
passing certain principles.
As research work done by D. N. Uznadze has shown , for example ,
the will cannot be examined as a factor which , in a " isolated manner , "
determines the effect of activity. An act of will - this in the final
analysis is an act involving a change in the set. " Will makes it pos
sible for a man to make actual a set, corresponding to thať activity
which , as a result of thought based on objectification , is considered
to be an expedient activity , instead of following that which he has
stopped and held up in the objectification act which takes place in
him " [207 .
In the opinion of certain authors , character traits are also
starting points , which determine the bias of activity in an " isolated
manner . " In the research studies conducted by D. N. Uznadze and V. G.
Norakidze, an attempt is made to interpret character traits in the
light of concepts of fixed sets , having ,_if we may so express our
selves, a high personality ratio [237, 7717 .
The problem concerned with the concept of attention and its rela
tion to the concept of set was the subject of a special investigation by

- 197 -
D. N. Uznadze in his_monograph entitled " Experimental Foundations of
the Theory of Set" [227, and also in_his article entitled " Concerning
the Essential Nature of Attention" [247.
7. Finally must be noted the studies, whose purpose it is to
investigate the natural scientific foundations of the concept of set .
In this case , since it is not possible for us to examine in detail the
results obtained along this line , we shall only examine the most basic
principles .
The content of the concept of set agrees fully with the system of
concepts found in Pavlov's physiology . Pavlov's teaching discloses nat
ural - scientific ways toward a correct understanding of general psycholog
ical characteristics of the personality and its activity . I. P. Pavlov ,
in advocating the principle of a unity of analysis and synthesis, has
exposed the falsehood both of the Gestalt theory , which attempted to
prove the primordial nature of " the whole , " as well as of those the .
ories which did not recognize a new quality in a systemic consolidat
ing activity of the cerebral cortex.
As is known , the whole essence of Pavlcy's reflex theory consists
in the fact that it proceeds from the principle of the unity between an
organism and the environment. Therefore, according to Pavlov's reflex
theory , the connection between a stimulation and a reaction is not an
external one , but an internal connection . Pavlov's physiology has dis
closed precisely those internal rules of activity of the brain , through
which a reaction precisely takes place , which involves both a balancing
and an adaptation of the organism to the conditions of existence . It is
precisely a conditioned reflex activity which , in the capacity of a sig
nal activity , establishes a unity and a connection of the organism with
the conditions of its life . Thus , precisely in the light of Pavlov's
reflex theory , the problem is valid which is concerned with the psycho
logical content of that internal integral - personal dynamic organization
of systems, on the basis of which arises a definite type of behavior .
D. N. Uznadze writes that a set , or a condition which precedes the ori
gin of conscious psychic processes , " cannot be considered in any sense
as a non -psychic state as simply a physiological state"[22 , 707. Set,
in the light of Pavlov's theory, is examined in research studies con
ducted by V. I. Khodzhava and I. T. Bzhalava [32]: 27. ( Concerning
the psychology of set in the light of Pavlov's reflex theory , see also
[72, 104-1087, [ 73; 25-397 .)
Thus , a study of the general psychological concept of the activ
ity of the personality as a whole has led D. N. Uznadze and his students
to draw the conclusion that the general psychological essence of the per
sonality is disclosed to us in every individual case of its activity dur
ing definite modifications of a set ( D. N. Uznadze ) .
The fact that, as a result of experimental studies , it was possible
to set up a general , genetic and pathological psychology of set, that it
was possible not only to point out the effect of the action of a set, but
also , on the basis of data obtained during experimental studies , to

- 198 -
characterize the specific nature of a set ( for example, along the lines
of varieties in a set, its stimulation and fading in the context of a
prolonged exposure and under natural conditions, etc. ), provides com
pletely sufficient reasons for concluding that, in the case of a set , we
are dealing with a specific psychic sphere ( for more concrete results of
experimental studies of set, see the article by R. G. Natadze in this
anthology ) .

- 199 -
 LITERATURE

1. N. G. Adamashvili , " On Certain Factors Associated with the

Manifestation of a Fixed Set in Visual Perception , " Soobshcheniya AN
GruzSSR ( Communications of the Academy of Sciences Georgian SSR) ,
Vol . XIV , 1953 .
2. I. T. Bzhalava , " Fixed Set and Systemic Nature of the Func
tioning of the Great Hemispheres of the Cerebral cortex , " Ibid .,
3. I. T. Bzhalava, "Negative and positive After - Images , " Ibid .,
Vol . XII , No. 1 , 1951 .
4. I. T. Bzhalava, " On the Psychopathology of a Fixed Set Dur
ing Epilepsy and Schizophrenia , " Materialy soveshchaniya po psikhologii
( Papers of a Conference on Psychology ) , Moscow , Publishing House of the
RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences , 1957 .
5. A. T. Bo chorishvili , " Analog of the Illusion of Weight in
the Sphere of Pressure, ' Trudy Tbilisskogo universiteta (Works of
Tbilisi University ), 1927 .
6. A. T. Bochorishvili , " The Leipzig School , " Anthology : "Mod
ern Trends in Psychology , " Tbilisi, 1930 .
7. G. N. Kechkhuashvili, " The Sense of Harmony and Fixed Set, "
Soobshcheniya AN GruzSSR ( Communications of the Academy of Sciences of
the Georgian SSR ) , Vol . XVI, No. 5 , 1955 .
8. R. G. Natadze , " On the Problem of the Connection Between the
Ability of Undergoing a Stage Transfiguration and the Ability to Develop
a Fixed Set on the Basis of Representation , " Trudy Instituta psikhologii
AN GruzSSR . Psikhologiya ( Works of the Institute of Psychology of the
Academy of Sciences Georgian SSR . Psychology ) , Vol . III , 1944 .
9. R. G. Natadze, " On the Question of the Formation of a Fixed
Set on the basis of Representation ," Papers Presented at a University
Psychological Conference Held on 1-5 October 1947 , " 1949.
10. R. G. Natadze , " On the Problem of a Fixed Set Stimulated by
Representation ," Trudy Instituta psikhologii AN GruzSSR , Psikhologiya
(Works of the Institute of Psychology of the Academy of Sciences
Georgian SSR , Psycholocy ), Vol . I , 1942 .
11 . V. G. lorakidze , " Character and Fixed Set, " Doctoral Disserta
tion , Tbilizi , 1954 .
12. V. G. Norakidze , " Temperament of a Personality and Fixed Set, "
Papers of a Conference on Psychology , Moscow , Publishing House of the
RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences , 1957 .
13. A. S. Prancishvili , "The Concept of Set in the System of
Soviet Psychology , " Voprosy psikhologii ( Problems of Psychology ) , No.
3 , 1955 .
14. A. S. Prangishvili , " The Concept of Set in the System of
Soviet Psychology , " Ibid ., No. 6 , 1955 .
15. A. S. Prangishvili , " Concerning the Problem of the Bases of
Certitude During the course of Recollection , " Trudy Instituta psikhologii
AN GruzSSR , Psikhologiya (Works of the Institute of Psychology of the
Academy of Sciences Georgian SSR , Psychology ), Vol . X , 1956.

- 200 -
 16 . A. S. Prangishvili , " On Certain Problems concerned with the
General Psychological Theory of Personality , " Soobshcheniya AN GruzSSR
(Communications of the Academy of Sciences Georgian SSR ) , Vol . XVI ,
No. 9 , 1956 .
17. A. S. Prangishvili , " Some Remarks Concerning Problems of the
Theory of Set Under Discussion ," Voprosy psikhologii ( Problems of Psy
chology ) , No. 4, 1958 .
18 . D. I. Rami.shvili , " On the Psychological Nature of Pre
Scientific Concepts , " Reports Presented at a conference on Problems of
Psychology Held on 3-8 July 1953 , Moscow , Publishing House of the RSFSR
Academy of Pedagogical Sciences , 1954 .
19 . S. L. Rubinshteyn , " Problems of Psychological Theory , "
Voprosy psikhologii (Problems of Psychology), No. 1 , 1955.
20. D. N. Uznadze , Osnovnvye polozheniya teorii ustanovki
(Fundamental Principles of the Theory of Set), Tbilisi, 1950 .
21 . D. N. Uznadze, " On the Psychology of Set , " Materialy k
psikhologii ustanovki ( Data Dealing with the Psychology of Set) ,
Tbilisi, 1938 .
22 . D. N. Uznadze , " Experimental Foundations of the Psychology
of Set , " Eksperimentalinwe issledovaniya po psikhologii ustanovki ( Ex
perimental Research on the Psychology of Set) , Tbilisi, Publishing House
of the Academy of Sciences Georgian , 1958 .
23. D. N. Uznadze , Obshchaya psikhologiya (General Psychology ),
Tbilisi , 1940 ,
24. D. N. Uznadze , " On the Problem of the Essence of Attention , "
Sbornik trudov Instituta psikhologii AN GruzSSR , Psikhologiya (Anthol
ogy of Works of the Institute of Psychology of the Academy of Sciences
Georgian SSR , Psychology ) , Vol . IV, 1947 .
25 . D. Uznadze , " Untersuchungen zur_Psychologie der Eistellung "
( Investigations on the Psychology of Set) ( in German ), Acta Psychologica
Vol . IV, No. 3 , 1939 .
26. D. Uznadze , "Uber die Gewichtstauschung und ihre Analoga , "
( On the Weight Illusion and Its Analog ) (in German ), Psychologische
Forschung (Psychological Research ), Vol . XIV, 1931 .
27. D. Uznadze , " Ein experimenteller Beitrag zum Problem der
psychologischen Grundlagen der Namengebung , " ( An Experimental Contribu
tion to the Problem of the Psychological Bases of Name Giving ) ( in Ger
man ), Psychologische Forschung (Psychological Research ) , Vol . v , 1924.
28 . D. Uznadze, Zum Problem der Bedeutungserfassung," ( on the
Problem of the Grasping of Meaning ), (in German ) , Arch . f.d. ges.
Psychologie ( Archives of All Branches of Psychology ) , Vol . LVIII , No.
1-2, 1927 .
29 . B. I. Khachapuridze , " On the Phase Nature of a Replacement
of the Set , " Materialy k psikhologii ustanovki ( Data Concerned with the
Psychology of Set) , Toilisi , 1938 .
30 . 2. I. Khodzhava , "The Role of Set in the Action Exerted by
a Habit , " Trudy Instituta psikhologii AN GruzSSR , Psikhologiya (Works of
the Institute of Psychology of the Academy of SciencesGeorgian SSR ,
Psychology ) , Vol . 1 , 1941 .
201
 31 . 2. I. Khodzhava, " The Problem of Habit in Psychology , "
Author's Abstract of Doctoral Dissertation , Tbilisi, 1952 .
32 . 2. I. Khodzhava , "Habit and Set in the Light of Pavlovis
Teaching On Higher Neural Activity , " Trudy Instituta psikhologii AN
GruzSSR , Psikhologiya ( Works of the Institute of Psychology of the
Academy of Sciences Georgian SSR , Psychology ), Vol . VII, 1953.
33. N. V. Chrelashvili , " On the Problem of the Psychology of
Speech , " Ibid . , Vol . IX, 1955 .
34. N. v. Chrelashvili , " On the Problem of Grammatical Changes
of Words in a Child's Speech ," Abstracts of Reports Presented at a Confer
ence on Psychology Held on 1-6 July 1955 , Publishing House of the RSFSR
Academy of Pedagogical Sciences , 1955 .
35 . Sh . N. Chkhartishvili, Problema motiva volevogo povedeniya
( The Problem of Motives in Volitional Behavior ) , Tbilisi, 1958 .
36. 11. L. Aiava , " On the Problem of Switching of the Set in
Thought Processes, " Trudy Instituta psikhologii AN GruzSSR , Psikhologiya
(Works of the Institute of Psychology of the Academy of Sciences Georgian
SSR , Psychology ) , Vol . X, 1956 .

- 202 -
 EXPERIMENTAL FOUNDATIONS OF THE THEORY OF SET OF
D. N. UZNADZE

By R. G. Natadze

FIRST STAGE OF RESEARCH

1. Al though the roots of the theory of set, elaborated by D.

N. Uznadze ( 1886-1950) , can be traced in his experimental studies during
theperiod of 1923-1926 [ 18], L127, [20], [21] -- in some of these stud
ies , the concept of set is already used as an explanatory concept
nevertheless , a systematic experimental study of set itself, as a def
inite phenomenon , and the experimental substantiation of the conception
began with the experimental study of illusions in the perception of var
ious modalities . The main rules governing the manifestation of set were
established precisely during the course of these research studies , There
fore , we shall also begin our presentation of the experimental founda
tions of the theory of_set from the period of the experimental study of
perception illusions [22], [277 .
2. As is known , Fechner published as early as 1860 the exper
imentally established fact of an illusion of weight, resulting from a
preliminary multiple raising of objects of different weight. This il .
lusion has become widely known under the illusion of weight. Several
decades later ( in 1889 ) , Müller and Schumann published a special ex
perimental study uf the illusion of weight, in which they attempted to
present a theoretical substantiation of this illusion . The explana
tion of the fact of an illusion of weight, proposed by these authors ,
has been adopted on such a wide scale that it can be considered as the
most typical explanation in the field of traditional foreign psychol
ogy
This explanation is based on the concept of a "motor set, " which
has been proposed by the same authors . After a pair of objects of dif
ferent weight has been raised with both hands, a pair of objects of the
same weight is raised in a different manner : the hand which was used
in the previous test for raising the heavier object is now used for rais
ing the object with a greater motor impulse, and therefore this object
is easily lifted above the table and " flies upwards , " as a result of
which it gives the impression of lightness . In contrast, the object
( of the same weight) which is lifted by the other hand is raised with
a smaller motor impulse ( since in the previous test this hand raised a
lighter object ) , and therefore this object appears to " stick " to the
table it is detached from the table with greater difficulty and
gives the impression of being heavier .
This greater or smaller motor impulse, with which the critical
object is raised , represents precisely the manifestation of a " motor
set, " whereby the latter is conceived by the authors as a specifically
motor -muscular phenomenon , which in the final analysis is the cause of
the illusion of heaviness .

- 203 -
 Towards the end of the last century ( 1891 ) , Charpentier published
his experimentally established and at present widely known " illusion of
Charpentier " : of two wooden cylinders of the same weight, which are
raised by means of a cord , the larger cylinder is perceived as being
lighter than the smaller cylinder .
Inorder to explain this new illusion of weight, Müller has
used basically the same theory : the larger object , upon being raised
elicits a greater motor impulse , while the smaller object , on the con
trary , elicits a smaller impulse ; in the first case , a greater heaviness
is expected , and in the second case a smaller heaviness . Otherwise , this
illusion represents the same psychological effect ( "the flying up" of one
object and "the sticking" of the other object, etc. ) . Following such
an explanation of Charpentier's illusion , Müller's theory was almost uni
versally accepted as the theory of "the illusion of heaviness" in general .
( Note7 In 1932, N. Ach published new variations of the illusion of per
ception ( "illusion of a sensory set" and " illusion of material " ) ; but
insofar as the explanation proposed by Ach , in regard to its psycholog
ical nature, is based on the standpoint of a " peripheral " theory similar
to Möller's theory , and in part even rests upon this theory, we believe
that it is unnecessary here to examine in detail this explanation ) .
3. As early as 1925 , D. N. Uznadze , proceeding from an integral
personal conception of human activity , expressed doubts concerning the
validity of the theory of " motor set" and " expectation ," which was widely
accepted abroad . In particular , he expressed doubts concerning the fact
that such experiences, as " a flying upwards" or " a sticking to the table , '
etc. , lie at the base of Charpentier's illusion . He believes that the
above illusion is based upon a deeper - going and more integral condition
of the subject than the motor phenomenon . In order to check this hypo
thesis, it was necessary to obtain experimentally a similar illusion of
perception , but one which was no longer of a muscular -motor nature . D.
N. Uznadze and his associates set up a number of tests aimed at causing
similar illusions in those modalities in which perception is not a kines
thetic perception .
4. Illusion of Pressure Perception . First of all , the problem
was formulated concerning the possibility of obtaining an illusion of
weight analogous to Charpentieris illusion , but which did not have a kines
thetic character . In 1927 , A. T. Bochorishvili 6 investigated this
problem in the field of a passive perception of pressure ( and not of
weight lifting ) .
The test subject, in perceiving optically a pair of boxes of the
same weight but of different size , compared their weight according to
the pressure exerted by these boxes upon his hands by means of a so
called Wundt balance .
The result was found to be entirely positive: the test subject
exhibited an illusion similar to Charpentier's illusion . In spite of
the fact that the motor impulse of lifting various weights and the phe
nomenon of "flying upwards of one hand are excluded from this perception ,

- 204 -
the weight was perceived in a tactile manner in the form of a pressure
exerted by the corresponding lever of the Wundt apparatus upon the sur
face of the hand of the test subject, with the hands in an immobile po
sition .
It was found that during the first weights comparisons, 71 % of
the test subjects exhibited a contrast llusion , which was completely
analogous to the illusion of Charpentier : the larger box was perceived
as being lighter , and the smaller box as being heavier; 15% of the test
subjects exhibited an assimilative illusion , and 14 % exhibited an ade
quate perception . When the test was repeated many times over and over
again , the percentage of illusions was considerably smaller .
5. The following test on a successive illusion of pressure was
set up by N. A. Adamashvili, an associate of D. N. Uznadze. In control
tests , the experimentor , with the aid of a barestesiometer , applies two
consecutive pressures , at first a strong pressure and then a weak pres
sure, upon the hand of the test subject . The test subject must compare
these tio pressures according to their intensity . After a 15 - fold rep
etition of the control ( set) test , two different pressures are applied
successively to the hand of the test subject ( critical tests ) . The fol
lowing results were obtained : 45 % of the test subjects exhibited a con
trast illusion of pressure ( the first pressure appears to be weaker ) ,
25 % exhibited an assimilative illusion , and 15 % exhibited an adequate per
ception .
6. Since , in the final analysis, the test subject estimates the
weight of objects also in the above -described tests ( although he depends
upon a tactile sensation of pressure) or estimates the pressure produced
by these objects, naturally there arises the problem concerning the pos
sibility of a similar illusion of perception in regard to other sensory
properties of the object .
Research studies conducted by G. Khmaladze [347, an associate of
D. N. Uznadze , show a complete analogy of Fechneris illusion of weight
during a haptic ( " grasping" ) perception of the volume of balls .
The main variation of these tests consists in the following : the
test subject , after closing his eyes , must compare the volume of two
wooden balls which the experimentor places simultaneously for a moment
into the hands of the test subject . These balls differ considerably
in their size . After obtaining an answer from the test subject, the
experimentor again gives him the same balls for comparison . This is
repeated 15 times in a row, whereby each time the larger bowl is placed
into the same hand , i.e. , this ball is always placed on the same side
within the range of one experiment. This represents the first stage
of the experiment namely " control ( set) tests" or " control ( set ) ex
posures . "At this stage, the test subject is supposed to develop and
then " fix " a specific internal readiness, i.e. a set for the perception
of the larger ball in a definite direction ( on the right or on the left) .
After these control ( set ) exposures , the experimentor immediately
and without notice switches over to the " critical " tests : the test sub
ect, who continues to sit with eyes closed , is again given for a

- 205 -
comparison according to size a pair of balls but these now have the same
volume . As a result of these tests , it was found that the vast majority
of test subjects (up to 97%) perceive these critical" balls as being of
unequal size : one ball appears larger and the other one smaller . At the
same time, as a rule , during the first perception , the illusions have a
contrast nature , i.e. a ball is perceived as being larger on the side
where the smaller ball was perceived during the control ( set) tests .
Thus , a full analogy with Fechner's illusion was demonstrated in
the sphere of a haptic perception of volumes, and not of weights .
7. It must be stated that a complete analogy with Charpentier's
illusion in regard to the volumes of balls was established even earlier
during tests conducted by G. Khmaladze . During the haptic perception
of balls having an objectively different weight ( 280 grams and 880 grams )
and being of the same size , an illusion of volume was observed : the
heavier ball was perceived as having a smaller volume , and vice- versa ,
the lighter ball was perceived as having a larger volume [ 347. This
illusion , which is the opposite of Charpentier's illusion , was called by
D. N. Uznadze an " illusion of weight - volume" ( Note7 Charpentier's illu
sion is usually called " an illusion of volume- weight' ) .
In the context of the problem of interest to us , this experiment
is remarkable in view of the fact that, in this test , the illusion of
volume arises in spite of the fact that a moment of " flying upwards " and
" sticking" of the raised object is excluded from the perception ; the test
subject does not raise any objects .
8. In the research work done by G. Khmaladze , an illusion of vol
ume was obtained not only during a simultaneous, but also during a succes
sive perception by one hand of balls having a different volume . During
control ( set) tests , the test subject, after closing his eyes , was asked
to hold in his hand , for comparison purposes , successively two balls
first a large one , and then a small one ( or vice - versa ) up to 15 times
in a row. Then , during critical tests , balls of equal size (" first " and
" second " ) were also given to the test subject successively . As a rule ,
the balls were perceived in a contrasting manner . For example , if dur
ing control tests , the large ball was given to the test subject first ,
then in critical tests the first ball was perceived as being smaller .
9. In all of the tests listed above , the illusion which arose is
based , in the final analysis, on a kinesthetic - tactile perception : a pas
sive perception of pressure , an active perception of weight, a haptic
perception of volunes , etc. There arises the question concerning the pos
sibility of obtaining similar illusions in such modalities in which a
kinesthetic- tactile perception is excluded , and consequently , in which
the MGaler - Schumann explanation of an illusion of heaviness is also ex
cluded .
The study of an optical illusion of volume , which was conducted
for the first time in the tests carried out by G. Khmaladze and which
was further developed in detail by D. N. Uznadze , constitutes an answer
to this question .

- 206 -
 With the aid of a tachystoscope, the test subject is shown simul
taneously , for purposes of a comparison according to size , t1: 0 circles
(with a diameter in the range of 20-30 milimeters) : one of which is
clearly smaller than the other . This control ( set) exposure is repeated
10-15 times in a row, whereby , within the limits of one test , the larger
circle , naturally , is always shown from the same side ( from the right,
or respectively, the left side ) . During critical tests , circles of equal
size are shown by means of a tachystoscope .
The result was found to be positive . During the first critical
exposures, the majority of the tests subjects ( about 65 %) exhibited a
contrast illusion (see Note7 : of two circles of equal size , one circle
which is located on that side on which a smaller circle was perceived dur .
ing control tests, is perceived as being of greater size . A certain num
ber of test subjects ( 5 to 9 per cent ) gave an assimilative illusion ( one
circle is perceived as being of greater size on that side on which it was
perceived as a larger circle in control tests) , and 29% of the test sub
jects perceive " critical" circles in an adequate manner. ( Note7 In
later tests , in which the method used was established more precisely ,
this percentage increased substantially .)
Thus , a full analogy with " classical " illusions of weight occurs
also during an optical perception of small objects, which fit in com
pletely into the center of the field of vision , and therefore do not re
quire a streeping motion of the eye for the perception of their size ,
and , consequently, during_the exclusion of a kinesthetic base for the
perception of size ( [Note7 Involuntary and constantly occurring movements
of the eyes do not play a fundamental role in this perception of sizes ;
in addition the phenomenon of " flying upwards " and " sticking" ( see above)
cannot take place at all in this case ; and , finally, we should recall that
these tests are performed in a tachystoscopic manner with a momentary ex
posure . )
10. However , since in the latter tests also a comparison of volumes
still takes place , which in our representation is associated with
kinesthetic - tactile sensations, there arises the problem concerning the
possibility of obtaining similar illusions during the course of the per
ception of such properties of objects and such qualities, the perception
or representation of which is alien to these modalities of sensation .
An ansier to this question is supplied first of all by tests in
volving a perception of sound intensities ( N. G. Adamashvili) .
A pair of sound stimuli, produced by means of a Fall apparatus,
is supplied consecutively to the test subject, sitting with his back
turned toward the above apparatus, who is supposed to compare the inten
sity of these stimuli . The first stimulus is clearly stronger than the
second one . After this control test has been repeated 15 times in a row ,
a pair of sound stimuli of equal intensity is fed consecutively to the
test subject during critical tests .
The result was found to be positive : an illusion was experienced
in 76 % of the cases ( adequate perception was recorded only in 21 % of the

- 207 -
cases) in spite of the fact that , during tests with a successive
comparison , the illusion , as a rule, is less widespread than during
a simultaneous comparison .
11 . The perception of various degrees of brightness of a gray
color has no thing in common with the perception of volume . At the same
time , an analogy with Fechner's illusion of weight was established ex
perimentally during the optical perception of the degrees of brightness
of squares shown to the test subjects in a tachystoscopic manner . Dur
ing control tests , a dark and light square are shown 15 times in a row
for comparison . During critical tests , two squares of equal brightness
are shown . The following results were obtained : over 73% of the test
subjects exhibit an illusion in the perception of color ; 56.6 % of these
test subjects exhibit a contrast illusion ( i.e. , these subjects per
ceive the square as being darker from the side on which a lighter square
was shown during control tests) , 16.6 % of the test subjects exhibit an
assimilative illusion , and 21.6 % of the test subjects perceive the crit
ical objects in an adequate manner , namely there was no illusion in this
case .
12 . And, finally , a similar illusion was established (by B. I.
Khachapuridze ) in regard to the perception of a " multitude , " i.e. , a
direct, rather diffuse perception of a greater and smaller quantity .
During these tests , two circles of equal size provided with dots in
side were exposed or shown tachystoscopically . The number of dots in
one circle was clearly greater than the number of dots in the other.
one . The test subject was required to establish which circle had the
greater number of dots . This control test was repeated up to 15 times .
In the critical tests , circles with an equal number of dots were shown .
The result obtained was found to be analogous to the result ob
tained during the above - described tests : the majority of the test sub
jects exhibited a contrast illusion in the perception of a multitude .
13 . The results of the above - described tests entitled D. N.
theory of a " motor set " devel
Uznadze to draw the conclusion that the wrong
oped by Müller - Schumann and others was . It is clear that a dif
ferent motor impulse , or a different speed in raising an object , can
have no relation whatsoever to the illusion in the perception of the
intensity of sound, brightness of color , and to the illusion of the per
ception of a number of dots .
Apparently, the essence of this phenomenon does not consist in a
"motor" or " a sensory " set, i.e , not in peripheral processes taking place
in the "motor " or " sensory system and , specifically , not in a change of
the muscular -motor impulse itself during the raising of weights, but
rather in a set as an integral state , an integral " modification " of the
individual , in a certain " degree of mobilization of the individual as
a whole , which expresses itself in a wide variety of perception modali
ties and therefore cannot be reduced to the peculiarities of motor im
pulses .

- 208 -
 TRANSPOSITION OF AN ILLUSION ( IRRADIAMON OF A SET)

1. Before we switch to an examination of another theory wide

spread in traditional psychology , which claims to explain the various
types of perception illusions, analogies of a weight illusion , let us
consider briefly one additional experimental fact , of tremendous importa
ance in the clarification of the nature of the readiness towards a def
inite action , which lies at the base of an illusion , which manifests
itself , as we have seen , in a wide variety of, modalities, and which D.
N. Uznad ze has called set. The point is that if the various illusions
described above are really based upon a single , integral state of mo
bilization of an individual a general set of the individual - then
this set , which has been developed during the course of control ( set)
tests in one modality , as an integral state of the individual , must
manifest itself also in other modalities , i.e , in the process of per
ception of " critical " objects belonging to another modality . Does
some thing of this sort really take place ?
At the end of 1932 , D. N. Uznadze made a report to the Psycho
logical Society of Georgia concerned with the experimentally established
fact of a transposition of an illusion from one organ to another - which
corresponds ( from one hand to another hand ) and from one modality of per
ception to another .
D. N. Uznadze has established experimentally the following facts!
First, control ( set) tests with a successive haptic perception of balls
of different volume ( see above ) were set up on one hand, and critical
tests with a successive perception of objectively equal balls were set
up on the other hand . A transposition of the illusion to the other hand
proved to be a fact : in the tests conducted by D. N. Uznadze , an illusion
was observed in 83.5 % of the cases ( a contrast illusion - in 60 % , and an
assimilative illusion in 23.5% ) while an adequate perception , that is
an absence of illusion , was observed in 16.5 % of the cases .
([Note Stefens, an associate of N. Ach (407, during transposi
tion tests, obtained a negative result, on the basis of which she con
cluded that the illusion had a local character and that a transposition
even to a paired organ was impossible . It must be assumed that the
tests conducted by Stefens, involved a methodological inaccuracy , since
this problem was frequently and extensively studied by colleagues of D.
N. Uznadze, and the actual presence of a transposition was always estab
lished during these numerous tests ( see the work done by N. G. Adamashvili
2) .
Similar results were obtained in regard to eyes: tachystoscopic
control ( set) tests with circles were conducted on one eye , while criti
cal tests were conducted on the other eye ; an illusion took place in
76.8 % of the cases ( a contrast illusion , in 69.8 % of the cases , and an
assimilative illusion in 7 % of the cases ) .
A transposition of the illusion also took place in regard to dif
ferent modalities : balls of different size are placed into the hands of

- 209 -
the test subject, whose eyes are closed , for comparison purposes . After
these control ( set) tests have been repeated 15 to 25 times, circles of
equal size are presented tachystoscopically to the test subject as cri
tical objects . A set illusion was observed in 56.4 % of the cases ( a
contrast illusion , in 48 % of the cases , and an assimilative illusion in
8.4 % of the cases ) . Thus, a set , which was developed during the process
of a haptic perception of the balls, expressed itself in a visual percep
tion of circles . The same thing takes place in the reverse direction .
A setting , developed during the course of a comparison of circles , per
ceived tachystoscopically , expresses itself in an illusion involving a
haptic perception of objectively equal wooden balls . ( /NoteT The prob
lem concerning the irradiation of a set is described in greater detail
in studies conducted by D. N. Uznadze [247, _287 ). There can be no
doubt whatsoever about the fact of an irradiation of a set from one
modality to another . N. G. Adamashvili , who has studied this phenom
enon , has established experimentally various indices in regard to the
irradiation of a set from a visual perception to a haptic perception ,
from a haptic perception to a visual perception , from a muscular per
ception to a haptic perception , from a haptic perception to a muscular
perception , from a visual perception to a muscular perception , and from
a muscular perception to a visual perception 2 ].
2. Thus, facts of an intermodal irradiation of a set indicate
the integral - personal , "central" nature of a set , lying at the base of
the above described perception illusions, no matter in which modality of
perception these illusions manifest themselves : once a set has been de
veloped already in the subject, for example , a set to a larger object on
the right side , no matter in which way this set is developed - whether
by means of a visual perception of miniature circles having a diameter
of about 20 milimeters, or whether by means of a grasping of large
wooden balls - is indifferent , and this set will manifest itself to
a greater or smaller extent during almost every kind of perception of
two magnitudes . Illusions in the perception of different modalities
constitute essentally a common and single illusion , which manifests it
self in different modalities; more precisely , it is the consequence of
a single generic condition of the subject - of a single set , expressing
itself in different modalities .
3. As a result of special tests conducted by 2. I. Khodzhava ,
a collaborator of D. N. Uznadze , it was shown that a set, developed dur
ing the process of comparison , according to size , of objects having a
certain definite shape ( for example, circles), expresses itself in rela
tion to the perception of the size of objects having an entirely differ
entshape1357. [Note ]Itisinteresting to note that a similar result
was obtained and published by J. Piaget [ 32 ] 3 years later ( 1945 ) ) . This
property of a set was designated by D. N. Uznadze as a generalization of
a set .
A strong irradiation of a set together with its generalization ,
discloses the integral character of this condition of the subject.

- 210 -
 4. The integral character of a set is corroborated by recently
established ( 1956 ) experímental facts showing the manifestation of a
set , developed on the basis of a visual perception , in a sensory -motor
process involving the graphic representation of circles of an equal
size . In 1956 , A. Kintsurashvili , a student of D. N. Uznadze , conducted
a series of tests , in which , following the usual tachystoscopic control
tests , he suggested to the test subject that they sketch two circles of
equal size ; the set developed during the tachystoscopic tests extended
also to this sphere : the circles were sketched in such a way that the
size of one of these circles was overestimated .
5 . On the basis of the experiments listed above, it is clear
that the classical " illusion of weighth constitutes only a particular
type of a general phenomenon , which in specific cases expresses itself
in different modalities : during the raising of a weight in the form
of an illusion of weight ; during a tactile sensation of pressure in
the form of an analogous illusion of pressure ; during the process of a
haptic perception in the form of an illusion involving a haptic per
ception of volumes; in the visual field in the form of an illusion
CC

in the visual perception of size ; during the perception of the color of

objects --in the form of a visual illusion in the perception of the de
gree of lightness; in the audi tory field -- in the form of an illusion
in the perception of the intensity of sound , etc.
Following the establishment of all these facts , the theory of
Müller- Schumann in the same way as other theories, such as the theory
of Claparede and others , which are also based upon a motor effect) must
be rejected , since this theory is based on facts which are specific only
for one sub - species of a general illusion of perception , namely facts
concerned with an illusion in the perception of weight during the rais
ing of objects with a different muscular impulse , and consequently with
a different speed .
However , in traditional foreign psychology , another theory is
also rather widespread , which is called the theory of " an unjustified "
or " deceived expectation , " which , as D. N. Uznadze points out , can
claim to provide an explanation for all types of illusions of percep
tion of the type described above . According to this theory , or more
precisely, according to this poorly developed point of view , during
early ( control) tests , i.e. during a multiple perception of various
objects ( for example, of objects of different weight ), the subject de
velops "an expectation " of the further perception of these same objects ,
or more precisely of the same differences ; for example, the subject ex
pects a heavier object ( or an object with a larger volume) on the right
side than on the left side , and when in reality ( during critical expos
ures) an object is encountered which does not correspond to the subject's
expectation , for example , when an object lighter than the one expected
by the test subject is shown ; the subject's expectation is not fulfilled ,
and therefore a contrast illusion takes place : for example , the object
appears to be even lighter than it actually is .

- 211 -
 Thus , the principal factor which is responsible for the illusion ,
according to this theory, is the moment of " expectation " which is devel
oped during the course of control ( set) tests ( according to the termi
nology used by Uznadze ) .
6. To what extent is such an explanation of these illusions of
perception acceptable ? D. N. Uznadze conducted a special experiment to
clarify the participation of the " expectation " factor in the illusions
described above [237. Control tests involving a haptic perception of
balls of different size are performed on the test subject who is in a
state of hypnotic sleep , i.e. two balls of different size are placed
into the hands of the subject 15 times in a row for comparison purposes .
The test subject is exposed to a special suggestion that he should for
get everything which occurred during his sleep . The test subject is
then awakened and subjected ( already in an alert state) to critical
tests, i.e. two balls of equal size are placed into his hands for com
parison purposes . It was found that the test subjects perceived the
balls in an illusionary way , namely in a contrasting manner . Since , in
a condition of sleep , an expectation of the perception of unequal ob
jects could not arise , especially in view of the fact that a posto
hypnotic amnesia is characteristic for persons arising from a state of
hypnosis, while in the tests conducted by D. N. Uznadze , this amnesia
was intensified , as was noted above, by an additional special sugges
tion , the factor of expectation is completely excluded in these tests :
the test subjects could not expect the perception of balls , since they
did not remember what happened to them during their sleep . Hence , D.
N. Uznadze concludes that no expectation whatsoever is required for the
appearance of a set illusion . He considers that it is an obvious fact
that a set toward the perception of the larger and smaller ball arose
during the course of repeated perceptions from the same side of the
larger ball and from the other side of the smaller ball . This set , i.e.
an internal , integral and dynamic state of readiness toward such a per
ception of a greater and smaller magnitude in definite directions, was
formed as a result of a multiple repetition ( in this case , in a state
of hypnotic sleen) of a corresponding " setting " perception of a larger
and smaller ball . Uznad ze emphasizes that the set , which arose during
the condition of sleep , is a factor which determines the activity of
the test subject in a critical test.
Insofar as the factor of expectation is excluded in the test de
scribed above, the theory of " a deceived expectation " is unable to
explain the fact of this illusion . A set , which itself is not a phe
nomenon of consciousness , can also arise in a condition of sleep and
can be responsible for or can regulate the course of corresponding phe
nomena of consciousness , and , specifically, the illusion perception of
critical objects . The reasons why " set or control tests" constitute an
indispensable condition for the appearance of an illusion of perception
is that, during the course of these tests , a specific state (set) is
developed and " fixed " ( see the next section ), which , though it is not a

212 -
content of consciousness, is responsible for the course of processes of
consciousness and , specifically , which , in the tests described above, is
responsible for a certain definite distortion of the subsequent percep
tions .

EXPERIMENTALLY ESTABLISHED CHARACTERISTIC OF A SET

1. The concept of a Fixed and Non - Fixed Set

First of all must be stressed the fact that, inasmuch as the ex

perimental study of set originated and progressed in the sequel mainly
on the basis of data obtained from experimental illusions of perception ,
this created among the many readers of the work done by D. N. Uznadze
and his associates a completely wrong impression concerning set as a
factor responsible only for an inadequate - or illusionary perception .
Set is frequently interpreted erroneously as a factor which distorts
perception . Such a conception is a misunderstanding .
The point is that, according to the conception of D. N.
Uznadze , a sharp distinction should be made between two types of ex
pression of a set. The first type includes a set which , as is usually
the case during conditions of normal activity , and , specifically , during
the process of perception , is adequate to a given situation and therefore
causes not an illusionary perception , but, on the contrary , an adequate
perception of the objective situation and in general is responsible for
a human activity which is adequate to the given situation . This state
of mobilization of the subject ( individual ) as a whole is always condi
tioned by a unity of the need manifested by the subject and the objec
tive situation . Such an adequate set represents a necessary mediating
link in the behavior of the human individual .
The situation is different in regard to the so - called fixed set ,
which arises when a set corresponding to a given situation becomes
fixed and firmly established , which most frequently takes place as a re
sult of a multiple repetition of a definite activity , and , specifically ,
as this happens in the majority of the tests described above, as a result
of a multiple perception of one and the same situation , for example , dur
ing a 10-15 - fold comparison of balls of different size arranged in a sim
ilar manner , or , on the other hand, as a result of an exceptionally strong
impression produced even by one single perception of a given situation .
As a result of such a fixation , such a consolidation of a given set, the
latter loses to a certain extent its lability , loses its ready faculty
of adaptation to the slightest changes in the situation (which is a
characteristic feature for a non - fixed set) , and in view of this fact,
does not have time to adapt itself to insignificant changes in the obno
jective situation ( for example, to a change in the size of balls during
critical tests ) , and therefore distorts accordingly the perception of
this changed situation ( for example, balls of equal size are perceived
as being of unequal size in view of the fact that their perception was

213 -
preceded by fixation of the set towards the perception of a larger
and a smaller ball ) . Then , under the action of the properties of
this new situation , the subject gradually shifts to an adequate per
ception , i.e. the fixed set loses its fixed nature and is converted
into an adequate set .
It should be emphasized that a fixed set is responsible for an
adequate perception , in case of the presence of a constant objective
situation ( i.e , a situation which corresponds to this set) , and even
facilitates a corresponding perception or another activity , for example ,
a perception under difficult conditions ( in darkness) , an automation of
actions, the effect exerted by a habit, etc ,
An interesting experimental fact showing the positive effect
exerted by a fixed set upon perception was observed during tests con
ducted by 2. I. Khodzhava in connection with the reading of a " neutral
script" ( see below " Set on Quality " ): when a test subject, in which no
kind of fixed set toward reading of any kind was developed , was shown
tachystoscopically meaningless sets of " neutral " letters, i.e , such let
ters , the configuration of which can be found both in the Russian and in
the Latin print ( see below) , the test subject became confused by these
letters and could not read them ; on the other hand , when meaningless
written words are shown to a test subject, in whom a fixed set towards
a reading of either Latin or Russian letters has been developed pre
viously , the test subject was able to read these words freely and eas
ily under conditions involving the same tachystoscopic exposure .
In regard to the fact that an experimental study of set takes
place mainly by way of the discovery of rules governing a fixed set ,
this can be explained by the fact that rules of a set can be estab
lished much more easily and accurately in an experimental manner follow
ing its fixation , and , specifically , during the course of a distortion
of perception , in the same way as the rules governing conditioned re
flexes can be determined more accurately during manifestations which
are inadequate for a given situation - in a reaction , corresponding to
an unconditioned stimulus which is absent; for example, the excretion
of saliva in response to a conditioned reflex ( a ringing bell , a prick ,
etc. ) in the absence of an adequate food stimulus.
It should be noted that in the process of " control or set expos
ures ," i.e , during the period of exercise which precedes critical tests ,
not only does there take place a fixation of the set which has arisen ,
but also not infrequently a process of differentiation and concretiza
tion of an initial diffused set . The relatively diffused set , which
has arisen during the very first perceptions and which is not fully
adapted to the given situation , assumes a final shape, becomes differ
entiated and assumes a concrete form during the course of the recur
rence of the perception of the same situation .
2. Indispensable Conditions for the Formation of a Set

As we have seen , every experiment involving set begins with set

or control tests , during which the test subject is given the assignment
214 -
of comparing any kind of objects ( set or control objects) in regard to
their size, weight, brightness , etc. The fact that such an assignment
is given at the beginning of the experiment is no accident. The point
is that a central place in the conception of Uznadze is occupied by the
principle according to which a set is such a modification of the subject
as a whole, as is created exclusively by the interaction of two factors,
namely the need of the individual ( which , as is known , in general con
stitutes the basis of an activity ) and a corresponding situation (which
can satisfy this need) ; in this sense , a set represents the unity of a
need and an objective situation . This combination of a need and a sit
uation is realized in a concrete modification of the personality , i.e.
as a definite concrete set, which becomes activated in the form of a
completely concrete activity in a corresponding concrete situation .
Under experimental conditions, a situation , reflected in the
set, is provided in the form of objects which are shown to the test
subject for comparison , while the need is provided in the form of an
urge , formed under the influence of the instruction , to compare and
to establish the mutual relationship between the given objects , or
more precisely, between definite properties of the objects being compared .
It has been established experimentally ( see Note that if it is
possible via a distraction of attention by the aid of additional stimuli
to achieve a truly indifferent attitude on the part of the test subject
toward the trio objects of different size which are being perceived , then
a set as a rule, is not formed : the critical objects are perceived as
being of equal size during the very first critical exposures . It is
true that , in certain tests conducted without an instruction , to cortare
the given objects , a set was nevertheless formed or developed , but, as
an analysis of data has shown , it must be assumed that, in these tests ,
also a perception of objects in their correlation , i.e. a comparison ,
took place . ( Note7 For example, in an experiment conducted by D. I.
Khachapuridze , the test subject was shown tachystoscopically " set or
control " circles, which were surrounded and filled with additional
stimuli ( such as fine drawings of different objects , figures, letters ,
geometrical forms, etc. ) ; when the activity of the test subject was di
rected to the entire field of perception including these stimuli ( he
was asked to note everything that he could see in the tachystoscope ) , a
set illusion_was not observed after a 15 - fold perception of unequal cir
cles [29, 307 ).
3. The Phasic Nature of the Manifestation of a Fixed Set

During the course of tests conducted by B. I. Khachapuridze , an

associate of D. N. Uznadze , it was established that the process involving
a fading of a fixed set, i.e. the process of transition from a set illu
sion of perception to an adequate perception of critical objects , in
other words , the transition from a fixed set to an adequate set , has
a phasic nature [ 317. If, after switching over from set tests to crit
ical tests , one does not limit oneself to one or two critical exposures

- 215 -
of equal objects , but continues to show critical objects until the
test subject finally stops at an adequate perception , then one finds
that the evaluation (perception ) of critical objects passes through
several phases , or periods, of differing evaluations of the critical
objects. D , N. Uznadze has established three such (main ) phases .
In the first phase , objectively equal critical objects are evaluated
by the test subject in a contrasting manner , i.e. the object is per
ceived as being larger on that side in which during the setting tests
a smaller object was perceived ; in the second phase , a destruction of
the fixed set already sets in : along with contrast illusions , assim
ilative illusions are also already observed . With the development of
this phase , the frequency of assimilative illusions increases, and ,
finally , is converted into a series of assimilative illusions only . In
the third phase , adequate perceptions already make their appearance ,
which occur more frequently, and which_finally , are completely converted
into an adequate perception [26 ; 59-607. ([Note7 In thisprocess, some
what different phases are identified by certain Tbilisi psychologists
[B. I. Khachapuridze and others )
It must be stated that the establishment of a phasic nature in
the fading of a fixed set has opened up completely new and broad pro
spects for the study of both the nature of set itself and of the rules
governing its manifestation , as well as particularly for the study of
psychological characteristics of the personality, and , in connection
with this fact , the determination of a number of characteristic feat
ures of -psychic diseases . It was found that characteristic features
of the transition from a set illusion to an adequate perception , i.e.
peculiarities of the passage of the transitional phases into an ade
quate perception , disclose great inter - individual differences . The
establishment of the phasic nature in the course of manifestations of a
fixed set marks the beginning of a new trend in research work , whereby
on the one hand is studied the differential psychology of set and on the
other hand , the psychopathology of set .
On the basis of inter - individual peculiarities in the phasic
course of a set, a number of typological characteristics of set were
experimentally established , and , thus , a new field of research was
opened up , namely a differential psychology of set . First of all were
established a number of properties of set, which have an extremely sig
nificant differential -psychological importance .
4. Main Properties of a Set

1. First of all , it was found that individuals differ to a con

siderable extent in regard to the ease of stimulation of a fixed set ,
i.e , in the degree of ease with which a fixed set can be developed in
these individuals .
Thus , for example, during the course of basic ( " classical " ) exper
iments - both haptic and tachystoscopic tests - it was possible to estab
lish a number of gradations in the ease of stimulation , which fluctuate

- 216 -
between the following extremes : on the one hand, test subjects, in
which a fixed set arises after one or two setting exposures, and on
the other hand , test subjects in which such a set arises or is devel
oped only after twenty setting exposures . ( Note7 In some cases , a con
siderably greater number of setting exposures is required . )
2. An important property of a fixed set is its " static nature
or , on the contrary, its " dynamic nature . " These terms were used by
D. N. Uznadze to designate the following opposite properties of a fixed
set. Individuals with a static set, in spite of a prolonged (multiple
- up to 50 exposures) showing of ( critical) equal objects, do not pass
.

through all phases of the set and are unable to reach an adequate per
ception ; in this type of person , a set which has been fixed once and
for all is not destroyed to such an extent that they are able to reach
the last phase - namely an adequate set; this type of person freezes at
a certain phase (not necessarily on the first phase) . On the contrary,
persons with a dynamic set, under the influence of critical objects ,
are able to reach sooner or later (during the course of the experiment)
an adequate perception of critical objects , i.e. they pass through the
various phases of manifestation of the set.
3. Plasticity of the set . Regardless of whether a set is static
or dynamic, it may be plastic ( flexible) to a smaller or greater extent ,
or , on the contrary, sluggish ( coarse ) .
Plasticity, as was shown experimentally , is a special property of
the set, which manifests itself in a gradual smooth transition from one
phase to another . For example , a dynamic set will be plastic if, prior
to switching to an adequate perception ( i.e. before a fixed set disap
pears completely ), the test subject will gradually pass through all of
the phases . While a static set will be plastic when , before freezing at
a certain phase , it will gradually pass through all the preceding phases .
On the contrary , a sluggish ( coarse) is one which skips intermed
iate phases . For example, a set which jumps from the first to the last
phase - from a contrast perception to an adequate perception during a
dynamic set [Sic! Sentence unsyntactical in original] .
4. An important typological property is a greater or lesser
" irradiatedness " of the set. In spite of its integral character , a set,
as experiments have shown , may be irradiated to such a small extent that
a set, developed through one organ , does not extend even to the other
paired organ ( from one hand to another ), and , vice - versa, in many test
subjects, a fixed set developed in the sphere of one modality manifests
itself easily in the sphere of another modality . In the first case , we
are dealing with a poorly irradiated , relatively " local " set, and in the
second case - with a strongly irradiated set.
5. A greater and lesser generalization of the set . Considerable
inter - individual differences were also observed in the degree of general
ization ( see above ) of the set , i.e. in the manifestations of a fixed set
toward objects of a more or less greatly differing form .

- 217 -
 6. Constancy and variability of the set. Inter - individual differ
ence were also observed in the degree of constancy , or , vice - versa , in
the degree of variability of the set, i.e. in the degree of preservation
or variability of the type of set in a given personality . ( Note7 For
systematically collated data on the constancy of a set in different
modalities, see A. G. Avalishvili 17 ) . If, for example , in exper
iments conducted at different times with the same subject, one and the
same type of set manifests itself , we are dealing with a constant set ;
if , on the other hand , at different times, one and the same subject dis
closes a different type of set , we are dealing with a variable set.
7. A further property of a set is its greater or lower stabil
ity , or , on the contrary , lability . This property indicates the degree
of preservation of a fixed set in time without the action exerted by
an exposure of critical objects. Extreme cases of stability have been
established experimentally, in which a set fixed in the usual experimen
tal way manifested itself in a test subject two to three months after
it had been developed (B. I. Khachapuridze [32; 152 f £ 7) .
When a fixed set is preserved for a long time in an unchanged,
i.e. a constant, form , we are dealing with a constantly- stable set, and
on the contrary , when a set is preserved for a long time but in a changed
form , we are dealing with a variable - stable set. A set which fades rapidly ,
i.e , a labile set, also manifests itself in two forms : If it remains con
stant prior to fading , it is called a constantly - labile set ; if , on the
other hand , prior to a final fading , this set undergoes a change , then it
is called a variable- labile set.
8. An important property of a set is its greater or lower stabil
ity during the course of perception of critical objects . It has been
demonstrated experimentally that certain subjects, after as few as two
or three critical exposures, are able to achieve an adequate perception ,
i.e. the set illusion in these test subjects extends only to 2-3 crit
ical exposures . Another extreme case includes test subjects in which
the set illusion extends over more than 50 critical exposures ( " infin
ite illusion " ) . Between these extreme cases , a wide variety of degrees
of stability are observed .
A wealth of material on the experimental characteristic of all
above -mentioned properties of a set are presented in studies conducted
by D. N. Uznadze [247, [25], [ 267 .
SENNING TO QUALITY

1 . We have become familiar with the principal experimentally

established properties of a set . However , these properties have been
established in relation to a set which has been developed towards
quantity (namely in response to quantitative differences, such as size ,
heaviness, degree of brightness , etc. ) . Naturally, the question arises
as to what are the properties of a set which has been developed in response
to quality . Do the inherent tendencies of a set , developed in response to
a quantity , which have been studied above, apply also to a set developed
in response to quality ?
218 -
 In order to answer this extremely significant question , it was
necessary to set up a new test in which a set would be developed not
in response to quantitative relations, but in response to the quality
of objects . It is true that in tests conducted in relation to a set
towards quantity , a study was conducted not only of a set towards a dif
ference - namely towards an inequality , but also of a set towards an
equality ( see Note ], in regard to which D. N. Uznadze notes that "an
equality also refers in a certain sense to the category of a quality , "
but, nevertheless , a set towards an equality should not be considered
as a set towards a quality , since_the equality of magnitudes is primar
ily a quantitative ratio . ( Note] In a study conducted by R. G.
Hatadze [157, the fact of the development of a fixed set towards an
equality was established , as a result of which unequal objects ( cir
cles , squares ) were perceived as being equal during critical tests . )
2. Among the special experimental research studies of a set
toward quality , special attention should be given to the research work
done by 2. I. Khodzhava, a collaborator of D. N. Umadze [ 367. The
method which was used by 2. I. Khodzhava in his studies made it possible
to conduct an intensive study of a set toward quality, and , specifically ,
allowed a detailed comparison of the inherent tendencies in the manifes
tation of a set toward quality with the previously established and in
herent tendencies in the manifestation of a set ( towards a quantity ) .
This is the method of the so - called neutral script. Basically, this
method consists in the following : German words, written in Latin print
are shown successively by means of a tachystoscope to the test subject,
as a setting exposure . When a set toward the reading of Latin script
is fixed in the test subject, the latter is shown tachystoscopically ,
as critical objects , a succession of several Russian words, which are
selected in such a way that they consist exclusively of "neutral" leto
ters , i.e. , letters , the configuration of which is found both in the
Russian and Latin print : such as " nevod , " " topor , " pochva, " " neva ,"
" porcha , " etc. , which are written out by hand . How will the test sub
ject perceive these words, how will he read them : in Russian or Latin
transcription ? For example, will the first word be read as the Russian
word "nevod" or as the word " hebog " ? If, as is usually the case , the
test subject will read a number of Russian words in Latin transcription ,
as meaningless words or as foreign words unknown to him , obviously , we
shall be confronted with a set illusion , caused by a preliminary reading
of the German words in Latin transcription , or more precisely, a fixed
set caused by this reading toward the reading of foreign words ( we cannot
examine in detail the various modifications and details of this method ) .
3. Later , other methods were also used for studying a set to
wards quality (N. L. Eliava, Sh . N. Chkhartishvili and others ). The
methods used by N. L. Eliava consist basically in the following: Dur
ing set tests , the test subject is shown several times colorful pic
tures ( for example, a picture showing a number of sailboats near the
shore ), while in the critical tests a brief exposure is made of a pica
ture having a different content ( for example, a lotus flower ), but which
- 219 -
is selected in such a manner that this picture has something in common
with the first picture in the configuration of certain lines and in
the coloration of certain spots .
If , during the first exposures, the test subject will perceive
the second picture, in a manner similar to the first one (for example,
if he will perceive the petals of the lotus flower as representing the
sails of the sailboats), then, according to the author , we will be con
fronted with a set illusion : the set, fixed upon the perception , for
example, of sailboats has distorted in a corresponding manner the per
ception of the second picture - a sail was perceived instead of a lotus
flower .
In the test conducted by Chkartishvili , following an emotionally
saturated talk about snakes , the drawer of a table is opened , containing
a brightly colored scarf, which test subjects, as a rule, perceived as
a snake .
Experimental data obtained with the aid of these methods, espec
ially with the aid of the first method ( 2. I. Khodzhava ) , have shown that
a set fixed towards a quality , in case appropriate conditions are present
( for example, under the conditions found in the method of Khodzhava ), is
observed in 100% of the test subjects and that its basic rules or inher
ent tendencies of manifestation remain the same as in the set towards
quantity ( see above ); specifically , here , too , a phasic nature in the
course of a fixed set was established whereby it was found that in the
main the phases of both sets ( toward quantity and quality) coincide with
each other to a significant extent .
During the same tests was also established a number of peculiar
features of a set towards quality . It should be noted in particular
that a set towards quality always manifests itself in an assimilative ,
and not in a contrast manner . D. N. Uznad ze sees in this factor a new
proof of the fact that the action of a fixed set, is generally by its
nature, an assimilative action . He believes that contrast illusions ,
which are frequently expressed in the action of a set towards quantity
- " is a phenomenon caused by the peculiar feature of a quantitative ra
tio , " that " it does not constitute the specific character of set itself . "
According to D. N. Uznadze, " a contrast_illusion is caused by a great
difference between setting circles. " ([Note] The scope of the present
article does not allow us to examine in greater detail the problem of
an assimilative and contrast action of set , which occupies a rather
significant place in the studies conducted by D. N. Uznadze [227.)
4. In regard to the character of the phases of a settoward
quality , it is obvious that the first phase of this set has a purely
assimilative character ( and not a contrast character ), since an illu
sion toward a quality manifests itself only in an assimilative way .
For example , in a test conducted by 2. I. Khodzhava, during the first
phase the test subject reads in Latin Russian words consisting of " neu
tral " letters . This is followed by a peculiar ( second ) phase of "mixed "
reading, i.e. a phase consisting of a mixture of an adequate perception

220
and an assimilative illusion -- certain letters of a word are read in
Russian , while others are read in Latin . And , finally , in the third
phase, an adequate perception takes place, i.e. critical neutral words
are read in Russian .
It should be pointed out that a similar course in the fading of
the setting was also observed in tests conducted by N. L. Eliava with
pictures . Following an assimilative illusion , a " mixed phase" was manit
fested , in which an assimilative illusion was mixed with an adequate per
ception ( for example , the test subject , while perceiving the petals of
the lotus flower as sails, expressed his surprise as to why they " grow
out of the ground " ) . An interesting manifestation of a set toward qual
ity ( toward semantic content) was observed in another experiment conducted
by N. L. Biava , which was set up in connection with the study of the
problem of a switch - over of a set during the course of thought [ 38]. The
test subject was given a section from a story having a fascinating con
tent . By the time when the test subject was already expected to be famil
iar with the events described in this section , and was supposed to be
interested in the plot, the following instruction was included in the
text : " Turn over the page! Quickly turn over the page ! We suggest
that you turn over the page !" ( This instruction was underlined in the
text). Then , immediately after the words of this instruction , the text
continued , but now as a section of another story having no relation at
all to the first story .
It was found that a considerable number of test subjects con
tinued to read the text without noticing the lack of correspondence be
tween these two texts : the second half of the text , which had no
relation to the first half, was completely assimilated by the fixed set,
which had developed during the reading of the first half of the text.
(Obviously , a selection of appropriate texts is of crucial importance
in order to obtain the necessary effect .)
5. During the course of these same research studies, a number
of properties of a set were established , which had previously been
identified in relation to a set towards a quantity: various degrees
of excitability of the set , whereby the degree of excitability of the
set toward a quality was found to be considerably greater than the ex
citability of the set toward a quantity ; a differing degree of stability
of the set ( in the tests conducted by 2. I. Khodzhava , stability was
accurately measured by the number of Russian words which were read in
Latin ) ; the stability of the set toward a quality, its plasticity , etc.
were also studied .
The problem of a set toward_quality is examined in detail in a
study conducted by D. N. Uznadze [267 .
SETTING IN PHYLOGENESIS

1. Thus , the data obtained during the tests examined above in

dicate the integrity of the state of a set , and also that this integral
dynamic state of the subject precedes the appearance of processes of

- 221 -
consciousness ; from these experimental data , we learn a whole series of
properties of set : its excitability , its staticity and dynamism , its
constancy of variability , its persistence , its stability or lability , its
plasticity or sluggishness , etc. However , the question arises as to
whether this state is specific for man only or whether it also plays a
role at lower stages of phylogenesis , namely in animals ?
This problem was studied experimentally in connection with a num
ber of animals by collaborators of D. N. Uznadze , such as N. G. Adamashvili
and N. V. Chrelashvili and also by Prof. N. Yu. Voytonis .
Tests were conducted with lower apes , dogs , white rats, and birds
( hens) . In all of these animals, the fact of the development of a fixed
set was established experimentally .
The fact of the development of a fixed set in apes ( hamadryads)
was established for the first time by N. Yu . Voytonis during the period
of his work at the Tbilisi Institute of Psychology . This work was pub
lished in Russian 7.
2 . In the research work performed by N. G. Adamashvili 3 ] with
monkeys, two variations of the experiment were used .
In the second (main ) variation , which was conducted with two
Capuchin apes , the experiment was preceded by a " training period " of one
and a half months, the purpose of which was to produce in the apes a dif
ferent reaction towards small food balls or cakes , which were either of
the same size or different size . At the end of this training period , the
monkey reacted to the small balls of food offered to it in the following
manner : when small balls of different sizes were handed to the monkey ,
it always took only the larger ball ; when the monkey was offered balls
of the same size , it took both of them although in succession but always
in one impulse . The setting tests were conducted only after this habit
had been developed . During the setting tests , the monkey frequently re
ceived food only in the form of small balls or cakes of different size ,
after which , during critical tests , food was given only in the form of
small balls or cakes of the same size ,
As a result of the tests was established first of all the definite
existence of set illusions: during critical tests , when balls of equal
size were handed out to the monkeys , the latter always took only one small
ball and not both , as they did when they perceived balls of equal size .
It is clear that such a behavior is based upon an illusion of volume,
caused by a fixed set: one of the objectively equal balls was per
ceived as being of larger size .
Contrast illusions were observed most frequently in monkeys, al
though assimilative illusions were also observed rather frequently .
During the same tests , the excitability of the setting in mon
keys was also studied . In some cases , it is extremely high ( a set is
developed after two and even sometimes after only one exposure ), while
in other cases it is extremely low - in general , the excitability of
the set in monkeys is extremely variable. The persistence of the set in
monkeys is also highly variable , sometimes it extends only over 1-2 crita
ical exposures and sometimes over 9 exposures . According to the data

- 222 -
obtained in the research work of N. G. Adamashvili , it must be assumed
that the set of monkeys is characterized by a low plasticity and a high
variability and dynami sm . The stability of the set in monkeys is also
characterized by a great variability : a fixed set sometimes manifests
itself even after a week's interval , and sometimes does not manifest it
self after one day . The fading of a fixed set in monkeys also has a
phasic character .
3. In tests conducted by N. G. Adamashvili with dogs, after the
animal had been " trained " to look for food in the larger of two boxes
of different size , the setting tests were conducted , which were similar
to the " classical " setting tests . The larger box was always made avail
able on the same side . During critical tests , boxes of equal size were
always placed in front of the dog . In this situation , the dog at first
always approached that one of the two boxes of equal size , which was
standing at the place occupied by the smaller box, i.e. it clearly ex
hibited a contrast illusion ; later during the tests , the dog started to
hold back and hesitate , and sometimes even came to a dead stop, without
approaching either one of these two boxes thus exhibiting a clear
fading of the illusion .
4. In tests conducted by N. V. Chrelashvili with rats , a fixed
set was developed towards the degree of brightness of the gray color of
the door of a labyrinth .
The same author developed in rats a set towards the slope of the
path followed by the animal . The track taken by the rats was made mov
able . When a rat followed a path with an upward ( rising ) slope of 70
degrees , upon reaching the next fork , it turned to the right , whereas
when the animal was following a path with a downward slope of 70 de
grees , it turned to the left; when following a horizontal path , the
rat did not turn either to the right or to the left, but proceeded
straight ahead even through the fork . The horizontal path was used in
critical tests .
After the completion of the setting tests , the rats , when follow
ing an objectively horizontal path , in most cases turned to the left; it
must be assumed that the horizontal path was perceived as having a slope ,
under the influence of the set towards a slanted path , which had become
fixed during the preceding ( setting ) tests .
In these tests , the excitability of the set was found to be very
high , and amounted to 2-3 setting tests . Contrast illusions predominated
at the beginning of the critical tests . The stability of the set was
considerable .
5. Experiments with hens were also conducted by N. V. Chrelashvili .
A set was developed in the hens to pick up grains from the dark half of
a board . During the critical tests, both halves of the board were of the
same gray color, but nevertheless the chicken picked grains only from one
half. It must be assumed that this half of the board was perceived by
the hens as being darker .

- 223 -
 The main result obtained during this study was the establishment
of the fact that a fixed set can be developed in hens. In addition , a
number of peculiarities in the manifestation of this set were established
during this study : a low excitability , the predominance of assimilative
illusions , etc.
6. Thus, as was to be expected according to the coneption held
by D , N. Uznadze, a set is also inherent in animals; it is not a speci
fically human characteristic . According to the conception of D. N.
Uznadze, the ability to react to the actions of the external world pri
marily by means of a set, i.e. an integral modification of the individ
ual , and a readiness to action on the part of the individual as a whole ,
constitutes the most primary characteristic property of the organism
it is the most primitive form of a reaction of the organism against the
action of the external environment. However , in animals, set has a con
siderably less differentiated character than in man . This lower degree
of differentiation expresses itself in the variable character of the
manifestations of a fixed set; at various times , this set manifests it
self in differing forms of activity .
Problems concerned with the phylogenesis of set_are systemat
ically treated in a study conducted by D. N. Uznadze [267 .
SPECIFIC NATURE OF SET IN MAN

1 . The fact that the manner of reacting towards the action of

the external world is also expressed in animals by means of a -set , as
an integral dynamic state of the entire individual , does not mean at
all ( and this fact should be stressed) that the behavior of animals and
man belongs to the same stage of development , that their behavior is
conditioned by identical factors . On the contrary , in his conception ,
D. N. Uznadze attributed a considerable importance to the problem con
cerned with the specific peculiarities of human behavior , by advancing
his theory of so - called objectification ,
According to this conception , the specific nature of human be
havior is due primarily to the fact that man is a social being. In
the context of social life, man develops the ability of an " objectifica
tion " [267 , which , according to D. N. Üznadze , constitutes precisely the
most characteristic feature of man . It is precisely because of his abil
ity of " objectification , " that a set , which is directly conditioned by
a given situation, no longer plays a major role in a man's life and ac
tivity . Such a set exists already " in a displaced form , " and the lead
ing role is assumed by " thought activated on the basis of an objectifica
tion , " and by objectified reality , which is the basis for the appearance
of a set,
What is the specific nature of set in man ? Man is not a slave
of a given situation ," his behavior is not conditioned directly by a
given situation , he can react to the action of his environment even after
he has realized , thought over , and " objectified " the given situation .

.224
Man can act not impulsively as animals do , but voluntarily according
to his judgment. Such a specifically human activity is designated by
D. N. Uznadze as " a second planer of the operation of the psyche, i.e.
a higher level of behavior , and D. N. Uznadze contrasts this higher
level of behavior with man's impulsive actions, which he calls "the
first plane . "
" The second planet of behavior is achieved as a result of a
specific act, an act involving isolation for the subject of objects
in the external world , as independent objects , as objects of observam
tion . This specific act is called by D. N. Uznadze an act of object
ification ( see Note ]; in this act, man , prior to reacting to a given
object, becomes conscious of this object as an object and the latter
becomes an object of cognition ; a specific process takes place here as
a result of which the relation of the subject towards the object be
comes a cognitive relation . Such a behavior is called by D. N. Uznadze
a " theoretical behavior . " This " theoretical behavior " which is the
most characteristic type of human behavior, or " activity on a second
plane, " usually takes place when the smooth course of customary forms
of behavior on the " first plane , " which do not require the participa
tion of our consciousness , is made difficult, is retarded and encount
ers certain obstacles . Then , the questions arise : what has happened ?
what is the matter ? or simply a feeling of surprise , which switches or
transfers the subject to " the second planet of activity , a process of
objectification arises, the subject becomes conscious and objectifies
the situation which has been created , he clarifies the interference
which has arisen , objectifies his activity and only then " mobilizes
himself " to action . A set arises , so to speak , on an objectified
basis, on the basis of an objectified content . On the basis of an
objectification there arises thought. According to the expression
used by D. N. Uznadze , thought is an activity which arises on the
basis of objectification , However , the process of thought which is
unfolding during this time, cannot arise or take place outside the
limits of an appropriate set . However , this set does not arise on the
basis of an actual or real need and a given situation , but rather on
the basis of a secondary need and of an imagined , excogitated situa
tion .
([ Note7 Interesting experimental researches of objectification
in childhood have been conducted by A. N. Mosiava . )
As a result of the process of objectification on the second
plane , " specifically , that which on " the first planen remains un
noticed is noted , and therefore man develops a set also toward those
factors which , on " the first plane " could not occasion the appearance
of a set,
According to the conception of D. N. Uznadze, objectification
constitutes an indispensable psychological basis for the appearance of
speech and thought . A man acts according to the reality reflected in
speech . Words represent an important factor of objectification , and
that which is designated by a word thereby already becomes objectified .

- 225
 The most specific feature for a human set is the fact that it
can arise also on the basis of such a consciously realized , objectified
situation , i.e. in a behavior belonging to "the second plane ." In the
case of man , a set arises not only during the action of a specific con
crete situation , but also according to a merely imaginary situation , a
situation given only on a " verbal plane" ; in other words, man can act
according to an ideological , excogitated and merely imagined situation ,
and this fact constitutes the basic specific feature of a human set .
Thus , according to the conception of D. N. Uznadze , we must dis
tinguish two levels of psychic life: 1 ) the level of the set ( setting
level ) , at which behavior is completely conditioned by the set ; the set
directly controls the behavior , so that the subject does not objectify
either the situation or his actions - his behavior has an impulsive
character ; 2) the level of objectification - or the level of an object
ified behavior . At this level , a subject acts on the basis of an objec
tification of the situation and of his own actions .
The behavior of an animal takes place entirely on the first level ,
while the second level is characteristic for human behavior .
2. D. N. Uznadze considered that experimental studies of the
set, created on the basis of representation lying outside the range of
perception of setting objects , represent an experimental study of that
form of manifestation of set specific for man , which constitutes the
basis of " the second planes of activity . The basic data obtained in
those research studies (R. G._Natadze [ see Note7) which are used as
references by D. N. Uznadze[267 ,can be summarized as follows: 1) it
has been experimentally established that a fixed set can be developed
by means of a merely imagined grasping with the hands of balls having
a different volume, or by means of a visual representation of circles of
different size , or by means of a merely imaginary raising of loads of a
different weight; 2) it has been experimentally established that a fixed
set can be developed on the basis of a merely imaginary comparison of
weight or volume during the course of an actual perception of sensory
contents opposite to what is being imagined ( for example, the imaginary
notion of grasping balls of different size during the course of an acto
ual holding of balls of equal size ) ; 3) a high degree of correlation be
tween the ability to undergo a stage transformation and the ability to
easily develop a fixed set on the basis of imagination has been exper
imentally established ; 4) a very significant training capacity of the
ability to develop a set on the basis of imagination , as well as a num
ber of factors responsible for such a development of a set , have been
experimentally established [73, 147; 5) a number of characteristic
features in the manifestation of a set fixed on the basis of an imagin
ary process have been experimentally_established , and a characteristic
of this set has been given [127, [137 .
( Note7 See the studies conducted by R. G. Natadze concerned with
the setting effect exerted by imagination , published in the works of the
Institute of Psychology of the Academy of Sciences Georgian S. S. R. ,
which are summarized in Russian [727, and are also given in greater detail
in a monograph published in the Georgian language [137.)
226 -
 According to D. N. Uznadze , it is a set elicited by an " ideo
logical , " or " speech " situation which is being studied in these exper
iments . The objective factors of a set in these tests include not an
actually given , not a perceived situation , but rather an " ideologically "
given situation , i.e. "an imaginary situation " " expressed by means of
words ," which is conceived or imagined . Thus, in these tests, according
to the opinion expressed by D. N. Uznadze , there is expressed " the abil
ity to act on a plane of a secondarily reflected reality " i.e. in a
situation which is reflected in speech and in thought.
The data obtained in the above -mentioned studies concerned with
a direct correlation between the ability to undergo a stage transforma
tion and the ability easily to develop a set on the basis of an imagin
ary process are explained by D. N. Uznadze, in contrast to the author
of these studies, by the fact that actors are capable of easily forming
completely concrete and individual imaginary notions ( similar to the
images seen in dreams ), which are closely related, in regard to their
concrete nature, to perceptions and therefore the representation of a
set situation by these actors readily causes the appearance of a cor
responding set the concrete nature of these imaginary notions is re
sponsible for the ready excitability of the set . On the other hand , in
test subjects which are not associated with the theatre , according to
Uznadze , a set during these tests arises not on the basis of such con
crete imaginary notions, but on the basis of an idea , a thought con
cerned with a corresponding set situation , and therefore the stimulat
ing capacity of a set in such test subjects is low . The author of these
studies does not perceive this rule or inherent tendency in the exper
imental data obtained , and arrives at the conclusion that the crucial
factor responsible for the formation of a set in these tests is a skill
of the subject at eliciting in himself a specific active attitude or re
lation toward the imaginary set situation ( a skill which involves the
development of a specific active attitude towards that which is imagined )
and not the peculiar features of the images proper [ 747 .
The problem of the specificity of a human set is described mainly
in a study by D. N. Uznadze entitled " Experimental Foundations of the
Psychology of Set" [267 .
DIFFERENTIAL PSYCHOLOGY OF SET

On the basis of data obtained during numerous experiments in

volving a study of the nature of set , D. N. Uznadze came to the conclum
sion that set constitutes an integral -dynamic state of the subject, a
state of readiness to participate in a definite activity which precedes
and guides the activity , a state which is caused by two factors: the
need of the subject , and a corresponding objective situation .
As we have seen, this integral state of an individual ( set) is
characterized by a large number of experimentally established properties:
such as irradiation and generalization , various degrees of excitability

- 227 -
and stability , dynamism or staticity , etc. However , if a set consti
tutes an integral modification of the individual , a dynamic state of
this individual , which is directly responsible for the manifestation
of his activity , then the above -mentioned properties of a set obviously
must also be responsible to a considerable extent for inter - individual
typological differences between people .
First of all , it should be noted that experimental research stud
ies have actually demonstrated considerable differentially -psychological
differences in relation to the above -mentioned properties of a set . All
of these properties were found to be highly variable properties as between
various individuals.
2. As a result of an experimental study conducted over a period
of many years , of processes involving the fading of a set , having a phasic
character [ 317 , D. N. Uznadze has identified on the basis of empirical
data the following basic groups among normal adults , according to the
type of set characteristic for these adults .
The first group includes persons with a static set , and a
statically - sluggish one at that . In the context of an ordinary exper
iment, these people stick fast in the first phase , not only are they
unable to reach a stage of adequate perception ; they are not even able
to reach the second phase in view of the high sluggishness of their set .
The second group includes people who also have a static set, which
at the same time is not as sluggish and is more plastic, more flexible.
These are people with a statically -plastic set. Although these people
are unable , in the context of an ordinary experiment, to reach an ade
quate perception of critical objects ( since this type of set is so
highly static), a certain change in the set does nevertheless take
place : along with contrast illusions, assimilative illusions are also
observed ; these people are still able to leave the first phase , since
their set is less stable .
The third group includes people , characterized by a dynamic , but
at the same time, plastic set . These are people with a plastic- dynamic
set . The effect of their set is manifested at first, as a rule , in
contrast illusions, and then passes through all phases and ends in an
adequate perception . Thus , their set is so dynamic , that perception
attains to the adequate stage, and is so highly plastic , that it passes
through all phases .
The fourth group includes people also having a dynamic set. These
people are also capable of attaining to adequate perception , but not grad
ually , as people belonging to the third group , but rather by jumps, for
example directly from the first phase , or directly from the third phase .
Thus, their set is not plastic, but, on the contrary, sluggish . This
group of people is characterized by a sluggish - dynamic set .
And finally , the fifth group includes people , in whom , during
the usual tests , a fixed set is not developed at all and no illusion of
perception is formed . During critical tests , these people appear to be
completely subject to the action of the objects . This group was desig
nated by D. N. Uznadze as a group of " extrovertive people [26; 60-637.

- 228
 An associate of D. N. Uznadze , V. D. Norakidze , has been working
for a number of years on the establishment of a connection between such
basic properties of the personality , as type of character and temperament
on the one hand, and the type of manifestation of a fixed set , on the
other hand . In a number of studies, this author has attempted to estab
lish which properties of a set are specific for definite types of char
acter and temperament [ 16 ] .
D. N. Uznadze , having noted in his last study which summarizes all
data dealing with the psychology of set , that problems of characterology
do not constitute a purpose of this book , and having noted that the solu
tion of the problem of characterology is a thing of the future, points
out in a rough way the following three basic types of personality , or
three groups of people : a dynamic group (well -balanced, assimilative ,
harmonious people ) , a static group ( the behavior of people in this group
is not an impulsive behavior , but, on the contrary , rests fully on an
objectification , and is entirely voluntary ; a constant reflection , and
a lack of confidence are characteristic features of these people ) , and
finally a variable group (people with strong urges, men of action , but
with a conflicting character structure ) , whereby this last group can be
subdivided into two sub - groups, namely a stable and a labile sub - group .
The author presents experimental data showing the type of set which
characterizes each of these categories of people [ 26; 158 ff.]
Problems of the differential psychology of set are systematically
described in a study published by D. N.Uznadze , entitled " Experimental
Foundations of the Psychology of Set" [267.
SET IN CHILDHOOD

A number of research studies ( B. Khachapuridze [ 337 , Ye .

Kezheradze 8) have shown that a fixed set has certain peculiar feat
ures during childhood , and that these peculiar features, these proper
ties of the set pass through definite stages of development with age .
Studies conducted by B. Khachapuridze show the developmental evolution
of such properties of set, as excitability , constancy , stability , rate
of irradiation , etc. According to his data, a static set , characteris
tic for children of a pre - school age , is replaced by a plastic - static set
during the elementary school period , which , during the secondary school
period , is replaced by a sluggish -dynamic set, and this whole process is
completed by the establishment in adults of a predominantly plastic
dynamic type of set . The secondary school period is characterized by
a non - irradiated and sluggish - dynamic set. Puberty is marked by a
greatly reduced stability of the set, whereby its excitability is re
duced to a minimum ; a previously plastic set is converted into a slug
gish set, and a static set is transformed into a dynamic set . This
problem cannot be examined in detail here .

- 229
 PSYCHOPATHOLOGY OF SETTING

1 . If set is really such a deep- seated , integral factor in the

internal life of an individual and his behavior , as it appears to be in
the conception presented here , then we must assume that those deep
seated changes which take place in the internal life of a personality
during psychic illnesses must also affect the manifestations of set ;
the expressions of a fixed set during psychic illnesses of the subject,
obviously, must undergo a substantial change. The experimental study
of set during such diseases as schizophrenia and epilepsy and during
such states as psychasthenia and hysteria, do indeed provide a signif
icantly changed picture of the manifestations of a fixed set, whereby
every type of psychoses and neuroses was found to be characterized by
a form of expression of the set which is specific for this type of
disease and is associated with the characteristic course of this di
sease .
2 . The first steps in the direction of a study of the peculi
arities of a fixed set on the basis of pathological data were under
taken as early as 1934 ; while studying the peculiarities of the
behavior of schizoid children , K. G. Mdi vani, an associate of D. N.
Uznadze , established a number of peculiarities in the manifestation
of a fixed set in such children ; soon afterwards ( 1936) , V. D.
Norakidze, a student of D. N. Uznadze , studied the peculiarities of
a fixed set in so - called conflict or problem children . Both authors
obtained a specific picture of set . Later , starting with 1936 , and
under the direction of D. N. Uznadze , the peculiar features of set
in adult psychic patients were already being systematically studied
( I. G. Bzhalava, K. G. Mdivani ) , and since 1941 this type of work
has been expanded in the research work done at the Psychopathological
Division of the Institute of Psychology of the Georgian Academy of
Sciences .
The most intensive studies were conducted in connection with
the set characteristic for schizophrenia , epilepsy , hysteria, and
psychasthenia .
A characteristic feature of schizophrenics was an extremely high
excitability of the set, an extraordinary irradiation , and a sluggish
ness and staticity of the set ; as a rule, schizophrenics exhibit an in
finite illusion , without ever perceiving critical objects in an adequate
manner . It is particularly remarkable that in tests with a haptic per
ception , a schizophrenic, after opening his eyes , continues to perceive
the balls in an illusionary manner ; even a visual interference is incap
able of disturbing the set illusion , which has arisen in the haptic
sphere . The set of schizophrenics is characterized by a high stability
( stable in time) and constancy ( K. G. Mdivani, I. G. Bzhalava ) .
A different picture is obtained in the case of a characteristic
of set in epileptics. According to data obtained by I. G. Bzhalava, the
set of an epileptic is also easily stimulated , sluggish , static, con
stant, and stable, but, in contrast to the schizophrenic , the set of an

- 230 -
epileptic is a local set , i.e , its irradiation is extremely limited and
not only does not extend to another modality , but does not even extend
to the corresponding organ ( for example, from one hand to another ) .
The most characteristic features for hysterical patients were a
great variability and lability of the set: a fixed set during hysteria,
with the course of time, is readily and rapidly weakened and disappears
( K. G. Mdivani, 1936) .
Characteristic features of set in psychasthenics are the low ex
citability of a fixed set, a low stability, a weak plasticity and slug
gishness , a great dynamism , a weak irradiation and lability . However ,
a particularly typical feature for a psychasthenic is the sluggishness
of his set; in this respect, it is the complete opposite of the set
observed during hysteria ( K. D. Mdivani) . Problems concerned with the
psychopathology of set are systematically presented in Chapter V of the
work by D. N. Uznadze mentioned above [267, and in the Anthology Works
of the Institute for Functional Nervous Diseases (777 .
Recently, a number of peculiar features in the development of a
set on the basis of an imagined situation during shcizophrenia and hy
steria have been established experimentally ( E. A. Vachnadze ) .
STUDY OF FIXED SET IN RECENT YEARS

Since the death of D. N. Uznadze ( 1950) , part of the staff of the

Tbilisi , psychologists is continuing to work in the field of the general
psychology of set and to study set proper , whereas another group is en
gaged in work involving the study of the set factor in various types of
human activities, such as , for example, in processes of thought and speech ,
nemory , habits , musical perception , etc. It is notpossible for us here
to examine this latter trend of work , and therefore we shall only note
the basic problems of those studies which are directly concerned with an
investigation of fixed set proper .
1. Since 1952 , following a combined session of the two academies
( 1950 ) , 2. I , Khodzhava, I. T. Bzhalava, and V. D. Norakidze , working
at the Institute of Psychology of the Academy of Sciences of the
Georgian S. S. R. , have been attempting to disclose in the light of
Pavlov's theory of the higher neural activity , the physiological mech
anisms of those inherent tendencies and rules governing set, which were
discovered during the course of its experimental study .
In particular, 2. I. Khodzhava [ 377, and later I. T. Bzhalava
5 assert that the physiological basis of the rules governing set is
the well known rule of " the systemic operation of the cerebral cortex , "
established by Pavlov . In their opinion , the principle of the systemic
work of the cortex constitutes the physiological mechanism of set . Acom
cording to these authors , a set " arises precisely on the basis of such
a systemic operation by the cerebral cortex , " and every fixed set rep
resents a function of a stereo type of cortical processes which has be
come established in a certain definite manner" [ 37; 1897. I. G.
Bzhalava 57 asserts that the Pavlovian " dynamic stereotype" constitutes

231 -
the physiological mechanism which is responsible for the formation and
course of set . (It should be noted that the first attempts at an exper
imental search for a physiological basis of set, along a different line
were made by A , R. Luriya and I. T. Bzhalava while the author of the set
theory was still alive 97 ).
2. Intensive experimental work on the further study of the influ
ence of a number of factors upon the appearance and manifestation of a
fixed set is being conducted by N. G. Adamashvili 47. She has been in
vestigating, for several years , the way in which the rules governing the
manifestation of a fixed set are affected by the factor of the organiza
tion of a stimulation of a peripheral perceptive organ ( in the field of
vision ) , A number of rules have been established , which indicate that
the manifestations of a fixed set are definitely determined by a number
of peripheral moments : such as the relation between the absolute mag
nitudes of set and critical objects , the factor of the relation between
the distances separating setting and critical objects from the test sub
ject, the relationship between the location in the field of vision of
setting and critical objects ( degree of coincidence between retinal im
ages of setting and critical objects ) , _ the color relationship of the
setting and criticalobjects (see Note7 , etc.
( /NoteT of special interest is the following phenomenon : con

trasting (mutually complementary) relation between the color of setting

and critical circles reduces very significantly the manifestation of a
fixed set. This effect is particularly strong if the color of the cir
cles is contrasting also in relation to the color of the background ( for
example , if red setting circles are shown against a bluish - green back
ground , and bluish - green critical circles are shown against a red back
ground ) . See the study conducted by N. G. Adamashvili 147.)
3. In his study of positive visual after - images, I. T. Bzhalava
is attempting to prove that these images are subject to the influence of
a fixed set, and change their shape under this influence .
4. At this particular stage, B. I. Khachapuridze is studying the
problem of the possible development of a set on the basis of stimuli which
cannot be perceived and which exert only a physical effect (" subsensory
stimuli" ) .
5 . Ye . Kezheradze is studying experimentally the peculiar feat
ures of set in suckling infants .

- 232 -
 LITERATURE

1. A. G. Avalishvili, " On the Problem of an Intermodal Constancy

in Types of Fixed Set" [in Georgian ), Trudy IGU (Works of Tbilisi State
University ) , Vol . XVII, 1941.
2. N. G.Adamashvili , " Intermodal Transportation of the Percep
tion Illusion " [in Georgian ), Ibid ., Vol. XVII , 1941 .
3. N. G. Adamashvili, " Fixed Set in Lower Apes" ( in Georgian ),
Trudy Instituta psikhologii GruzSSR , Psikhologiya (Worksof the Insti
tute of Psychology of the Georgian SSR . Psychology) , Vol . V, 1948.
4. N. G. Adamashvili , " Color as a Factor in the Illusion of Seth
[ in Georgian and Russian ] , Izvestiya AN GruzSSR (Gazette of theAcademy
of Sciences Georgian SSR ), Vol. XVI, No. 2 , 1955.
5. I. T. Bzhalava , " The Action of Optical After - Images Under the
Influence of Bromine and Caffeine " [ in Georgian ], Trudy Instituta
psikhologii GruzSSR . Psikhologiya Tworks of the Institute of Psychology
of the Georgian SSR , Psychology ), Vol . VIII, 1953.
6. A. T. Bo chorishvili, " Analogies of Weight Illusions in the
Field of Pressure " [ in Georgian ], Vestnik Tbilisskogo universiteta (Her
ald of Tbilisi University ) , 1927 .
7. N. Yu . Voytonis, " Forms of Manifestation of Set in Animals
and Especially in Monkeys, " Trudy Instituta psikhologii GruzSSR .
Psikhologiya ( Works of the Institute of Psychology of the Georgian SSR .
Psychology ) , vol . III, 1945.
8. Ye. Kezheradze, " Fixed Set in Suckling Infants " ( in Georgian ),
Ibid ., Vol . X, 1956 .
9. A. R. Luriya and I. T. Bzhalava , " Fixed Set During Brain In
juries , " Anthology : " Wartime Psychoneurology , " Moscow , 1949.
10. A. N. Mosiaya, " Data Concerning the Problem of the Objectifi
cation Process" [ resume in Russian7, Trudy Instituta psikhologii GruzSSR .
Psikhologiya (Works of the Institute of Psychology of the Georgian SSR .
Psychology ) , Vol . III, 1945 .
11. A. N. Mosiava , "On the Problem of the Objectification of
Speech in Connection with the Beginning of Instruction in Grammar " ( in
Georgian , resumé in Russiant, Ibid ., vol . V, 1948 .
12. R. G. Natadze , Ti The Setting Action of Imagination in Rus
sian7, Anthology: "Experimental Studies on the Psychology of Set, "
Tbilisi , Publishing House of the Academy of Sciences Georgian SSr,
1958 .
13. R. G. Natadze, Ustanovochnoye deystviye voobrazheniya ( The
Setting Action of Imagination in Georgian / , Tbilisi, Publishing House
of the Academy of Sciences Georgian SSR , 1958.
14. R , G , Natadze, " On Certain Factors concerned with the Develop
ment of Set on the Basis of an Imaginary Situation , " Voprosy psikhologii
( Problems of Psychology) , No. 3, 1958 .
15. R. G, Natadze, " On the Problem of Set to Equality " [ in Georg
ian , resumé in Russian ] , Trudy TGU (Works of Tbilisi State University),
Vol . XVII , 1941 .
233 -
 16 . V. G. Norakidze , " Temperament and Fixed Set, " Anthology :
" Experimental Research Studies on the Psychology of Set , " Tbilisi,
1958 .
17 . Trudy Instituta funktsional'nykh nervnykh zabolevaniy (Works
of the Institute of Functional Nervous Diseases) , vol . I , Tbilisi, 1936 ,
18 . D. N. Uznadze , " Impersonalia , " Nasha nauka ( Our Science )
[in Georgian ), Tbilisi , No. 1, 1923 .
19. D. N. Uzadze , " Psychological Foundations of Designation , "
Ibid ., ( in Georgian ), Tbilisi , No. 2-3, 1923.
20 . D. N. Ūznadze, " Perception and Representation" ( in Georgian ),
Trudy TGU ( Works of Tbilisi State University ), Vol . 6, Tbilisi, 1926 .
21 . D. N. Uznadze, " On the Grasping of Meaning" (in Georgian),
Ibid . , Vol . 7 , Tbilisi , 1927 .
22 . D. N. Uznadze , " On the Problem of the Basic Law of a Change
in Set, " Psikhologiya ( Psychology ), Vol . III , No. 9 , Moscow , 1930 .
23. D. N. Uznadze, " On the Theory of Post -Hypnotic Suggestion "
in Georgian ), Trudy Instituta funktsional'nykh nervnykh zabolevaniy
TWorks of the Institute of Functional Nervous Diseases), Vol. I,
Tbilisi , pages 61-70 , 1936.
24 . D. N. Uznadze, " Concerning the Psychology of Set ! ( in Georg
ian ), Materialy k psikhologii ustanovki ( Data Concerned with the Psychol
ogy of Set) , Tbilisi, 1938 .
25. D. N. Uznadze, " Basic Principles of the Theory of Set" [ in
Georgian , Trudy_IGU ( Works of Tbilisi State University ) , Vol . XIX , 1941 .
26. D. N. Uznadze , Eksperimental'nyye osnov psikhologii ustanovki
( Experimental Foundations of the Psychology of Set) in Georgian ,
Tbilisi , 1949. Same material is presented in Russian in the anthology
entitled : " Experimental Research Studies on the Psychology of Set, "
Tbilisi , Publishing House of the Academy of Sciences Georgian SSR ,
1958 .
27. D. N. Uznadze, wüber die Gewichtstauschung und ihre Analoga, "
( on the Weight Illusion and Its Analog) [in German ), Psychologische
Forschung ( Psychological Research ) , Vol . XIV, 1937 .
28. D. N. Uznadze , " Untersuchungen zur Psychologie der Ein
stellung" ( Researches on the Psychology of Set) Zin German ), Acta
psychologica , Vol . IV, 1939 .
29 . B. I. Khachapuridze , " The Significance of Repetition and
Need During the Formation of a Set, " Voprosy psikhologii ( Problems of
Psychology ) , No. 4, 1957 .
30. B. I. Khachapuridze , " The Basic Problem of_Pre- School Peda
gogy inthe Light of the Inherent Tendencies of Set" ( in Russian ] Anthol
ogy : " Research on New Didactic Materials for Kindergartens, " Vol . II ,
No. 2, 1946 .
31. B. I._Khachapuridze , " The Phasic Character of the Change in
Set" [in Georgian ) , Anthology: " Data Concerned With the Psychology of
Set , " Tbilisi , 1938 .
32. B. I. Khachapuridze , " On the Problem of the Duration of a
Set, " ſin Georgian ), Ibid ., Tbilisi , 1938 .

- 234 -
 33. B. I , Khachapuridze, "Certain Peculiar Features of Set in
Children" [in Georgian ), Trudy TGU (Works of Tbilisi State University )
Vol . XVII , 1941.
34. G. Khmaladze, "The Illusion of Volume" ( in Georgian ), An
thology : "Data Concerned with the Psychology of Set, " Tbilisi, 1938.
35. 2. I. Khodzhava , "The Role of Figure in the Action of Set"
in Georgian ), Trudy IGU (Works of Tbilisi State University ), Vol .
XVIII, 1941 .
36. 2. I. Khodzhava, " The Problem of Habit in Psychology , " Dis
sertation work , 1950 .
37. 2. I. Khodzhava , "Habit and Set in the Light of Pavlov's
Teaching on the Higher Neural Activity (in Georgian ) , Trudy Instituta
psikhologii GruzSSR . Psikhologiya (Worksof the Institute of Pyschology
of the Georgian SSR . Psychology ) , Vol . VIII , 1953.
38. N. L. Eliava, " Stvitching of a Set and the Act of Objectifi
cation , " in Georgiant, Ibid ., vol . IV, 1947.
39. J. Piaget and M. Lambercier , " An Essay on an Effect of Set
Intervening in the course of Successive Visual Perceptions ( The Uznadze
Effect ," in French /), in Archives de Psychologie ( Archives of Psychol
ogy ) , Vol . XXX, No. 118, 1945.
40 . S. Stefens, " Motor Set, " ( in German ), Zeitschrift für
Psychologie ( Psychology Journal ) , Vol . XXIII , 1900 .

- 235 -
 THE PROBLEM OF THE PSYCHOLOGY OF EMOTIONS

By P. M. Yakobson

The present article is devoted to a review of studies dealing

with the psychology of emotions . This article embraces both studies
which are completely devoted to this particular problem , as well as
special sections of research studies of a more general order , which
clarify separately the problem of emotions .
The concept " emotion " is used in this article in the broad sense
of the word . This concept has the following meanings: 1 ) emotion as an
emo tional reaction , clearly expressed in the vegetative symptoms of the
organism and in the external expression of man , and characterized by a
varying degree of intensity ( up to and including an affective state ) ;
2) a feeling , as a complex type of the emotional attitude assumed by
man toward various aspects of reality , which can manifest itself in var
ious experiences, for example , of a moral and esthetic nature, in the
attitude of a man towards a certain type of activity , etc.
Prolonged and stable emotionally - colored states ( such as neuroses
and phobias of various sorts ) , which form the object of study of psychi
atrists , are not examined in this review article . However , research work
done by psychiatrists and psychoneurologists, devoted to a study of emo
tions of a healthy person , will be briefly examined in this article . A
number of Soviet physiologists have expressed a number of theoretical
principles concerning the physiological foundations of emotions and con
cerning the mechanism of their appearance . These conceptions will be in
aluded in brief form in this review .
This article includes both experimental research studies and
studies which are the result of observations and of an interpretation of
individual facts , and summaries of a theoretical analysis ,
The various research studies conducted by Soviet psychologists,
devoted to emotions , embrace mainly the following two groups of prob
lems : ( 1 ) research studies (mostly of an experimental nature) , de
voted to a study of various indices of emotions, which manifest
themselves in various organic symptoms and in the behavior of the indi .
viduals ; ( 2) research studies devoted to the establishment of properties
and characteristic features of various types of feelings and the circum
stances under which these feelings arise . In addition to the studies
which are conducted in connection with these two problems, we can note
an additional group of studies which clarify the problem of the peculiar
features of the external expression of complex feelings. Finally , there
are also other individual studies which cannot be referred to the groups
mentioned above .
As far as possible , this review is conducted in chronological
order .

- 236 -
 I. THEOPET CAL APPROACH TO AN EXAMINATION OF
EMOTIONS AND FEELINGS

The methodical standpoints used as a starting point by

Soviet psychologists in the interpretation of emotions and feel
ings, which became more and more clearly expressed during each year
of the development of Soviet psychology , can be briefly summarized as
follows :
1. The acknowledgment of the role and importance of the sub
jective aspect of emotions and feelings together with the acknowledg
ment of their strictly determined nature .
2 . An interpretation of emotions and feelings as representing
a peculiar reflection of reality ( the actual appearance of feelings ,
their changes, the acquisition by these feelings of a lesser or greater
significance for the personality reflect the connections and mutual re
lations of the human individual with life around him -- both natural and
social ) .
3. A denial of a basic gap in the emotional life of the individ
ual the subdivision of this emotional life into an alleged " depth "
and surface portion -- or of a gap between emotions and higher feelings .
(Hence there follows the problem of clarifying the connections between
emotions and higher feelings and their mutual transi tions. )
4. The observance , during the examination of the problem of emo
tions and feelings, of the following conditions: ( a) an ontogenetic and
phylogenetic approach ; (b ) the exclusion of schematization and oversimpli
fication during an examination of emotions and feelings ( a reduction of
these emotions and feelings to a narrow group ) , a retention of their full
ness and qualitative peculiarities; ( c) a conformity between the physio
logical substrate of emotions and feelings being analyzed and the actual
plenitude of the emotional sphere of a human individual .
All of these principles have acquired their clear form gradually ,
in proportion to the development of Soviet psychological thought, and
therefore are not disclosed forthwith nor yet in all of the studies con
ducted during the past period .
Let us now turn to an examination of the theoretical understanding
by Soviet psychologists of the problem of the essence of emotions and
feelings .
V. M. Bekhterev 57 examined emotion as a special mimical - somatic
reflex . Among such reflexes , the following were distinguished : (1 ) a
general mimical - somatic tone ( in psychology, this tone is designated as
a mood ) . ( 2) various mimical - somatic reflexes which may be stimulatory ,
depressive , and mixed reflexes ). ( 3) mimical - somatic fits ( in psychology ,
these are designated as affects ) . An analysis of mimical - somatic reflexes
was performed by means of self -investigation or by the autognostic method ,
and their external manifestation , elicited by external stimuli, was taken
into account . All these factors were examined during the course of a
self -study ( by means of observation and also by means of an account of
subjective experiences ).
- 237
 V. M. Bekhterev engaged in a discussion with Darwin in regard to
the role and importance of expressive movements . Darwin believed that
at one time these movements had been useful in the struggle for survi
val . Bekhterey considered that these movements had a meaning even at
the present time: in his opinion , all changes occurring during an emo
tion constitute a preparation for an orientation , a protection , an at
tack or a rapprochement .
L. S. Vygotskiy 9 , in his work written in 1932 , pointed out
the peculiar situation in regard to the theories of emotion in compari
son with the theories concerned with other branches of psychology .
Darwin's theory on expressive human movements , which disclosed the ori
gin and evolution of these movements, gave an impetus to a number of
trends in psychology. Ribaud and his school started to develop the
teaching that emotions constitute the rudiments of a psychic life ; they
reached the absurd conslusion that , with the course of development of
modern society , man is becoming more and more of an emotionless being .
Side by side with these concepts , experimental research studies began
to be conducted , which were devoted to the physiological and psycho
logical essence of emotions and which attempted to disclose precisely
the source of " the vitality of emotions . " This research work is assoc
iated primarily with the theory of James -Lange . The opinions held by
James in connection with the emotional life had a dualistic character .
On the one hand , this author stated that the lower emotions have an or
ganic origin ( activity of visceral organs), while on the other hand, he
believed that higher emotions constitute processes of a different type .
In this respect, James' represents a step backwards in comparison with
the integral theory of Darwin . James ' theory concerning the fact that
the cause for the appearance of emotions is to be found in changes in
the activity of internal organs was refuted experimentally in the re
search work done by Cannon and his associates .
The most important basic conclusion derived from a number of
physiological studies involves a sui generis displacement of the main
center of emotional life from the periphery to the center . It was es
tablished that the cerebral mechanism , and not the internal organs as
sociated with processes of vegetative life , constituted the actual sub
strate of emotional processes .
According to L. S. Vygotskiy , the elucidation of a number of
aspects of emotional life , which so far have not been clarified to a
sufficient extent can be accomplished successfully by turning to psycho
pathology .
M. A. Astvatsaturov 33 has expressed the following principle con
cerning the essence of emotions. In respect of the mechanism governing
their appearance , emotional states are similar to sensitivity . Bo th of
these factors are elements of a receptor function ; they are associated
with each other genetically . Sensitivity can be divided into cortical
and thalamic sensitivity . Accordingly , Astvatsaturov proposes to dis
tinguish two forms of emotional states : a cortical or cognitive form ,
and a thalamic form . A thalamic emotion is a phylogenetically old and

- 238
primitive form of psychic reaction in response to external stimulations;
in the case of such an emotion , the essence of a psychic state consists
merely in an unclear experience of agreeable or disagreeable facts . In
contrast to thalamic emotions, cortical emotions ( which represent a more
recent superstructure from a phylogenetic standpoint) are characterized
by a more accurate qualitative distinction of the stimulations causing
these emotions , and contain an element of cognition ( gnosis ) . The clas
sification of emotions, proposed by Astvatsaturov, is based on a patho
logical state of organs and considers various feelings as being the
result of a disturbance of the activity of various organs ( for example,
ansciety is the result of a disturbance in the cardiac activity ) .
I. P. Pavlov draws a clear distinction between emotions and feel
ings . He considers the term " emotion " as having the same meaning as the
term instinct . Emotions arise on an unconditioned reflex basis .
Pavlov speaks about experiences involving_ " powerful emotions caused by
hunger, sexual attraction , anger, etc, " 133; 3357, and at the same time
mentions specifically feelings: " a feeling of something agreeable and
disagreeable, a_feeling of ease , difficulty , happiness , torment, triumph ,
despair," etc. [33; 2447.
The presence of emotions presupposes that a nervous stimulation
has spread not only to the subcortex, in the activity of which is rooted
the intensity of emotional reactions, but also to the cortex , In regard
to the appearance of feelings, although the experience of such feelings
assumes that a nervous stimulation has spread also to the subcortex ( and
has caused a number of changes in the activity of the organism ), still
the cause for the appearance of these feelings is due to those neural
processes which are taking place in the cerebral cortex. I. P. Pavlov
has shown that different types of feelings , which are experienced with
a various degree of intensity , are formed on the basis of the operation
by the cortex of the great hemispheres . A normal course of operation of
the cortex , difficulties experienced in the course of processes taking
place in the cortex , and various types of shifts in the activity of the
cortex , all result in the appearance of a wide variety of feelings . The
physiological basis of these feelings is inhibited states of the cortex ,
the replacement of customary stimuli by unusual stimuli , a breakdown of
the stereotype of the higher neural activity which has been formed , and
the presence or absence of difficulties in the transition of certain
processes into others . The causes leading to the appearance of negatively
and positively colored feelings are rooted in these factors. The stimuli
which result in such processes in the cortex may involve a wide variety
of actions or effects , including stimuli of such a universal character
as the human word .
Processes taking place in the cortex not only result, under cer
tain conditions, in the appearance of feelings, but also constitute the
basic regulatory principle in the course of these feelings. It is pre
cisely the operation of the cortex which can be used as an explanation
for a certain inhibition of emotions, which may express itself in a

- 239 -
certain suppression of expressive movements, arising spontaneously dur
ing the experience of feelings , or in a " masking " of these movements .
The opinions held by I. P. Pavlov provide a physiological explanation
for theorigin not only of emotions, but also , which is especially im
portant , of feelings , as peculiar forms of reflection of reality , an
explanation of the complex dynamic of experiences with certain fluctu
ations in their intensity, characteristic for individual persons .
A system of principles, in which the problem of emotions and
feelings is interpreted on a psychological plane, is disclosed in a
study conducted by S. L. Rubinshteyn [ 42 ]. In showing the connection
between both forms of the emotional life ( i.e. emotions and feelings )
in the personality of a human individual , s , L. Rubinshteyn emphasizes
the connection between emotions and needs, and notes that an emotion
constitutes a manifestation of a need , of its active aspect ; for this
reason , an emotion includes a principle of a striving and inclination .
Will and emotion have common sources , which are included in needs . An
emotion is an efficient or operative concept, and discloses in some cases
an active and in other cases a passive attitude towards the world .
The foundations of human feelings and emotions must be sought not
in physiological mechanisms alone, but also in historical forms of the
social life of man . Human feelings are feelings of a historical man .
During the course of evolution of mankind , basic natural attitudes or
relations are reconstructed on a social basis . Thus , sexual attraction
grows into a great himan feeling of love . Since human emotions are in
timately connected with an activity , work constitutes an important source
of human feelings . An emotion represents a mity of emotional and in
tellectual factors . Emotionality is the basic principle in an emotion
which is responsible primarily for the dynamic aspect of an emotion .
The mutual relationship between the dynamic and the semantic components
of emotional processes may be formed in various ways. For this reason ,
an emotional process may increase the tone of psychic activity and may
also decrease this tone .
According to S. L. Rubinshteyn , the following three levels can
be established in the wide variety of manifestations of the emotional
sphere of the personality : ( 1 ) a level of an organic affective
emotional sensitivity ( this level includes physical sensations associated
with organic needs) ; ( 2) a level of objectification of feelings ; this
level includes a conscious experience of the attitude assumed by a man
toward the world , which attitude manifests itself in feelings associated
with a wide variety of types of objects found in reality ; these are
" object" feelings ( intellectual , esthetic, moral feelings ); ( 3) a level
of generalized feelings , expressing general world outlook set of the
personality ; these include feelings concerned with a world outlook ( a
feeling of humor , a lofty and tragic feeling, etc. ) . Connections be
tween emotions and feelings express themselves in a sui generis form
in the emotional peculiarities of a personality . Differences in the
emotional sphere of a personality are determined by the following facts :
( 1 ) the content of feelings ( the object towards which these feelings are

- 240 .
directed ), ( 2) the emotional excitability or stimulation capacity
( strong or weak ), ( 3) the degree of emotional stability ( great or small ) .
G. S. Kostyuk [79 ] emphasizes the fact that feelings constitute
a special form of realization of the attitude assumed by man towards
reality . Feelings reflect the course of the vital relationships of the
human individual with his surroundings, whereby feelings arise during the
course of active relations or attitudes . Feelings are caused by vitally
significant phenomena. Feelings always have their own object. If, dur
ing self - observation , we are unable to disclose or find such an object,
this does not mean in any way that such an object does not exist. Feel
ings are always indissolubly connected with cognitive processes . An
unknown object does not give rise to any feelings. Feelings are con
nected with the motives of the activity of the individual, his motives
and interests. A characteristic feature of feelings is their great van
riety . The subdivision of feelings into types assumes the presence not
of one but of several criteria . These criteria include the content of
a feeling , its stage of development, the character of the attitude or
relation in this feeling, and the intensity of a feeling . G. S. Kostyuk
demonstrates by means of examples of happiness , sorrow , anger , fear ,
and shame , the process by which simple emotions are converted into com
plex emotions .
P. M. Yakobson 537 notes that changes in the experience of feel
ings ( their subjective side) are determined by changes in the character
of mutual relations between the individual and the object elici ting a
particular feeling . The peculiar nature of the reflection of reality in
the field of feelings is pointed out by the author both in the case of
the dynamic of feelings during the process of their experience, as well
as in the dynamic of the development and changes of stable feelings dur
ing the course of a human life . The author attempts to show that a study
of the sphere of feelings will prove to be adequate to its object , if
feelings will be examined as a product of a complex socio -historical dem
velopment of mankind . Certain vital aspects of feelings are disclosed
during their examination in the context of a personality which exper
iences these feelings; peculiarities in the attitude assumed by a per
sonality both toward its own emotional sphere as a whole, as well as to
ward individual concrete feelings, leave their imprint upon the peculiar
features in the experience of feelings by a personality , upon the sig
nigi cance of these feelings for the personality , and impart to feelings
certain new properties .
From the viewpoint of initial theoretical views on feelings, the
author examines and analyzes the wide variety of methods used for study
ing the emotional sphere of man .
L. V. Blagonadezhina 6 points out, in her definition of emotions
and feelings, that they constitute an experience of the correspondence
or lack of correspondence between objects and phenomena in reality and
human needs and requirements of society . Depending upon the character of
the needs of a human individual and upon what in the surrounding reality

- 241
has a basic significance for him , certain definite experiences acquire
a dominant importance and a corresponding intensity Emotional exper
iences play an important role in the regulation of human activity .
Whereas emotions are always linked with situations, feelings on the other
hand can be both associated with situations and also can be stable feel
ings . The latter arise genetically at a later date . They are the re
sult of an emotional generalization .
A. G. Kovalev 1167, while noting that there is no clearcut and
single understanding of theessence of feelings and emotions and of their
nature and dynamic in Soviet psychology , considers that it is incorrect
to define feelings as an experience of human attitudes toward reality .
In this case , a feeling is examined as a certain superstructure over at
titudes or relations . Actually , feelings are determined not by human
attitudes towards the external world , but rather by the objective world
itself, which forms or shapes feelings also as attitudes of the person
ality .
In the opinion of this author, the method of distinguishing feel
ings from emotions according to the degree of their psychological com
plexity is also incorrect : for example , to draw a distinction between
apparently complex feelings and emotions as being elementary and simple
experiences . Stable attitudes of the personality , which are definitely
oriented towards certain objects or subjects, such as love , hate , etc.
should also be classified as feelings . A feeling is a stable formation
or property of the personality , whereas an emotion is the process by
means of which the feeling is manifested . A definition of feelings as
being specific attitudes or relations of a personality is directly op
posed to the theories of feelings as subconscious reactions of the per
sonality , which are widely adopted in Freudian psychology .
Another study conducted by P. M. Yakobson [547 is devoted to a
special aspect of the theory of feelings . Failures , which are frequently
observed during the practice of an action exerted upon this sphere of
human feelings , are due to an insufficient knowledge of the psychological
mechanism governing the appearance , realization and method of existence
of feelings. The author shows the nature of the psychological premises
for the development of new feelings in man , and lists the most signifi
cant types of psychological situations contributing to the appearance of
feelings . In this study , an analysis is made of those changes in the
emotional sphere of the human individual which may arise under the influm
ence of a purposeful action . The author outlines the stages leading to
the conversion of experiences having a situational character into a
stable type of emotional relationship , which becomes a quality of the
personality , and points out conditions necessary for the organization of
a system of actions which make it possible to pass through these stages.

- 242 -
 II . EMOTIONS AND THEIR INDI CES IN THE ACTIVITY OF THE HUMAN
ORGANISM AND IN HUMAN BEHAVIOR

This group of studies includes research work devoted to an exam

ination of emotional states in connection with their identification in
pulse and respiratory curves, in changes of the electrical resistance
of the skin and of the blood composition , and in the peculiar features
of motor and verbal reactions of the individual , etc. These symptoms are
used as indices of the qualities and peculiar features of the experienced
states .
In 1918, a research study was published by A. A. Kaelas, entitled
" Concerning the Problem of the Nature and Expression of Emotions" [ 757 .
This work was devoted to the foundations of " the method of expressions"
of emotions in vegetative symptoms . In this connection , Kaelas decided
to analyze Windt's three - dimensional theory of sensations , and especially
the assertion made by this author that changes in the pulse curve consti
tute extremely sensitive indices of emotions .
In order to study emotions and changes in the pulse curve associ
ated with these emotions, Kaelas subjected the test subjects in his
experiments to various types of stimulation , such as sound , gustatory ,
olfactory stimulations; he also suggested to the test subjects to com
pare pictures, to work on the ergo graph , etc. It should be exphasized
and this is a very vital fact -- that, from the standpoint of the
possibility of eliciting a clearly expressed and definite emotional
state , the stimuli proposed by Kaelas were extremely weak . In spite of
this fact , A. A. Kaelas made a number of far -reaching conclusions on
the basis of his limited tests .
1. He believes that it is incorrect to consider states involving
a tension and alleviation or a stimulation and tranquilization as exper
iences having an emotional character .
2. Changes in the organism during the experience of emotions
should be considered as due not to these emotions but to volitional ele .
ments . He arrives at this conclusion on the basis of an analysis of
data based on a self - observation by the test subjects .
3. " We believe , " he writes , " that the theory on the expression
of emotions during processes and movements of the organism is just as
erroneous , Everyday thinking , and later the scientific mind, considered
until quite recently that sensations were intimately associated with
changes in the organisms ...Our general conclusion is that there is no di .
rect connection whatsoever between any sensations in general and changes
in the organism , and consequently the entire system of symptoms of sen
sations is a complete misunderstanding" ( [ 15; 555-556 ] ; italics are the
author's ) .
The author arrives at such radical conclusions on the basis of
tests having a limited significance and which are not sufficiently
Hreprosentative , " and also on the basis of data obtained during self
observation , which , moreover , refer to poorly expressed emotional states .

- 243 -
 From the standpoint of research methods and means of interpret
ing data, this particular work also stands on the positions occupied by
traditional idealist psychology .
In 1926 , Z. I. Chuchmarev [52 ] made, in a manner which is already
more justified , a number of conclusions concerning the importance of the
recording of a pulse curve , which are opposed to those conclusions drawn
by A. A. Kaelas .
2. I. Chuchmarov used both a pulse recording and simultaneously
a recording of the respiration as indices af emotions and changes in
these emotions , Emotional reactions were induced in the test subjects
by means of gustatory stimuli ( jam , chocolate , a quinine solution ), by
means of audi tory stimuli ( shots from a toy pistol , music ) and by means
of visual stimuli ( exhibition of pictures of various content , such as a
landscape or a nude woman ), etc ,
On the basis of a study of pulse curves and changes in these
curves during comparison with data shown in pneumo grams, 2. I. Chuchmarev
reached the conclusion that changes in the pulse have a great importance
as indices of an emotional experience. In a healthy person, a signifi
cant index is not only the frequency of the pulse , but also its intens
ity . Depending upon a certain emotional experience, the curve of the
pulse intensity (magnitude) is noticeably deflected upward and downward
from its normal level .
Somewhat later , a study of the galavanoreflex was also used by
2. I. Chuchmarev in addition to the above -mentioned methods for study
ing emotions . It is characteristic that a study of the galavanoreflex
was used by the author for recording reactions in response to artistic
pictures , and moreover in order to account for the experiences of var
ious audiences during their perception of artistic objects ( this partic
war subject was already described by the author in another article ).
As a result of the experiments, the author reached the condusion
that the psycho -galvanic method as well as in part the plethysmographic
and pneumographic methods for studying emotions , make it possible only
to ascertain the fact of the presence or absence of emotional states .
On the other hand , the pulse recording method for studying emotions, in
the opinion of the author , also indicates the character of the emotion
and its direction , in addition to the establishment of the presence or
absence of emotions. Such are the conclusions reached by 2. I. Chuch
marev on the basis of more careful means of recording the pulse curve ,
A series of studies conducted by A. R. Luriya ( some of which
were performed together with A. N. Leontyev ) on the so - called " com
bined ( reflected ) motor method " constitute a significant stage in
the study of emotions .
The starting point of this research work was the following : in
order to establish the rules of behavior which are inaccessible for sim
ple observation , this inaccessible factor must be combined with a process
taking place at the same time , which would be accessible for observation
and at the same time would reflect the first process . It is precisely
in this connection that the method of combined motor reaction is used ,
whereby these reactions become the reflected symptoms of affective states .
244 .
 The content of this method is the following : a) the test subject
is shown specially selected words ( indifferent words and words provoking
an affective reaction ), in response to which the test subject must react
by means of a " free verbal association " ; b) the test subject ( after a
certain amount of training) must, simultaneously with a verbal reaction ,
press with the finger of his right hand upon a pneumatic receiver ; c) at
this same time, the tremor of the left hand is recorded .
Those cases in which an affect and its content were already known
were investigated by means of the combined method . These cases are of
the following type: ( a) natural affects such as an examination , a pre
operational state , shocks; (b ) natural affects following a shock ( a crim
inal after committing his crime); ( c) artificial affects ( suggestion
during hypnotic sleep ); (d) artificial conflicts ( created by means of a
collision between individual tendencies ) .
The first research study in a series of studies under the general
designation Study of Objective Symptoms of Affective Reactions" ( auth
ors: A. R. Luriya and A. N. Leontiyev (237) was devoted to a study of
affective states in students at the time an examination was being con
ducted by a special commission of the student body of the higher educa
tional establishments in 1924 . The results showed that the average
speed of reaction ( before the examination " ) exceeds the usual normal
reaction by 40-45 percent, whereby cases in which no reaction was ob
served were also recorded . Upon the completion of the " exam , " the
average time of the reaction dropped by 10 percent and the type of re
action undergoes a change . During affective reactions , the motor curves
are sharply distrubed . After completion of the exam , the percentage of
distrubed reaction drops .
In a study entitled " Combined Motor Method and Its Application in
the Study of Affective Reactions" [217, in addition to an examination of
affective states caused by the situation found during an examination of
the student body , A. R. Luriya also presents data dealing with the study
of criminals . This author has performed a more differentiated analysis
of the reactions proper than was done before . As a result of this an
alysis , he reached the following conclusions :
a ) the combined motor method makes it possible to distinguish cases
involving an affective inhibition of the central process elicited by a
conflict from similar but different cases ( a difficult intellectual prob
lemn ) .
b) this method discloses not only an externally identified verbal
reaction , but also an impulse towards such a reaction , when attempts are
made to inhibit or repress this action ( for example, when a criminal ato
tempts not to express words which come into his mind ) .
In an article entitled " Psychology in the Determination of the
Traces of a Crime " [22], A. R. Luriya shows that the memory of a strong
affect causes sharp changes in the vital activity of the individual . An
attempt to hide an affect increases affective symptoms, and a secondary
affect is created .

- 245 -
 In a study entitled "Examinations and the Psychic Life" [26
( published together with A. N. Leontyev ) , data were published dealing
with a study of the emotional state of students prior to an examina
tion , during the examination , and after the communication of informa
tion concerning a favorable or unfavorable result of the examination ,
These new data constituted a confirmation of previously obtained data .
Simultaneously with a study of students by means of the com
bined motor method, P. 0. Dobrovitskiy (127 studied the catalase con
tent of the blood in students . It was found that the catalase index
in the blood prior was equal to 11.9 and equal to 16.7 after the exam
ination . The first figure is close to those figures which are exhib
ited by persons in whom for various reasons an inhibition of the higher
neural processes is taking place .
In a research study entitled " Experimental Conflicts in Man"
[237, A. R. Luriya undertook the case of creating an experimental model
of a conflict, which at the same time would not be colored in an affec
tive tone . In this manner , he attempted to separate certain elements
which occur during a natural affect and to conduct control studies .
During the formation of a conflict of tempos ( a transition from a rapid
tempo to a slow tempo and vice versa ), or of a conflict of set ( when a
set for the perception of words belonging to one language is present and
words from another language appear ), it was found that in both cases a
sharp inhibition of associative reactions and a drastic lesion of the
motor reaction takes place .
In his dissertation work " Concerning An Analysis of Affective
Processes " [247, A, R. Luriya subjects to a generalization the entire
experimental material (obtained and supplemented by new data , especially
by data concerned with affective reactions of criminals and persons in
a state of suggestion ) . This material is described in chapters entitled
" Analysis of Affective Processes" and " Symptomatology of Affective Proco
esses . "Other chapters of this dissertation describe the symptomatology
of conflict processes , given an analysis of a neurotic state and describe
the problem of the mastery of behavior . This study is the last one in
the series of research studies on affective states conducted by means of
the combined motor method .
The application of the combined motor method in a somewhat modi
fied form has been developed to a certain extent in the work done by K.
K. Platonov , devoted to a study of emotions associated with specific
conditions found during fight instruction 1357. [367. After applying
in a modified form the combined motor function method to the study of
" the emotional -motor stability of people undergoing flight instruc
tion , this author has obtained a high rate of agreement between labora
tory research data and data showing the manifestation or non
manifestation of a state of tension during flight [ 36 ].
A search for reliable objective indices of emotional states in
recorded changes of vegetative symptoms has forced V , N. Myasishchev
to turn to the galavanoreflex and to study in great detail this reflex
and the techniques used for its recording .
- 246 .
 In a study conducted as early as 1929 entitled " On a combined
Cutaneous-Galvanic Reflex " [28], which is not concerned especially with
the study of emotions, V. N. Myasishchev examines the problem concerning
the extent to which changes in the galavanoreflex are " indicative . "
In 1936 , in a study entitled " Tasks and Methods for a Psychophys
iological_Study of Vegetative Functions During Diseases of the Nervous
System " [29] , v. N. Myasishchev used more efficient methods for studying
a galavanoreflex . The latter is recorded at once by means of two galva
nometers, and at the same time curves of the respiration and of the hand
tremor are recorded . As a result , it was possible to obtain more accurate
and clearcut data on the character of reactions of the test subjects in
response to stimuli having an emotional bearing upon these subjects ( such
as a warning of a prick , the pricking itself , an automobile horn blow
ing, and other weaker influences ) . The emotionally charged atmosphere
of the tests can be illustrated by the intensity of the reaction to the
instruction ( for example, to an instruction warning that the test sub
ject will be pricked ) which sometimes is greater than the reaction to the
pricking itself .
In a study conducted in 1939 entitled " Psychological Significance
of the Electric- Cutaneous Characteristic of Man " [ 307, v . N. Myasishchev
examines ( among other problems) the problem of changes in the galvanore
flex during emotional experiences of a differing quality and during a
differing general psychological state . He points out that influences of
an indifferent nature yield a reaction which is less sharply expressed
than is the reaction elicited by actions having an emotional influence
upon the individual . The correlations between reactions toward indiffer
ent words and reactions towards emotionally colored words is significant.
V , N. Myasishchev points out that readings of the galvanometer do
not represent an adequate and synchronous characteristic of an emotional
state , since the galvanic reactivity during a state of stimulation is
converted into its opposite as the state of emotionality is increased .
Emotionality greatly increases the activity , but this takes place only
as long as the increased neuro - psychic activity continues to retain the
character of an organized activity . V. N. Myasishchev comes to the con
clusion that " it is impossible to recognize the content of a psychic
process according to a galvanic reaction ; this reaction constitutes only
one of the indices of psychic dynamic; however, a psychological classi
fication of these dynamics is possible only if one takes into account
the content with which it is associated " (L30; 180 italics are the
author's ) . This significant conclusion , a very important one in the
possible interpretation of data concerned with changes in the gal
vanoreflex was obtained as a result of a whole series of research stud
ies .
At the same time, under certain special_circumstances, the gal
vanoreflex , as was shown by A. Ya . Kolodnaya [127, being a symptom of
the vegetative nervous system , makes it possible to take into account
very well the degree of the excitability of this system during various
actions of an emotional nature . A. Ya . Kolodnaya has studied the pe
culiarities of the galvanoreflex in response to emotionally colored
247
actions in people suffering from a disease of the thyroid gland, such
as Basedow's disease and myxedema. The following stimuli were pre
sented : contact with small brushes, agreeable and disagreeable orders ,
ringing of a bell , creaking sounds, low voltage currents . In some
cases , the test subject was warned about the appearance of the stimulus ,
while in other cases the stimulus was applied without warning . It was
found that the latent period in healthy people amounted to 2-3 seconds;
in Basedow patients , this latent period was twice as short , while in
patients suffering from myxedema this period was twice as long ; the mag
nitude of the reflex and the number of deflections of the galvanometer
beam was considerably greater in Basedow patients and even more in pa
tients suffering from myxedema , as compared to heal thy people .
After the treatment of Basedow patients [18], their reactions in
response to an expected and a real stimulus (which previously were al
most identical) underwent a great change . After a period of 10-12 days
following the operation , with a reduction of the general excitability ,
reactions in response to expected stimuli are reduced to a considerably
greater extent than reactions in response to real or actual stimuli .
The galvanoreflex method , combined with a recording of the res .
piration curve, was used by M. M. Vlasova 8 for studying certain emo
tional states ( intellectual feelings, such as doubt , expectation ,
surprise , etc. ) . Artificial conflict relations in the cortex and sub
cortexhere elicited by a transformation of existing connections . These
conflicts were created in the following manner : 1 ) very close frequences
of a metronome had to be differentiated; 2) preliminary and start signals
for the reaction were spaced in time ( a preliminary signal was given first
and a start signal was given after an unusually long period of time );
3) the recognition of uniform stimuli was made difficult. The feeling
of doubt expressed by the test subjects sometimes reached a state of con
fusion or perplexity . A control board designed by Ye . I. Boyko was used
during the tests . In addition to the indices provided by the galvanore
flex and the pneumogram , the nature of the emotional state of the test
subjects was judged on the basis of expressive movements, exclamations
and content of the answers supplied by the test subject .
As a result of these tests , it was found that, during a state
of doubt, an increase in the latent periods, a slowing down of the gal
vanometer beam and a tendency of the galvanometer to undergo oscillam
tions were noted in the galvanometric picture of the reactions . During
a state of confusion , the latent period increased even further , as well
as the speed and the chaotic course of the galvanometer beam . Clear
shifts were also observed in the respiratory curve : during a state of
doubt -- a depression of the respiration curve, and during a state of
confusion an increase in the amplitude of the respiration wave with
clearly expressed disturbances in respiratory movements . The galavanic
picture of the reaction , together with chronometric data and a recording
of the respiration curve, proved to be a sufficiently clear index of the
dynamic of central nervous processes which express themselves in a change
of emotional states .

O 248 -
 Physiological symptoms of another nature, during positively and
negatively colored emotional states, formed the subject of study by cer
tain Soviet psychiatrists and psychoneurologists. A wide variety of
physiological indices were studied , which characterize the activity of
a human organism when the individual experiences various emotions caused
by means of suggestion .
Thus, V. M. Gakkebush [ 117 has shown that , following the sugges
tion of an emotion of fear experienced over a long period of time, the
amount of sugar in the blood and in the urine increased .
V. Yasinskiy and A. Kartamyshev 567 studied (during suggested
or induced sleep) the influence exerted by suggested negative emotions
upon leucocytosis. It was found during these tests, which included a
study of twelve people, that leucocytosis increased almost twice over
in all of the test subjects . Following the onset of tranquilization ,
caused by a new suggestion , the leucocyte count dropped to its original
level .
Yu . A. Povarinskiy [ 38 ] studied the influence exerted by suggested
emotions upon gaseous exchange . First, the initial level of gaseous ex
change in a state of calm was determined in test subjects, and then an
experience of various agreeable emotions, associated with favorite musi
cal compositions was suggested . Unpleasant emotions were also induced
in the test subject , such as a toothache, an examination , or an impend
ing surgical operation . It was found that the experience of the suggested
emotions exerts a great effect upon gaseous exchange, whereby unpleasant
emotions cause a considerably greater increase in gaseous exchange than
pleasant emotions. Particularly great shifts in the gaseous exchange were
observed when sensations associated with pain were suggested . Under these
conditions , in some of the test subjects, gaseous exchange increased by
as much as 300 per cent in comparison to its original level .
N. N. Timofeyev (427 studied the condition of vegetative indices
during the course of pleasant and unpleasant experiences suggested during
sleep . During a verbal suggestion of a quiet state and agreeable exper
iences , the arterial pressure dropped by 20 mm , while the pulse rate was
slowed down ( by 8 beats ) . Following the suggestion of a perturbed mood,
a feeling of solitude, etc. , the arterial pressure increased ( by 10 mm ) ,
while the pulse rate was intensified ( from 65 to 120 beats per minute )) .
During the course of many years, K. I. Platonov (32 ) was engaged
in the study of changes in the tone of the stomach muscles under the in
fluence of a verbal suggestion . In case of a suggested experience in
volving a feeling of happiness, the majority of the test subjects ex
hibited an increase of the tone of the stomach muscles , the stomach was
reduced in size as was shown on an X - ray picture , and was raised upward .
Following the suggestion of a depressed state , such as grief or sorrow ,
the stomach immediately drops down and is converted into a hypo tonic
state. A very sharp reaction on the part of the motor system of the
stomach takes place following the suggestion of a toothache or a
stomachache .

. 249 -
 X -ray examinations of the motor system of the stomach were
conducted by K. I. Platonov on two students of the Musical - Dramatic
Institute , when the students had to induce in themselves , on the basis
of an activity involving imagination and by means of a representation
of a definite situation , an emotion of happiness , and when they had
to replace this emotion by an emotion of grief, in accordance with the
situation which they had to picture . In one of these students , who ex
perienced vividly a state of happiness and grief, changes in the motor
system of the stomach , similar to those described above were observed .
In the other student, almost no changes at all were observed in the
motor system of the stomach . This was due to the fact that he did not
"live" at all through the situations which he had to portray, but sim
ply described these eventsin a mimical way .
An extensive study of the higher neural activity in a wide va
riety of its manifestations, associated with the broad scope of phys
iological research work carried out by I. P. Pavlov and his school,
resulted in the fact that the problem concerned with the physiological
foundations of emotions was described and clarified not only in the
works of Pavlov himself ( this was already stated above in Section I
of this article ), but also in the work done by individual Soviet phys
iologists. Let us now examine those theoretical ideas concerning the
physiological nature of emotions which have been expressed by individo
ual Soviet physiologists .
V. P. Osipov [ 327 , in setting himself the task of disclosing
the physiological mechanism of emotions, considers that the following
scheme of the course and development of a physiological process during
the formation of an emotional state is correct :
1. Appearance of an emotional external or internal ( endo cerebral )
stimulus .
2. Extension of the stimulation into the cortex , and in case of
instinctive reactions , into subcortical trunk centers ,
3. Propagation ( irradiation ) of the stimulation through the cor
tex and in a centrifugal direction through the subcortex to the lateral
striated muscles, and then through the centers of the vagus and sym
pathetic nerve to the organs innervated by these nerves (heart, blood ,
vessels, etc. ) .
4. Entry into the blood of the products of the activity of the
internal secretory glands, especially adrenalin , and the feedback ef
fect of the changed blood composition upon the nervous system .
5. Perception and experience of the emotions .
According to V. P. Osipov , the psychological state of emotions
arises only at the time the cortex receives internal pulsations, while
all processes taking place in the cortex up to that time are inter
preted by this author merely as mechanisms for the transmission of a
stimulation to the lateral striated muscles, to the organs of involun
tary movement and to the vascular system . " An emotion , or an emotional
state, " he writes, " regardless of the quality and degree of its develop
ment, is a subjective experience , associated with a number of objective

- 250 -
expressions, conditioned by external or internal stimuli , exerting a
reflex influence upon the lateral striated muscles , upon the organs
of involuntary movement and the vascular system ; the perception of
these changes and their reflection upon the psychic activity in gen
eral constitute precisely the essence of an emotional process ; the ap
pearance and propagation of an emotional process takes place after the
fashion of a conditioned reflex type process , which is basically assoc
iated with unconditioned reactions, in other words, with instinctive
reactions [ 32 ; 113 ] .
The conception held by V. P. Osipov, which consists in a denial
of the importance of a primary excitation in the cerebral cortex for
the appearance of an emotion , is opposed by A. G , Ivanov - Smolenskiy .
The latter author proposes the thesis which consists in the fact that
an emotional state is a centrally - nervous, mainly cerebral , process ,
which corresponds in the nervous system to the complex muscular - vascular
visceral reaction which embraces the entire organism as a whole [147.
A. G. Ivanov - Smolenskiy considers that the almost generally accepted
principle that an affective activity is an activity of the subcortex
is incorrect . Emotional reactions ( in a child ) usually take place with
the active participation of the cortex [ 74; 2587 .
P. K. Anokhin ( has attempted to solve the problem as to which
theory on the appearance of emotions is correct namely the peripheral
theory (associated with the names of James and Lange) or the central
theory ( which is frequently associated with the names of Cannon and
Sherrington ) .
In his opinion , Cannon and Sherrington , as an examination of their
tests reveals, were unable to refute the theory of James -Lange . P. K.
Anokhin believes that, at the same time, the contradictions which have
arisen between the theories of a central and peripheral structure of
emotions do not correspond to the actual nature of an emotion . It is
precisely this one - sided nature of these standpoints which he wants to
overcome by assuming that, in order to reach a correct understanding of
emotions , it is necessary to consider their role in the activity of the
organism , in its adaptation to the surrounding environment. The primary
emotional sensation during the course of evolution has appeared in the
form of a criterion of a positively completed action . An emotional
state " in certain cases can be the only criterion of the successful ac
tion of peripheral apparatuses" (11; 78 ; italics are the author's) .
" An emotion arises as a necessary consequence of a sufficiently up - to
par peripheral operational effect. According to this conception , a sub
jective state of emotion must necessarily arise a certain fraction of a
second later than the primary set of neural integrations" (Z1 ; 20 ;
italics are author's ) .
In addition to the statements made by individual physiologists
concerning the nature and mechanism of emotions, a number of studies
conducted by psychologists have also appeared , in which the opinions
held by I. P. Pavlov concerning the physiological foundations of emo
tions and feelings were subjected to a certain systematic classifica
tion and interpretation .
- 251 -
 M. P. Feofanov [487 points out that the distinction made by Pavlov
between emotions and feelings is of great importance for the theory of
feelings and emotions in Soviet psychology . He examines in detail what
Pavlov calls emotions and feelings. The conditions necessary for the
appearance of various types of feelings are rooted in the character of
the elaboration of a stereotype . M. P. Feofanov notes cases in which an
emotion is converted into a feeling ( for example , the emotion of fright
is converted into a feeling of fear ) . According to M. P. Feofanov , the
works of I. P. Pavlov concerned with pathological lesions of the neural
activity are of great importance for a consistently materialist under
standing of feelings . These works provide an explanation for numerous
facts occurring in the field of child and pedagogical psychology ( chil
dren's fears , shocks, traumas ) .
I. T. Romanyuk [41 ] notes that a correct understanding of the
connection and mutual dependence between the cortex and the subcortex is
of great importance in understanding the nature of feelings . Emotions
( which represent an experience of the activity of the subcortex ) are
in a certain sense a source of the strength , i.e. of the intensity of
feelings . An increase in the intensity of feelings results in a trans
formation of these feelings into affects with a sharp predomination of
the emotional component . The author devotes a great deal of attention
to the significance of a dynamic stereotype (namely to its breakdown and
preservation ) in the appearance of negatively and positively colored feel .
ings.
This study presents the idea concerning the necessity ofdistingui
shing primary (mainly first signals) and secondary (mainly second signals)
feelings, and makes an attempt to establish the manner in which a type
of higher neural activity affects the course of feelings ( the study exam
ines the course of feelings in such categories of people as " a thinker
cholerich and a " phlegmatic- artistic" type ).
III . FEELINGS AS A COMPLEX FORM OF AN EMOTIONAL ATTITUDE
TOWARDS REALITY AND THEIR PSYCHOLOGICAL ANALYSIS

A characteristic feature of the research done by Soviet psychol

ogists is the fact that , in addition to an examination of emotions and
a study of those indicators which could be used as sufficiently convinc
ing symptoms of changes taking place in emotional states , a considerable
amount of attention is given in this research to the study of individual
types of complex human feelings and to attempts to disclose the psycho
logical characteristics inherent to these feelings .
The tendency to establish qualitative characteristics of human
feelings in complex forms of human activity and in the moral and esthetic
experience of man , a tendency which is associated with the striving on
the part of Soviet psychology to study man in the fullness of his social
essence , is also reflected in the group of problems concerned with the
emotional life of human individuals , which is selected for study, and in

· 252 -
the method of research . A qualitative analysis of feelings and their
manifestations is a characteristic feature of this type of work . This
feature differentiates these studies from the tendency to obtain pri
marily quantitative indices , referring to various types of an emotional
human attitude (which tendency , however , treats this attitude itself
superficially ), which is widely found in the studies conducted by for
eign psychologists using the tests method .
The characteristic feature of the approach adopted by Soviet psy
chologists is reflected both in the examination of individual feelings
and in the study of the peculiar features of the expression of human
feelings. However , we cannot state that individual types of complex
human feelings are covered by a systematic chain of research studies.
Let us now examine the studies concerned with the investigation
of esthetic experiences .
L. S. Vygotskdy [ To], while studying the influence of the speech
rhythm upon respiration , was able to clarify the extent to which an
esthetic experience , caused by a specific fragment of artistic prose or
poetry , is determined not only by the actual content of this prose or
poetry, considered in an abstract manner , but also by the form of its
expression ( syntactic structure of sentences, intonations, pauses, the
tempo of speech , the course of clauses and the alteration of tone ) . He
expressed the assumption that the character of the speech respiration
constitutes an indicator of the peculiar features of this form which af
fects the esthetic experience. In the first test , the test subjects read
aloud various literary works, such as a short story by Bunin entitled
" Light Breathing , " a lyrical fragment from Gogol , and a fragment of
Lermontov's poem " Demon . " During the second test, the tested subjects
read these passages silently . During the third test, they listened to
a reading of the same text . A pneumogram was recorded during the read
ing . During the course of silent reading, the test subject , upon com
pleting each line, informed the experimentor that he had finished
reading the line by means of a light tapping .
The results obtained in these tests showed a coincidence of the
respiration curve during reading aloud and silent reading . This curve
reflected the objective characteristics of the rhythmic structure of
the composition . A clear difference in the curve was observed during
the reading respectively of poetry and prose , as well as during the
reading respectively of Bunin and Gogol .
On the basis of these results , L. S. Vygotskiy reached the fol
lowing conclusions : ( 1 ) the speech rhythm of the composition establishes
a corresponding rhythm and type of respiration ; ( 2) to every system of
respiration and respiratory rhythm, there corresponds a definite structure
of emotions, creating an emotional background for the perception of poetry
which is specific for each composition .
The study conducted by S. N. Belyayeva - Ekzemplyarskaya 44 was con
cerned with an examination of musical experience in 6-7 year old children .
The tests were conducted on groups of children consisting of 68 people
in two stages with an interval of one year between the stages. Extracts

- 253 -
from different musical compositions were presented to the children and
the attitude of a child to these compositions was established . The pur
pose of these tests consisted in clarifying or establishing the general
character of the child's musical perception , the child's perception of
the melodic aspect of the composition , the recognition of theme, the im
portance for the child of the harmonious aspect of the composition , and,
on this basis , the character of his musical experience . The results
showed that the general impression by means of which an adult is able to
distinguish between major and minor keys has not yet arisen in a child .
The emotional characteristics used by children have a summary character ;
the children consider that a " gay tune is a good tune , and always con
sidered music which they liked as being gay . The opposite of a " gay " tune
was a dull tune ( first stage of the tests ) . A year later , the children
were already able to exhibit more differentiated emotional characteris
tics . They properly used the word " sorrowful " or " sad , " and their emo
tional characteristic indicated those properties exhibited by the musical
fragment itself ( sad or gay ) . However, the children did not yet ascribe
to music the expressive emotional significance in the way adults do (" some
body is complaining, " #this is a question , " etc. ) .
The essential nature of a musical experience was subjected to a
thorough study by B. M. Teplov (45) .
There are sharp divergences of opinion in the field of musical
esthetics in connection with the problem of the character of musical
experience , E. Hanslik , a prominent representative of formalism , as
serts that " music not only speaks or expresses itself by means of
sounds, but it speaks only sounds. " B, M. Teplov , on the basis of a psy
chological analysis, asserts the opposite thesis: "A specific feature
of musical experience is the experience of a sound fabric as the expres
sion of a certain content.... In the most straightforward and direct sense ,
the content of music is feelings, emotions and moods" (145; 429) italics
are the author's) .
The acknowledgment of music as being " a language of feelings " as
sumes the recognition , in contrast to the impoverished notion of the
character of human feelings, of the fact of a qualitative variety of hu
man experiences . The fact that the content of music whichis an emo
tional content cannot be adequately and finally translated into words,
does not mean that this content is vague and indefinite . Only the ver
bal description of this content is indefinite . Whereas in speech , the
content is transmitted through the meaning of words in a language, in
music the content is directly expressed in audio images . In summariz
ing his analysis, B. M. Teplov arrives at the following principles :
1. Musical experience is essentially an emotional experience ;
it is impossible to understand the content of music by non - emotional
An understanding of music, if under this term we mean not only
a perception of the external structure of a musical fabric, is always
an emotional understanding .
2. The experience of music must be an emotional experience , but
it must not be only an emotional experience . The perception of music
passes through an emotion , but does not end in an emotion ; in music , we
become conscious of the world through an emotion . Music is an emotional
cognition .
- 254 -
 Musical experience , which represents the basis of the percep
tion of music, is studied on a somewhat different plane by G. P.
Prokofiyev [407. This author, on the basis of an extensive factual
material, analyzes the premises necessary for the successful formation
and activity of a musical performer . In this connection , he assigns
a great importance to the emotional perceptivity and response to music ,
which affect the character of a musical experience during the perform
ance of a musical composition .
G. P. Prokoflyev also characterizes that group of experiences,
which arise in a musical performer in connection with the public ( stage)
nature of his activity , and also in connection with the actual content
of the music performed . In some cases, affective - emotional conflicts
arise in the activity of a pianist . These conflicts are caused by the
following factors: ( 1 ) as a result of an excessive enthusiasm for the
music performed , a pianist loses the ability to direct his performance ;
( 2 ) the fact that the nature of the music performed requires a sharp
break away from the customary tempo of action ; ( 3) the fact that the
performance of a composition is limited by shortcomings in the motor
resources of the performer , who realizes in this connection his own
shortcomings .
A number of studies are devoted to the problem of an experience
associated with the perception and understanding of artistic composi
tions belonging to other fields of art .
K. Ye. Khomenko 1507 studied the problem concerned with the per
ception of artistic and literary compositions . She has pointed out
that the attitude assumed by a child towards a composition , his esthetic
perception , passes through a number of stages. The child must be
trained or instructed to correlate an artistic image with the image
being portaryed . As her experiments show , 3 to 4 year -old children
are unable to understand a perspective image, and 4 to 5 year -old chil
dren are unable to grasp a metaphor . Moreover , even if a semantic
understanding arises in a child , this understanding does not always lead
to an artistic understanding .
What are the stages in the development of perception , which lead
to the appearance of an experience associated with the perception of an
artistic composition ?
1. A pre - pre- school age child does not perceive the composition
shown to him as an artistic composition (he treats the subject or obo
ject described as a real object ) .
2. A pre - school age child is already able to follow the actions
of another person in a story . This fact influences his attitude towards
a fairy tale, To understand a fairy tale means to experience everything
together with the hero , to feel sad or gay . A pre - school age child is
already able to distinguish two spheres of activity : the real and the
represented sphere . However , while understanding and experiencing the
composition ( a fairy tale or a show ), a characteristic feature of a
pre-school age child is the fact that he demands that there should be
an end to the story and that the heroes of the story should achieve their
goal.
- 255 -
 3. During the further stage of development, a child already as
sumes a more detached attitude towards the content of the story ; he be
gins to correlate the object and its image .
B. M. Teplov (467 , in his study devoted not only to musical but
also to broader artistic experiences , emphasizes the fact that art is
not only a pictorial but also an emotional cognition of the world . An
esthetic perception must be called an emotional perception . " To under
stand an artistic composition means Arst of all to feel it, to exper
ience this composition emotionally , and on this basis to think about
this composition , The perception of art must start from a feeling ; it
must pass through a feeling and is impossible without a feeling . However ,
artistic perception, of course, is not limited to a feeling " [46, 10-11] .
An esthetic perception must always be an emotionally spontaneous percep
tion . If such a spontaneous attitude towards an artistic composition is
lost, an esthetic attitude or relationship towards this composition is
also lost . However , the formation of such an attitude requires prelim
inary work and also a certain degree of preparation . This is precisely
the purpose of artistic training . Art is one of the powerful means for
the cultivation of feelings . It develops an emotional response and
broadens the emotional experience of man .
A work of art can be valuable from an educational standpoint
when it forces an individual ( child ) to assume inwardly a definite posi
tion , to start to " liven in the situation disclosed by the work of art .
During the state of an emotional rapture under the influence of the
composition , of its hero or his acts , esthetic and moral experiences are
fused into an indissoluble whole .
Hence it follows that the main condition which must be secured
in the creative work done by children is sincerity , the capacity to aban
don themselves directly to an experience during the course of an activity .
When this condition is fulfilled , all remaining elements in the creative
work of a child also become significant, namely elements associated with
a mastery of appropriate working methods, with an ability to perceive
phenomena occurring in reality, etc.
0. I. Nikiforova [31] , in noting the importance of studying the
emotional - esthetic influence exerted by literature upon readers of var
ious ages , points at the same time to the methodological difficulties of
an experimental study of this problem .
Soviet psychologists are using the following methods: the method
based on observation and recording of external manifestations of emotions
and spontaneous statements during the perception of movie pictures , chil
dren's shows , literary stories ( Ye, A. Arkin , L. M. Makar'yev, T. A.
Grigoriyeva ). In this case , both the general reactions of the audience
as well as reactions of individual spectators and listeners were re
corded . This particular method is inadequate, since external manifes
tations of emotions have a striking character only in small children .
One should also keep in mind the fact that an external manifestation of
an emotion may not coincide with the depth of the experience of this

- 256 -
emotion . For this reason , 0. I. Nikiforova has used , during the study
of emotions in children , a method involving a delayed or postponed ( for
a month and a half) narration of movie pictures and has recorded the exam
ternal manifestations of emotions in such cases . The author believes
that an analysis of the expressive reading of artistic compositions by
the test subjects themselves constitutes a useful technique for studying
the emotional aspect of the perception of artistic literature, especially
of poetry , in older children and adults .
A special group of studies conducted by Soviet psychologists con
sists of research studies devoted to feelings accompanying creative proc
esses .
Thus , the problem of the creative experiences of an actor , which
arise during the course of his work at a certain role and in the perform
ance of this part , when the actor is triving to " infect the spectator
with his artistic emotions caused by the events described in the play ,
was the subject of an investigation conducted by P. M. Yakobson 5557 .
The basis of this analysis consisted of detailed answers ,ob
tained by using a special questionnaire sent to 27 outstanding actors
of the Soviet theater , such as Yermolove , Kachalov , Khmelev , Mikhoels ,
Babanova and others . The object of investigation included both the
conditions and the premises for the formation or appearance of " stagen
feelings, present in the actual work environment of the actor in the
theater , as well as the actual qualitative characteristics of the feel
ings arising in such a specificenvironment. An examination of the
stage feelings of an actor in this particular study was conducted along
the fonowing lines :
1. The characteristic features of these feelings were clarified , ,
namely the way in which they are așsociated with the attention of the
actor , with his general emotional elan , the intensity , duration and dy
namic of these feelings, and the influence of his real - life conditions
upon the feelings of the actor .
2. There were clarified the characteristics of the recognition
by the actor of those feelings , which are the result of creative work
on his part. Actors, in spite of the greatest possible strength and
intensity of their experience , still realize that these feelings are
directed not towards a real living object but towards a fictional ob
ject. The actor realizes the peculiar arbitrary nature of his feel
ings. He not only is well aware of the fact that he experiences his
feelings " for the gallery , " but also knows well that he is " using "
these feelings for the purposes of an artistic expression . No matter
what the content of stage feelings may be ( sad , fearful , etc. ) , these
feelings are a source of esthetic pleasure for the actor .
3. There was aarified the connection between stage feelings
and the creative consciousness of an actor - artist : what new moments
are introduced into this consciousness by the actual fact of exper
iencing stage feelings , and how the actor consciously reinterprets
those feelings which result from his work at a certain part, within
the general aspects of his entire creative personality .

- 257
 Problems connected with psychological characteristics of the
creative feelings experienced by an actor have been clarified not only
in psychological research studies, but also in the work done by practical
and theoretical workers in the field of stage art or stagecraft (B. Ye .
Zakhava, V. Smyshlyayev and others ) . The study conducted by K , S.
Stanislavskiy 1437 occupies a special place among the works done by the
oretical workers in the field of stagecraft ( from the standpoint of the
subtlety of its psychological analysis and the formulation of important
psychological problems) .
In this study , devoted to the creative activity of actors in gen
eral , K. S. Stanislavskiy devotes a great deal of attention to ideas con
cerned with creative feelings of an actor and to their analysis. Problems
concerned with creative theatrical practice and problems concerned with
the creative training of the actor, which were the moving principle in
the theoretical consideration of K. S. Stanislavskiy , forced him to
adopt a special approach towards problems dealing with the psychology
of creative feelings of actors .
K. S. Stanislavskiy was interested in the following psychological
problems: ( 1 ) What is the significance, place and role of feelings in
the creative process of an actor , in the fulfillment by the actor of
the following task : namely to convey to the spectator a stage image in
a convincing , vital and moving manner ; ( 2) What are the types of emo
tions encountered in the practice of actors ' work ; K. S. Stanislavskiy
separates from truly creative feelings such emotions ( which arise under
certain conditions during the work of an actor) as interfere with the
creation of a convincing live , stage image ( ovorplay , hysterics in the
manifestation of emotions, a feeling of strain , etc.) ; ( 3) What is the
mechanism by means of which feelings are induced , and what are the psycho
logical means and techniques for inducing creative feelings .
The author devotes special attention to the latter problem . In
this connection , he discloses the psychological complexity of means which
make it possible at the same time for the actor to achieve the appearance
of the feelings necessary for his particular part . K. S. Stanislavskiy
draws a distinction between creative primary feelings (which arise un
expectedly for the actor and which are not subject to control) and cre
ative secondary feelings. The latter are precisely those which consti
tute the object of the " work " of the actor . In his study , the author
discloses psychological ways and means which regularly result in the
final analysis in the appearance of the necessary feelings . He points
out the importance of a clear representation of the events and circum
stances described in the play , the role of a clearly formulated con
crete task in the actions performed by the actor, and speaks about the
role of imagination directed in a definite manner , about the importance
of the performance of a stage action for the appearance of feelings.
Special attention is devoted by K. S. Stanislavskiy to the problem of
emotional memory . He analyzes the character of the operation of this
memory and its importance during the appearance of emotions required
for a particular role .

- 258 -
 A number of studies conducted by Soviet psychologists are devoted
to moral feelings .
In his research study , D. V. Antonov 2 examines the psycholog
ical characteristics of moral experiences which , in their great variety ,
occupy an exceedingly significant place in the life of the human individ
ual . The author analyzes various facts encounterod during moral acts and
experiences of a human individual , which arise during drastic real - life
situations, and which frequently cause a conflict between egotistical and
altruistic motives .
In this study , the following three most significant forms of a
moral experience are established :
1. A spontaneously ( frequently unexpectedly ) arising experience
caused by the course of events itself . A person acts " in response to a
fooling " and only later attempts to render himself an account of the act
which he has performed . The actual possibility of such an experience
assumes a thorough mastery by a person of social forms of behavior .
2. A moral experience which arises in a more conscious way . A
definite mode or image , such as a mode of behavior , an image of a sig
nificant phenomenon , etc., becomes the carrier " of the moral behavior
or act. This image or mode precedes the act and the simultaneously
arising experience ,
3. A conscious moral experience which has an active organizing
effect on the behavior of a man . Such an experience is based upon a
definite moral idea or concept .
Experiences of a moral order play a significant role in the strug
gle of the human individual against fear arising in a moment of danger .
Å study performed by G. A. Fortunatov [49] is devoted to this problem .
G. A. Fortunatov describes different types of fear . He analyzes
the forms and degrees of fear , its causes and methods of manifestation
in the external expression and behavior of the individual . People are
scared as a result of an wexpected pain , or by loud noises , a loss of
balance , very large and rapidly moving objects and by a considerable len
sion of orientation , There is such a thing as fright caused by a real
danger , and a fright of secondary order caused by images and thoughts
about dangerous situations . A strong fright acquires the character of
an affective fear ; it may be accompanied sometimes by a twilight state .
There are significant psychological differences between a passive fear ,
which gives rise to a feeling of impotence, and an active fear which
is connected with fury . G. A. Fortunatov shows the effect exerted upon
the organism by a brief and by a prolonged fear . A significant section
of his work is devoted to the problem of means used for combating fear ,
and points out which factors of a moral order contribute to an overcom
ing of fear and help develop a feeling of daring and fearlessness .
A. S. Prangishvili is concerned in his study [39] , with an exam
ination of the psychological essence of panic. The author delimits the
concepts of panic , fear , and panic state . He denies or rejects the tran
ditional standpoint, according to which panic is the same kind of

• 259 -
experience of fear and terror but which has grown to the highest point
of intensity in connection with the intensified action of suggestion
and imitation factors . A panic stato is manifested in reality in a
specific experience of fear or terror but cannot be reduced to these
feelings . A panic state constitutes or represents a specific reaction
of the individual to the disintegration of the social unity in which
alone this individual was able to realize those tasks which he had set
himself . In a situation involving danger , a panic state manifests itself
in a fear having no object, and inadequate to the reason which elicited
it. As a result of such a reaction , a social unity or public associa
tion disintegrates and is transformed into a disorganized mass of individ
uals acting in an isocial manner . The word panic itself is used to
designate the actual act of disintegration of a given association or
unity .
Data concerned with the problem of means and techniques for over
coming fear are presented in a research study conducted by 0. A.
Chernikova [51] . The object of her investigations and talks included
hundreds of sportsmen or athletes, both beginners and experienced ath
letes ( youngsters and adults ), including a number of outstanding sports
men . She studied different types of emotional states arising during a
sport activity , such as " start fever , " " sport malice , " the role of emo
tions during success and failure , ways and means for overcoming fright
arising during dangerous and unsuccessful training periods , etc.
Let us now turn to the last group of studies conducted by Soviet
psychologists reviewed in this article, namely to studies devoted to the
problem of an expression of feelings in a human individual .
A large number of research studies have been conducted abroad dur
ing the past decade in connection with this problem . These studies dis
close the anatomical -physiological potentials of the facial muscles for
the formation of a wide variety of combinations serving as an expression
of feelings, record types of expressive movements and gestures , and show
the greater wealth of means of expression in proportion to the growth of
the child . However , all of these studies suffer from the disadvantage
that they are concerned with means of expression of feelings and types
of such expressions, which are examined in a biological way , and without
any connection withthe socialsense which is inherentinsuch expresa
sions. For this reason , the problem concerning the expression of feel
ings as a sui generis " language of feelings , " which is understood by
people during the course of their mutual association , is actually by
passed and overlooked .
The few studies of Soviet psychologists devoted to the problem
of the expression of feelings direct attention precisely to this aspect
and first of all by means of a disclosure of the qualitative peculiari
ties , which stand out in the expression of feelings of various social
significance .
The research work done by L. V. Blagonadezhina 5 discloses
that the character of the motives which are used as a guide by a child
(of senior pre - school age) during the performance of a certain action ,

- 260 .
is reflected in the peculiar features of the expression of the feeling
experienced by this child . When the child is drawing , without being
concerned with the quality of the drawing and its evaluation , emotional
experiences which arise upon his encountering obstacles have a striking
outward expression , the child's face has a definite offended or dis
satisfied look or the child's voice has a whining tone . On the other
hand , when the motive of the activity becomes the creation of a pro
duct which deserves a positive evaluation , the child expresses his
feelings in a different way . During an unfavorable evaluation , the ex
ternal expression of a feeling is not only not emphasized but even some
times hidden .
The research work done by R. N. Ibragimova [73], devoted to a
study of the appearance of a feeling of duty in children of pre - school
age , also discloses significant differences in the facial expression
of children depending upon the social importance and evaluation of the
feelings experienced by the child .
When telling a lie , a child exhibits in his facial expression ele
ments of embarrassment and awkwardness . Intomations change and movements
having a repressive nature make their appearance . On the other hand, the
approval by adults of a good behavior or action of a child results in the
child becoming lively in an unusually restrained way , exhibiting a shy
smile , etc. Thus, already in the child, we can notice the formation of
qualitative characteristics in the expression of feelings in function of
their social sense ,
P. M. Yakobson 5537 attempts to show in his work the changes oc
curring in the expression of feelings of a man during the course of his
growth , and during the introduction by man of control elements in func
tion of the nature of social evaluations during the course of expression
of feelings. The author shows how a man can master or assimilate those
shades of expressiveness in the manifestation of different feelings which
are inherent in the members of the society in which the man lives . The
expressiveness of a man , formed under such conditions, is transformed into
a subtle and differentiated " language of feelings , " which is accessible
to a deeper understanding in the process of communication . The author
shows the shades of this process of understanding during the course of
human mutual relations undergoing a change , and notes which are those
objective data which are included in the features of the expression of
feelings itself ( types of deviation from the usual forms which are en
countered ), and also in the context of the perception of the expression
of feelings which complicate or facilitate a correct understanding of
these feelings. He emphasizes the role of the art of an actor (both
theater and movie picture actors) and of the form of its expressiveness
in enriching the process of understanding " the language of feelings . "
of a somewhat special nature is the extensive research work con
ducted by N. N. Ladygina -Kots [ 207 devoted to a comparative study of
the behavior ( including also the behavior in the emotional sphere) of a
human baby and a baby chimpanzee . Detailed observations of the expression

- 261 -
of emotions , which were conducted by the author during a number of years
on her son ( from the time of his birth up to four years) and of a chim
panzee ( from the age of one and a half to four years) , were supported
by an extensive photo documentation . In studying the forms of expres
sion of emotions , N. N. Ladygina- Kots was able to identify and isolate
such emotional states as the emotion caused by a general excitability ,
the emotion of joy , the emotion of sorrow ( in addition , she was also
able to record other emotions caused by stimuli of a different char
acter ) .
As a summary of her research , N. N. Laydgina -Kots presents com
parative data on the expression of emotions characteristic for a human
baby and for a baby chimpanzee . She points out similar and dissimilar
features . A similarity is exhibited by both babies in the manifestation
of fear ; also similar is the minic of anger as well as the manifestation
of sympathy tendencies for the person towards which they experience a
feeling of tenderness (both babies cling to the person with their whole
body and embrace the person) ; also similar are crying and howling in case
of sorrow. Differences were observed in manifestations of the instinct
of defense and attack ( the chimpanzee expressed his fury more sharply ) ,
and also in the manifestation of sympathy ( a human baby expresses this
feeling more sharply ) . Entirely new elements in the expression of emo
tions appear in the human baby in connection with the fact that he be
gins to use speech as a means of expressing his emotions .
Let us now mention briefly a number of studies which describe in
dividual and particular problems concerned with the psychology of emo
tions .
P. P. Blonskiy 07, in an experimental research study conducted
on students as test subjects and devoted to the problem of memory in
regard to previously experienced emotional states , examined the problem
as to what is remembered for the longest period of time. In contrast
to Freudian psychologists , who assert that unpleasant things are ob
literated from memory , Blonskiy shows that unpleasant things are remem
bered for the longest period of time .
Thus, memories recalled by his test subjects included 17% of
indifferent cases , 19% of pleasant cases , and 64% of unpleasant cases .
P. P. Blonskiy also devoted some attention to the " fate " of a
previously experienced feeling , namely to those changes to which this
feeling is subjected over the course of years , and he puts the question
of the peculiar features of affective memory . He arrives at the con
clusion that " a reproduced feeling differs from a primary feeling incom
parably less than does a visual image from a visual perception" 17; 437 .
It should be noted that some Soviet psychologists have been en
gaged in studying the problem of the development of feelings by means
of a systematic recording of changes in the emotional behavior and forms
of expression of feelings in children . The Institute of Psychology has
in storage several score of diaries, which contain , in addition to data
obtained during observations of changes in the behavior of children as
a whole , also data concerned with the development of the emotional sphere .
A considerable amount of material dealing with this problem is found in
the books published by A. D. Pavlova ( 347, 2. I. Stanchinskaya (447 and
N. A. Mehchinskaya [227.
- 262 -
 LITERATURE

1. P. K. Anokhin , "Main Problems concerned with the Study of

the Higher Neural Activity , " Chapter : " Physiological Architectonic of
Emotions, " Anthology : " Problems concerned with the Higher Neural AC
tivity , " Publishing House of the Academy of Medical Sciences USSR , 1949 .
2. D. V. Antonov , " Psychological Analysis of the Forms of Moral
Experiences , " Author's Abstract of Candidate's Dissertation , Moscow , 1949 .
3. M. I. Astvatsaturov , " Modern Neurological Data on the Essence
of Emotions, " Sovetskaya Nevropsikhiatriya ( Soviet Neuropsychiatry ) , No.
1 , 1936 .
4. S. N. Belyayeva -Ekzemplyarskaya , Musykal'noye Perezhavaniye
v Do shkol'nom Vozraste (Musical Experience in the Pre- School Age) , Mos
cow , 1926 .
5. V. M. Bekhterev , " Concerning Emotions as Mimic - Somatic Re
flexes , " Anthology : " New Developments in the Reflexology and Physiol
ogy of the Nervous System , " No. 3, Leningrad , 1929 .
6. L. V. Blagonadezhina, " Emotions and Feelings , " ( Chapter XII
in textbook Psikhologiya ( Psychology ) , Written for medical institutes ,
Chief Editor , A. A. Smirnov ) , Moscow , State Training and Pedagogical
Literature , Publishing House , 1956 .
7. P. P. Blonskiy , Pamyat' i Myshlenive (Memory and Thought ),
Moscow , State Publishing House of Social Sciences and Economics, 1935 .
8. M. M. Vlasova , " On the Characteristic of the Cutaneous
Galvanic Reaction and the Respiration Curve During Certain Emotional
States , " Iżvestiya APN RSFSR (Gazette of the Academy of Pedagogical
Sciences RSFSR ) , No. 53, 1954 .
9. L. S. Vygotskiy , " The Problem of Emotions , " Voprosy
Psikhologii ( Problems of Psychology ), Moscow , No. 3, 1958 .
10. L. S. Vygotskiy , " On the Influence of the Speech Rhythm
Upon Respiration , " Anthology : " Problems of Modern Psychology , "
Leningrad , State Publishing Institute, 1926 .
11. V. M. Gakkebush , " New Trends in the Study of Emotions, "
Sovremennaya Psikhonevrologiya (Modern Psychoneurology ), No. 4,
1926 .
12. P. 0. Dobrovitskiy , " Examinations and the Blood State of
Students , " Anthology: " Examinations and the Psychic Life , " Pub
lished by the Academy of Communist Education , Moscow -Leningrad , State
Publishing House , 1929 .
13. R. N. Ibragimova , " First Rudiments of the Feeling of Duty
in Children ," Doshkol'noye Vospitaniye ( Pre - School Training), 1956 .
14. A. G. Ivanov - Smolenskiy , Anthology : On the Road to the
Study of Higher Forms of Neurodynamics of a Child , " Moscow , State
Medical Publishing House , 1934 .
15. A. A. Kaelas , " Concerning the Problem of the Nature and Ex
pression of Emotions, " Psikhologicheskoye Obozreniye ( Psychological Re
view ), Vol . I , Nos . 3-4 , Moscow , 1918 .

- 263 -
 16. A. G. Kovalev, " Concerning Feelings and Emotions , " Voprosy
Psikhologii ( Problems of Psychology ), Moscow, No. 3, 1956 .
17. A. Ya . Kolodnaya , " The Galvanic Reflex in Patients Suffer
ing from Basedow's Disease and Myxedema, " Problemy Endokrinologii ( Prob
lems of Endocrinology ) , No. 1 , 1938.
18. A. Ya. Kolodnaya, " Changes in the Galvanoreflex of Patients
Suffering from Basedow's Disease Following Treatment, " Ibid ., No. 2,
1938 .
19 . G. S. Kostyuk, Psikhologiya (Psychology ), ( in Ukrainian
Chapter XI , " Feelings, " Kiev, " Soviet School " Publishing House, 1955 .
20. N. N. Laydgina- Kots , Ditya shimpanze i ditya cheloveka
( The Baby Chimpanzee and the Human Baby) , Moscow , Publishing House of
the State Darwin Museum , 1935 .
21. A. R. Luriya, " The Combined Motor Method and its Applica
tion in the Study of Affective Reactions, " Uchennye zapiski Instituta
Eksperimental'noy psikhologii ( Academic Reports of the Institute of
Experimental Psychology ) , Vol . III , Moscow , 1928 .
22. A. R. Luriya, " Psychology in the Determination of Traces
cf a Crime , " Nauchnove slovo ( Scientific Word ) , No. 3 , 1928.
23. A. R. Luriya , " Experimental Conflicts in Man , " Anthology :
" Problems of Modern Psychology , " Vol . VI, Moscow -Leningrad , State Pub
lishing House , 1930 .
24. A. R. Luriya , K analizu affektivnykh protsessov ( on an An
alysis of Affective Processes ) , Doctoral Dissertation , Moscow , 1937 .
25. A. R. Luriya and A. N. Leont'yev, " Study of Objective Symp
toms of Affective Reactions," Anthology: Problems of Modern Psychology, "
Leningrad , State Publishing House, 1926 .
26. A. R. Luriya and A. N. Leontyev, " Examinations and the
Psychic Life , ” Anthology : " Examinations and the Psychic Life , " Pub
lishing House of the Academy of Communist Education , Moscow - Leningrad ,
State Publishing House , 1929 .
27. N. A. Menchinskaya, Dnevnik o razvitii rebenka ( Diary on
the Development of a Child ), MOSCOW , Publishing House of the Academy of
Pedagogical Sciences RSFSR , 1948 .
28. v . N. Myasi shchev, " On the combinative Cutaneous- Galvanic
Reflex , " Anthology: " New Developments in the Reflexology and Physiology
of the Nervous System , " MOSCOW - Leningrad , State Publishing House , No. 3,
1929 .
29. v . N. Myasishchev , " The Tasks and Methods of a Psychophys
iological Study of the Vegetative Functions During Diseases of the
Nervous System , " Trudy Instituta po izucheniyu mozga Im . Bekhtereva
(works of the Institute for the Study of the Brain , Imeni Bekhterev) ,
Vol . VI , 1936 .
30. V. N. Myasi shchev , "The Psychological Significance of the
Electric- Cutaneous Characteristic of Man , " Ibid . , Vol . IX, 1939 .
31. 0. I. Nikiforova , " Study of the Perception of Artistic Lito
erature in Soviet Psychology , " Voprosy Psikhologii ( Problems of Psychol
ogy ) , Moscow , No. 3 , 1957.
- 264
 32. V. P. Osipov , " On the Physiological Origin of Emotions ,
Anthology Devoted to the 75th Anniversary of Academician I. P. Pavlov ,
Leningrad , 1924.
33. I. P. Pavlov, Sobraniye sochineniy ( Collected Works), Vol .
III , Book 2 .
34. A. D. Pavlova , Dnevnik materi ( The Diary of a Mother ),
Moscow , 1924 .
35. K. K. Platonov , " Concerning So - Called ' Flight Tention's
Grazhdanskaya aviatsiya ( Civil Aviation ), No. 11 , 1939 .
36. K. K. Platonov , " An Experiment in the Study of Flight
Faculties , " Reports Presented at a Conference on Problems of the
Psychology of Personality , Moscow , Publishing House of the Academy of
Pedagogical Sciences RSFSR , 1956 .
37 . K. I. Platonov , Slovo kak fiziologicheskiy i lechebny
faktor ( Words as a Physiological and Therapeutic Factor ) , Moscow ,
State Publishing House of Medical Literature, 1957 .
38 . Yu . A. Povarinskiy , " The Influence of a Hypnotic Action
Upon Gaseous Exchange , " Anthology Devoted to the Jubilee of R. Ya.
Golant, Leningrad , 1940 .
39. A. S. Prangishvili, " The Psychology of Panic ," Trudy In
stituta psikhologii ( Works of the Institute of Psychology ),Tbilisi,
20. 2 , 1943.
40. G. P. Prokof'yev , Formirovaniye muzykanta_ispolnitelya
( The Formation of a Musical Performer ) , Moscow , Publishing House of the
Academy of Pedagogical Sciences RSFSR , 1946 .
41. I. T. Romanyuk , " Problems Concerned with the Psychology of
Feelings in the Works of I. M. Sechenov and I. P. Pavlov , " Author's
Abstract of Candidate's Dissertation , Kiev , 1956 .
42. S. L. Rubinshteyn , Osnovy obshchey psikhologii ( Foundations
of General Psychology ) ( Chapter : " Emotions" ), Moscow , State Training
and Pedagogical Literature Publishing House , 1946 .
43. K. S. Stanislavskiy , Rabota aktera nad soboy ( An Actor's
Work on Himself ) , Moscow , Iskusstvo (Art) , 1938.
44. 2. I. Stanchinskaya, Dnevnik materi ( The Dairy of a Mother ),
Moscow , " New Moscow Publishing House , 1924 .
45. B. M. Teplov , O muzykal'nom perezhivanii ( Concerning Musical
Experience ), Anthology Devoted to the 35th Anniversary of the Scientific
Activity of D. N. Uznadze, Tbilisi , 1945 .
46. B. M. Teplov , " Psychological Problems of Esthetic Training , "
Izvestiya APN RSFSR (Gazette of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences
RSFSR ) , No. 11, 1947 .
47 . N. N. Timofeyev, " Concerning the Problem of the Mechanisms
of Emotional Reactions in Mental Patients , " Nevropatologiya i psikhiatriya
(Neuropathology and Psychiatry ) , No. 11 , 1938 .
48. M. P. Feofanov, " Certain Problems Connected with the Psychol
ogy of Feelings , " Sovetskaya pedagogika ( Soviet Pedagogy ) , No. 9 , 1952.

- 265 -
 49. G. A. Fortunatov , " Fear and the Overcoming of Fear , " Can
didate's Dissertation , Moscow , 1942 .
50. K. Ye . Khomenko , " The Development of Esthetic Perception in
a Child , " Naukovi zapiski Kharkovskogovo derzhavn . ped . institutu ( Aca
demic Reports of the Khar 'kov State Pedagogical Institute), in Ukrain
ian ] Vol . VI and X, 1941 .
51. 0. A. Chernikova , " Sports Training and its Importance in
the Development of Boldness and Decisiveness , " Uchenyye zapiski
gosudarstvennogo tsentral'nogo instituta fizicheskoy kul'tury (Academic
Reports of the State Central Institute of Physical Culture) , No. 4 ,
Moscow , 1949 .
2. I. Chuchmarev , Podkorkovaya psikhofiziologiya ( Subcortical
52 .
Psychophysiology ) , ( Chapter: " Emotional Reactions of Chronic Encephalit
ics ) , Moscow , 1926 .
53. P. M. Yakobson , Psikhologiya chuvstv ( Psychology of Feelings ),
Second Edition , Publishing House of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences
RSFSR , 1958.
54. P. M. Yakobson , " Psychological Problems concerned with the
Training of Feelings , " Sovetskaya pedagogika ( Soviet Pedagogy ), No. 6 ,
1955 .
55. P. M. Yakobson , Psikhologiya stsenicheskikh chuvstv_aktera
( The Psychology of the Stage Feelings of an Actor) , Moscow State Publish
ing House of Belles-Lettres, 1936 .
56. V. Yasinskiy and A. Kartamyshev, " Leucocytosis During Emo
tional States , “ Sovremennaya psikhonevrologiya (Modern Psychoneurology ),
No. 12 , 1930 .

- 266 .
 STUDY OF THE PERSONALITY OF SCHOOL CHILDREN AND PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION

By L. I. Bozhovich

I. LIVING CONDI HONS OF A SCHOOL - AGE CHILD AND THE

FORMATION OF HIS PERSONALITY

The psychological study of the personality is rightfully con

sidered as a branch of psychology on which relatively little work has
been done so far . This is due to a considerable extent to me thodological
difficulties of research in this field , which in turn are caused by the
complexity of the actual field of study , namely the personality of man
and the necessity of studying this personality under the complex living
conditions of its activity and development .
However , during the past 10-15 years , in connection with the gen
eral attention devoted in the USSR to problems concerned with the educa
tion of youth , the number of research studies in the field of the psy
chology of personality has been considerably expanded , as a result of
which it has been possible to collect a considerable number of facts and
principles , which , although they do not place this branch of psycholog
ical science on the same level of development with other branches of
psychology , still make it possible to note a considerable progress in
this field .
One of the characteristic features of the research work done in
this field during the early years is a trend aimed at discovering the
regular relations existing between the condi tions in the life of a child ,
on the one hand , and the peculiar features of his personality , on the
other hand , The question was put as to the manner in which certain traits
are formed in children and under the influence of which living and educa
tion conditions these traits are formed , as well as what are the guiding
and determining factors in these conditions, and how should the life of
a child be organized in order that the formation of his personality shall
proceed in accordance with the aims of education .
An important characteristic of these research studies was the at
tempt to understand the personality as a certain integral structure , con
sidered in all of its complex mutual relations with the surrounding
reality . Research studies had to comply with the following requirement,
namely to study not single or isolated manifestations of the personality ,
but the entire variety of its vital manifestations in their unity . Such
a requirement was dictated not by an attempt to avoid an abstract
functionalistic approach , in which the live and concrete personality of
the child becomes lost, but also by the conviction that the path of the
integral study of the personality is the only correct one for the pur
poses of pedagogical practice . The pedagogical bias of these research
studies also constitutes their characteristic feature . Typical in this

- 267 -
respect , for example , is the statement made by A. G. Kovalev , one of
the Soviet psychologists who has adopted the course just described
above for studying the personality of a pupil . As is stated in one of
his studies, "It is known that a teacher has to deal with the integral
personality of a pupil who participates in the relations found in a
collective . In attempting to make use of the scientific data in the
field of psychology , which have been obtained without taking into
account typical relations in a collective and without taking into ac
count the structure of the psychological activity of a child , a teacher
cannot be successful in his work , and naturally expresses doubts concern
ing the trustworthiness of the rules established by science , A study
of the human personality as an integral whole is indispensable, and such
a study must occupy a central_place in the field of problems relative
to pedagogical psychology ," [ 247.
The tasks which were imposed upon the study of the personality of
a pupil in the above -mentioned research work also forced the adoption of
corresponding methodological principles. It was considered necessary to
study the rules governing the formation of the personality of a child
during the actual course of the pedagogical process and under the actual
condi tions of the child's education . Instead of laboratory experiments ,
observations were conducted of the course of the pedagogical process as
well as a generalization and analysis of pedagogical experience , obser
vations of children and talks with these children , a study of literary
figures and biographies , and the conduct of natural psychologico
pedagogical experiments .
Ano ther characteristic feature of these research studies was the
fact that they were not satisfied in a merely passive recording of the
peculiar features of a child undergoing a process of formation . Research
workers attempted themselves actively to mold these peculiar features ,
by finding the optimum conditions and methods of action for this pur
pose . Accordingly , one of the basic methods of research involved psy
chologico -pedagogical experiments, i.e. , the study of the personality
of a child during the course of his active and purposeful education .
In this respect, the research work which was being conducted corresponded
to one of the most important characteristics of Soviet science , namely
the contention that the final task of a scientific research study con
sists in learning how to control or guide those processes , the laws of
motion of which are being studied .
One of the typical research studies of the type described above
is the study conducted by A. G. Kovalev , devoted to a method of study
ing pupils for pedagogical purposes [22]. In this work , which is based
on a study of pedagogical experience , the author shows how the class in ..
structor , having been confronted with a poor behavior on the part of a
student, is trying to find traits responsible for this behavior ( shyness ,
impulsiveness, rudeness, etc. ) , and then , by means of corresponding
pedagogical measures, attempting to re- educate the child . The cases
listed in this study disclose the relationship between the above - mentioned

- 268 .
 negative character traits and definite living and education conditions
of the child , and shows how correctly organized pedagogical work yields
positive results .
The relationship between the formation of definite personality
traits and living conditions is traced by A. G. Kovalev in another of
his studies [237. At the same time , the dependence of the behavior and
character of a human individual upon his ideology and world outlook is
also noted in this research study .
In one of his research studies , A. G. Kovalev attempts to out
line, from the standpoints mentioned above, the stages of the develop
mental changes of the character of a child . On the basis of data
obtained during a long period of observation , the author describes three
such stages. The first stage , which includes the pre- school age is de
fined by the author as a stage "of a situational character development. "
During the course of this stage , asserts the author , there is observed
a direct dependence of the behavior of children upon a concrete situa
tion and the absence of stable firmly established attitudes , whereby
these factors make it possible , in his opinion , easily to reform the
behavior of a pre- school age child . The second stage embraces the jun
ior and medium school age group . This stage is characterized by na
mediated reflection of reality by the formation of " stable external
and internal actions, " a systematic arrangement of moral knowledge and
the appearance of behavior habits . Finally , the third stage , which in
cludes the senior school age group , constitutes , according to the def
inition of the author , a stage of " an internally conditioned behavior "
[25 ].
Undoubtedly, all of these stages are outlined by the author in
what is still a very approximate and schematic way , and many of his as
sertions may be subjected to serious doubts, but still this attempt de
serves mention .
Some of the research studies of the type described above were
concerned with the formulation of the problem involving the clarifica
tion of the influence exerted upon the formation of the character of a
child by one certain condition in his life or by one kind of educational
influence .
Typical in this respect is the research work done by N. D. Levitov ,
concerned with the study of the role exerted by personal example upon the
formation of the character of a pupil ( 317. This research work is based
on a study of individual tenth - grade students, whereby a wide variety of
methods were used during the course of this study , such as observations ,
talks, a study of the creative works of the students , etc. , and not only
experiments .
In this study it was possible to show the manner in which the
establishment of an example or model " takes place in senior school chil
dren and under what conditions the influence exerted by this example is
particularly effective . In passing , the author points out certain other
factors, in addi tion to example , which operate in the formation of the

- 269 -
character of students . The role of study activity is noted in partic
ular : " the attitude of the students towards their studies , " writes the
author of this research work , " efforts on the part of students to achieve
progress , and failures in studies -- all of these represent a very sig
nificant factor in the character formation of students" ( 30; 707. In
deed , both the experience obtained by A. S. Makarenko during his
pedagogical work and the experience of other Soviet pedagogues who
adopted his ideas , specifically T. Ye . Konnikova [22], confirmed the
fact that the formation of personality qualities of a child and of his
psychic features is realized first of all during such a type of activ
ity as constitutes the basic content of his life or of the life of the
collective to which the student belongs . During the school age period ,
studies constitute precisely such a type of activity .
The problem concerning the role of example in the formation of
the personality was also considered in a study conducted by P. A.
Proseteskiy (427 , who , as a result of his research work, was able to
show several lines of development in a child's imitation of a model :
from the imitation of a proximate model to the imitation of a remote
model , from unconscious limitation to conscious, from external imita
tion to internal , from " imitation as an end in itself, " to " imitation
as a means to an end . "
A considerable amount of attention was devoted by Soviet psychol
ogists to a study of the influence exerted by a collective upon the for
mation of the personality of a school child , whereby the study of this
problem was associated with the study of the characteristics of the
collectives themselves and of the conditions of their formation ,
A description of the characteristic features of a collective
consisting of first- grade students and of the influence exerted by
this collective upon the behavior of children , upon the formation of
positive personality qualities in these children , was given by M , N.
Volokitina [ 74 ). On the basis of her observations, this author shows
that the entire physiognomy of the collective of first graders is
clearly influenced not only by the methodological operational tech
niques of the teacher but also by many characteristic features of the
teacher's personality . In analyzing the process of formation of the
collective, the author describes how , on the basis of a combined ac
tivity of the children and their mutual assistance during studies, a
public opinion is formed , as well as an understanding of the great
value of friendly relations, a consideration towards each other , and
how the children gradually develop an interest towards each other and
a desire to stick together , instead of a feeling of isolation and es
trangement , This study also shows how , under the influence of the col
lective , the children gradually lose individual undesirable traits
which they originally exhibited when they entered school .
A. L. Shnirman has devoted an especially great amount of atten
tion to the study of a collective of children of medium and senior age .
Following the teaching of A. S. Makarenko and his thesis that the

- 270 -
collective represents a binding link between the individual personal
ity and society , A. L. Shnirman has expressed the thought that a
study of the collective and of its influence upon the individual per
sonality constitutes the basic course of a psychological research of
" the social determination of a personality " [60].
The research work of A. L. Shnirman was done along the follow
ing two lines : ( a) On a plane involving the study of characteristic
features of the child collective itself , of its formation and the de
velopment of those qualities which are capable of exerting the most
effective pedagogical influence upon the formation of socially valuable
traits in the personality of a child , and ( b) on the plane involving a
study of socially useful or valuable personality traits and conditions
for their cultivation in a collective .
As a result of research work conducted on the first plane, A. L.
Shnirman was able to outline those features which must be exhibited by
a primary child collective in order that it may exert a positive in
fluence upon a pupil . Such features include a purposeful attitude of
the collective, a high degree of exactingness , initiative , independence ,
and the presence of a discipline which A. S. Makarenko designated as a
discipline of struggle and overcoming . It is precisely in such types
of collective that a number of important aspects of the personality of
a school child are formed , namely a conscious attitude towards studies,
work and social activities , a feeling of reserve or restraint and a
proper attitude toward school friends, etc. Unfortunately , the author
does not identify the main features of a collective which are respon
sible for its influence upon the personality ; all the features given
in this research work are simply enumerated in series . Nor does A.
L. Shnirman devote sufficient attention to the forms of structuring
of a collective , which would allow a better understanding of the con
di tions and "mechanisms of the influence exerted by the collective
upon a personality .
In his research work belonging to the second plane , A. L.
Shnirman has devoted a great deal of attention to the problem of the
formation in school children of a collectivistic attitude , namely of
collectivist convictions, feelings, collective behavior , and collective
habits 5527. On the basis of autobiographical data, collected by means
of compositions written upon a corresponding topic by students of higher
pedagogical institutions, and also on the basis of data obtained during
a two - year period of observation of the same class , the author notes
the great complexity in the formation of collectivism and significant
differences in this formation at various stages of development of a
child 559; 1027 .
Other authors have also devoted attention to the study of the
formation of individual qualities of the personality in the context of
the life and activity of school children in a collective . Thus , the
formation of persistence was studied by N. I. Sudakov [ 557.. the forma
tion of self- confidence was studied by F. I. Ivashchenko [217 , and
the formation of exactingness toward one's self was studied by A. A.
Bodalev N, etc.
- 271 -
 There is no doubt that all of these research studies have a
great pedagogical value, especially if we consider the fact that all
of these problems are still not receiving a sufficient amount of atten
tion in pedagogical literature .
2

Research work on the personality of school children , conducted

in the laboratory for the psychology of education of school - age chil
dren at the Institute of Psychology of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical
Sciences , also started with a study of the relationship between the
living conditions of a child and the characteristic features of his
personality . However , in setting up this research work , we proceeded
from the very beginning from the concept that living conditions all
by themselves, i.e. , in a direct and immediate way are not capable of
determining the formation of the personality of the child , and that
under the same external conditions different features or traits can
be formed , and that this will depend primarily upon the type of mutual
relations between the child itself and these conditions.
This principle was stated for the first time in Soviet psychol
ogy by L. S. Vygotskiy. In his lectures given to students of the Med
ical Institute in 1934 , he developed the idea that, in order to achieve
a correct understanding of the role played by the environment in the de
velopment of the child , one must always approach this environment not
with an absolute but with a relative measuring rod . Any kind of " ele
ment of the environment" acts upon a child in a different manner , de
pending upon the stage of development of the child itself . For
example , the speech of people surrounding the child can be completely
identical ( from the standpoint of its culture , vocabulary , accuracy ,
etc. ) , both when the child is six months old and when the child is
three and a half years old ; yet the effect of the speech in both cases
will be different, since children of infant or pre - school age stand at
a different level in the understanding of this speech.
Consequently , according to the idea expressed by L. S. Vygotskiy ,
even in those cases when the effects exerted by the environment remain
constant in their objective content, they influence the child in a dif
ferent manner in virtue of the changes occurring in the child himself .
We agree with this principle of L. S. Vygotskiy and we have ato
tempted to study in our work the concrete content of those mutual rela
tions which exist between a child and his surrounding environment and
which make it possible to understand the special character of the ac
tion exerted by the environment in each individual case ( or at each
developmental stage ) .
At the same time , we proceeded from the following consideration :
if the influence of the environment is determined not only by its ob
jective content , but also by those previously formed psychological
characteristics of the child , whcih refract and mediate the influence
of the environment, then the main task of our study consists in finding

- 272 -
in this mediation a crucial link which determines both the character
of the influence exerted by the environment on the child and the re
sult of the action of this environment .
L. S. Vygotskiy believed that the link which is being sought
consists in the fact that a child " experiences " the " element " of
the external environment which is acting upon him . From the child's
standpoint, an " experience" is that " atomic " whole , in which , on the
one hand , is represented the environment, i.e. that which is exper
ienced by the child , and on the other hand , that which is introduced
into this experience by the child himself and which in turn is deter
mined by the previously achieved level of psychic development. Hence ,
L. S. Vygotskiy comes to the conclusion that in order to understand
the manner in which a certain circumstance or event will influence a
child and the role which it will play in his further psychic develop
ment, it is necessary to analyze how the child " is affectively related "
to this action , or, in other words, how he " experiences " this action .
The " experience constitutes precisely the " prism " through which the
environment is refracted and exerts its influence upon the psychic de
velopment of the child .
Naturally , the most proximate thing which can explain the spe
cific character of the same influence upon different children or upon
the same child at different periods of his development, is the " exper
iences of the child by means of which this influence is interpreted , i .
e . the manner in which the child " reacts affectively to this influence .
For example, depending upon the way in which the child himself looks
upon knowledge , he will assimilate this knowledge in a different way ;
depending upon his attitude towards work , his participation in work
activity will form or shape different qualities of the personality ,
etc. However , such an explanation is not completely satisfactory ,
since the experience of a child and his " affective attitude " must ito
self be understood in its own content and origin . It is not enough
to say that the knowledge possessed by a certain child has a formal
character and does not influence the development of his thought, since
he does not like to study and is not interested in the content of the
subject matter which he is assimilating . Such an explanation is cor
rect, but it is insufficient . In order to get a full explanation , it
is necessary to understand the reasons responsible for the fact that
precisely such an atti tude toward knowledge and not another one , has
been formed in the child .
L. S. Vygotskiy believed that the character of an " affective
attitude" is determined in the final analysis by the child's degree of
understanding of the circumstances or events acting upon him , i.e. by
the level of development of his generalizations. But everyday observa
tions and an analysis of pedagogical facts indicate that , while exhibit
ing the same type of understanding , children frequently assume different
attitudes towards the same fact of reality , experience this fact in a
different way and react to this fact in a different manner . This can
be seen particularly clearly when , for example , a child , while fully

- 273 -
understanding the rational nature and even the necessity of a require
ment imposed upon him , still refuses to submit to this requirement only
because it contradicts other needs and urges present at this particular
moment .
The principle stated by L. S. Vygotskiy to the effect that an
" experience , " mediating the perception of an influence exerted by the
environment, is determined by the degree of understanding, also is in
disagreement with the fact that , as educational practice shows, expla
nations in themselves are not capable of causing a change in the affec
tive aspect of the child's attitude towards reality , i.e. are unable to
cause a change in his " experience . " Moreover , pedagogical facts indi
cate rather the opposite : namely , they show a dependence of the under
standing upon the affective attitude of the child towards the
circumstances acting upon him ,
Attempts to consider as a crucial point the development of gen
eralizations are also incorrect in view of the fact that a consistent
realization of this standpoint must restrict psychological research
studies to the field of purely subjective processes and will result in
a vicious circle, in which one of two mutually related psychic phenomena
is explained by means of the other one ( in this particular case, exper
ience is explained by means of the degree of development of generaliza
tions) . In this manner , psychic phenomena are torn away from actual
living attitudes or relations, into the system of which they are in
cluded and within which alone they can be explained . Now, in fact ,
during the course of biological development, the psychic field made
its appearance as an indispensable link , which insures the most effective
adaptation of an animal to the conditions of existence . And only on
this basis is it possible to understand the nature of psychic factors .
During the process of development of a child , the formation of
any kind of psychic properties , including also the development of gen
eralizations, can be understood only from an analysis of those real
mutual relations of a child with the surrounding environment which
give rise in the child to the need for corresponding psychic proper
ties. Thus, " experiences" also must be explained on the basis of the
relationship between the event or circumstance acting upon a child and
his personal needs and urges .
Therefore, an indispensable task of research work on the psychol
ogy of a child's personality must be considered to be a search for that
objective characteristic of a child's mutual - relations with reality
which would make it possible to understand both the way in which the
child " experiences" this reality and also the influence which this re
ality exerts upon the formation of his personality .
The research work which was conducted along this line by our
laboratory started with a study of individual school children exhibito
ing a lack of progress and a lack of discipline, and consisted in an
analysis of the psychological characteristics of the child, upon which
his poor progress and bad behavior were directly dependent, and also in
a clarification of that situation in his development which would make
it possible to understand the reasons for the appearance of these char
acteristics .
274 -
 At first , the purpose of this work , conducted together with
teachers , had a practical nature : namely, to help pedagogues and in
structors develop in children a proper attitude toward their studies
and those requirements which the school imposes upon their behavior .
However , this goal gradually was transformed into a means : a change
in an attitude became a method for studying this attitude itself and
the rules governing its formation . An active transforming experiment
became the principal method of research , whereby this experiment was
conducted in the context of an actual pedagogical process and was pre
ceded by a careful study of the child himself in all circumstances of
his life and activity , and in all of his mutual relations with those
around him . The experiment was set up on the basis of a hypothesis,
which arose as a result of such a study, and which was concerned with
the causes of the undesirable characteristics formed in the child and
the methods which should be adopted to change these characteristics .
Pedagogical practice , i.e. the return of the children being studied to
conditions involving a normal progress in their studies and a good bem
havior was the criterion used for judging the validity of the principles
which had been advanced .
During the study of school children making poor progress , it was
discovered that the vast majority of the children do not progress at
all that their progress is considerably lower than it could be accord
ing to the level of their individual development in view of the fact
that these children have developed an incorrect attitude towards their
studies and towards the school . In some children , this incorrect at
titude consisted in a clearly expressed dislike for studying and for
everything that is associated with studies; in other children it in
volved a complete indifference towards their study achievements, while
in a third group of children , this attitude consisted in a lack of
confidence in their own powers , etc.
An analysis of the conditions governing the appearance of one
or another of these attitudes disclosed that the nature of this atti
tude depends primarily upon two factors : on the one hand , upon the
extent to which studies determined the position of the pupil among
those around him and his mutual relations with these people, and on the
other hand , on the extent to which a pupil is capable of responding to
those requirements which are imposed upon him by his studies . For exam
ple, if the status of a child in the family and in the school, as well
as the attitude assumed towards him by relatives and children of the
same age and an evaluation of his personality by his entourage are de
termined by his study progress , while this child is unable to achieve
a good rate of progress in view of a lack of sufficient prepration for
school instruction or in view of some other reason , then , in such cases ,
as our research has shown , the child exhibits a striking affective re
action to the above circumstances and develops a negative attitude to
wards studies and sometimes even towardsthe school [10 ; 18-23]. If,
on the other contrary , a pupil , regardless of his study progress , is
looked upon favorably and attracts the attention of surrounding people

275 -
as a result of some other kind of qualities which he possesses, this
pupil , as was very frequently observed , does not even attempt to
study better and is quite satisfied in being an average or even a
weak student [70 ; 9-10]. A number of concrete facts which support
this principle are listed in a research study conducted by L. S.
Slavina [512], which is especially devoted to the problem of the role
of the family in the formation of a child's attitude towards studies
and towards the school . This study describes specifically a case in
which two children belonging to the same family, i.e. living under
the same external conditions , developed a different attitude towards
their studies, which was due to the fact that their parents attributed
a different importance or significance to the study progress of the two
children , The same research study also describes a case in which a
child with a very low level of intellectual development and having no
cognitive interests whatsoever still studied quite well , making , it is
true , considerable efforts in this direction , only because having no
father and living only with his mother and a younger brother , he assumed
in the family the position of a senior member who was expected in the
future to support and maintain his family as a result of his education .
The study also shows that those school children who had great difficul
ties in studying , but who were still able to assume a definite position
in the family by means of a different type of activity ( for example, by
participating in house work , taking care of smaller children , etc. ) fre
quently became completely unconcerned about their progress in studying
and were quite satisfied with their status of poor students in school .
All of these and similar facts can be understood more easily
if we consider that enrollment in school represents a turning point in
the life of a child , which is characterized first of all by the fact
that a child having become a pupil, acquires new rights and responsibil
ities and for the first time becomes engaged in a serious and socially
significant activity , whereby his status among those around him and his
mutual relations with these people depend upon the extent to which he
is able to fulfill these responsibilities .
Data available in our research work 191 indicate that the vast
majority of children , by the end of their pre - school age period , begin
to get bored with their pre - school mode of life and dream of becoming
school children (whereby they always want to become good pupils) and
to fulfill all the responsibilities imposed upon a school child . In
other words, at the end of their pre - school age period , children begin
to strive to achieve a new social status and to perform a new socially
significant type of activity .
In the light of these data , it becomes clear why the attitude of
a school child towards his studies depends first of all upon the extent
to which his studies have become a means of fulfilling his striving to
achieve a new social status . For example , it becomes clear that in
those cases when , after entering school, children do not feel directly
a change in their status, i.e , if progress in their studies does not

- 276 -
alter anything in their mutual relations with their parents , then the
status of a school child gradually loses all its value and significance
for these children , while at the same time all the responsibilities of
a school child lose their attraction and the difficult aspect of studies
becomes a predominant factor . In such cases , many such children begin
to develop an indifferent and sometimes even a negative attitude towards
studies . The specific nature of such an attitude depends upon the dif
ficulty which the child encounters in his studies and also depends on
his general development, on the presence or absence in the child of cog
nitive interests, and finally , which is most important, on whether or
not this particular child has found a realization for his strivings to
achieve a new mode of life in some other kind of activity . (In older
children , this disadvantage of a family training is frequently compen
sated by the school ; however , even in the school it is by no means always
possible to create a collective in which the place occupied by every
student in this collective and the public opinion about this student
is determined in the first place by his progress in his study work . )
Further , we can now also understand the affect which is associated
in some children with studies and school . It must be pointed out that
studies and those mutual relations which are developed on the basis of
studies constitute the main content of the life and activity of children
at this particular age . Therefore , impossibility for some children , for
one reason or another , to win during the course of studies a definite
status for themselves within the system of mutual relations with those
around them can cause in the child a conflict with those around him and
also sometimes with himself .
Research conducted on undisciplined school children fully con
firmed these principles and facts , obtained during a study of backward
school children . They have shown that a poor behavior of a pupil very
frequently arises as a form of protest against an attitude assumed to
ward this pupil , as a reaction to failures and as a method of assert
ing himself in his environment, and some times at an older age also as
a method of asserting himself in his own eyes. In our research work ,
it was frequently observed that children who were unable to occupy ,
by means of studying , that status in the collective to which they in
wardly aspired , started to " assert themselves by playing the role
of " incorrigibles, " " fools, " etc.
Cases are particularly frequently encountered among undisci
plined school children when students committed breaches of discipline
because they had lost their previously acquired status of a good or
outstanding student , For example, in the research work done by T. V.
Dragunova , a whole set of socially negative traits was disclosed in a
teen - age girl , such as stubbornness and negativism , a malicious
attitude toward those around her , conceit and a complete refusal to
submit to rules of conduct in school . An analysis of the life of this
girl showed that, during the period of her early school - days she had ,
through no merit of her own but solely because of the improper attitude

- 277 -
of her teacher to her , ranked as a good pupil in her class, while in
the fifth grade she lost this good standing , and the entire set of
traits described above proved to be a reaction to this loss .
Thus , an analysis of all the facts obtained by us during our
study of backward and undisciplined school children discloses the
fact that, no matter what objective position the child is exposed to
and no matter what requirements are imposed upon him , as long as the
fulfillment of these requirements does not become necessary for the
child himself, they will not constitute real factors in his develop
ment . These requirements will become necessary for the child only on
condition that their fulfillment will ensure not only a corresponding
objective status of the child , but also the status which he is striv
ing to achieve .
Such a discrepancy between the requirements imposed upon a
child and his own needs and strivings was disclosed especially clearly
in our research work involving the study of first graders who were
found not yet ready to go to school 19 . In such cases , the position
which the child assumed after entering school was objectively differ
ent from his own attitude to the matter and was different from his be
havior , needs and urges conditioned by his previous history of
development. While being objectively already a school child , such a
child inwardly continued still to remain a pre - schooler : he did not
acknowledge studying as a serious and socially significant matter ,
and continued to consider his studies as a game, ignored the demands
of the teacher and flippantly , without ascribing any special import
ance to this fact , violated the rules of school conduct . In such
cases , the demands which life imposed on the child , since they
clashed both with his potentials and with his own urges and needs ,
were unable to elicit the required behavior in this child and conse
quently could not influence his further psychic development along the
required lines ,
A similar contradiction , but one which occurred in different
children and in a different context, was observed by us in a boarding
school , where our attention was attracted by the fact that certain
children started to exhibit a tendency to do many things in an under
hand way and behaved in front of their instructors in a different inan
ner than in the absence of these instructors . After analyzing this
phenomenon , we became convinced that it was based upon the following
cause : these children , having lived under very unfavorable conditions
prior to entering the boarding school , were extremely fond of this
school and were very afraid of being expelled from the school . These
children , together with other children , were immediately subjected to
high requirements ( in respect of discipline, neatness, diligence, etc. ) .
However , these children were unable to fulfill these requirements right
away , since they were not prepared to do so on the basis of their prev
ious family life . As a reaction to the situation thus created , these
children started to develop the above -mentioned character traits, where
by , the characteristics of the traits formed corresponded to the needs

- 278 -
of the children ( namely , to retain their position in the boarding
school ) , but did not correspond to those requirements which were
imposed upon them by adults .
All of the statements made above disclose the fact that, in
order to understand the way in which certain new traits are formed
in the child , a distinction must be drawn between the objective sito
uation of the child which he occupies in life and his own " internal
position , " i.e. , the way in which he himself, as a result of the his
tory of his development which has created in the child a definite ex
perience and definite traits, he reacts towards his surroundings,
and , first of all , the way in which he reacts towards his own status
and towards those requirements which this status imposes upon him .
An analysis of the objective status of a child makes it possible to
understand this system of requirements which the environment imposes
upon him , while a study of the " internal position " makes it possible
to understand the system of his own needs and strivings. Our research
work has shown that, in those cases when it was possible to understand
the " internal position " of the child , not only did his attitude to this
or that individual phenomenon become clear , but also the entire system
of his attitudes toward reality , within which system each specific fact
of behavior can be explained . At the same time, attempts made during
the course of our study to restructure the attitudes of a child toward
the phenomena of reality of major importance to him disclosed that it
was impossible to achieve this goal , without changing his entire inter
nal position . We became convinced that the manner in which the behavior
of a child develops, the way in which his activity takes place , and
consequently also the way in which his personality is formed depend
upon the character of the internal position of the child and its re
lationship to his external status .
At the same time, our study has shown the important role played
by the relationship between the needs of the child and his possibilities
for satisfying these needs, and thereby for occupying or preserving a
place in the system of his mutual relations with other people which cor
responds to his needs and strivings . This indicates the tremendous role
played in the psychic development of a child by the contradiction between
his needs and previously formed potentials. And this is quite under
standable, since no kind of contradiction between requirements coming
from the outside and the possibilities of the child itself can serve as
a source for the formation of new factors until this external contradic
tion becomes an internal one , i.e. , until it will find its reflection
in the needs of the child himself . An ignoring of this principle means
an ignoring of the fact that psychological characteristics of the per
sonality , once they have been formed , determine , in the form of a feed
back influence, the nature of the influence exerted by the environment
upon the child .
The conclusions made by us on the basis of our research work ,
especially in regard to the role played by the objective status of the

- 279 -
child and his " internal position " in the formation of his person
ality, although they were arrived at directly on the basis of our work ,
had already been prepared to a considerable extent at an earlier date
in the field of psychology . In one form or another , these conclusions
could already be found in studies conducted by other psychologists ,
although in most cases these conslusions were reached without making a
sufficiently dear distinction between the external status of a child
and his internal position .
In substance , even a man as early as L. S. Vygotskiy , in attempt
ing to understand the specific conditions governing the development of
a child , had turned to an analysis of the status which the child occupies
in the system of relations having a vital importance for him and to an
analysis of those experiences of the child which are connected with this
status. In the previously mentioned lectures , this author mentions a
case out of his clinical practice, on the example of which he points out
very dearly the dependence between the status of the child in the fam
ily , his experience of the family situation , and the significance of
all these things in the formation of his personality . This case was
the following one : in the same family , in which there was no father
and the mother suffered periodically from serious psychic disturbances,
three children were growing up , whereby the difficult living situation
affected the development of these children in a completely different
way ; specifically , whereas the youngest child was retarded in his psy
chic development and was timid , passive and shy , the older child, on
the contrary , exhibited traits of an early psychic maturity and was
active, sober -minded , thoughtful and could be completely relied upon ,
according to the opinion of his neighbors.
Why then , asks L. S. Vygotskiy , did such a difference in the
general psychic aspect and in the character of the development of these
two children arise ? This was due , he replies, to the fact that each
child , in virtue of his age and level of understanding , experienced in
a different way all the phenomena of life around him , and consequently
assumed a different attitude toward these events ,
In noting these differences in the experiences of children as a
source responsible for the difference in their behavior and development,
L. S. Vygotskiy , in analyzing further the specific situation in the de
velopment of each child , points out that the younger child could not
respond to this situation in any other way than by developing protective
neurotic symptoms , since , in view of his developmental helplessness , he
found himself in the position of a suffering being, forced to accept
passively all of the negative influences exerted by his difficult sur
roundings . In contrast, the oldest boy , who was already ten years
old at the time his mother became sick , was placed in the position of
a senior member of the family , who was responsible for the entire fam
ily , and indeed , during the fits of illness to which his mother was
subjected , he took care as well as he could of the younger children and
organized the daily life of the family . According to L. S. Vygotskiy ,

280 -
this child was called upon to perform a special role in the family ,
and this role , according to the author , determined the type of de
velopment which was characteristic for this particular child .
Consequently , although L. S. Vygotskiy did consider that the
understanding and experience of this situation represented the main
factors in the development of the child , in actual practice , in order
to explain this development, he still analyzed the actual status oc
cupied by the child in life , and which , at various ages , actually de
termined both his behavior and his experiences themselves, and the
entire system of his attitudes toward reality .
In pointing up the great significance of the internal position
assumed by the child in the formation of his personality , it should be
noted further that very many Soviet psychologists, without suggesting
the concept of a " position , " actually used this concept as a basis for
an analysis of the peculiar features in the development of a child . A
study conducted by A. G. Kovalev and V. N. Myasishchev , devoted to a
study of character [26 ], gives specifically an example of the way in
which the characters of two young girls ( enzygotic twins) were formed
in a different manner only in view of the fact that each of these girls
was assigned a different place in the family: one of the girls began
to be considered being the elder, she was called from early childhood
the elder sister , she was entrusted with the supervision of her " young
er” sister and was responsible for her behavior , and later she was the
first one to perform various kinds of errands , such as going to the
store , sweeping the floor , etc. " Consequently , " as the authors of the
above study conclude, " a difference in the attitudes adopted by the
parents toward children determines also the difference in their char
acters even when the children live and are educated under the same con
ditions and have the same natural inclinations, as this is the case of
identical twins [26; 1927 .
Al though , as can be seen from this conclusion , the above authors
were able to get along without the concept of a " position , " it is quite
clear however that no kind of attitude assumed by the parent is capable
of determining anything in the formation of the personality of a child ,
if, as a result of this attitude , no change will take place in the
child's mode of life , in his own personal claims and in his activity
and behavior . The authors have correctly described the situation char
acterizing the development of both children and have actually isolated
the leading link in this situation , namely the different status of both
sisters in the family , which , in this particular case , coincided with
their internal position and which determined the different behavior of
the girls and the different character of their activity and mutual re
lations with those around them and with each other , and consequently
also the differences in the formation of their personality .
A. L. Shnirman , in studying the collective as the paramount con
dition for the formation of the personality of the school child , also
reached the conclusion that " the influence exerted by a collective upon
an individual personality depends not only upon the characteristic

- 281
features of the collective itself; this influence depends likewise ,
of necessity , upon the individual personality itself , upon its activ
ity in the collective and upon the status it occupies in the life
and activity of the_collective itself, upon its attitude towards the
collectiven [61; 387.
Thus , as a result of recent research , it can be considered as
an established fact that the formation of the personality of a child
is determined first of all by the place which the child occupies in
the system of human relations to which he has access , and also by the
relationship between the requirements imposed upon him by life and
adults and those psychological characteristics which he possesses at
this particular moment. It is precisely this relationship which en
genders those needs and desires of the child , those goals and strivings
of his, which , by refracting and mediating the influence exerted by
the environment, become the motive force in the development of new
psychic properties in the child .
These principles are valid not only for an understanding of in
dividual characteristics of a child's personality , but also for an
understanding of the psychological physiognomy which is typical for
children belonging to various age groups .
The first attempt to explain the peculiar nature of the develop
mental characteristic of a child as being due to the place which he
occupies objectively in the system of human relations at various stages
of his development was made by A. N. Leont'yev . In characterizing in
one of his studies certain traits of pre - school age children , this
author writes : " If we examine attentively all of these characteristics
of a pre - school age child , it is not difficult to establish the common
basis which binds together these characteristics . The basis is that
actual position of the child , from which the world of human relations
is disclosed to him , a position which is conditioned by the objective
place occupied by the child in these relations" [ 32; 408]. This ob
jective place occupied by children of pre- school age , according to
A , N. Leontiyev, is determined primarily by the fact that all of their
basic vital needs are satisifed by adults . " However , " proceeds A. N.
Leont'yev, " should it happen that the basic vital relations of the
child undergo a change , if, for example, he will be responsible for a
little sister , while his mother will consider him as her helper and as
a person participating in adult life , then this child will have an en
tirely different outlook upon the entire world . The fact that this
child does not yet know , does not understand a great deal is not im
portant; the more rapidly he reinterprets whatever is known to him ,
the more rapidly_wili his general psychic physiognomy undergo a
change" [ 32; 4087 .
I believe that A. N. Leontiyev, in stating these completely cor
rect principles, was still not quite consistent to the end . " Thus , "
he writes further , " a change in the place occupied by a child in a sys
tem of social relations is the first thing which should be noted when
we attempt to solve the problem of the motive forces of the development

- 282 -
of his psychic structure . However , all by itself, this place does not
of course determine the course of his development; it merely character
izes a current level or stage which has already been reached . That which
directly determines the development of a child's psychic structure is
his life itself , and the development of actual processes of this life ,
in other words, the development of both the external and internal ac
tivity of the child ; and the development of this activity , in turn , de
pends upon the living conditions actually obtained .
" Therefore , in studying the development of the psychic structure
of a child , we should start from an analysis of the development of his
activity , since the latter is formed in the given concrete context of
his life; only on condition of such an approach is it possible to clar
ify the role played both by external conditions in the life of a child,
and_by the inclinations and rudiments which the child possesses" [ 32 ;
4147 .
Here, I believe there arises a certain confusion or lack of
clarity in the main relations which must be considered in order to
understand the motive forces in the development of a child . The ob
jective place occupied by a child at each stage of his development is
determined by two circumstances : on the one hand , by the concrete
historical conditions in which the child grows up ( for example, the
necessity of his participation in production , the duration of the in
struction period of the child , etc. ) , and on the other hand , by the
level of the potentialities of the child himself , attained during a
preceding stage of development, which is empirically always taken into
account by adults. In regard to the activity of a child, which is con
sidered as a direct motive force of his psychic development, this activ
ity itself, in my opinion , is determined by the place occupied by the
child in real life and by those needs and strivings toward the satis
faction of which his life is aimed .

Other studies , conducted by the above -mentioned laboratory and

devoted to motives of the study activity of school children , also testo
ify to the great importance of the position occupied by a child in
understanding the whole system of his attitudes towards reality .
The experimental study of motives of activity was initiated in
Soviet psychology by A. N. Leont'yev and his associates, who studied
the influence exerted by motives of activity upon the character of the
course of this activity and upon the results of this activity in pre
school age children .
In the research work carried out by our group , the study of
these motives was formulated in a somewhat different manner . We were
interested not so much in the role of motive in the activity of a
child ( although this constituted the subject of our study to a certain
extent ), as rather in the formation of the motives themselves, in their

- 283 -
appearance and changes during the course of the life and education of
the child . Therefore, we adopted a genetic approach in our investigan
tion of motives of study , by analyzing the process of the formation and
development of study motives in individual children , and mainly by dis
closing and establishing specific peculiarities of motives in children
at various stages of their developmental progress . In this connection ,
we were interested in the change, occurring with age , not only of the
content of study motives , but also in the role which motives of a dif
ferent content play in the life and study activity of a child , in the
manner in which the significance and stimulatory power of each of these
motives undergo a change according to age groups, and also in the kind
of system formed by motives of a child's study activity at various
stages of his developmental progress. At the same time, the main pur
pose of our research work was to arrive at an understanding of the
rules governing the appearance , in a given child or at a given age, of
precisely certain study motives and not others , as well as an under
standing of the rules governing the changes of these motives according
to age .
In order to solve the problem formulated in this manner , we had
to examine study motives in their dose association both with the gen
eral personality of a child , as well as in association with the nature
of his mode of life and the place which studies occupy in the child's
life .
In our research work , we used various methods since we were
striving to obtain such a characteristic of the phenomena under study
as would have a maximum degree of objectivity . At the same time, we
preserved a single me thodological principle, making efforts so that
every fact would stand out during our research twice : namely in the
way in which it appears to the child itself , and in the way in which
it stands out in its own objective characteristic . In talking with
children , for example, we always gave questions of two different
types : some of those questions confronted the child with the task of
giving a direct answer on study motives; while other questions clari
fied this point in a roundabout and indirect way . For this purpose ,
the children were asked questions which in their opinion had no con
nection whatsoever with the motives of their study activity . However,
in answering these questions, the child actually disclosed his study
motives [71; 31 , 32) . As a result of such a talk, it was possible, by
comparing answers to both types of questions , to obtain a characteris
tic not only of those motives which really stimulate the study activity
of the child , but also to disclose their relation to mo tives which
stand out in the consciousness of the child itself .
This research study was conducted on school children from the
first to the tenth grade, as well as on children of an older pre
school age group .
After examining the early data obtained during this research study ,
we were able to establish the fact that the study activity of school chil
dren is always stimulated not by any sort of single motive, but by a

284
whole system of motives which are linked with each other by means of
a complex and sometimes even a contradictory relationship . During the
course of subsequent research , it was found that this fact is appli .
cable not only to study activity but also to any kind of activity of
a child ( such as work , social activity, etc. ) .
A further analysis of study motives showed that these motives
differ from each other not only in regard to their content, which al
ways used to constitute the principal basis for their classification ,
but also in regard to the function performed and , which is most import
ant, also in regard to their origin .
From the standpoint of the function and stimulatory power , we
have to distinguish motives which directly stimulate a study activity
and motives which merely guide or orient this activity into a certain
personal "
direction and which impart to this activity a certain, " we
sense . Following in the footsteps of A. N. Leont'yev designated
the former as " directly stimulating motives , " and the latter as mo
tives " imparting a meaning . "
A combination of both of these mo tives is necessary in order
that the study activity should follow a normal course and in order
that the personality of the school child should be formed properly dur
ing this activity . An absence of motives " imparting a meaning " indi
cates that the study activity of a child does not occupy a proper place
in the life of this child and that it lies outside of his basic vital
relations and purposes , and consequently , is devoid of any deep "per
sonal " meaning for the child .
However , the presence only of motives, " imparting meaning " can
not ensure a normal course in the daily study work of a child . If,
for example, a pupil is anxious to get an education , realizing that
this education constitutes a condition for a further valuable creative
activity or in securing for him in the future a definite social posi
tion, then , although these are vitally important motives, nevertheless,
being, as they are , long -range goals for the child , these motives can
not compel him , especially in the junior and medium grades of the
school, to sit down and do his homework for the next day at the proper
time . Additional motives are necessary in this case , which are more
closely and directly associated with the daily life and the daily
study activity of children . One such motive , for example , is the
evaluation of knowledge in the form of a grade (mark ), which secures
the pupil a definite status in class and a definite attitude towards
him on the part of his classmates.
Consequently , whereas motives imparting a meaning crystallize
the aspirations of a child for the future, directly stimulating mo
tives crystallize his present- day needs . Therefore, the development of
both types of motivation for studying and a deep internal connection
between these motives is a very important factor in the correct organiza
tion of study activities of a child as well as in the effective forma
tion of his personality .

- 285 -
 It was established in the research work conducted by us that
motives which exert a direct stimulating effect upon the study activ
ity of school children can fulfill their educational role only when
they are inwardly and organically connected with the content of stud
ies or when they contain within themselves the social sense of these
studies . If, on the other hand , a child learns only in order to re
ceive an award or in order to avoid punishment, then such motives , al
though they may in individual cases have a great stimulatory force ,
nonetheless push the children in the direction of a merely formal as
similation of knowledge and contribute to the development of undesir
able personality traits in these children .
Thus , a study of the role played by marks or grades in the
study activity of a school child has shown how the function of a grade
changes and how its negative influence upon the child arises when a
grade bses for the child its internal connection with the content of
studies [T2; 357. A research study has shown the following two aspects
of a grade: on the one hand, it reflects the level of knowledge of a
pupil and thereby constitutes an index of his progress ; on the other
hand , it represents an evaluation of the quality of the study work done
by the child and a personal evaluation of the child as a school child ,
thereby expressing a public opinion about the child . Both of these as
pects are mutually dependent upon each other , although they are not al
ways interrelated in the opinion of the children .
In some cases , when a grade is not properly used ( for example ,
when it is given for mechanically learned or memorized lessons , or when
the grade is given not so much for a knowledge of the subject as rather
for behavior during alass ) , and also in the absence of a properly or
ganized public opinion in class ( for example, when outstanding pupils
are surrounded by a halo of glory regardless of their attitude towards
studies and their personal qualities ), a grade is no longer considered
by the students as a criterion for the evaluation of their knowledge ,
but assumes a sort of fetish meaning for the students and becomes
merely a means for winning a definite social position and acknowledg
ment of their merits from those around them . As a result of such an
attitude of children towards a grade, their interest in knowledge be
comes weaker and an unhealthy competition arises , as well as a feeling
of ambition and other pedagogically negative phenomena. These data
point quite clearly to the necessity of a special training of motives
for the study activity of a child , since these data show quite con
cretely the deep internal connection existing between study motives and
the formation of the personality of the child .
An even more substantial difference between study motives ( in
comparison with their differences in regard to function and stimula
tory force ) comes out clearly when these motives are analyzed from the
standpoint of their origin . In this case again , two groups of motives
can be identified , which are intimately associated with each other but
which have a different origin and a different logic of development ,

286 -
 One of these groups includes motives which are directly assoc
iated with the actual study activity of the child , with its content
and method of execution . Many school children , for example, are study
ing in order to learn new and interesting facts ; they experience a di
rect pleasure from reading , writing , and counting , they like to overcome
difficulties and to work through to the solution of a given study prob
lem .
An investigation of the study interests of children belonging to
the junior school age , which was conducted in our laboratory by M. F.
korozov [407, has shown that students even of that age are not only in
terested in the knowledge which they obtain in school but also like
the actual process of assimilation of knowledge. In the tests which
were conducted , it was established that when students are confronted
with a selection of easier or more difficult study assignments , as a
rule, they prefer those assignments which are more complex and have a
more difficult content. And this is a typical behavior not only for
good students but also for school children with an average rate of pro
gress .
Such motives, which are directly associated with the actual
study activity , undergo a change and development with age . However , it
is possible to understand the content, course and direction of their
development only if we proceed from the development of the actual study
process , from its content and form , and from the logic in the accumula
tion of knowledge obtained by studying .
Research work done by many authors, including M. F. Morozov, has
shown that , at first, the study interests of children are directed pri
marily toward individual facts and events which are pointed out in the
study material . llojever , in proportion to the accumulation of knowledge
and the appearance on this basis of a system of notions or ideas con
cerning the reality which is reflected in one or another study subject ,
the children develop an interest not only in facts and events as such ,
but also an interest in their interconnection and in the causal relation
ships existing between these facts and events . In other words , during
the course of an assimilation of the fundamentals of the sciences, there
arises a need to learn about the surrounding reality and the laws govern
ing this reality . At a later date , and again on the basis of an accunula
tion and systematic classification of knowledge, when the children
develop a notion concerning the corresponding study subject, they develop
an interest not only in reality itself , but also in what is known about
this reality in science and in the process of cognition of this reality .
Consequently , it is possible to understand the nature of change in
study interests , which are highly important motives generated by the
actual study activity of school children , only on the basis of an an
alysis of the process of assimilation by these children of the fundamen
tals of the sciences .
In the same way , it is impossible to understand the development
of other study motives belonging to the same first group , for example,
a feeling of satisfaction caused by overcoming difficulties or by the
experience of an intellectual effort, etc. , without an analysis of the
actual study activity of the child .
- 287
 In contrast , study motives belonging to the other group (which
is established from the standpoint of the origin of motives) cannot be
understood unless we go beyond the limits of the study activity of the
child into the wide world of his vital attitudes and relations. A pupil
does not study only because he is stimulated by an interest towards
knowledge and by the satisfaction which he derives from actual study
work , but also because of the fact that studies , representing a socially
significant activity , secure for the child a definite place in life and
a definite attitude towards the child on the part of his human environ
ment, while the knowledge which is acquired in school determines to a
considerable extent his further fate , Such motives , in contrast to mo
tives of the first group , have been designated by us as " broad social
motives of study " since they transcend the narrow limits of an actual
study activity and are associated with broader attitudes of the child
towards reality .
The motives belonging to this group may be extremely varied in
their content. Such motives may include the urge on the part of the
child to be approved by the teacher , to win the respect of his school
mates or a word of praise from his parents or a desire to get a good
grade which will facilitate his entry into a higher educational estab
lishment . At the same time, every child , at every developmental stage
of his progress , always has some kind of leading motive which crystal
lizes the most basic vital needs of the child and which determines the
character of all other motives of his study activity .
A genetic analysis of the leading motive of study in children be
longing to different age groups has disclosed a definite direction in
their development. At first, the leading study motive is the urge to
study as a socially significant activity , which leads the child into a
world of new relations or attitudes and secures for him a new social
status. In this connection , all factors which emphasize the social
significance of study and its serious compulsory nature become at this
stage motives stimulating the study activity of the child . Junior
grade students attach a special value to the requirements and praise of
the teacher , to the attention and respect displayed by the parents to
wards the study work of the child, and to an evaluation of his progress
by his surrounding human environment .
In older children , the leading study motive undergoes a change,
this change being based on a change in the life of the school child him
self and on the character of his mutual relations with those around him .
Having become a pupil , a child enters into a school life saturated with
a special content, which becomes also the content of his own life , At
this stage , he is striving , as a result of the quality of his study work ,
to win a definite place in the school and in the school collective, and
to establish himself as a good pupil . For this reason , at this partic
ular age , the public opinion of the class as well as grades which ex
press this opinion , acquire a special stimulatory force .

- 288 .
 Finally , in the senior school grades, when the pupils approach
the final stage of their studies , the principal motive of their study
activity is associated with their future. Life is confronting them
with new problems: What shall they do after completing school ? How
will their further life be shaped ? What position will they occupy in
the life of their own society ? School matters and school relations now
begin to be consciously reinterpreted on the level of these prospects.
Now, the leading social motive of study is associated with the need of
the pupil to determine his future , The acquisition of knowledge useful
in the profession selected by the school child , grades as an index of
the knowledge which is of value and significance in the further " des
tiny of the pupil , these factors now become the most immediate and di .
rectly stimulating motives of his study activity .
Data obtained during investigations of the motives of his study
activity show that the character of the leading social motive of study
determines the whole system of the study motivation of a child . The
research work done by M. F. Morozov, for example , refutes the opinion ,
which has been widely held up to the present time, that the study in
terests of a junior - age school child are formed on the basis of the
entertaining nature of studies and are supported by this fact. Data
obtained during psychological studies show that even in the first grade,
the thing which pupils like most about studies is their serious and com
pulsory character . The urge of children of this age towards studies as
a socially significant activity also determines the nature of their
study interest , which , in a certain sense , is directly opposed to those
interests which the children had exhibited only recently and which con
tinue to remain in these children even now in other spheres of their
activity .
The same rules are observed just as clearly during the last stage
of development of a pupil's motivation , Social mo tives, associated with
the future of the pupil and which constitute the leading motives in
senior school children , also determine study interests at this age .
Students in senior grades, as a rule , begin to manifest a special inter
est in those study subjects which they need for their work in their se
lected special field and in the mastery of their selected profession .
The leading significance of broad social motives of study in the
development of the entire attitude assumed by school children towards
their studies is quite logical , since those motives crystallize the
basic vital needs of the child , resulting from his objective place with
in the system of social relations and from his internal position .
There is no doubt that the data obtained by us during the inves
tigation of broad social motives of the study activity of the child ,
refer to the rules governing the formation not only of study motives ,
but also of motives stimulating any other kind of activity of the child
and his entire behavior .
On the basis of these data , it is also possible to understand the
somewhat limited nature of the hypothesis concerning the development of

• 289 -
motives , which was once proposed by A. N. Leont'yev . This author at
tempted to understand the development of motives primarily on the basis
of the development of the internal structure of the activity itself .
In stating his hypothesis concerning the development of motives and the
conditions under which , as a result of a shift in these motives, there
appear new needs, A. N. Leontiyev writes the following: # The most gen
eral answer which can be given to this question consists in the fact
that the described shift of motives is based upon the development of
the actions themselves , and that this development takes place in con
nection with the result of these actions " 133a7. There is no doubt
that the result of an activity can , under certain conditions that have
not yet been fully studied , become itself a motive for the activity of
a child . However , this can hardly be considered as the main course for
the formation of motives . If a motive , according to the idea expressed
by A. N. Leontyev , performs its stimulatory function only as a result
of a need which has become crystallized in this motive , then it is im
possible to understand the formation of the needs themselves , without
going beyond the limits of an analysis of the structure of the activity
of a child into the field of his broad vital relations or attitudes , A.
N. Leontiyev is attempting to tie the development of motives in with
the real - life position of the child , but so far this has been presented
in a very general form , without an analysis of the concrete relation
ships present here .
II . THE ROLEOF A KNOWLEDGE OF MORAL PRINCIPLES
IN THE FORMANON OF THE PERSONALITY OF SCHOOL CHILDREN

A considerable number of psychological works, concerned with a

study of the personality , are devoted to the investigation of moral
concepts in school children and of their role in the moral development
of the personality . The great interest expressed in these problems is
due first of all to the enormous importance assumed by the assimilation
of moral knowledge and the formation of convictions in the cultivation
of proper social forms of behavior and in the formation of moral qual
ities of the personality .
The experience gained during educational work in school also
points up the extremely important role of knowledge in the cultivation
of social forms of behavior in a child , especially in children of med
ium and senior school age .
At the same time, however , the interrelationship between the
knowledge of moral standards of behavior and the formation of moral acts
is by no means simple and univocal . Moreover , an overevaluation of know
ledge during the course of a moral education and the resulting transfer
of this center of educational work to verbal methods ( talks, explanations,
persuasion , etc. ) can result and actually do result in practice in the
appearance of a gap between knowledge and behavior , i.e , may result in
a sui generis type of formalism which is characterized here by the fact

- 290 -
that a child , while having a perfectly good knowledge of moral stand
ards and rules, does not follow these stand ards and rules by any means
in his personal behavior .
Facts showing such a discrepancy between knowledge and acts are
well known and have been described in a number of works , such as in the
research studies conducted by A. L. Maliovanov , A. S. Alyakrinskaya and
others . The presence of these facts poses a number of important prob
lems for a more thoroughgoing psychological study .
Especially important is the question as to why a knowledge of
moral standards of behavior in some cases leads to a higher level of be
havior and makes this behavior more flexible , stable and characterized
by high principles, while in other cases this knowledge remains neutral
in relation to the behavior or even contradicts this behavior and results
in the formation of negative personality traits .
It is essential to clarify under what conditions a knowledge of
moral standards becomes a formal knowledge and under which psychological
premises this knowledge is assimilated thoroughly and firmly and assumes
the form of true convictions ,
It is essential to understand what a knowledge of moral stand
ards contributes to behavior and why it is impossible to cultivate fully
a moral behavior without instilling into the consciousness of the child
ethical standards upon which this behavior is based .
Let us consider first the research work concerned with moral
knowledge in school children of various ages and let us examine the
characteristics of the formation of this knowledge and of its role in
the behavior of the child .
It has been established in a number of research studies , that ,
although they have a relatively high level of development of moral be
havior , certain school children , even those belonging to senior grades,
are unable to grasp the content of moral concepts in a proper manner .
I , M. Krasnobayev [297, for example, as a result of the analysis of a
considerable material collected by means of talks and compositions,
came to the conclusion that the discovery of the content of ethical con
cepts in senior school children does not correspond in a number of cases
to the developmental potentials of the students , to their general intel
lectual development and to the experience gained by them in the field
of moral behavior .
The same thing is evident from the data obtained by V. I.
Selivanov (467 concerning the understanding by 7th -8th grade school
children of moral - volitional properties of the personality . Only about
half of these teenagers (49.8 %) were able to grasp the content of these
concepts in a sufficiently correct manner . Over one - fourth ( 25.4 % ) were
unable to express verbally what they think about the corresponding con
cepts, while the remaining students ( 24.8 % ) gave an incorrect definition
of these concepts .
An extensive research study, which was specially devoted to the
characteristic of moral concepts in school children , was conducted by

291 -
V. A. Krutetskiy [ 307. This author studied the character and the level
of knowledge possessed by 5th to 10th grade students of ten concepts
concerned with moral qualities of the personality . The data obtained
during this research work also indicate a number of shortcomings in this
field of knowledge in students belonging not only to the medium but even
to the senior school age group .
Similar facts are noted in studies conducted by A. S. Alyakrinskaya
57 , A. I. Zhavoronko [20 ] and other_researchers. For example , the re
search work done by T. V. Rubtsova [45 ] has shown that children belonging
to the junior and medium school age group frequently evaluate certain
facts in an incorrect manner , since they possess wrong ideas concerning
the moral qualities of the personality . Thus , certain school children
considered as being cowardly the behavior of a child who had performed
a brave act, although he had experienced a feeling of fear . In the
opinion of these children , bravery meant only the absence of fear but
not the overcoming of fear ( " since he was afraid , he was not brave" ) .
The absence of a sufficiently generalized knowledge of moral qualities
of the personality leads, as was shown by T. V. Rubtsova , to a situa
tional and subjective nature of moral evaluations on the part of school
children . According to the data obtained by this author , children be
longing to the junior school age group sometimes variously appraise
the hero of a literary composition , depending upon what in his behavior
has made the greatest impression upon them , and also depending upon the
type of situation in which certain qualities of the hero was manifested .
Similar data concerned with the subjective and situational nature
of moral appraisals of school children have been obtained and described
in research studies which have not yet been published and which have
been conducted in our laboratory by V , I. Samokhvalova and T. V.
Dragunova . V. I. Samokhvalova has established , for example , that the
judgments passed by school children on a certain act or the evaluation
by the school children cf a certain moral quality depends to a consider
able extent upon their own position in the collective . In the study
performed by T. V. Dragunova , it was established that the same act is
evaluated by school children in a different manner depending upon the
consequences of this act. Thus, for example , certain children had a
poor opinion of a boy who wanted to help his mother put away the
dishes , but who broke a plate as a result of his clumsiness . Similar
facts are also found in the study conducted by Rubtsova .
In the research work done by A. L. Maliovanov , who studied the
relationship between the level of moral knowledge and the character of
the daily behavior of school children , a special group of teenagers was
established , the characteristic feature of whom was an inability , as a
result of an insufficient realization and generalization of moral con
cepts , to discern and understand the connection between the high require
ments of Communist morality known to them and their daily actions .
While wanting , for example , to perform heroic deeds , these school chil
dren did not always consider it necessary to perform their daily duties,

- 292 -
to study diligently , and to exhibit a disciplined behavior in school
and at home , etc. While praising highly the ideology , will , and per
sistence exhibited by Mares'yev , and even attempting to cultivate in
themselves corresponding qualities of the personality, these school
children could at the same time, without any feeling of embarrassment,
violate school discipline , without ascribing any kind of moral importa
ance to this violation . As A. L. Maliovanov correctly writes, " the
above characteristic features of this particular group of students con
stutute an expression of a lack of realization on their part of the full
content of moral principles and standards , in spite of their relatively
well - developed moral feelings and a good general bias of the personality . "
'In other words , " this author continues, " the true moral physiognomy of
these school children is higher than the level of development of their
ethical concepts, which is precisely the cause of the shortcomings ex
hibited in their daily behavior , in which they are not trying to apply
noral principles" [38; 107.
Certain interesting observations of a similar nature are presented
in a study conducted by T. Ye . Konnikova . She writes that, in her ped
agogical practice , she was frequently faced with the fact that, during
the course of political information talks, which were conducted in the
school not in the form of a direct presentation of political events but
in the form of true propaganda work aimed at developing in the listen
ers an active attitude towards the narrated events , as well as patriotic
feelings, when Komsomol youths described the achievements of a certain
outstanding production worker , they talked about these achievements
without a sufficient amount of propaganda enthusiasm . In this connec
tion , T. Ye . Konnikova notes that " not only adolescents, but even
young adults , are not always able to grasp clearly the true patriotic
meaning of a labor feat. Instances of heroic labor achievements are
considered by them as commonplace, natural and not worthy of interest"
[ 27; 667. School children can easily perceive heroic and patriotic
deeds during the war , i.e , where such achievements lie , so to speak
on, " the surface , " and do not require a deep analysis of the essential
nature of a phenomenon , but they are unable to perceive these qualities
in daily matters and actions .
The research work done by A. L. Maliovanov has lemonstrated ex
perimentally the decisive changes occurring in the behavior of adoles
cents when it is possible to demonstrate to them the true connection
between their daily behavior and those high principles by means of
which they want, but do not always know how , to be guided .
In connection with the statements made above , there arises the
problem as to the reason why a number of school children exhibit a level
of development of moral concepts which is not sufficiently high in com
parison with their age .
Almost all research workers who have been engaged in studying this
problem consider that the main reason lies in the fact that these con
cepts are assimilated empirically by the school children , apart from a

- 293 -
general theory and without a special and consistent guidance on the
part of the teacher . This is precisely the reason responsible for
the elementary, fragmentary , and unsystematic nature of these con
cepts . For example , the research work done by V. A. Krutetskiy has
shown that a properly set up course in psychology , in which the moral
qualities of the personality become the subject of a special study ,
sharply increases the ability of the school children to formulate ,
i.e , to clearly express in their speech the essential nature of these
qualities .
In accordance with the acknowledgment of the highly important
role played by a correct ethical knowledge in the moral development of
school children , certin Soviet psyshologists (I. M. Krasnobayev, A. L.
Maliovanov, V. A. Krutetskiy) have set themselves the task of increas
ing the degree of knowledge of ethical concepts in school children in
the context of a psychological -pedagogical experiment (by means of eth
ical talks, special courses devoted to ethical subjects , by using cor
responding study materials, primarily subjects in the field of
literature and psychology ), and then tracing the influence exerted by
this work upon the behavior of the school children .
As the result of research studies , it was shown that, all other
conditions being equal , an increase in the level , depth and degree of
awareness of moral notions and concepts really does have a favorable
effect upon the level of behavior of students , upon its stability and
conscientiousness . This means that special instruction of the stud
ents in a system of ethical knowledge , including a theoretical mastery
of the basic principles of Communist morality , must be introduced in some
form into the instruction and educational work of schools . Very def
inite ideas in this respect were expressed by A. S. Makarenko , on the
basis of his enormous pedagogical experience and on the basis of an
analysis and generalization of this experience . He lamented the fact
that even in the old school the need for a systematic instruction in
morals was well understood . And such morals , needed by the ruling
classes , were taught to children in school in the form of the Ten
Commandments , whereas in our country , a knowledge of Communist mor
als is assimilated by children in an off -hand manner during a chance
association with people with whom the children come into contact
( not counting, of course , certain elements of a moral instruction
which are taught to students during literature and history classes) .
The above author writes : " In my practice , I became convinced
that the presentation of a theory of morals is also indispensable to
us... In my practice , I was forced to offer to my students a theory of
morals in a definite program form ... In my practical experience , I even
had a well - developed synposis of such talks of a theoretical moral type,
and I was able to witness the very good and effective results of such
a theory of morals" ( 37; 132–1337 .

294
 2

The absence of a genuine knowledge of the principles of Commu

nist morality , however , is not the only cause for a gap between words
and deeds in the behavior of a child . Moreover , it does not even con
stitute its main reason .
An insufficient realization and generalization of moral con
cepts and notions can confuse a child during his appraisal of the be
havior of those around him and during an appraisal of his own short
comings . However , the absence of a corresponding level of moral
knowledge cannot explain those cases in which bad actions of children
are combined with a sufficiently good knowledge of standards and rules
of behavior .
In the research study conducted by A. L. Maliovanov , this was
a characteristic_symptom of another group of adolescents established
by this author (337. These students, which, it is true, represented
only a very small group , are characterized by a good knowledge of
moral standards and an ability clearly to determine moral requirem
ments imposed upon their behavior and an ability to identify the
basic marks of moral concepts and to formulate the essence of these
concepts , and likewise by the capacity to give a correct appraisal of
a moral act and to pinpoint the form of behavior necessary in one case
or another ; but , at the same time, these adolescents are not guided
in their own personal behavior by the knowledge which they possess and
do not even want to be . They know how to make demands upon their
friends ( and are very ready to do so ) , but do not feel it necessary to
impose these demands upon themselves .
In addition to this group , the study conducted by A. L.
Maliovanov also points out such students as behave badly not because
they consciously want to do so , but because a good behavior , in their
own words, somehow does not come off. " These children know the rules
of conduct and honestly strive to behave according to these rules; how
ever , in actual practice , they belong to the group of poorly disciplined
students ; they do not know how to work in a systematic way , how to act
in an organized manner and how to submit to the requirements or demands
made by adults .
According to data which have been especially collected in our
laboratory , such students constitute the majority of undisciplined
students, particularly in the medium and senior school age group .
It is clear that the reason for a gap between words and deeds
in all of the cases mentioned above no longer lies in the nature of
the moral knowledge possessed by the students , but rather in the ab
sence or incorrect formation of some other kind of components making up
the moral characteristic of the personality of the child , and first of
all in the absence in these children of sufficiently stable moral habits .

• 295 -
 III . THE IMPORTANCE OF MORAL HABITS IN THE FORMATION
OF THE PERSONALITY OF SCHOOL CHILDREN

On the basis of an enormous experience in character training

and retraining, A. S. Makarenko wrote : "I acknowledge the possibility
of a situation in which a school child will exhibit proper Soviet pat
riotic notions, but will not be trained in correct Soviet habits .
" This is particularly important, " he says , " when we speak about the cul
tivation of such qualities as patience , the ability to overcome pro
longed difficulties , and to surmount an obstacle not in a jerky manner
but by means of a constantly applied pressure . No matter how many cor
rect notions as to what should be done or must be done you can create ,
if you do not cultivate the habit of overcoming prolonged difficulties ,
I am entitled to say that you have not cultivated anything . In a
word , I demand that the life of a child should be organized as an exper
ience which cultivates a definite group of habits" ( 37 ;279-2807 .
We can say without exaggerating that , even among the most out
standing educators of the past, there is not a single one who did not
attribute a tremendous importance to habits . It is true that not all
of these educators considered that habits were positive components of
human behavior . Some of them believed that habits create a routine in
behavior and take away from behavior its flexibility and progress , but
such an attitude towards habits was the result of a limited understand
ing of habits as being mechanical and sluggish actions which resisted
a conscious regulation or control .
In Soviet psychology , the vast majority of research workers also
note the tremendous importance of customary forms of behavior in the
formation of the moral aspect of the personality of a child . For exam
ple , s . L. Rubinshteyn asserts that world outlook and morals , in stim
ulating a man to behave in a certain way , appear to be settled and
fixed in his character in the form of habits namely customary ways
or methods of moral behavior . By becoming transformed into habits , they
become a "second naturen of the human individual[43; 6677.
B. G. Anan'yev also believes that " the formation of habits and
their metamorphosis into human character traits play an important role
in the process of the formation of attitudes and relations and in their
rooting in the activity of the human individual . " This author states
that " a particularly significant role is played by such generalized
habits as a habit of hard work , a habit of attentiveness , a habit of
neatness and order,, a habit of high - quality execution of any piece
of work , habits of esprit de corps, the importance of which was empha
sized by M. I. Kalinin " [ 5; 487 .
A. A. Smirnov , in an article devoted to the analysis of the
status of research work on problems of the personality of Soviet school
children (547, asserts that the final stage of a moral education must
include the formation of stable customary forms of moral behavior . He

- 296
objects to the opinion held by psychologists who consider that it is
impossible to use the concept of a habit in this particular case , and
he assumes that their negative attitude towards this concept is based
upon the incorrect understanding of this concept in the spirit of the
old pedagogues and psychologists who oppose consciousness to habit .
In contrast to this point of view , A. A. Smirnov believes that customary
forms of behavior can also arise on a conscious basis . However , having
become customary , these forms of behavior are converted into actions
" the fulfillment of which is no longer a source of hesitation for the
individual . These actions are fulfilled by him as something which is
self -evident, and do not require any kind of preliminary discussion ,
and are always carried out in the presence af a definite situation . "
A. A. Smirnov believes that " the study of the peculiar nature of the
formation of customary forms of behavior constitutes one of the most
important tasks of the psychology of the personality of school chil
dren " [54; 827.
In spite of such an acknowledgment on the part of Soviet psy
chologists of the importance of customary forms of moral behavior for
the development of the personality of a child , and in spite of the
available pedagogical experience in this field ( studies of A. Ye .
Adrianova 2, M. N. Gushchina [16] and others), the number of con
crete psychological research studies devoted to this problem is still
very small . So far , psychology has at its disposal almost no exper
imental data on the nature of moral habits or customs, on the process
of their formation , and on their place in the complex set of human
character traits ; there is even a shortage of facts and observations ,
available in other branches of the psychology of the personality of
school children .
One of the first Soviet psychologists, who has attempted to an
alyze the process and the conditions necessary for the cultivation of
moral habits in school children , is A. L. Shnirman . In his first work
devoted to this problem ( 527, this author expresses a number of ideas
concerning the peculiar features and essence of moral habits , and sub
stantiates these ideas by an analysis of known pedagogical facts .
As a result of this analysis , the author draws a distinction , on
the one hand , between habits of action , and , on the other hand , habits
of activity . In his opinion , the cultivation of the latter group of
habits constitutes the most difficult and important problem , since these
habits " have a property of greater generality . " It is true that in his
further discussion , A. L. Shnirman does not disclose in detail what he
has in mind when he uses the term " generality of habits , " but still the
principle stated by him suggests that complex forms of customary behav
ior are not the simple result of repetition , but arise on the basis of
a generalization of actions performed in different situations .
A. L. Shnirman identifies the habits which have the greatest sig
nificance for the formation of the personality of a child , and attempts
to break down the complex forms of a customary behavior into their more
elementary component forms. He also articulates certain compulsory

297 -
pedagogical conditions for a correct formation of habits , namely a
schedule, an explanation given to the child concerning the significance
of the requirements imposed upon him , a unity of requirements on the
part of those around the youngster , checking , etc.
Ano ther study conducted by A. L. Shnirman is devoted to the for
mation of a habit to work independently [ 587. In contrast to the first
study , this one is based already on specially collected facts and ob
servations . It is true that the author himself points out that this
research , representing only the initial stage of his study, is not yet
concerned with the task of penetrating into the structure of the habit
under study , its content and character ; nor is this research work con
cerned with the task of analyzing the qualitative aspect of this habit
or of establishing the rules governing its formation ; still the author
does actually present data in his study which show the different ways
in which this habit is formed . On the basis of the facts collected in
this research work , it is possible to assert that the formation of hab
its cannot be reduced to a simple consolidation of actions as a result
of a repetition , but represents a complex process of development of cor
responding forms of behavior , which includes the destruction of previously
formed connections and the formation of new connections . This research
work also shows that it is not possible to understand the formation of
a habit working independently without taking into account the role played
in this process by the personality of the school child acquiring this
particular habit .

The problem of the consolidation of customary forms of behavior

and questions connected with the role played by habits in the formation
of personality qualities in school children have also been examined and
studied in our laboratory . At first, a study of these problems was
based on observations, after which we started to use experiments .
This cycle of studies, which is still in progress at the present
time, was initiated by the research work of L. S. Slavina, devoted to
a clarification of the role of customary forms of behavior during the
cultivation of a diligent and responsible fulfillment of study duties
in first grade school children [517 .
The task undertaken in this research work was to check , by the
method involving psychologico -pedagogical experiments, certain psycho
logical principles established on the basis of research previously car
ried out in the laboratory . Specifically , during the course of work
with backward and undisciplined school children , it was observed that
an attempt to develop certain definite positive qualities in these
school children requires such an organization of their behavior as
will compel the child to act always in a certain definite manner , by
systematically and persistently reproducing the forms of behavior cul
tivated in the child . In this connection , it was noted that during the
process of such an " exercise , " every deviation from the prescribed forms
of behavior must immediately cause a reaction on the part of the

- 298 -
collective , aimed at returning the child to the original forms of this
behavior . Only when the above conditions are observed during a rela
tively long period of time, is it possible to expect to cultivate in
the children such stable forms of behavior as will not allow consider
able fractures at a later date .
It is precisely as a result of these observations that the
problem was formulated of the role of habits in the cultivation of
stable forms of behavior in children and in the moral formation of the
personality . The hypothesis was advanced that qualities or properties
of the personality are basically forms of the child's behavior which
have become consolidated and customary .
At the same time, as a result of observations and an analysis of
pedagogical experience , we come to assume that the consolidation of
" practiced " forms of behavior and the appearance in the child of a need
to act precisely in such a way and not in any other way takes place
only when this behavior is accomplished according to definite motives,
and, first of all , when it is associated with the presence in the child
of a desire to develop in himself the corresponding qualities. If , on
the other hand , this particular form of behavior is accomplished as the
result of a compulsion , then , although the child does acquire the habit
of acting according to the demands of those around him , he does not de
velop the need to behave in the same way in those cases when this ex
ternal requirement or demand is absent. Thus , a behavior developed as
a result of compulsion does not correspond to the main criterion which
was suggested by A, S. Makarenko for checking the moral good breeding
of the personality : the child should strive to behave correctly not
only in the presence of other people , but also when he is alone with
himself , " in secret. " The structure of stable forms of behavior of a
child , and consequently , the nature of the properties of his personal
ity , include , therefore, not only a firmly established system of ac
tions which has become habitual , but also a firmly established system
of attitudes of the child toward reality . For this reason , conditions
necessary for the cultivation of stable forms of behavior include a
correct organization not only of the child's behavior but also of those
mo tives according to which this behavior is realized .
The purpose of the research work done by L. S. Slavina was to
check these principles . This author set herself the task of clarifying
the role which the cultivation of a system of customary forms of behav
ior plays in the formation of a responsible attitude on the part of
school children toward their study obligations, as well as the type of
conditions which must be observed in order that these forms of behavior
become truly consolidated .
In order to solve these problems, L. S. Slavina performed an an
alysis of the study activity of school children and identified those seg
ments of their behavior which insure a diligent and responsible ful
fillment of study obligations, and which therefore must be firmly
established or consolidated as a habitual basis of a corresponding qual
ity of the personality . Following this, a systematic exercise of

· 299 -
children in these forms of behavior was organized in such a way that
not a single segment included in this behavior would be omitted . Such
an " exercise was conducted according to a definite method , the most
important factor of which was , on the one hand, the securing of the
necessary motive of behavior , and on the other hand , a definite organ
ization of behavior .
The securing of the motive was achieved as a result of the fact
that the school children were confronted not only with one or another
study task ( for example, to learn how to write, count, etc. ) , but also
with a task of an educational nature , namely the children were expected
to learn how to work diligently and neatly . The organization of the
behavior consisted in that all students who had come to school with
homework undone or poorly done were ordered to remain after class in
order to perform these assignments at the highest level for each of
the given students . In addition , a system of control was set up by
the children themselves, whereby they were supposed to check not only
the study progress of every student but also his progress in mastering
corresponding forms of behavior . This latter factor concentrated the
attention of the entire child collective upon the educational task en
trusted to this collective, and contributed to the organization of a
public opinion in regard to this work . As other research studies have
shown , which were conducted in the laboratory concerned with the study
of problems of organization of a child collective (Ye . S. Makhlakh , N.
F. Prokina ), this fact apparently is of crucial importance . It encour
ages the desire of the children to acquire à corresponding quality and
imparts to this quality a special social sense in the eyes of the chil
dren .
The psychologico -pedagogical experiment, set up in the manner de
scribed above, was conducted in several first grade classes with the
active participation of teachers, who carried out educational and in
struction work with the students according to the method indicated
above ,
The results of this research work confirmed the thesis on the
enormous importance of the development in the child of stable forms of
behavior in the formation of moral -psychological qualities of a child's
personality . If it was possible to ensure a steady and systematic ful
fillment by the students of the requirements imposed upon them , and if
at the same time the fulfillment of these requirements was willingly
undertaken by the children , with a positive emotional attitude towards
these requirements, all students developed during the course of one month
the habit of always preparing their lessons neatly and conscientiously
and of attending to the assignments given by the teacher in class . A
very reliable indicator of this fact is the gradual decrease , covering
a period extending from the first day of school over the following days,
in the number of children who came to school with lessons unprepared .
The results of this research work also indicate that , in addition
to the habit of always fulfilling their study obligations at a high level

- 300 -
of performance, the children also exhibited a corresponding attitude
towards their work , namely they were careful in starting to work on
their homework at the proper time, they tried to do their homework as
well as possible , they were ashamed at bringing to school lessons which
had not been done at all or had been poorly done, they were proud to
realize that they had learned how to work hard , " etc.
However , success was not achieved in all classes . In one class ,
where the teacher forced the children to remain after class as a form
of punishment, these children did not develop the necessary habit nor
yet a proper attitude toward their work .
These data also indicate that the formation in children of
stable forms of behavior and the appearance , on their basis, of cor
responding personality qualities can successfully take place only if
exercises in definite forms of behavior are carried out against a
background of a positive motive , and not by means of coercion .
The further study of moral habits in our laboratory was directed
at finding those general forms of habitual behavior which lie at the base
of a responsible fulfillment of various types of activity with a differ
ent specific content . One of the tasks undertaken in this connection
was to "mix " the methods used for carrying out a definite type of activ
ity with methods used for the responsible performance of any kind of
activity . This research was intended to bring us closer to an under
standing of a structure of a responsible performance of a certain type
of work , at which this method of performance , having once and for all
been formed and consolidated , is then capable of determining the behat
ior of a school child not only during any kind of single situation , but
under a wide variety of different situations .
A solution of this problem was undertaken by L. S. Slavina in a
research study devoted to the formation of a responsible fulfillment of
a Pioneer assignment in junior school children . This assignment was
selected as a subject of research in view of the fact that its concrete
content may vary every time, and may consist either in the collection
of scrap metal , or in making a report, or in the form of help extended
to a comrade in his studies , or in the form of some other kind of work
assignment . Thus, the fulfillment of this assignment assumes , as a
necessary condition , the extrapolation of generic methods of behavior
characterizing the responsible fulfillment of any kind of assignment
received by a Pioneer youngster .
The course of research was the same one as the one used in the
preceding study . However , the experiment in this case was set up on
an individual basis, and the method involved the possibility of a more
accurate selection of test subjects possessing an appropriate motive ,
and
obtaof a more accurate ( even quantitative) accounting of the results
ined .
The preliminary results of this work ( which has not yet been com
pleted ) have shown the presence of certain specific methods of behavior
which lie at the base of a responsible performance of any kind of work ,

- 301 -
regardless of its concrete content [52]. Some of these methods were
also uncovered . The most important method involves the habit of immed
iately associating the entrusted assignment with its fulfillment, and
since , in most cases , the practical execution of the assignment is de
layed or postponed , the child mast associate this mission with its imag
inary fulfillment, by determining in his own mind when and how it will
be fulfilled .
The importance of this method is likewise confirmed by observa
tions conducted in the context of ordinary Pioneer work . Children who
are fulfilling communal assignments in a responsible manner usually make
such an assignment an object of their consciousness right at the moment
when they are given this assignment; they clarify the circumstances as
sociated with this assignment , " weigh ." these circumstances and immedi
ately outline a plan of action either in their own mind or aloud . On
the contrary , children who frequently do not carry out their assignments
usually do not, when they get such an assignment, fix their attention
upon it nor do they assimilate its content; frequently they forget right
away the deadline for its fulfillment and never make an outline of when
and how they should tackle the job . If they can carry out the assign
ment right away and all at once , then , as a rule , they do carry it out
( provided, of course , that an appropriate motive is present), but if the
assignment requires a long period of time, especially when it is post
poned in time , these children , while willingly tackling the assignment,
in most cases do not complete it , and sometimes even do not start to
work on its fulfillment .
It was also established that the younger the child , the greater
is the importance of the organization by adults of appropriate methods
of his behavior , such as a proposal to repeat his work assignment, to
plan work connected with the fulfillment of this assignment, etc. This
indicates clearly that children should be given special instruction in
methods of behavior which are required for the acquisition of the cor
responding quality .
Finally , the above research work has also established the great
importance, in the formation of a responsible attitude towards a job ,
of the habit of always completing the job , i.e. the exclusion of a
negative experience .
3

In our laboratory , the studies conducted by S. G. Yakobson and

N. F. Prokina are also concerned with the problem of the consolidation
of customary forms of behavior .
The first of these studies is concerned with an experimental
investigation of those conditions under which a pupil learns to work
without being distracted . For this purpose several junior grade pup
ils were selected , who were making good progress and who displayed an
ability and interest in knowledge , but who did not know how to work in

302 -
an organized manner . During the course of preparation of a written
lesson on one subject, these children were distracted from their
work on an average of over 20 times, whereby in most cases these dis
tractions lasted for a long time, which was spent in some other kind of
activity , such as play , reading , etc. And these interruptions occurred
at various moments during the child's study activity , for exam ; le , the
copying of a text was broken off in the middle of a sentence , a word or
even a letter . The duration of continuous work varied from 10 seconds
to three minutes , and in most cases was equal to 30-50 seconds .
The experiment conducted with these children was carried out
during the time they did their homework and involved the following
tasks : ( a) by varying the conditions of their activity, to find con
di tions under which the school child could work without any distrac
tions; (b) to trace the consolidation of the forms of activity in the
context of various motivations, and ( c ) to check whether the test sub
ject can utilize the method of organizing his activity which he has as
similated during the performance of an activity of a different content ,
and in case such a " transfer cannot take place , then to undertake a
search for those conditions and that structure of corresponding forms
of behavior which could acquire a more generalized , and consequently ,
a more all - purpose nature .
As a result of this work ( which likewise has not yet been com
pleted ) , it was established that, although a constant external stimula
tion not to be distracted does result in an acceleration of work , since
the child returns more rapidly to his work under the influence of this
reminder , this method does not reduce the number of distractions , does
not change the structure of the child's activity , and does not speed
up the preparation of the lessons from one instance to another . In
other words, an activity which is organized by means of an external
stimulation , as a rule, is not assimilated , no matter what the dura
tion of the application of this method . The situation is different
when the experimentor gets the child to agree in advance that he will
try to work without any distractions, and that every time that he be
comes distracted , the experimentor will start a stopwatch which will
show the child both that he did get distracted and the amount of time
which was consumed by this distraction . It was found that in this case
the activity of the child undergoes a substantial change, namely that
there is a sharp decrease in the number of distractions; and in those
cases when distractions do take place , their duration is greatly re
duced and they do not interrupt an action which has been started . If
we may so express ourselves , the distractions themselves become more
organized .
The tests conducted in this manner have confirmed once more
that the assimilation of a definite form of behavior absolutely re
quires the presence , first, of a constant motive which is very sig
nificant to the child , and second, of a means which helps to master
this form of behavior . At the same time , it was shown that this means
(in this case , the starting of a stopwatch which records the

- 303 -
distraction of the child ) should not be given from the outside, but
should be utilized by the child in order that he may reach the goal
established by himself; in addition , this means must reflect in its ex
ternal form that aspect of behavior which the child is attempting to
master .
In the tests described above, the starting of a stopwatch made
the duration of the distractions clearly palpable and tangible to the
child , thus making it possible for him consciously to register these
distractions and thereby more easily to overcome them .
The object of study in the work done by N. F. Prokina involved
another form of organized behavior , namely upon entering into the class .
room . A first grade class , characterized by a high degree of disorgan
ization , was selected for this purpose .
The researcher was confronted with the following task : to organ
ize in the children the necessary form of behavior and to consolidate
this behavior by means of a systematic " exercise . " The behavior of the
children was broken down into several successive time segments ( upon
hearing the sound of a bell , the children had to line up wherever they
were , come to attention , enter the classroom quietly and sit down
quietly at their desk ), and the performance of these actions was made
a condition for winning in a contest game . The children were given a
general motive of behavior , namely to learn how to line up quickly and
efficiently , and a public opinion was organized around their activity .
However , in spite of the apparent fulfillment of all necessary condi
tions , it was shown in the test conducted in this manner that not only
was it impossible to consolidator the necessary form of behavior , but
there was no success even in achieving a stable reproduction of this
form of behavior . However , all of this could be achieved by using a
sand - glass , upon which the children oriented themselves in the process
of forming up . Thus, in order to develop in the children a skill at
forming up in a organized manner , the following factors were necessary :
( 1 ) to create a firm social motive , ( 2) to break down the behavior into
individual segments , and ( 3) to use a sand - glass which served for the
children as a visual or graphic standard gauge of the time consumed in
forming up , and thereby became a means for mastering a tempo of behav
ior . The behavior organized in this manner was preserved even after all
the conditions described above were discarded , namely , the use of com
petition and a sand- glass .
An approach to the assimilation of forms of behavior , which is
somewhat different than the one adopted in our laboratory , can be found
in the research work of V. I. Asnin , who has studied the formation of
a disciplined behavior in school children 6. Following the idea ex
pressed by P. Ya . Gallperin concerning the step -by - step assimilation
( during the course of instruction ) of mental actions [ 157, the task
pursued by this author was to discover the characteristic features of
stages marking the transition of originally external forms of a disci
plined behavior into internal acts .
At first, the research work of V. I. Asnin was based on data ob
tained during observations in the context of a real pedagogical process
- 304 -
as well as on data obtained during psychologico - pedagogical tests ;
thereafter , laboratory experiments were also used. The study was con
ducted on school children belonging to the first, fifth , seventh and
ninth grades .
As a result of his research work , V. I. Asnin was able to ident
ify three basic stages in the influence exerted by disciplinary require
ments upon the behavior of a pupil . During the first of these stages ,
the paramount condition of this influence , is the presence of an exter
nal shaping of these requirements, of their extent and detailed nature,
as well as the constancy of the actual requirements and of the checking
on them , which is responsible for the necessity and constancy of the
corresponding methods of behavior . During the next stage, the require
ments imposed upon the pupil may have a more concise and general char
acter and may be accompanied merely by an occasional check in the form
of a reminder . Finally , at the third and last stage, the requirements
may have a still more generic, fundamental character , and the checking
of the behavior is replaced by a self - checking on the part of the pup
ils .
In evaluating the work done by V. I. Asnin , stress must be laid on
the positive significance of his attempt to understand the appearance
of a disciplined behavior as not being the result of a direct consolida
tion of external forms of behavior , but rather as a metamorphosis of an
external behavior into an internal behavior , a metamorphosis consisting
of a number of successive stages ( although V. I. Asnin , was only able
to describe the conditions of this transition ).
Al though all of the research studies described above do not yet
give a sufficiently clear idea of the structure of moral habits, they
do nevertheless disclose the complex structure of these habits and clar
ify certain significant condi tions for their formation . As a result of
these studies , it was possible to undertake a psychological analysis of
personality traits of a child and of their appearance on the basis of
a consolidation of stable forms of behavior .
The thought that stable properties of the personality are dis
closed in a definite " style" of behavior has been frequently expressed .
However , only recently has an attempt been made to understand the exact
manner in which these traits are formed as a result of the consolidation
of stable forms of behavior .
Starting from the role of motive in the assimilation of behavior
forms, there are reasons to assume that certain forms of moral behavior ,
as well as certain moral qualities of the personality , can arise not on
the basis of multiple repetitions, but as a result of a moral act which
has been performed only once but which is stimulated by strong social
mo tives and directed towards a definite social result . In connection
with the research work performed by V. I. Asnin , it is also possible to
assume that the general rules governing the formation of an internal
action , which were discovered by P. Ya. Gal'perin during the study of
thought, are also valid in the case of the formation of moral forms of
behavior, and consequently , also of moral qualities. In other words,

- 305 -
this formation cannot be reduced merely to a simple consolidation of
external forms of behavior , but consists rather in a complex process
of their transformation , namely in a generalization , modification and
abbreviation upon their transition to internal forms of behavior .
IV . CERTAIN PROBLEMS OF EDUCATION IN THE LIGHT OF A PSYCHOLOGICAL
STUDY OF THE PERSONALITY OF A SCHOOL CHILD

The results of the research studies described above are signif

icant not only for a deeper and more accurate understanding of the psy
chological rules governing the formation of the personality of a child ,
but also for solving a number of pedagogical problems.
It was already stated above that research studies devoted to an
analysis of moral ideas and concepts, even after having shown the re
lationship between the behavior of a child and the level of his moral
knowledge , could still not explain those cases in which a child , who
has a sufficient knowledge of standards and rules of behavior , still
does not behave accordingly and does not even attempt to do so .
As a result of research work conducted in the field of the ap
pearance of stable forms of behavior , it was definitely established
that , in order that a child should not only be familiar with standards
of behavior but also should be able and willing to be guided by these
standards, this child should have practice in social behavior , during
the course of which the appropriate feelings and habits are formed and
consolidated . Moral knowledge can become effective only when it is
sown on prepared " soil , " i.e. when this knowledge is based on an exper
ience of social behavior which has been assimilated and generalized by
the child .
From this standpoint , which differs sharply from the intellectual
istic interpretation of the formation of the personality , the main con
tent of the educational process involves the organization of the life
and activity of the child in a collective , whereby this organization
should be of such a type as creates the necessary conditions for the
manifestation and consolidation of socially valuable properties of the
personality . And verbal instruction ( persuasion , explanation , etc. ) ,
must take place as the child accumulates moral experience .
The conclusions reached on the basis of the psychological re
search studies described above require a consistent application of
the ideas held by A. S. Makarenko , who believed that no valuable
properties of the personality of a child whatsoever can be cultivated
without " special exercises in a collective" [ 36; 6537. " No science
is more dialectic in its nature than pedagogy ," he wrote, " and the
elaboration of a necessary type of behavior is primarily a question
of experiences , skill and prolonged exercise in those qualities
which we need . And our Soviet collective, equipped with such trapezes
and horizontal bars as we need right now , must serve as the gymnastic
hall for such exercises . "

- 306 -
 The same idea is expressed by A. S. Makarenko when he talks
about the importance of accumulating a " tradition of behavior . " " Some
times , " he writes , " the word ' conscious ' is abused by us . Our behavior
must be a conscious behavior , but this does not mean at all that we
should always appeal to consciousness when we are concerned with prob
lems of behavior . This would constitute an excessively unprofitable
burden on consciousness . A real broad ethical standard becomes effec
tive only when its conscious ' period metamorphoses into a period of
general experience , tradition and habit " [37; 4117 .
The research work described above provides a psychological basis
not only for solving the general problem of education , but also for
formulating a number of more specific problems concerned with methods
for shaping the personality of the child .
In all of these research studies , in spite of certain differ
ences between them in the interpretation of psychological characteris
tics of the formation of a child's personality , one common idea is
developed and confirmed experimentally, namely that the moral founda
tion of the child's personality , his moral qualities are the result of
an assimilation of originally external forms of social behavior and
the result of the assimilation by the child of the experience gained
during the course of his actual relations in a collective, Such an
understanding of the basic content of the moral development of a per
sonality suggests , to a certain extent , the content and program of
a moral education . From this standpoint, education must include a
systematic , consistent and purposeful instruction of the child in def
inite forms of social behavior .
The research studies that have been conducted so far in the field
of psychology can help to a certain extent in working out a program and
methods of instruction , on which pedagogical science is at present work
ing successfully .
Specifically , according to the data obtained , the principle estab
lished a long time ago in Soviet psychology that the personality of a
child is formed during the course of his activity must be supplemented
by the principle stating that, during an activity which has the same
type of external characteristic, various psychological qualities may
be formed depending upon the motives which stimulate this activity .
This occurs because the child assimilates not the entire content of
his activity nor yet all the methods of interrelationship with the
human beings around him , but only what corresponds to his needs .
This principle is of crucial importance in developing a method
of moral education , since , in accordance with this principle, during
the course of education , provision must be made not only for the or
ganization of definite methods of behavior and activity of the child
which form a part of the problem of education , but also for the or
ganization of those needs which insure the assimilation of these methods .
In other words , in developing a method of moral education , one should
keep in mind that , while inculcating any kind of quality into a child ,
it is indispensable to stimulate in the child the desire to carry out
the behavior or the activity during which this quality is formed .
307 -
 The principle necessary for a methodology of education , which
can be derived from this fact , can be formulated as follows: in order
that the education and training of a child should take place in accord
ance with the requirements which society imposes upon him , it is neces
sary that these requirements , which are of an external nature in regard
to the child , become internal requirements in the child , i.e. correspond
to his needs . In other words, according to this principle , efforts
should be made that the child himself strive to solve those problems
which are assigned to him by the instructor
Let us consider from this standpoint, for example , the condi .
tions under which the knowledge assimilated by school children becomes
their convictions 8. According to experimental data, the most im
portant condition for such an assimilation is the presence in the child
of a need to acquire pieces of knowledge which are supposed to be as
similated , whereby this need may be of various sorts : it may be the
need to utilize in practice the knowledge acquired during a lesson,
but it also may be a need for a theoretical understanding of reality
( i.e. , a cognitive attitude toward knowledge) . In both cases , however ,
there is a desire on the part of the child to acquire certain piéces
of knowledge , i.e. a desire to achieve the same thing which the teacher
is striving to achieve .
The same principle stands out just as clearly during the cultiva
tion of a child's personality in a collective . It is known that a basic
condition for an effective education is the organization of a spontan
eous activity in a child collective. However , the spontaneous activity
of a collective constitutes precisely an activity in which social aims
and problems become the aims and problems of both the child collective
as a whole and of each child forming a part of this collective .
A very interesting analysis in this respect of an experiment in
pedagogical work aimed at the education of a Pioneer collective group
is given in a study conducted by T. Ye. Konnikova [27], who rightly
points out that " the intensity of the educational effect exerted by the
collective activity of children is greatly increased when this activity
is performed by the children of their own accord . This happens when
a need arises in the school children to achieve the goal which they have
set themselves, and which has for one reason or another become very at
tractive for the children .
This principle is in full agreement with the principle of the
development of a child collective formulated by A. S. Makarenko , This
author broke down the progressive movement of a child collective into
successive stages , whereby his breakdown was based upon the attitude
assumed by the children towards pedagogical requirements . During the
first stage , these requirements remain external requirements in rela
tion to the collective ; during the second stage , these requirements are
" adopted " by the leading or active group of the child collective , which
imposes these requirements upon the remaining bulk of students together
with their instructors ; during the third stage , the demands made by the

308 -
instructors are already adopted by the entire child collective , which
itself imposes them upon " individual deviates" ; finally , during the
fourth stage , the demands made by the instructors become personal de
mands of all children forming part of the collective , who are now al
ready capable of imposing these requirements upon themselves without
any kind of support from the collective or any sort of external check
ing

A method of moral education cannot be limited merely to an in

dication of one principle or another , but must also point out methods
for carrying out this principle . It is not enough ,, therefore, to
formulate the problem of a " transfer of the requirements imposed upon
the child into his own personal requirements; it is also necessary to
point out methods for solving this task . Unfortunately , these methods
have so far been very little studied . However, even at the present
time certain ways of solving this problem can be tentatively outlined .
One of the most direct methods for solving this problem con
sists in a direct imposition of a requirement being replaced by such
an organization of a child's activity as will cause what is supposed
to be assimilated by the child to become an indispensable means for
achieving the goal which already has a certain significance for the
child .
This method was checked experimentally by A. N. Leontyev. Chil .
dren belonging to an aircraft model construction group , who enjoyed
building airplane models but had no desire, in spite of all demands made
by the leader of the group , to engage in a study of flight physics, were
told , instead of simply building aircraft models, to build these models
in such a way that they could " fly over a certain distance , In at
tempting to improve their models in this respect , the members of the
group were confronted whether they liked it or not with the fact that
they did not have the necessary theoretical knowledge . As a result,
it was found that those same children who previously could not be forced
to study theoretical problems,_now began to engage in this type of ac
tivity with great enthusiasm (33; 35-367 .
This method of organizing the activity of children for the pur
pose of stimulating an appropriate need on the part of these children ,
is being used in practice by numerous educators . For example, T. Ye .
Konnikova, in order to cultivate a sense of discipline, entrusted
students belonging to a poorly disciplined class to organize themselves
some kind of interesting activity , which could not be carried out with
out a strict discipline on the part of those participating in this type
of activity . Under these conditions, discipline became a means which
had to be mastered in order to achieve the desired goal .
closely related to this method , in respect of the nature of its
effect, is the system of competition , which is an effective means for

- 309
developing in children the necessary motives of behavior . It need only
be recalled that, here, the achievement of pedagogically significant
goals becomes the condition for the personal success of a pupil or for
the success of the collective of which the pupil is a member . This is
the reason why , by means of a competition , it is possible to stimulate
the activity and independent action of children even in regard to some .
thing which is entirely devoid of interest for them .
Finally , we should also consider the role played by play and games
in the process of education . The introduction of play into educational
work represents a means of stimulating the spontaneous activity of chil
dren which is widely used in practice . The importance of play is stres
sed by all outstanding pedagogues, past and present. In the field of
Soviet pedagogy , N. K. Krupskaya and A. S. Makarenko have devoted a par
ticularly great deal of attention to play . However , psychological re
search work in this field makes it possible to understand better the
"mechanism " of the action exerted by play , which in turn contributes to
its more conscious and effective methodological exploitation ,
An analysis of play, carried out by L. S. Vygotskiy , has shown
that an indispensable element in every type of play or game is the pres
ence of "game rules " which must be followed by every child engaged in
play . A specific characteristic of these rules, in contrast to all
other miles which a child must obey , is the fact that the child him
self participates in the establishment of these rules . In other words ,
game rules represent rues developed by the child for his own use , rules
which correspond to a personal need of the child . " A significant char
acteristic of play , " as L. S. Vygotskiy has said , "is a rule which has
become an affect . " Hence , it follows that a game rule is an " internal
mile " for the child , and not a mile to which he submits as the result
of an external necessity or an external compulsion .
If we analyze the character of game rules, which are present in
any kind of situation involving portrayals and imagination , we can
easily see that these rules require from the child the reproduction
during the game of a behavior characterizing the ideal qualities of
the person whose role has been assumed by the child . Having assumed
this role , the child also voluntarily assumes the fulfillment of those
requirements which society imposes upon the behavior being portrayed
by the child . A game includes within itself a " mechanism , " with the
aid of which external requirements become internal requirements of the
child himself . And , in the process , the child usually strives to re
produce in his role the best qualities of the person whom he is trying
to represent. In a study of the part playing by school children [ 39] ,
Ye . S. Makhlakh has noted the fact that children , even when assuming
a negative role, try to express positive qualities in this role .
On the basis of these facts , we can understand the tremendous
educational possibilities offered by play or games . The point is not
only that, while playing , children do everything more gaily and with
greater interest, but also that the instructor, by using the mechanismº

- 310 -
of play , will be able to make children comply with requirements not as
a result of an order given by an adult, but in accord with their own
needs , In other words , play can and must become a valuable method for
solving a basic educational problem , consisting in the organization of
the motives of behavior and activity of a child .
Let us now consider two methods of using play for educational pur
poses . The first of these methods consists in the fact that children
are placed by their instructor in such a play situation as enables them
to accept the requirements imposed upon them by means of an imaginary
situation . Such a method for using play was described , for example , by
F. I. Fradkina , who has studied the work done by the teacher Ye .
Barkova . This teacher , in her work with sixth grade students, took ad
vantage of the dream of these youngsters to become sailors, and developed
on this basis a game involving a ship called " The Sea Hawk . " All stud .
ents in her class considered themselves as being " the crew of the ship , "
and considered all their school duties as duties which they , as sailors ,
had to fulfill in a model fashion . These duties also included the obli .
gation of always being well - disciplined and the obligation of efficiently
mastering all knowledge. Thus, this ship game became a means for solv
ing important educational problems . Such a method of utilizing play ,
which consists in the fact that a child made it easier for himself to
accept and fulfill difficult and uninteresting requirements by means of
a role , i.e. by means of a definite play situation , is extremely nat
ural . Children themselves frequently have recourse to a similar method
of utilizing games .
Another form of using play was adopted by the teacher Ye . M.
Gel'fan who used play as a means enabling the child himself to set him .
self the task of acquiring a certain quality or a certain form of be
havior and then of striving to achieve this quality or behavior .
For example, this teacher proposed to the children a game to be
played under a certain slogan ( " Be ready on time" or " Don't fall asleep
while working" or " Do it yourself and help somebody else , " etc. ) , where
by the children , while carrying out this slogan , noted every correct
act on their part by moving a small flag along a path ending in an in
teresting picture, such as the picture of a plane, an automobile , a
steam ship, etc. When the child , following the tracks of his correct
acts , reached the end of this path , he won the right to " take a ride"
in a plane, an automobile, or a steamship . Naturally, the external set
ting of the game changed according to the concrete conditions in which
this game was played , such as the age of the participants , their number ,
the place where the game was performed , etc. , but the pattern of the
game was always identical . This type of game was tested under various
conditions and gave good results .
The basic mechanism in these games is the same one as in other
methods of using play , namely na transfer " (by means of the game) of
requirements coming from outside into requirements of the child him
self . However , a very important fact here is also the following one :
the isolation in the consciousness of the child of a clear method of
behavior, the formulation of the problem involving a mastery of this
method, and a palpable fixation of every success achieved .
- 319 -
 The above -mentioned forms of using play during education of
course do not constitute a full picture of all its possible forms of
application . No matter, however , what these forms are , a very importo
ant factor in all of these forms is that the game should not consti
tute some kind of auxiliary or side activity along with another , " ser
ious" activity of the child . The game must permeate this " serious"
activity . This function of play was very well understood and used in
practice by A. S. Makarenko . " We are somehow convinced , " he wrote ,
" that some kind of separate place should be assigned to play , and that
the entire role of play in education should be limited to this place .
Whereas I affirm that a children's organization must be completely
permeated with play " [37; 2337. And further , he wrote :" In childhood ,
play is the normal thing and a child must always play even when he is
engaged in a serious matter" [37; 2697. In the same manner , he writes
in another place: " Play must not only consist in the fact that a boy
runs around a sport field and plays football, but rather in the fact
that every minute of his life this boy plays a little, comes even a lit
tle closer to a higher stage of imagination , portrays something or other
of himself in some kind of role , and feels that he is something a little
greater, a little bigger and more lofty when he plays" (37; 217.
CONCLUSION

In conclusion , we would like to note a number of problems which

so far have been omitted from research studies . First of all , there is
the problem of those psychological formations which lie outside the con
sciousness of the child , but which occupy an important place in the gen
eral structure of his psychic life and frequently exert an effect on
his behavior .
The striving of Soviet psychologists to oppose the supremacy of
consciousness to the unconscious of Freud and other adherents of
" depth psychology ” is quite understandable, as well as their efforts
to show that man is by no means a puppet dancing at the will of some
kind of dark forces , but rather is the master of his behavior , capable
of controlling his acts and actions on the basis of consciously form
ulated tasks and consciously adopted solutions.
However , during this struggle against the supremacy of the " un
conscious , " consciousness began to be considered as a demiurge of the
personality . It was believed that it is sufficient to merely convince
a child and to cultivate his consciousness in order to educate or train
his entire personality . We cannot agree with such an exaggerated inter
pretation of the role of consciousness . During the course of our research
work , we are constantly confronted with phenomena lying outside the con
sciousness of a child , which have to be considered both by psychologists
and pedagogues . While studying, for example, the motives of the study
activity of school children , we have established , on the basis of the
facts obtained , that the leading study motives in which the social needs

312 -
having the greatest significance for a child are realized , and which ,
thus are the main stimuli of his study activity , are, as a rule , not
realized consciously by the child himself.
During studies concerned with the formation of the moral aspect
of the personality of the child , we have also been constantly confronted
with the fact that moral feelings and habits arising during the practice
of social behavior often determine the acts of a child independently of
his consciousness , and sometimes even despite this consciousness .
From this standpoint, it is interesting to recall the thought ex
pressed by N. A. Dobrolyubov, who , while assigning a great importance
to consciousness in the cultivation of morality , still believed that
morality is not determined by consciousness alone . 1 Conviction and know
ledge , " he wrote , " can be considered as true only when they have pene
trated within the individual , when they have become fused with his
feelings and will , when they are present in this individual in an_un
conscious manner , and he does not even think about them at all " [ T8;
2597 .
A similar thought was also expressed by I. M. Sechenov, who has
pointed out that a true moral act is never the result of a conscious
act of will , but is always the result of a moral feeling and a moral
habit [48; 3017. Two people possessing the same moral consciousness
may have a completely different character which has developed under
the influence of different living conditions .
On the basis of what has been said above , we believe that it is
very important, during further research work concerned with problems of
the psychology of the personality , to devote special attention to the
investigation of psychic phenomena arising during the course of the
life and activity of the child and which are not consciously realized
by the child, as well as to the study of their characteristics , their
origin and their role both in the behavior of the child and in the for
mation of his personality .
The second problem which requires a considerably greater amount
of attention to its elaboration is the problem of the method of research
used .
The basic course for studying the personality of the child has
already been established in Soviet psychology . This course involves
the study of the integral personality in its multiple and varied inter
relations with the surrounding reality . Essentially, this is the course
followed by Pavlov in studying the integral organism applied to psycho
logical research , I. P. Pavlov was of the opinion that , only after
understanding that physiological function which the organ under study
performs in the vital activity of the entire organism , considered as a
unity with the conditions of its existence, is it possible to understand
correctly likewise the physiological laws governing the activity of this
organ . This approach was considered by Pavlov as the only possible one
in order to " master " the subject of study, to guide its activity and
thereby to place physiological science at the service of practice . Start
ing from this fact , Pavlov demanded a constant and intimate liaison be
tween physiology and medicine .

· 313 -
 The integral study of the personality of the child must also fol
low the same course . Being directed at the study of individual aspects
of the personality of the child , such a study must always be concerned
with the problem of the function which a given psychological " formation "
performs in the complex system of the child's mutual relations with the
surrounding reality . This means that research in the field of psychol
ogy of the personality must not be limited only to the study of the
process of formation of one or another psychological characteristic of
the child ; this research must be concerned with the problem as to the
manner in which these characteristics , arising under the influence of
the conditions found in the life and education of the child , begin
later themselves to determine his behavior and activity in the form of
a feedback influence , Consequently , also in the field of psychology ,
a study of any psychological phenomenon must be carried out in connec
tion with a study of the whole personality of the child , considered in
all of its mutual relations with the surrounding environment .
Such an integral " personal " approach is already being followed
in a number of research studies conducted by Soviet psychologists even
during the study of individual psychic processes . Thus , N. F. Dobrynin
[ 19 ] and his associates (T. A. Korman [28], A. S. Borodulina [73], and
others) have shown in their research work the dependence of various cog
nitive processes upon the " significance " for the child's personality of
the object towards which his cognitive activity is directed .
The same dependence of individual psychic processes upon their
relation to the_personality is disclosed in the research work of V. N.
Myasishchev [417 and A. A. Smirnov 5537 , and also in the studies cur
rently in progress in our laboratory . In the research work of L. S.
Slavina [507, it was established that certain children , when confronted
with the necessity of solving a given study problem , exhibit an excep
tional intellectual passivity . These children are unable to perform
even the most elementary intellectual operations and are not making any
kind of intellectual effort . If the researcher had limited himself to
a study of the intellectual process present in this case , considered
separately from the personality of the pupils as a whole , and without
at the same time taking into account the manner in which the study
problem assigned to the child appears to his consciousness ; and if
the researcher had abstracted from those motives which stimulate the
study activity of the child , he would have arrived at incorrect prin
ciples concerning the character and level of intellectual development
of the child . And , vice - versa , a study of the intellectual activity
of children within a system of relations which have been formed in
those children towards studies in general and towards that specific in
tellectual problem with which they were confronted , would have led the
author of this study to a completely different conclusion : it would
have made it possible to understand the true nature of the intellectual
passivity of the child observed in this case , and , on the basis of the
data obtained , actively to reconstruct the child's intellectual activ
ity by removing shortcomings in this activity ( 507.

314 -
 Thus , the general basic course of research on the personality of
a child has already been established in Soviet psychology . This fact
not only makes it possible to study the psychology of the personality
of a child more profoundly and properly , but also makes it possible to
apply the conclusions thus obtained in pedagogical theory and practice .
However , it is still not enough to select a correct general
course of research . When I. P. Pavlov had determined his research prin
ciple , he started to look for a method adequate to this principle, which
would make it possible, without disturbing the normal living activity
of the organism , to penetrate into physiological mechanisms which are
not accessible to direct observation . As a result of such a search , I.
P. Pavlov was able to find such a method . The characteristic feature
of this method consisted in the fact that , in contrast to the vivisec
tionist method of study during which the normal living activity of the
organism was always distrubed , this method made it possible to gain ac
cess , by surgical means , to the physiological phenomena under study
concealed in the depth of the animal body , and then , after curing the
animal , to restore his condition to a normal state ,
In the case of psychological research studies of the personal
ity , an adequate research method has not yet been found .The experimen
tal course which would enable an accurate and objective study of the
personality of the child has not yet been discovered . The methods in
volving observation , talks, compositions , diaries , and natural psycho
logico - pedagogical experiment which are practiced at the present time
have predominately a descriptive nature, and are not capable of fully
disclosing the causal nexus and relations in the formation of the per
sonality of the child . Moreover , some psychologists have even expres
sed the thought that the integral approach to the study of the
personality would seem to exclude a strict experiment of any sort, es
pecially if such an experiment is set up under laboratory conditions.
"It is quite obvious ," writes, for example, A. G. Kovalev , " that lab
oratory experiments cannot be used as a means for studying significant
characteristics of a school child " [22; 25] . Similar outspoken state
ments against laboratory experiments can be found also in the works
published by other psychologists , who adopt the positions of a study of
the integral personality of the child (N. D. Levitov, A. L. Shnirman and
others ) .
In contrast, we believe that the further thorough investigation
of the personality of the child requires the use of adequate experimen
tal methods . No kind of research work can be carried out without an
analytical approach to the phenomena being studied . However , in break
ing down these phenomena, we must know how to preserve at the same time
the studied phenomena in all of their complex interrelationships with
the whole personality of the child . Interesting from this standpoint
are the attempts made by T. I. Agafonov during the study of volitional
qualities of the personality of a school child 1 and the experimental
method of studying self- confidence of school children , developed by
Ye , A. Serebryakova [477 , aswell as a number of other methods. However,
all this is still insufficient. It is essential that all psychologists
engaged in research work on the personality of a child should direct
their efforts to finding adequate experimental research methods in this
complex but extremely important field of psychology .
- 315 -
 LITERATURE

1. T. I. Agafonov , " On the Volitional Manifestations of the

Personality Under Complicated Conditions , " Voprosy psikhologii ( Prob
lems of Psychology ), No. 6 , 1956.
2. A. Ye . Adrianova , Vospitatel'naya rabota v pervom klasse
( Educational Work in the First Grade ), Moscow , State Training and Ped
agogical Literature Publishing House , 1954 .
3. A. S. Alyakrinskaya, " The Understanding of Honor by School
Children and Honor as a Motive of Behavior , N Author's Abstract of Can
didate's Dissertation , Moscow , 1953.
4. B. G. Anan'yev , " On the Present Status of Psychological
Science in the USSR , " Sovetskaya pedagogika ( Soviet Pedagogy ) , No. 5 ,
1941 .
5. B. G. Anan'yev , Problemy formirovaniva kharaktera ( Prob
lems Concerned With Character Formation ) , Leningrad , 1949 .
6. V. I. Asnin , " Conditions for the Formation of a Disciplined
Behavior " Abstracts of Reports Presented at a Conference on Psychology ,
Moscow , 1955 .
7. A. A. Bodalev , " On the Formation of Exactingness towards
Oneself in School Children , " Uchenwe zapiski LGU ( Academic Reports
of Leningrad State University ), No. 8 , " Psychology," Leningrad , 1955.
8. L. I. Bozhovich , " On the Problem of Formalism of School
Knowledge , " Sovetskava pedagogika (Soviet Pedagogy ), No. 1 , 1949 .
9. L. I. Bozhovich , " Psychological Problems concerned with the
Readiness of a Child to Receive School Instruction , " Anthology : " Prob
lems of Psychology of Pre - School Age Children , " Editors, A. N.
Leontiyev and A. V. Zaporozhets , Moscow -Leningrad , State Training and
Pedagogical Literature Publishing House , 1948 .
10. L. I. Bozhovich , " Attitude Towards Studies as a Psychological
Problem , " Izvestiva APN RSFSR (Gazette of the Academy of Pedagogical
Sciences RSFSR ) , No. 36 , 1951.
11. L. I. Bozhovich , N. G. Morozova and L. S. Slavina , " Develop
ment of Study Motives in Soviet School Children , " Ibid . , No. 36 , 1951 .
12. L. I. Bozhovich , N. G. Morozova and L. S. Slavina , " Psycho
logical Analysis of Grades as a Motive of the Study Activity of a School
Child , " Ibid ., No. 36 , 1951 .
13. A. S. Borodulina , " The Activity of Reproduction During the
Process of Learning by Heart , " Uchenwe zapiski Moskovskogo gorodskogo
pedagogicheskogo instituta (Academic Reports of the Moscow City Peda
gogical Institute ) , Vol . XXVI , No. 2, Moscow , 1954 .
14. M. N. Volokitina , Ocherki psikhologii shkol'nika I klassa
( Sketches of the Psychology of First Grade Pupils) , Moscow , State Train
ing and Pedagogical Literature Publishing House , 1954,
15. P. Ya . Gal perin , " An Experiment in the Study of the Forma
tion of Mental Actions, " Reports Presented at a Conference on Problems
of Psychology , Moscow , Publishing House of the Academy of Pedagogical
Sciences RSFSR , 1954 .

- 316 -
 16. M. N. Gushchina , " Cultivation of Industry and Diligence , "
Anthology : " Educational Work in the School , " Moscow , 1950 .
17 . N. A. Dobrolyubov, Izbrannwe filosofskive socheniva (Se
lected Philosophical Works ), Vol . I , Moscow , 1946.
18. N. A. Dobrolyubov , Ibid . , Vol . II, Moscow , 1946 .
19. N. F. Dobrynin , " Problems concerned with the Activity of the
Personality and the Activity of Consciousness , " Uchenwe zpaiski
Moskovskogo gorodskogo pedagogicheskogo instituta (Academic Reports of
the Moscow City Pedagogical Institute ) , Vol . DOVI , No. 2, Moscow , 1954 .
20 . A. I. Zhavoronko, " On the Formation of Responsibility in
Junior School Children , " Abstracts of Reports Presented at a conference
on Psychology , Publishing House of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences
RSFSR , 1955 .
21. F. I. Ivashchenko , " Development of Self - Confidence in School
Children Making Poor Progress in School , " Author's Abstract of Candidate's
Dissertation , Moscow , 1952.
22 . A. G. Kovalev , Orabote klassnogo rukovoditelva po izucheniyu
lichnosti shkolinika (Concerning the Work Done by a Mass Teacher on the
Study of the Personality of a School Child ), Simferopol ', Crimea State
Publishing House , 1949 .
23. A. G. Kovalev, " World Outlook as a Factor in Character For
mation , " Izvestiya Krymskogo pedagogicheskogo instituta (Gazette of the
Crimean Pedagogical Institute) , Vol . XV , " Psychology , " 1950 .
24. A. G. Kovalar , " The Problem of the Characterology of School
Children , " Abstracts of Reports Presented at a Conference on Psychology ,
Publishing House of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences RSFSR , 1955.
25 . A. G. Kovalev , " The Process of the Restructuring of the
Character of School Children , " Reports Presented at a Conference on the
Psychology of the Personality , Publishing House of the Academy of Ped
agogical Sciences RSFSR , 1956 .
26. A. G. Kovalev and V. N. Myasishchev , Psikhicheskiye
osobennosti cheloveka ( Psychic Characteristics of Man ) , Vol. I , " Char
acter , Leningrad , 1957 .
27 . T. Ye . Konnikova , Organizatsiya kollektiva uchashchikhsya v
shkole ( Organization of a Student Collective in School ) , Publishing
House of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences RSFSR , 1957 .
T. A. Korman , " On the Problem of the Psychology of Reproduc
28 .
tion , " Uchenye zapiski MGPI (Academic Reports of the Moscow City Peda
gogical Institute) , Vol. XXVI, No. 2 , Moscow , 1954 .
29. I. M. Krasnobayev, " Formation of Ethical Concepts in Senior
School Children , " Reports Presented at a Conference on the Psychology
of Personality , Publishing House of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences
RSFSR , 1956 .
30. V. A. Krutetskiy , " Characteristic of Certain Moral Concepts
in Senior School Children , " Author's Abstract of Candidate's Disserta
tion , Moscow , 1953.

- 317 -
 31. N. D. Levitov, " The Influence Exerted by Personal Example
on the Character Formation of Students , " Uchenyye zapiski Instituta
psikhologii ( Academic Reports of the Institute of Psychology ), Vol. II ,
Moscow , 1941 .
32 .A. N. Leontiyev, Problemy razvitiva psikhiki ( Problems Con
cerned with the Development of the Psychic Life ) , Publishing House of
the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences RSFSR , 1959 .
33. A. N. Leont'yev, " Psychological Problems of the Conscious
ness of Learning , " Izvestiya APN RSFSR ( Gazette of the Academy of Ped
agogical Sciences RSFSR ) , No. 7 , 1947 .
33a . A. N. Leontiyev, " Urgent Problems concerned with the Develop
ment of the Psychic Life of the Child , " Ibid . , No. 14, 1945 .
34. L. N. Leonchukova, " The Cultivation of Responsibility , "
Anthology : " Educational Work in School , " Moscow , 1950 .
35. G. V. Mazurenko , " Psychological conditions of the Educa
tional Effect Exerted Upon Students by an Evaluation of Their Know
ledge , " Author's Abstract of Candidate's Dissertation , Moscow , 1951 .
36. A. S. Makarenko , Sochineniya ( Works), Vol . I , Moscow , 1950 .
37. A. S. Makarenko , Ibid . , Vol. V, Moscow , 1951 .
38. A. L. Maliovanov , " The Role of Moral Persuasion in the For
mation of a Moral Behavior in Soviet Adolescents , " Author's Abstract of
Candidate's Dissertation , Moscow , 1951 .
39. Ye , S. Makhlakh , " Psychological Characteristics of Playing
a Part During School Age , " Author's Abstract of Candidate's Dissertation ,
Moscow , 1953.
40. M. F. Morozov, " The Appearance and Development of Study In
terests in Junior School Age Children , " Izvestiya APN RSFSR (Gazette of
the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences RSFSR ) , No. 73, 1955 .
41. V. N. Myasishchev , " Psychic Functions and Relations , "
Uchenyve zapiski LGU (Academic Reports of Leningrad State University ) ,
Leningrad , 1949 .
42 . P. A. Prosetskiy , " Example as One of the Factors in Char
acter Formation , " Reports Presented at a Conference on the Psychology
of the Personality , Publishing House of the Academy of Pedagogical
Sciences RSFSR , 1956 .
43. S. L. Rubinshteyn, Osnovy obshchev psikhologii ( Fundamentals
of General Psychology ), Moscow , State Training and Pedagogical Literature
Publishing House , 1946 .
44 . S. Ya . Rubinshteyn , " On the Cultivation of Habits in Chil
dren , ” Doklady APN RSFSR ( Reports of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences
RSFSR ) , vol . I, 1957 .
45 . T. V. Rubtsova , " Characteristics of the Realization of Moral
Qualities of the Personality by School Children of Various Ages , "
Voprosy psikhologii ( Problems of Psychology ), No. 4, 1956.
46 . V. I. Selivanov , Vospitaniye voli u shkol'nikov ( Volitional
Training in School Children ) , Moscow , 1949.
47. Ye . A. Serebryakova , " Self - Confidence and Conditions Govern
ing Its Formation in School Children , Author's Abstract of Candidate's
Dissertation , Moscow , 1955 .
318 -
 48. I , M. Sechenov , Izbrannve filosofskive i psikhologicheskive
proizvedeniya ( Selected Philosophical and Psychological Works) , Moscow ,
1947 .
49. L. S. Slavina , " The Role of the Family in the Formation of
a child's Attitude Towards School Studies , " Izvestiya APN RSFSR (Gazette
of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences RSFSR ), No. 36 , 1951.
50. L. S. Slavina , " On Certain Peculiarities of the Mental Work
Performed by Backward Students, " Sovetskaya pedagogika ( Soviet Pedagogy )
No. 1 , 1954 .
51. L. S. Slavina, " The Formation of a Responsible Fulfillment
of Study Duties in First Grade Pupils , " Voprosy psikhologii ( Problems
of Psychology ). No , 4, 1956 .
52. L. S. Slavina , " On the Problem of Inculcating a Responsible
Attitude towards a Communal Assignment, " Doklady_APN RSFSR ( Reports of
the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences RSFSR ), No. 1, 1957.
53. A. A. Smirnov , Psikhologiya zapominaniya ( Psychology of Re
call ) Moscow -Leningrad, 1948 .
54. A. A. Smirnov , " Questions of the Psychology of the Person
ality of Soviet School Children , " Sovetskava pedagogika ( Soviet Pedagogy ) ,
No. 2 , 1950 .
55. N. I. Sudakov, " Psychological Characteristic of the Persist
ence Exhibited by Senior Grade Students , " Author's Abstract of Candidate's
Dissertation , Moscow , 1950 .
56. F. I. Fradkina, " The Role of Play in the Formation of Study
Interests , " Izvestiya APN RSFSR (Gazette of the Academy of Pedagogical
Sciences RSFSR ) , No. 73, 1955 .
57. A. L. Shnirman , " On Certain Problems concerned with the Cul .
tivation of Habits , " Sovetskava pedagogika ( Soviet Pedagogy ), No. 6 ,
1941 .
58. A. L. Shnirman , "on the Formation of the Habit of Working
Independently , " Ibid . , No. 5 , 1947 .
59. A. L. Shnirman , " On the Problem of Developing collectivism
in Senior School Children , " Izvestiya APN RSFSR (Gazette of the Academy
of Pedagogical Sciences RSFSR ) , No. 26 , 1950 .
60. A. L. Shnirman , " The Role of a Primary Collective in the
Formation of the Personality of School Children , " Abstracts of Reports
Presented at a Conference on Psychology , Publishing House of the Acad
emy of Pedagogical Sciences RSFSR , 1955 .
61. A. L. Shnirman , " The Collective as a Vital Condition for
the Formation of the Personality of School Children , " Reports Presented
at a Conference on the Psychology of Personality , Publishing House of
the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences RSFSR , 1956 .

- 319 -
 SOME RESULTS OF THE STUDY OF THE PSYCHIC DEVELOPMENT
OF CHILDREN OF PRE - SCHOOL AGE

By D. B. El'konin

I. M. Sechenov, that outstanding materialist psychologist of

the second half of the 19th century , may justly be called the founder
of materialist child psychology in Russia . His excellent works , " Cer
ebral Reflexes , " " Mements of Thought, " " By Whom and How Should Psy
chology Be Faborated , " were not only an assertion of the reflex con
ception of psychic processes but also a masterly application of the
genetic approach to the solution of problems of psychology.
I. M. Sechenov wrote : " By its whole content, scientific psy
chology cannot be anything else than a series of theories on the origin
of psychic activity . " Not only did he assert the necessity of a genetic
approach to the solution of the problems of psychology ; he also gave
models of such an analysis.
" I am going to trace historically , " wrote I. M. Sechenov , " the
psychic development of man ( of an individual man , naturally ) from his
birth ; and I am going to try to place the crucial phases of it ( i.e.
of the development) in one or another period and deduce each succeed
ing phase from the preceding one. (I. M. Sechenov, By Whom and How
Should Psychology Be Elaborated , Selected Works , Vol . I , Publishing
House of the USSR Academy of Sciences, 1952, pages 209-210 . )
The models of analysis of the psychic development of the in
fant given by Sechenov were incomparably better than the works of
that day on child psychology by European and American authors of that
time .
To the same period belongs the publication of K. D.
Ushinskiy's excellent work , "Man as an Object of Education , " in which
for the first time was shown the role of pedagogical practice for the
system of psychological knowledge. In this outstanding work of
Ushinskiy the child emerges not as a biological being with a destiny
preestablished by unalterable properties, but rather as a subject of
education in the course of which occurs its formation and development ,
Al though Ushinskiy's work was devoted in the main to questions of
pedagogy and was directed to school teachers, the questions of juve
nile psychology , specifically pre - school age psychology, were pretty
well elucidated in it for those days.
In the last decades before the Great October Socialist Revolu
tion , the progressive traditions of Russian psychology in general and
of the psychology of pre- school age children in particular , were to a
considerable extent forgotten . At the Pan -Russian Congresses on ped
agogical psychology and experimental pedagogy ( 1906, 1909 , 1910 , 1913,
1916) , questions of the psychology of pre- school age children were not

320 -
discussed . The pre - school age psychology was not systematically elab
orated and was represented only by a series of individual fragmentary
works . Interest in the questions of the psychology of children of
pre - school age were satisfied in the main by translations of Western
European and American authors, which from the beginning of the 20th
century began appearing in even greater quantities (Preyer , Perry ,
Sheen , Chamberlin , Baldwin , Colotsa, Gross, Hall and others) .
The dissemination of this literature contributed to a consider
able degree to the penetration into Russian child psychology of the
pseudo - scientific ideas of biogeneticism and pediology .
Only a small group of progressive scientists and pedagogues sup
ported the ideas of Sechenov and Ushinskiy . Among these were the very
eminent Russian scientists, V. M. Bekhterev and P. F. Lesgaft, and the
fine enthusiasts of pre - school education , Ye . N. Vodovozova , Ye . I.
Tikheyeva and L. K. Shleger .
The Great October Socialist Revolution , by putting women on an
equal footing with men in respect of rights, posed as one of the basic
tasks the granting to women of genuine opportunity for participation
in productive labor and public life .
By decree of the Soviet of People's Commissars of 12 November ,
1917 , pre -school education was included in the single system of public
education . By this decree were practically implemented the great ideas
of the founders of scientific communism concerning the communal educa
tion of the children of workers from an early age .
The vigorous growth of the system of communal education of chil .
dren of early and pre- school age entailed likewise a special interest
in questions of the psychology of children of these age - groups .
Naturally , immediately after the revolution , the psychologists ,
not having as yet either their own methods or their own facts to work
with , were limited to generalizations of facts formerly collected both
in Western European and American and in Russian prerevolutionary psy
chology . In 1921 there appeared the second edition of K. N. Kornilovis
book ( its first edition had come out before the revolution ), " Outlines
of Infant Psychology " [1327 in which notonlydid the author not yet
overcome the influence of idealist psychology but did not even put the
question of this struggle .
The construction of a child psychology on the basis of the prin
ciples of Marxism - Leninism was impeded , to a considerable extent, by
the fact that it was under the influence of the pseudo- scientific ideas
of so - called " pediology . "
The influence on child psychology of the reorganization of the
whole of psychology on the basis of Marxist methodology was limited by
the monopoly of pediology and the pediologists on the theory of infant
development. The central problem of child psychology the problem
of development -- was resolved from wrong methodological positions in
the spirit of the two - factor theory innate to bourgeois science . Its
solution fluctuated between " biologization " which considered biolog
ical and hereditary factors primary in development and

321 -
" sociogeneticism " which considered the influence of environmental con
ditions primary in development. The leftist phrases of the so - called
" sociogeneticists" in their campaign against the " biologizers " dove
tailed with bourgeois theories of the fatalistic conditioning of the
development by unalterable environmental factors . In the process the
infant was considered as a passive being , deprived of any life and ac
tivity of its on whatsoever, and the crucial role of training and edu
cation in the development of children was ignored . The fact that the
basic method of pediology ( test researches which pretended to measure
the " intelligence quotient" of children ) was widespread contributed to
a false solution of the basic question of the laws governing the de
velopment of the infant psyche , The pseudo - scientific methods of child
research , since they did not have what it took to reveal the real mo
tive forces of development, afforded the opportunity for various sorts
of interpretation in the spirit of the two - factor theory .
The pseudo - scientific test researches were extended likewise to
children of infant and pre - school age in the form of various " intelli
gence scales , " tests researches of speech, locomo tion , and other as
pects of infant development .
The divorce of the study of the process of development of the
infant psyche from the solution of the basic problems of general psy
chology has had a deleterious effect both on the development of gen
eral psychology and on the development of child psychology . In con
nection with the monopoly of pediology , psychology was deprived of
the possibility of an outlet into pedagogical practice and of the
employment of genetic analysis of the processes of development . In
child psychology the basic problems of infant development were ignored ,
namely the development of his psyche and consciousness. In the period
of the supremacy of pediology the study of the development of the infant
psyche was the most backward section of psychology .
The beginning of a new stage in the development of child psychol
ogy in general and of the psychology of the infant and pre - school age
groups in particular_is linked up with the decree of the Central Commit
tee of the VKP (b) [All -Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks )7 "On
pediological distortions in the system of People's Commissariats of Edu
cation " dated 4 July 1936. This decree quite clearly exposed the reac
tionary essence of the fundamental pediological " law " on the fatalistic
conditioning of the destiny of children by biological and social fac
tors, by the influence of heredity and of some sort of " immutable en
vironment . " The decree showed that this " law is in blatant contradic
tion with Marxism and with the practice of socialist construction and
communist education and training . At the same time, it exposed the
fundamental viciousness of the basic methods of pediological research ,
of the various test- type measurements which pretended to a scientific
nature but were in reality only pseudo -objective and represented a
" deliberate mockery of the pupils, contradicting the tasks of the So
viet school and flying in the face of common sense . "

- 322
 The decree of the Central Committee of the VKP (b) put an end
to the theoretical and practical activity of the pediologists . The
liquidation of pediology had a cardinal significance both for the de
velopment of general psychology and particularly for the development of
child psychology . The divorce obtaining between these branches of one
and the same field of knowledge was liquidated and the study of the
development of the infant psyche was brought back into the mainstream
of psychology . Infant psychology became a branch of psychology and
emerged in it into the foreground . Fructified by Marxist - Leninist
methodology which had at this point become the basic methodology of
psychology , infant psychology occupied an important place in the solu
tion of the tasks facing psychology as a whole .
It would be wrong to throw out entirely from the balance sheets
of the study of infant and pre - school age groups everything that was
done in the period of the monopolistic supremacy of pediology . A num
ber of scholars and scientists accumulated factual materials on the de
velopment of the infant which had no relation whatever to the pseudo
scientific conceptions and methods and represented a genuine
contribution to the study of infant development which is still valid
today .
In the 1920's there was organized , attached to the Leningrad
Institute for the Study of the Brain , a special developmental clinic .
V. M. Bekhterev was its initiator and in it N. M. Shchelovanov and
his colleagues began and most successfully pursued a complex study of
the process of infant development from the moment of birth and during
the entire period of early childhood . This was the first and only in
stitution in the world in which such systematic studies were carried
on. V. M. Bekhterev and N. M. Shchelovanov brought out a scientific
justification of the genetic research of the developmental processes
[12] . The first works to come out of this clinic of the development of
normal children had a reflexological bias . M. P. Denisova and N. L.
Figurin [69 ] carried out the first observations of those days on
neonati . After systematic, day - by - day observations of the develop
ment of children during the first year of life , these authors soon
published a very important work [253], in which for the first time in
world literature were established the stages of the development of the
infant in the first year of its life . It should be stressed that this
work is on a considerably higher level than analogous works by the
American researcher , Gesell , who made a study of infant development in
early childhood by the successive section method .
The authors of this excellent work were the first to draw atten
tion to the role of the orientational reactions ( concentration reac
tions" in the terminology of the authors) for the entire development of
the infant in the first year of life; they discovered the phenomenon at
the end of the first and beginning of the second month " of the animation
complex " first arising as a reaction to the person of a speaking adult;
they uncovered the phases of the development of the receptor and motor
activity of the infant; they followed through the development of

- 323 -
grasping and the motions with objects emerging on the basis of it, the
development of vocal reactions and of the first infant words .
In this same clinic, N. L. Figurin carried out a systematic
study of the sleeping and waking state of the infant in the first year
of life . Here too were laid the bases of a systematic study of the
early forms of higher neural activity ( works of M. P. Denisova, A. M.
Levikova , N. I. Kasatkin , Ts . P. Nemanova, M. 0. Shraftzettser et al .)
( For more details on these works, cf. the following section of this
article ). Of_great significance was the work of n . L. Figurin and M.
P. Denisova (2527 devoted to the study of the reaction to " the novel "
in children under one year of age ; in this work there was shown the
role of orientational activity in the development of manipulation of
objects and eo ipso was revealed the internal mechanism of the so
called manipulation games . It should be noted that all these investiga
tions were carried out in the context of a planned pedagogical work
with infants and proved the cardinal significance of education and
training at the earliest stages of infant development. They propa
gandized the necessity of training in the first days of the infant's
life and showed the possibility of a campaign against " hospitalism "
which has a deleterious effect on the development of young infants .
Al though these researches were published as pediological ones , they
nevertheless had nothing in common with the use of the pseudo
scientific pediological methods nor with the pseudo - scientific method
ology of the fundamental " law of pediology . The facts acquired by
them have passed into the common fund of our knowledge concerning the
development of infants at an early age and Soviet science is rightly
proud of them .
Subsequently this fine institution was transferred to the compe
tency of the public health agencies and was divided into two : one ,
headed by N. M. Shchelovanov , was transferred to Moscow , while the
other ,.headed by N. L. Figurin , remained in Leningrad as an integral
part of the Pediatric Medical Institute . From the results of re
searches carried out in these institutions after the decree of the Cen
tral Committee of the VKP ( b ) there were published several important
works by R,Ya. Abramovich 17. F,I. Fradkina [261]. G. L.Rozengart
Pupko [2167, Ye. K. Kaverina [102] ,R. Ya. Sandler " [2317 ,N. I.
Kasatkin 11097 , embracing the basic aspects of early infant develop
ment (For more details on some of these works , cf. the following sec
tions ) . On the basis of meticulous perennial researches of the process
of the development of young children collated in these works and of a
careful analysis of the role of training in the development there was
set up a system of operation for the institutions for training young
children , while N. M. Shchelovanov and N. M. Aksarina [ 2847 wrote a
We re
textbo for the pedago person of these instit .
gret haok gi l
ving to state thatcaaf
nel utions
ter the decree of the CC VKP (b) , the study
of young children was divorced from the research of the processes of
psychic development in older age - groups . General common work is ap
parently being hindered by departmental partitions which must be gotten
rid of

324
 During the period of the supremacy of the pseudo - scientific
pediology , even several psychologists ( such as M. Ya . Basov, P. P.
Blonskiy , L. S. Vygotskiy and N. A. Rybnikov ) who had been working at
questions of child development were drawn into its orbit . Rybnikov ,
Basov and Vygotskiy were working at questions of the psychology of pre
school age children .
Interest in the question of child development gave rise to a
quite extensive diary literature . Among the diaries published up to
1936 and containing interesting factual material may be mentioned those
of Ye. Krichevskaya [ 7467, N. Sokolov [238 ], I. N. Morozov (1837. A.
Pavlova [ 192] , M. stanchinskaya [ 2437, v A
. . Rybnikova-Shilova [226] ,
and N. Soboleva [222] .
Great attention was given to the elaboration of the biographic
method by N. A. Rybnikov , who elaborated a number of questions of child
development on the basis of diary material .
In his works," Vocabulary of the Russian Child " [2247, and " Lang
uage oftheChild "(2257 , N.A.Rybnikov collated and systematized the
data of observations on the development of the speech of children . The
rich factual material collected in these books, even though it is of a
purely descriptive nature, nonetheless continues to retain its interest
even for the contemporary researcher .
The talented psychologist , M. Ya . Basov, who in the first years
of the development of Soviet psychology came out against mechanistic
tendencies, did much work with a team of his co - workers at the problem
of development in the pre- school age . Fighting against subjectivism
in the interpretation of the facts of infant conduct, M. Ya . Basov
worked out a carefully thought through and refined methodology of ob
jective observations on children [177. To him likewise belongs credit
for the effort to elaborate a structural analysis of activity , an an
alysis in which the tendencies of its author to voluntarism remained
vague but in which to counterbalance reactological tendencies there was
stress on the significance of the activity of the individual in his ina
terrelations with his environment . One of the most talented psychol
ogists, L. S. Vygotskiy , was , during the period of the development of
Soviet psychology , in the vanguard of the fight against mechanism and
behaviorism and produced many valuable works . In the last years of his
life ( he died in 1934 ), in his work at problems of the development of
the infant psyche , he likewise ended up being drawn into the stream of
pediological works . In spite of this , Vygotskiy produced a number of
researches of utmost value for child psychology . Among those works of
his relevant to the psychology of the pre - school age group which have
not yet lost their significance must be mentioned his works on the de
velopment of thinking and speech and on the problem of instruction and
development (417 , [43] . Vygotskiy was the firstto come out with a
critique of the theory of egocentrism of G. Piaget, who considered ego
centrism the central characteristic of children of pre- school age . On
the basis of experimental and theoretical research , Vygotskiy established
the social nature and origin of the so - called " egocentrich speech . As

- 325 -
opposed to Piaget , who had asserted the initial solopsism and autism
of the infant and claimed that they were only gradually supplanted by
the social thought of the adult, Vygotskiy defends the diametrically
opposed point of view , the initially social ( by its very nature) lia
ison of the infant with surrounding reality and the gradual develop
ment on this basis of his individual consciousness . It must be noted
that even in his works devoted to the critique of the theory of ego
centrism , Vygotskiy advanced a number of propositions about the role of
practice, of activity in the development of the infant consciousness .
Thus, he wrote : " Activity , practice -- there are those new moments
which permit of uncovering the functions of egocentric speech from a
new aspect, in all their plenitude and of noting an entirely new as
pect in the development of the child's thought, which , like the dark
side of the moon , usually remains outside the field of vision of ob
servers .
" Piaget asserts that things do not work on the mind of the
child . But we have seen that , in a real - life situation , where the
egocentric speech of the child is tied in with his practical activity ,
where it is tied in with the thinking of the child, things really do
work on the mind of the child . Things mean reality , but reality not
passively reflected in the perceptions of the child , not cognized by
him from an abstract point of view , but rather reality with which he
tangles in the process of practical activity" [41; 927.Unfortu
nately these principles did not occupy their proper , leading place in
the generic conception of development worked out by Vygotskiy .
L. S. Vygotskiy was the first person in Soviet child psychology
to direct attention to the problem of instruction and development and
to advance the thesis on the leading role of instruction in the develop
ment of the child . Thus , he wrote : " ...only that instruction is good
which keeps ahead of development. " This general proposition he applied
also in respect of school teaching [437. Considering the relationships
between instruction and development to be variable, Vygotskiy showed
that with the transition to the pre - school age there arises also the
possibility of a transition to a new type of instruction , different both
from the instruction given in early childhood and from school instruc
tion .
While defining certain specific peculiarities of instruction in
the pre - school age bracket and posing the question of the clear possi
bility of teaching reading and writing at this age , he warned at the
same time against a mechanical transfer of the program and methods of
school teaching into the pre - school age , against the conversion of
" schools for the little ones" into " little schools . "
In his characterization of the pre- school period of development,
Vygotskiy started from the following important principle: "It would be
a hopeless effort to attempt to characterize the peculiarities of the
mind of the pre - school age child , starting not from the integral whole
but from the individual portions, attempting to characterize attention ,

- 326
memory , thought taken separately . As research shows and as exper
ience teaches us , the most essential thing in the development of the
child and of his mind is not only the fact that the individual functions
of the child's mind grow and develop on transition from one age to an
other , but rather that the personality of the child grows and develops,
his mind grows and develops as an integral wholen (43; 4307 .
Considering that the basic peculiarity of the structure of the
mind of the pre - school age child is the fact that memory begins to oc
cupy the center of consciousness , Vygotskiy derives from this all the
remaining peculiarities : the transition from thinking in representam
tions , the emergence of new types of activity (play, inventive activ
ity and the like ), the formation of primary internal ethical standards,
the composition of the first sketch of the child's world outlook . In
giving for the first time in Soviet child psychology a generic picture
of the development of the pre - school age child , he correctly noted in
the main its important traits. However Vygotskiy had a wrong idea of
the correlation of the various individual aspects of the development of
the child and therefore of the emergence of the new type of activity ,
of the new relations to surroundings, in the first instance to social
reality . He considered these to be the result of a change in the struc
ture of consciousness . In actual fact, that is not the way it is . The
change in the structure of the mind, which occurs during pre - school age ,
is the consequence of new relations which are coming into being , of a
new type of activity on the part of the pre - school age child . The de
velopment of memory itself at this age is determined by new relations,
by the new type of the child's activity and consequently by the new
tasks with which the child is faced in this period of his development,
Despite the errors committed by Vygotskiy during his scientific
career , several of the principles and problems which he advanced have
not lost their actuality .
It must be noted that Vygotskiy was distinguished during the
last years of his life (when he had been drawn into the current of
pseudo - scientific pediology ) from all the pediologists by his clearly
expressed psychological orientation ; for him the problem of the con
crete psychological characteristic of consciousness and of its develop
ment remained the central problem on which he worked to the last days
of his life .
The decree of the CC of the VKP ( b ) dated 4 July 1936, which put
an end to pseudo - scientific pediological theory and practice marked the
arrival of a new stage in the development of child psychology . The liq
uidation of pediological distortions in the theory of child development
contributed to a considerable degree to the fact that even before 1936
some psychologists who had not been drawn into the orbit of pediology
had been working on the question of the correlation of the development
of consciousness and activity , of thought and practice . This sort of
work was done , on the one hand, by S. L. Rubinshteyn and his colleagues
(G. T. Ovsepyan, S. N. Shabalin and others) working in Leningrad , and
on the other hand by A. N. Leont'yev and his colleagues ( V. I. Asnin ,
L. I. Bozhovich , P. Ya . Gal'perin , A. V. Zaporozhets , P. I. Zinchenko
and others ), working in Khar'kov .
- 327
 In his article " Problems of Psychology in the Works of Karl
Marx , " ( 1934 ) , S. L. Rubinshteyn advanced the thesis on the formation
of the human psychic life in the process of activity " ; in the book ,
" Fundamentals of Psychology ( 1935 ) he made the first theoretical at
tempt to explain the motive forces of psychic development in ontogenesis
without having recourse to the theory of factors, to the false notion
of the determining influence on the course of development " of heredity
and an immutable environment . " Thus , he wrote : " The internal contra
dictions between conscious relations reflected in self - awareness and
real relations objectively determining consciousness and behavior are
the motive forces of psychological development (p . 147 ) . And so the
question arises of the determining influence for the psychic develop
ment of the child of his real relations with the reality Mof concrete
forms of activity ( play , study and later production work ), by means of
which the child and later the adolescent is actively interpolated into
the world about him ” (p . 148 ) .
In his subsequent works, after the decree of the CC of the
VKP (b) , S. L. Rubinshteyn elaborated in greater detail the problem
of the development of the psychic life of the child. Thus, in the
book " Fundamentals of General Psychology, “ [220 ] he wrote of the fact
that the motive forces of the development of personality reside in
this activity of the personality - in the internal contradictions be
tween the forms of an ever more conscious activity of the child at the
level of development which he has already attained and that new content
which he is in process of mastering. In the course of this activity,
the development of the child is not only manifested but also " accom
plished " (p . 162 ). By form of life and activity Rubinshteyn also
understood the periodization of the development of the child : # The
various periods of the development of the personality are determined by
the difference in the form of life , by the forms of existence which are
various for the infant and the pre - pre - school age child , for the pre
schooler and the school - child . And here it is not the immanent auto
development of consciousness or activity of children of itself which
determines the alteration of their form of life , of the form of their
existence ; rather it is the alteration of the forms of their existence ,
their type of life including their activity in unity with their ob
jective conditions which determines the new stages in the development
of their practical and cognitive activity . The cognitive activity does ,
of course , in its turn , exert an influence on the type of life of chil
dren , but the first dependence is the one which is primary , basic and
determining . Inasmuch as the form of life of children is conditioned
by the activity of adults who are organizing it, this form of life and
eo ipso the entire development of the child is a historical products
[[220 ; 162-1637 . Considering the development of the child at various
periods of his life , s . L, Rubinshteyn shows the significance of nob
ject " activity for the development of the pre - pre - school age child , of
everyday home activity and play in the development of the pre - school
age child , and of systematic study in the development of the school - child .

328 -
 On the basis of the projects of G. T. Ovsepyan [ T987 and A. M.
Leushina [T567, devoted to a study of the development of observation
and speech in pre- school age children , S. L. Rubinshteyn [221], [222],
subjected to critical examination the theory of the formal developmen
tal levels of development of individual psychic processes and showed
that they depend not directly on age as such but rather on the concrete
content which the child masters in the course of development. There
fore, both children of one and the same age and one and the same child
may reveal various levels of the development of individual psychic proc
esses in function of the concrete content of the task to be resolved
and the concrete activity therewith connected .
Simultaneously with and independently of the projects which had
been being conducted by S. L. Rubinshteyn and his colleagues, a group
of psychologists under the direction of A. N. Loont'yev was carrying
out in Kharkov a great experimental project at explaining the role of
practical " object " activity in the development of generalization and
of other aspects of mental development. This project was begun at the
very beginning of the 1930's, still in the period of the supremacy of
the pseudo - scientific pediological views on the processes of mental
development . In its roots , it was connected with the researches of L.
s . Vygotskiy , devoted to the problem of the development of thought in
children , specifically to the problem of the development of generaliza
tions . At the same time , these projects were directed against an over
estimation of the role of speech and communication in the development
of generalizations which had prevailed with Vygotskiy , and to the dis
covery of the internal mechanism of the development of generalization
and of the crucial significance in this process of the practical " obo
jects activity of the child . Even in the first researches of V. I.
Asnin [73] [See Note7 it had been shown that generalization arises in
the process of the resolution of a number of practical tasks, in activ
ity which was conventionally called " transfer . " " Generalization , " wrote
V. I. Asnin , "is formed in the process of the transfer of the method of
action with an object from one task to another similar but not identical
task [73:_1267.
( Note] The published researches are a part of the researches of
A. N. Leontiyev and V, I. Asnin , " Transfer of Actions as a function of
Intellect. )
A. V. Zaporozhets [B07 , investigating the processes of generali
zation in deaf - mute children who had not been taught to speak , showed
that " the child , by practically using in the resolution of a number of
complex tasks one and the same object as an instrument, comes to a gen
eralization of a number of individual situations in respect of their
functional mark . By carrying out this sort of generalization , the
child abstracts from the external similarity between objects and bases
himself not on direct affective relation to an objects but rather on
the mastery of it by a generalizing function " [80 ; 337. In the work
of G. D. Lukov [161] it was shown that therecognition by the infant of

329 -
speech is in direct function of the mastery of action with objects ,
" The development of the recognition by the child of speech is deter
mined not by the growth of introspection but by the alteration of his
relation to objective reality . This alteration of the relation of the
child consists in the mastery by him of the world of objects . But
since the objects with which the child has to do are not objects of his
passive contemplation but rather objects of his active activity , the
child , having mastered an object, masters together with that object his
own activity , i.e. he acquires a knowledge and experience of activity .
This experience , reflected in speech , is a system of possible actions
of the child with relation to the object named , In other words, the
recognition of speech is a mastery of speech as a form of reality which
is created by a process of " object" activity of the child organized and
directed by teaching and training . In a research of P. Ya, Gallperin
[457, it was conclusively shown that there is a fundamental difference
between the instrumental operations accomplished in a human being ( in
cluding even children of pre- school age ) and the use of auxiliary in
struments by animals . Moreover , in this research there were uncovered
the genetic roots of thought and the dependence of its development on
practical activity . " Thought resolves the tasks which are set it by
previous activity , in the final analysis practical activity ; it re
solves these tasks by instruments of which it disposes as a result of
previous activity , in the final analysis practical activity . Conse
quently , thought itself represents an individual form of the activity
of a subject, a form which arises at a certain definite level of dem
velopment of his practical activity , out of that activity , on the basis
of that activity , as a proliferation of that activity . Thought takes
over from practical activity its experience , its content, its techniques ,
the direction of its movement, and thus represents in the initial stages
nothing other than the ideal reproduction of that practical activity .
" Naturally , inasmuch as it is such a concrete form of activity ,
reason in respect of its ends, potentials and prospects of development
is determined by the structuring of the practical activity on the body
of which it arises , by the interests which it nourishes and whose path
it is called upon in the sequel to elucidate * [45; 85-867 .
These investigations, like a number of others devoted to the prob
lem of the assimilation of concepts, were originally summed up in the
unpublished article of A N. Leontyev , " The Mastery of Scientific Con
cepts as a Problem of Pedagogical Psychology " ( 1935) . In this article
Leont' yev wrote :
" In considering the process of the development of the signifi
cance of the word we should begin with the notion of the alteration of
the generic type of activity of the child which determines likewise
the alterations of the corresponding stages or formations of conscious
ness and speech . " " This alteration of generalization ," wrote
Leontiyev, " reflecting reality is precisely a concrete form of the al
teration of consciousness , an alteration which occurs as a result of the
alteration of the activity of the subject in relation to reality . "

- 330 -
 In these researches , there was shown experimentally the predom
inant significance of activity in the microscopic alterations of con
sciousness, of its basic units, generalizations which lie behind every
individual word .
A fundamentally new approach to the problem of psychic develop
ment, the overcoming of the pseudo - scientific theory of the two factors,
necessarily required the elaboration of new principles of experimenta
research
tion . The first effort to define new principles of experimental
of the processes of psychic development was the work of V. I. Asnin .
In his work ( conducted under the direction of A. N. Leontiyev) , v . I.
Asnin [ 73; 487 took as point of departure the principle that" in real
ity intellectual action does not represent the manifestation of a
ready -made faculty , but rather arises and is formed in the process of
the activity of a subject, in the process of his resolution of tasks .
In accord with this, the real criteria of reliability must be sought,
in our opinion , not in external conditions of research but rather in
the experiment itself , in the content of the activity which is accomp
lished by the test subject in the process of the fulfillment of a
task " [ 14 ; 1367. V. I. Asnin showed experimentally that, first , com
pletely favorable external conditions of an experiment do not yet guar
antee the reliability of the data obtained ; secondly , that the presence
of the experimentor during the experiment is not only an external condi .
tion of the experiment and that the relations between the subject and
the experimentor , which are of vital importance for the results , are
developed in the course of the experiment itself; thirdly, that the
attitude of the child to the task , the motives of his actions, are
formed in the course of the experiment itself and vitally determine the
character of the child's activity . Asnin comes to the conclusion that
" one and the same assignment will be fulfilled by the child differently
and with a varying degree of success in function of what activity the
fwfillment of this task is a part, what goals emerge before the child ,
what relationship is established in him to the other participants of
the experiment . The taking into account of these elements in research
is of crucial significance for the determination of the reliability of
the results of a psychological experiment" [14; 1327 .
This line of work was considerably expandedand developed in
the sequel , after the decree of the cc of the VKP (b ) .
The concrete researches of the processes of development of chil
dren , which were carried out under the direction of A. N. Leontyev,
were collated by him in a special article " On the Theory of the Develop
ment of the Psychic Life of the Child" [1547. The solution of the ques
tion as to the motive forces is formulated by the author as follows:
" And so , a change of the place occupied by the child in the system of
social relationships is the first thing which must be noted in any ef
fort to approach a solution of the question of the motive forces of
the development of his psychic life . However of itself this place does
not determine, of course , the development; it only characterizes the
present stage already achieved . What does directly determine the

- 331 -
development of the psychic life of the child is his life itself, the
development of the real processes of this life ; in other words, the
development of the activity of the child , both the external , practical
activity and the internal , reflective activity . And its development
depends in turn on the conditions of life obtaining at the given moment.
And so in the study of the development of the psychic life of
the child the starting point should be an analysis of the development
of his activity as it develops in the given concrete circumstances of
his life . Only with such an approach can there be explained the role
both of the external conditions of life of the child and of the rudi .
mentary faculties which he possesses . Only in such an approach ,
starting from an analysis of the very developing activity of the child
can there be properly understood likewise the leading role of training
which influences the child's activity and his attitude to reality and
therefore determines his psychic life , his consciousness" [154; 357.
In this same article the author gives a definition of the con
cept " leading activity under the influence of which there occurs de .
velopment in the various periods; he discloses the basic structural
elements of activity , attempts to uncover the mechanism of the intra
stage changes and of the transition from one stage of development to
ano ther . From the time of the decree of the cc of the VKP (b) dated
4 July 1936, this article was the fullest attempt to resolve all the
basic questions of the development of the psychic life of the child
and it is submitted that it has not lost its significance even at the
present time .
After the decree of the CC of the VKP (b) " On Pediological Dis
tortions in the System of People's Commissariats of Education , " the
study of the process of the psychic development of children of pre
school age went ahead along the following lines :
a) study of the peculiarities of higher neural activity ;
b) study of the basic types of activity of children of pre
school age -- play and work , their influence on the processes of psy
chid development ;
c) study of the development of speech and its role in psychic
development;
d) study of individual aspects of development JO movements , per
ception , memory and thought;
e) study of the peculiarities of the formation of the personal
ity of the pre - school child .
2

After the exposure in the decree of the CC & the VKP ( b)

dated 4 July 1936 "On Pediological Distortions in the System of
People's Commissariats of Education " of the pseudo - scientific, reac
tionary conceptions of the fatalistic determination of the fate of
children " by an inherited and immutable environment , " psychologists
and educators did much to uncover the determining role of the conditions
of life and activity of the child , directed by education and training ,
for his development .
332 -
 The determining influence on the processes of psychic develop
ment of the child exerted by his living conditions by the content and
character of his activity , the leading influence of education and train
ing cannot be profoundly understood and explained apart from the teach
ing of I. P. Pavlov on the cortex of the cerebral hemispheres as an
organ effecting the liaison of the organism with its environment, as an
organ of ontogenesis, by means of which is accomplished the acquisition
of individual experience and individual development.
The first effort at a systematic study of the physiological ac
tivity of the cortex of the cerebral hemispheres in children was under
taken by the dean of I. P. Pavlov's pupils,N. I. Krasnogorskiy [7427 .
By these researches it was clearly established that the activity of
the cortex of the cerebral hemispheres of the child is subject to the
basic laws established by I. P. Pavlov . At the same time there were
likewise uncovered several specific peculiarities of the physiological
activity of the cortex of the great hemispheres in the child . Thus it
was established that the conditioned reflexes in children are distin
guished by speed of formation , of fading and of restoration ; and more
over by a high degree of persistence and intactness. Vestigial
conditioned reflexes in children are formed with the same speed as are
ordinary ones and they fade just as quickly . In regard to the dynamic
of the processes of stimulation and inhibition it was shown that in
children they are considerably more dynamic .
Much was done by N. I. Krasnogorskiy for the study of the pecum
liari ties of the activity of the hemispheres in children in the case
of various ailments ,
At the beginning of the 1920's, N. M. Shchelovanov and his col .
leagues began the study of the earliest forms of higher neural activity
in children during the first year of their life .
Since 1926, A. G. Ivanov - Smolenskiy had been working with his
colleagues at the peculiarities of the dynamic of the cortical processes
during pre - school and school age .
In very recent years , a group of colleagues of L. A. Orbeli has
begun under his direction to work at questions of the ontogenesis of
higher neural activity in children .
The question of the earliest deadlines for the appearance of
conditioned reflexes , of the character of their formation and the se
quence of their appearance has been studied by a quite large number of
researchers . v. M. Bekhterev and N. M. Shchelovanov [ 79], who were
the first to occupy themselves with a study of the earliest deadlines
for the formation of conditioned reflexes, noted the appearance of an
alimentary conditioned reflex expressed in sucking movements when the
infant was put in position for feeding in the middle of the first month
of life . Other researchers, confirming this fact , point to other dead
lines for its appearance . According to the data of M. P. Denisova and
N. L. Figurin [707 , it appears in the period of the 21st to 27th day
after birth ; according to the data of M. M. Kol'tsova [121] , this reflex

- 333 -
is revealed in 66 % of children examined as early as the 11 th day of
life . It can be considered as established that the first natural ali .
mentary conditioned reflex arises at the age of 10 to 20 days. M. M.
Kol'tsova showed that this reflex is formed to a stimulus which is com
plex in its composition and out of which are gradually articulated its
individual components and into which enter new signals from the visual
and auditory receptors,
The question of the deadlines for the appearance of the first
conditioned reflexes to artificial stimuli was researched by N. L.
Figurin and M , P. Denisova [2527, N. I. Kasatkin [ 108], Ts. P.
Nemanova [ 1927,M. 0. Shriftzettser [2827 and others. By these re
searches it was established that the first conditioned reflex tie
in with artificial stimuli is formed as early as the end of the first
and beginning of the second month of life , while during the course of
the second month of life there are formed conditioned reflexes from
all the perceptional organs , By the researches of N. I. Kasatkin
[ 109],ts. P. Nemanova ( 1947, 11957, and others there wasestablished
thesequence in the formation of conditioned reflexes from the various
analyzers . According to the data of these researches , the first condi .
tioned reflexes to be formed are those from the auditory analyzer ; then
come those from the vestibular apparatus; then those to visual and
cutaneous- tactile stimuli . v. s Dashkovskaya [68 ] observed the first
dear conditioned reflexes to sound in the form of sucking or blinking
movements as early as the period from the 7th to 9th day of life . In
a research of G. V. Bystroietova [317, there were obtained still earlier
conditioned reflexes connected with the temporal rhythm of feeding . As
early as the third to the fifth day of life, there were observed inten
sified motor reactions and sucking motions a few minutes before the
regular feeding time .
In the researches there were brought to light the conditions on
which substantially depend the deadlines for the formations of condi
tioned connections. These are , first, the degree of functional matur
ity of the unconditioned mechanisms on the basis of which occurs the
formation of temporal connections; secondly , the degree to which the
orientational reflex to a conditioned stimulus is prepared , pronounced
and differentiated ; thirdly, the character of the biological relation
ships between the unconditioned and the conditioned stimuli .
N. I. Kasatkin [ 1097 showed that the sooner the formation of a
conditioned reflex is begun the earlier will be the deadline of the
appearance of a dear - cut conditioned reflex . In connection with the
question of the earliest deadlines for the formation of conditioned re
flexes there has been carried out a study of them in children who are
premature by a greater or lesser amount of time . N. I. Kasatkin estab
lished that in children who are one to two months premature the condi .
tioned reflexes are formed in the second month of post - natal life,
i.e , between the date of the de facto birth and the date of the normal
conclusion of intra- uterine development. R. N. Polikanina [ 2057 has
334
confirmed the data obtained by N. I. Kasatkin and has shown that in
children premature by varying amounts of time conditioned reflexes
are formed at various deadlines . Moreover , she showed the dependence
of the formation of conditioned reflexes on the development of the
orientational reaction . N. A. Itina [ 701 ] made a special study on
children premature by varying amounts of time of the question of the
relations between the course of the elaboration of conditioned re
flexes , the level of development of the orientational reaction and
the degree of maturity of the unconditioned reflex . It was estab
lished that, all other conditions being equal , the formation of a
conditioned reflex to sound is in function of the development of the
orientational reaction to this stimulus which is formed gradually on
the basis of the indifferentiated , unconditioned responses to an audio
stimulus . All of these researches have shown the comparatively very
early beginning of the functioning of the cortex .
Simultaneously with researches on the earliest deadlines for
the execution by the cerebral cortex of the switch - in function , there
were carried out researches on early forms of analysis. In the re
searches of N. I. Kasatkin [1097 , it was shown that as early as the
first half year of life there may take place within the cortex of the
hemispheres of the cerebrum almost all types of internal ( conditioned )
inhibition . The fading of conditioned reflexes was successfully ob
tained in the second month of life , The formation of a conditioned
inhibition was observed at the age of four months; delayed inhibition
was also successfully obtained at the same age , although with great
difficulty . The deadlines for the appearance of differentiations vary
in function of the functional readiness of the analyzers. In the sea
ond month of life the child can distinguish a bell - tower bell from a
hand - bell , ordinary water from sweet water , cradling on one surface
from cradling on another ; at the age of three to four months he can
distinguish green from yellow or red , sounds differing by more than
four tones; salty, sweet and sour. Í . P. Nechayeva (1927 has shown
that at the age of six to seven months there is possible a differentia
tion of pitches differing from the tonic by two - thirds to one and one
half musical tones. N. 1.Figurin and M. P. Denisova [2577 found that
a nine -months old baby differentiates the primary colors ( blue, yellow ,
red green ) and shapes ( cube , sphere, prism , cylinder, cone ) . N. I.
Kasatkin [ 1117 established that the differentiation elaborated in one
effector is easily transferred to another .
All these researches have shown with exceptional conclusiveness
that in the first year of life, indeed even in the first months, there
occurs an intensive development of all the basic functions of the cor
tex of the hemispheres of the cerebrum .
In connection with the fact that the significance of the alimen
tary and defensive unconditioned reflexes as the bases of the formation
of new temporary connections become ever more limited in proportion to
the development of the child , researches which have revealed possibil
ities of formation of conditioned connections on another basis are of
great importance .
335 -
 of exceptionally great significance is the establishment of
the possibility of the formation of conditioned orientational reflexes,
that is , conditioned reflexes arising on the basis of unconditioned
orientational reflexes, some of which are there at the moment of birth
and some of which develop intensively during the first month of life .
N. I. Kasatkin and others [T127 have studied the possibilities and the
developmental boundaries of the formation of conditioned orientational
reflexes . It was established that on the basis of the orientational
unconditioned reflex ( present in neonati ) of the directing of the
glance and the turning of the head toward a source of light it is
possible to form a conditioned reflex to sound in the first months of
life , Such a reflex is formed in an unstable form at the age of about
two and one- half months; in the fifth month it may be fairly stable ,
with a clear effector response ; at the age of 5-7 months it is elabor
ated very quickly, after just a few combinations . In the research of
M. S. Mirzoyants[ 1807 , there was shown the possibility of a differentia
tion of the conditioned orientational reflex at the age of 4o 5 months.
The establishment of the possibility of the formation of conditioned
orientational reflexes as early as the first half year of life explains
the intensive development of the forms of conduct of the child in the
first year of life which are in no way connected either with the ali
mentary or with the defensive unconditioned reflexes . The signifi
cance of the orientational reflex and of the conditioned connections
arising on the basis of it can scarcely be overestimated . It trans
cends the limits of early childhood . A research of 0. P. Kapustnik
and V. K. Fadeyeva [ 1057 has shown that in the pre - school age the
conditioned reflexes on orientational reinforcement arise more rapidly
and are more stable than those formed on alimentary reinforcement Of
great significance is the fact, established by B. F. Sergeyev , of the
formation in children aged from 14 to 2 years of a temporary connection
between two " indifferents stimuli both upon their simultaneous and upon
their successive presentation . B. F. Sergeyev points out that the num
ber of presentations required for the formation of such a connection in
younger children is smaller and in older children is greater . ( Appar
ently this is bound up with the great significance of orientation to
the new in younger children .)
Orientational reflexes are of great significance in the formation
of new types of temporary connections, which even in pre - school age at
tain a predominant place ; such , for example , is imitation , whose origin
is bound up with the development of an orientational reflex or connec
tions to a word as a conditioning stimulus .
Taking into account the role of the orientational reflex , A. G.
Ivanov - Smolenskiy worked out a special method of_studying motor condi
tioned reflexes on orientational reinforcement [957.
The question of the various forms of formation of temporary con
nections was subjected to a detailed study by a number of the colleagues
of A. G. Ivanov - Smolenskiy .

- 336 -
 G. D. Naroditskaya [ 186] and L. Ye. Khozak [ 2647 showed the
possibility of the establishment of new temporary connections without
preliminary elaboration on the basis of a cross - circuit switch - in of
the elements of past experience . The possibility of the formation of
connections on this basis grows with age ( in children of 5-6 years of
age, it emerges in 28 % of the cases; in children of 7-8 years of age ,
in 40%). L. I. Kotlyarevskiy [ 139]' and V. K. Fadeyev [2547,instudy
ing the mechanism of unexpectedness in the formation of a temporary
connection by way of an orientational exploratory reaction established
that here there occurs a selective animation of conditioned connections
which have been formed in the past individual experience of the chil
dren . Of great interest is the research of R. M. Pen [2127, in which
has been shown the possibility of the formation of new temporary con
nections by way of imitation . Pen notes that , in some cases , where
there is no success in elaborating in children a conditioned connec
tion in the usual way ( by the classical method ), it readily arises on
the basis of imitation , of interest is the author's remark that when
conditioned connections arise on the basis of imitation they are forth
with stabilized and do not require supplementary reinforcements .
A special form of the establishment of temporary connections is
that type of formation of them in which connections which have been
formed in the second signals system are forthwith transferred into
the first signals system and , vice versa , those formed in the first are
transmitted to the second . The possibility of this sort of formation
inchildren was first shown by0. P. Kapustnik [ 103].
All the forms of formation of temporary connections brought to
light in the researches mentioned arise in pre - school age . There is
every reason to suppose that at the basis of them there lie various
forms of the orientational activity of the child .
Developmental peculiarities of the neurodynamic of pre- school
age children have not been sufficiently investigated . What has been
studied is the speed and stability of formation of temporary connec
tions and the development of the processes of internal inhibition .
According to the data of 0. P. Kapustnik [7047, in children of
five years of age conditioned connections upon spoken reinforcement
are formed on an average after three reinforcements , while in children
of eight they are formed after six. P. M. Pen [211] has shown that
conditioned connections formed in five - year old children are distin
guished by brittleness and instability . For their stabilization there
is required a greater number of reinforcements than for the appearance
of the first conditioned reflex . With age the firmness and stability
of conditioned reflexes grows .
In a number of researches there has been shown the insufficient
development in children of pre - school age of the processes of internal
inhibition . According to the data of 0. P. Kapustnik and V. K.
Fadeyeva [1057, the fading of conditioned reflexes in childrenof five
to six years of age occurs comparatively slowly , upon orientational

337 -
reinforcement more slowly than upon alimentary . N. G. Gartsshteyn
[477, who investigated conditioned inhibition, notes its weakness in
pre - schoolers and the growth of the intensity of the inhibitory pro com
ess with age . In pre- schoolers the conditioned inhibition is extremely
unstable and for its reinforcement there is required a supplementary
application of up to 15 inhibitory combinations . Indicative of the
comparative excitability of the cerebral cortex is the formation of
secondary positive conditioned reflexes instead of a conditioned in
hibition . According to the data of N. G. Gartsshteyn , secondary condi .
tioned reflexes in children of five years of age are encountered in
52.5 % of the cases ; with age their number decreases. 0. P. Kapustnik
[ 1047 , who studied differentiating inhibition , points out that in
children of pre - school age the number of inhibitory combinations re
quired for the elaboration of differentiation is comparatively great
and falls off with age ( in five- year olds: 35 ; in eight - year olds :
15) . All of these data show the comparative weakness of the inhibi
tory process at pre- school age and its gradual intensification toward
the end of this period .
In an investigation of R. M. Pen it was shown that there is a
great capacity for training of the neural processes of the cortex of
the hemispheres of the cerebrum in children of pre - school age . AC
cording to her data there were required for the formation of a first
conditioned reflex in five - year old children from 4 to 78 combinations
with reinforcement , while only from 1 to 4 reinforcements were required
for the formation of the fourth ; for the formation of the first condi
tioned inhibition from 9 to 29 applications and for the fourth from 1
to 7 applications,
In the project of M. S. Klimov and others [1167, it was shown
that a great influence is exerted on the development and state of the
higher neural activity by the conditions of training . According to
data obtained in the research , a comparative debility and instability
of inhibitory processes were noted upon disruption of the schedule in
creches for children of all age groups . After the correction of the
schedule there was discovered a considerable acceleration of the elab
oration and consolidation of the conditioned reflexes and an improve
ment in the formation of differentiations to them ; upon alteration of
the schedule and feeding , the state of the higher neural activity im
proves to a still greater degree and the processes of cortical inhibi
tion are particularly strengthened .
N. I. Krasnogorskiy [1437 established that there occur in the
activity of the great hemispheres in children phasic states which are
revealed upon alteration of the stereotype . According to data obtained
in these researches, the phasic states in children can be strictly lo
calized ; there is observed in children a speedy flow of the phasic
states which manifests itself in an alteration of the behavior of the
children .

338 -
 In spite of the very great quantity of facts accumulated char
acterizing the development of the higher neural activity , there are
still not enough of these data for any generalized characteristic of
the peculiarities of the neurodynamic of the cortical processes in pre
schoolers .

A fundamental principle concerning the leading role of activity

in the psychic development of children , advanced in Soviet child psy
chology , has restored interest in play and games, an interest which had
been lost in the period of the supremacy of pediology .
Play , specifically topical dramatic play , has been recognized as
the basis of the leading activity of a child of pre - school age and a
systematic investigation of it has been begun .
The basic theories of play advanced by Western European authors
(K. Gross , K. Buehler , K. Koffka, G. Piaget and others) have been sub
jected to a critique in the works of_ye. A. Arkin 6, 9 , s._L .
Řubinshteyn [2207, L. S. Vygotskiy (42), E. V. Yanovskaya [ 2977.
In contrast to the theories which consider play as an instinc
tive biological phenomenon , which see in play a manifestation of depth
inclinations or instincts , or which consider play a special childhood
world in which the child lives in retreat from reality , Soviet psychol
ogists , following the progressive tendencies which have been developed
in Russian science (G. V. Plekhanov, K. D. Ushinskiy , P. F. Lesgaft),
have understood topical dramatic play of children of pre - school age as
a form of active activity of the child , arising on the basis of his life
in society and representing a special type of liaison of the child with
society .
The earliest forms of manipulatory play of children during the
first year of life have been subjected to investigation in the works of
N. L. Figurin and M. P. Denisova [258 ] and ofR. Ya . Abramovich [ .
N. L. Figurin has shown that, after the formation of the act of
grasping , the development of movements passes over into a new phase ,
consisting in the appearance and intensive development of repeated and
chain movements . ( As G. L. Rosengart- Pupko [2107 established , those
movements which occur in the inspection of an object may likewise be
classified among repeated movements .)
N. L. Figurin and M. P. Denisova have made a special research
of the influence of the novelty of an object on the stimulation of ac
tion with it. The authors have shown that the dominant interest in mov
elty which is particularly typical of man is revealed as early as in
the fifth month of life .
R. Ya . Abramovich A has researches some supplementary condi
tions of the predominant concentration upon the new in the child during
the first year of its life . By presenting children objects of varying
degrees of novelty and complexity , she established that objects which ,

339 -
though bright and vivid, are too well - known , do not attract a child ,
just as objects which are entirely unfamiliar and complex in form do
not attract hin . Most of all is a child attracted by " half - familiar "
objects ; entirely unfamiliar objects can attract only in case they ap
pear together with an adult who is close to the child .
In these researches it was shown that " novelty connected with
active orientational reaction of the child not only stimulates the
grasping after the object, but ( and this is the main thing ) backs up
the manipulative repeated and chain movements of the child ; manipula
tive play of a child during the first year of life is an activity ex
cited by external objects , their " novelty , " and supported by the effect
of the ever new qualities of the object which are brought to light in
the course of its manipulation .
The facts obtained in these researches afford the opportunity
of overcoming the theory of " functional satisfaction , " advanced by K.
Buehler , at the basis of which lie false notions about the child as a
being turned not toward the external world but toward a world of inter
nal , organic sensations .
The emergence of the prerequisities for topical dramatic play in
the course of the development of_actions with objects has been researched
in detail by F. I. Fradkina [ 261]. Careful , systematic observations and
special experimental tests carried out by her on children aged from one
year to three years have permitted of noting the basic stages in the de
velopment of " object" actions and the emergence within them of the basic
elements of topical dramatic play : the creation of play situations; the
emergence of a role; the alteration of the structure of action . F. I.
Fradkina points out that the mastery of actions with objects expressed
in the reproduction of actions demonstrated by adults arises toward the
end of the first year of life only in a context of direct imitation and
in company with an adult . At the very beginning , the child reproduces
the action only on those objects with which it was shown these actions .
Subsequently there emerges the possibility of a transfer of actions
to other , non - identical objects as well . There arises a new form of
assimilation when the child reproduces actions of adults with objects,
which actions have not been directly demonstrated to him but only ob
served by him .
The nature of this sort of assimilation has not been sufficiently
uncovered ; it can only be assumed that it arises on the basis of a con
siderably improved orientation of the child thanks to which becomes pos
sible the formation of an image of the actions of another human being .
The new method of assimilation considerably widens the scope of actions
which can be assimilated . At the same time there arise new possibili
ties of transfer of actions: a) transfer of actions with one object to
another object not identical with the first ; b) transfer of actions into
new circunstances. As a result of such a transfer of actions and of
their connections with new objects , the actions themselves become more
generalized . The generalized character of an " object" action is a par
amount prerequisite for the appearance of play actions .
- 30 -
 Ya . 2. Neverovich [1907 subjected to a special research the
question of the mastery of "object" movements in early childhood .
Suggesting to children that they reproduce " object " actions in various
circumstances , Ya . 2. Neverovich showed that in early childhood there
occurs a separation of the action from the object . This conclusion is
in accord with data obtained by F. I. Fradkina . The separation of the
action from the object creates the prerequisites for the replacement
by a word of those objects not available for the execution of an action .
Simultaneously , according to the data of F. I. Fradkina , there appears
a utilization of one sort of object in the capacity of a substitute for
others essential according to the conditions of the action . In the cam
pacity of supplementary objects there are utilized first of all those
which do not have a strictly delimited function or strictly fixed meth
ods of utilization . It has been established that children always first
act with objects in a certain definite play fashion and only thereafter
call them by new play designations corresponding to the actions . Eo
ipso , there emerges the prerequisite for creation of the specific con
di tions characteristic for dramatic play , make -believe conditions .
The prerequisite for the appearance of a role appears from the
point at which the child begins to identify his action with the actions
of adults being reproduced by him . At first there appears a preparatory
stage (which Fradkina calls " the role in action " ) , characterized by the
fact that the child , while de facto reproducing the actions of adults ,
can only call himself by the name of that adult whose actions he is re
producing if he gets help from his teacher and only thereafter does this
independently and on his own . Within the limits of early childhood the
child initially acts as a grown - up , identifies his actions with the ac
tions of adults and only after this calls himself by their names . The
characteristic peculiarity of roles in children up to three years of
age is the fact that they are not generalized roles but rather roles
of concrete adults .
Simultaneously there develops likewise the structure of ac
tions . From single acts they metamorphose, toward the end of early
childhood , into a chain in which is reproduced the nexus of actions
obtaining in reality .
Thus , according to the data of the research of F. I. Fradkina,
there arise within the " object " activity of the child , under the direc
tion of adults , a number of prerequisites for the transition to dramatic
play : a) the generalization of " object" actions; b) the utilization of
certain objects in the capacity of substitutes for others; c ) the re
production of a chain of actions of adults .
However , these prerequisites do not yet of themselves guarantee
the transition to topical play . The question of the conditions of the
transition from " object" play to topical dramatic play have not yet
been sufficiently researched .
N. M. Aksarina 47, who has made a special study of the question
of the conditions contributing to the development of play in senior pre
school age children , has shown the significance of three condi tions :
a) the presence of varied impressions from surrounding reality ; b) the
- 341 -
presence of playthings and educational aids; c) frequent association of
the child with adults . Of crucial significance , in the opinion of this
researcher , is the educative influence of the adults .
D. B. El'konin [2917 has advanced the tenet that a change in the
relationship of the child and adults is essential for the emergence of
dramatic play . Such a change occurs , if the conditions of training are
what they should be , toward the end of early childhood . It is expres
sed in the fact that, on the basis of a mastery of " object" actions and
a growth of independence, there occurs a disintegration of the joint ac
tivity of the child and adults which is characteristic for early child
hood . There occurs a certain emancipation of the child from grown - ups .
At the same time , in connection with the increased capacities of the
child, there emerges a tendency to coparticipation in the activity of
adults which is not accessible to the child . From these contradictory
tendencies it is that a new type of relationship of the child and adults
is engendered , namely dramatic play , in which the child takes upon him
self the role of an adult and reproduces his activity , his relations to
things and to other people , in special "object" play conditions created
by the child himself . Dramatic play arises out of the new relationships
of the child and adults . It is social in its origin and for this rea
son cannot be anything else than a reproduction of the activity of
adults , that is , social in its content as well .
L. S. Slavina (2357 has shown that even in the very earliest
stages of the emergence of dramatic play , when the basic de facto con
tent of games is the execution of manipulative, monotonously recurrent
actions with objects , the role substantially alters the very sense of
these manipulations executed by the child . In special series of exper
iments it was shown that , as soon as the child has taken upon himself
the role of an adult, which role has been suggested by the topical play
things introduced into the play ( dolls with which the child has not per
formed ), the immediate relation of the child to the objects as determined
by their physical properties is converted into a relation and attitude
mediated by the role . The manipulative actions , while remaining super .
ficially the same , are converted into actions replete with social con
tent ( for example, the simple moving about of blocks is converted into
the preparation of a meal for the do11 ) . L. S. Slavina notes that this
sort of saturation with social meaning of the activity of even the
youngest pre- schooler is exceptionally tenacious and is retained even
after the topical toy ( the doll ) is removed from the game. Thereby it
was shown that a play action is social in its meaning , expressing via
an action with objects a relation and attitude to other human beings.
A. N. Leont'yev (1537 was the first to point out the discrepancy be
tween the significance of the actions connected with concrete mater
ial properties of objects brought into a play activity and the sense
of the actions , their social content.
N. v. Koroleva [7337 has shown that topical play is specially sen
sitive to the sphere of human activity and relations. By acquainting
pre - schoolers with surrounding reality in certain cases in such a way

342 -
that objects ( their qualities, destination , etc. ) were brought into
the foreground and in other cases in such a way that the human indi
vidual (his activity and relations with other human beings) were
brought into the foreground , she showed that in the first type of ac
quaintance with surrounding reality dramatic play did not appear in
the child even when it was deliberately stimulated in him by specially
selected toys. In the case of the second type of acquaintance dramatic
play emerged readily and continued for a long time, constantly being en
riched in its content . In the light of these experimental facts play
is represented, in contrast to the theories of Western European psychol
ogists ( Koffka, Levin , Piaget), as being not a means of retreat of the
infant from reality into his " special world , " but rather an activity
which is social by its very nature , in which the child establishes new
relations to the social reality around him and enters by the most ef
fective path of an emotionally saturated practical action into the
world of the highly developed relations of adults, assimilating in the
process the generic social essence of the activity of human beings , in
the first instance their work activity .
Each and every instance of dramatic play on the part of the pre
schooler is characterized in the first instance by a definite subject .
These subjects are exceptionally varied .
As numerous observations have shown , certain subjects of juve
nile games are encountered both among younger and among older pre
schoolers , However a certain definite pattern can be observed in the
development of the subjects . According to the data of A. P. Usova
[2537 , D. V. Menzheritskaya and others, the subjects of juvenile games
develop from games whose content is taken from the home to games with
industrial themes and , finally , to games with socio -political overtones .
A basic influence on the development of the subjects is exerted by the
familiarity of the children with the world around them , by the expansion
of their horizon . According to data of A. P. Usova [2537 , the persist
ence of a game on a specific subject grows with age from 10-15 minutes
in the case of the youngest children , to several hours and even days in
the case of older pre - schoolers .
D. B. El'konin [2877 proposed distinguishing from the subject
the content of games , understanding by the latter what is highlighted
by the child as the basic element in the reproduction by him of the ac
tivity of adults , Generalizing available data , he established that the
content of juvenile games develops from the reproduction of the " object"
activity of human individuals to games in which are reflected relations
among human persons and finally to such games as transmit the social
sense of human activity . The development of the content is in intimate
function of the ever more profound familiarization of the children with
the social content of the activity of adults .
The reproduction of the activity and relations of adults occurs
most profoundly and best of all in collective play . Ye . A. Arkin 8
and his co-workers (s.R. Blagaya [217 and 2. Ye . Uchi televa [227)have
studied the collectivizing significance of toys . In these researches
- 343 -
it was established that various toys exert a varying influence on the
organization of collective games. A. P. Usova [2537 established in
his researches that the number of participants in games grows with
age . According to his data , there is observed among three- year olds a
brief ( about 5 minutes) assembly of small groups ( 2 to 3 children ).
The groups are very fluid . At the age of 4o 5 years the group embraces
from 2 to 5 children and the amount of time spent playing together in
creases to 40-50 minutes, although in 50% of the cases such a grouping
is maintained only about 15 minutes. In older pre - schoolers (6-7 years
of age ) , the collectives become larger and more protracted . Educational
work exercises a great influence on the organization of collectives for
games . Thus , for example, in the teaching experience of M. G.
Vityaz ' , one year of training work sufficed among a younger group to in
crease the length of time play collectives held together and to increase
considerably the number of children embraced by a single group .
V. P. Zalogina [767 was the first to call attention to the fact
that in the collective playing or game there exists , over and above the
plane of the relations between the children dictated by the roles as
sumed , the further plane of the real relationships between the playing
children . These real relationships within the collective of playing
children emerge as an organizing, supporting and controlling feature
of the execution of the roles by each of the players. In the light
of the research of V. P. Zalogina, the collective of playing children
emerges as a real collective , in which the children enter into real
relations with one another and get real practice in collective rela
tionships
Researches have shown that the mutual relationships of adults
reproduced in the game, the so - called " make- believe " relationships may
be on a higher level than those real relationships into which the chil .
dren enter either in the process of the game itself or in other forms
of collective activity . Between the " real " and the "make -believen re
lationships there obtains an interaction . On the one hand , the " real "
relations exert an organizing and controlling influence on the " make
believe" relationships ; on the other hand , in the " make- believe " re
lationships the children are practically acquiring and mastering new
forms of collective relations which are transferred to " real " rela
tionships. A. V. Cherkov [2717 has convincingly shown that there oc
curs on the basis of play an active mastery of the standards of social
behavior , which standards are transferred into all spheres of the life
of the child .
The researches of A. N. Leont'yev [ 153], N. I. Fradkina [261] ,
G. D. Lukov [ 1617, L. S. Slavina [2357, D. B. El'konin [ 285] and others
have shown that in the fully developed form of dramatic play there ob
tain three interconnected elements : a) the role of an adult which the
child assumes ; b ) play actions , by means of which he reproduces the ac .
tivity and relations of adults; c) " object" play ( " make -believe " ) condi
tions with which and in which the child acts .

344 -
 The central unit of each and every dramatic game is the role of
the adult assumed by the child . A. P. Usova [2537 established that the
role may be executed in various forms: a) in a simple movement; b ) in
mimicry ; c ) in actions accompanied by remarks; d ) in speech without
any action accompaniment. The role may be played both by the child
himself and via the topical toy ( the doll or the like ) .
As was shown by the researches of D. B. m'konin [2867 , one of
the essential conditions required before the child assumes any sort of
role is the analysis of the peculiarities of the activity and relation
ships between adults . This pre - condition however is not enough by ito
self. Another no less important condition is a positive emotional
attitude of the child to the grown - ups who are performing various sorts
of activities . The question of the peculiarities of this sort of emo
tional attitude has not yet been researched sufficiently .
L. S. Vygotskiy has expressed in an unpublished work the conten
tion that each and every role assumed by a child in play has as its
internal content certain definite rules embracing both conduct as a
whole and the methods , character and logic of actions , The presence of
such internal rules native to the role has been experimentally shown
by D. B. El'konin ( unpublished research ) by way of a creation of con
flict relations between actions according to the rule flowing from the
role and other actions attractive for the child . These elements showed
that an obedience to the rule connected with the role and a refusal to
give way to momentary desires are a constant element of almost every
role . It was shown that it is precisely with the process of subordinam
tion to the rule that the specific satisfaction is connected which is
experienced by the child during the game . The constant abstention from
momentary immediate desires in favor of a subordination to the rules con
nected with the execution of the role assumed is the source of the for
mation in children of pre- school age of new mo tives of activity and
volitional forms of behavior associated with these new mo tives, A com
parison in an experiment of the obedience of children to a rule given
apart from a role and that to a rule innate in the role showed that a
role considerably increases (in younger and medium pre - schoolers) the
obedience to the rule . It has not yet been sufficiently clarified
wherein consists the mechanism of this sort of influence of the role
on the obedience to rules . It can only be assumed that the affective
attitude of the child to the adult role he has assumed is of a certain
significance in this regard .
In the research of 2. M. Manuylenko [1747 there are materials
which go to show that the collective exerts a great influence on the
obedience to the rules included in the roles . In a collective of chil .
dren at play the obedience to a rule is considerably more effective
than outside of such a collective . This affords one more confirmation
of the organizing influence of the collective on the conduct of the
players. L. S. Vygotskiy ( unpublished work ) was the first to formulate
the basic law of the development of the relations between a play situa
tion and a role . The development proceeds from games with clearly

- 345 -
pronounced roles , a highly developed play situation and covert rules
to games with overt rules and covert roles and a meager , abbreviated
and convoluted play situation . This assertion was experimentally con
firmedina research ofD.B. El'konin[2867.
Some Western European researchers have considered that the
adult roles assumed by a child in a game or at play lead to a transi
tion of the child into a new imaginary world , a world of symbolism and
arbitrariness with its special laws of complete freedom (Koffka,
Levin ) . In experimental tests carried out by D. B. El 'konin [ 2867 it
was shown that the logic of the actions performed by a child in a
game or at play exactly reproduce the logic of the real actions of
adults and that the introduction of even the smallest amount of arbi .
trariness is rejected by the players. Only the very oldest pre
schoolers accept an arbitrary fulfillment of the roles they have as
sumed and have an ironic attitude to this arbitrariness . Extremes of
arbitrary performance of roles is considered by them as a game all its
own . These experiments have shown that play is by no means a special
sphere of the life of a child in which there prevail the laws of an un
real world ( Levin ) , but rather that there prevail in it laws and rules
which are no less strict and firm than those obtaining in actual real
ity . Symbolism and arbitrariness are not characteristic for dramatic
play at pre - school age , are not a condition of its emergence but
rather themselves emerge at the end of the pre - school age in the course
of the development of play , marking the beginning of the disintegration
of the pre- school forms of dramatic play and the transition to new forms
characteristic for the subsequent developmental period .
Observations on the character of play actions have shown that
they are of a generalized character . A. N. Leontiyev [1537 has shown
that the actions of the child are intimately linked in respect of the
character of the operations performed with certain definite concrete
properties of objects brought into the game , while at the same time
they transmit the generic sense of the adult activity being reproduced
by the child . The question as to the nature of play activities in their
relation to real , practical mental , expressive and other species of ac
tions has not yet been sufficiently researched .
One of the characteristic peculiarities of dramatic play is the
creation by the child of special make- believe conditions by way of a
replacement of certain objects ( real ones) by others (make-believe ).
At first glance it seems that in such play " anything can be anything
elses and that in the matter of the replacement of certain objects by
others the child acts entirely freely and the objects brought into his
play have the character of arbitrary symbols . Observations have shown
that the objects used to replace the other objects are in certain def
inite relationships with these latter . The choice of the object re
placements is strictly determined by the possibility of performing with
the object in question the activity required by the course of the game ,
i.e , by the possibility of transmitting via activity with this object
the sense of the adult activity being reproduced .
- 346 -
 G. D. Lukov ( 1617 subjected to a special experimental investiga
tion the question of the renaming of objects in a game or at play . In
this research it was shown that the relation between the word and the
object ( the method of action with it) does not remain constant through
out pre- school age . As a rule , the previous , pre -play use of objects
renders more difficult the renaming and this difficulty is all the
greater the more clearly comprehended the function of the object has
been , whereas it is less in the case of objects not having a clearly
defined function .
D. B. El'konin expressed the contention that at the basis of
make -believe renaming lie the mechanisms of interrelation between the
first and second signals systems, which mechanisms are precisely in
process of a substantial evolution during pre -school age [289] .
Aside from researches directed to the elucidation of the psy
chological nature of play , a fairly large number of works of psychol
ogists and pedagogues has been devoted to an elucidation of the role of
play in the whole psychic development of the pre - schooler . These re
searches show that play embraces all aspects of development, exerting
a specially great influence on the formation of the personality of the
child .
A. V. Zaporozhets [ 867, who researched the development of the
motor functions in the pre- school age group , has shown that play rep
resents the first form of activity accessible to the child which pre
supposes a conscious reproduction and perfection of new movements .
On the basis of the experimental facts of this research , it was con
vincingly shown that the development of the motor sphere of the pre
schooler occurs to a considerable extent within his play activity . T.
V. Yendovitskaya [72 ] has shown experimentally that upon inclusion of
elementary sensory acts into a play situation the acuity of vision is
considerably increased and that , consequently , the situation of dramatic
play contributes to a development of even the elementary sensory func
tions .
2. M. Istomina [987 has shown that children in the context of
dramatic play commit to memory a greater number of words than in the
context of an ordinary laboratory experiment on recall . The correla
tion of motives and aims occurring in dramatic play contributes to a
stressing of the conscious aims of recall and memorization and creates
the prerequisites for the emergence of the primary forms of voluntar
iety of these processes .
2. M. Manuylenko [ 7747, comparing in an experiment the control
of behavior among children of pre - school age in the context of dramatic
play and in the context of a direct assignment by an adult, found that
control of conduct in play arises sooner than otherwise . Of course it
must not be assumed that dramatic play exercises its influence on each
and every individual psychic process on the development of movements ,
perception , memory , and speech as separate processes . Such an influence
is possible only when these processes are directly built into the play

- 347 -
activity . Play exerts a generic influence on the development of all
psychic processes first of all because in it is formed the psycholog
ical mechanism of control of one's own conduct , the mechanism of volun
tary behavior . In play the child learns to determine his own conduct
in function of an image , a rule , a standard of conduct . In virtue of
this there occurs in play the emergence of a fundamentally new form of
conduct and consequently a perfection of individual psychic processes .
T. A. Gubenko [637 , P. Samorukova [2307 , R.M. Rimburg[215] in
their researches have shown the significance of play for the development
of the cognitive activity and for familiarization with surrounding re
ality .
Among the works devoted to an elucidation of the educational
significance of play should be mentioned especially the work of A. V.
Cherkov (2717, in which there is shown on the basis of extensive mater
ial the mastery in play of standards of social conduct , their assimila
tion and the formation on the basis of them of the conduct of children .
A number of pedagogues ( D. V. Menzheritskaya , V. P. Zalogina,
N. V. Koroleva and others) have convincingly shown the positive influ .
ence of play on the formation of various aspects of the personality of
the child : new, stronger motives of activity , collectivistic behavior,
adult attitude to work ; on the formation of ethical standards . Espec.
ially should be noted the possibility of a corrective influence of play
in the case of certain children .
On balance Soviet psychology can show a number of indisputable
achievements in the matter of the psychology of dramatic play . First ,
the instinctivistic, biologizing conception of play has been overcome
and the social essence of play activity has been demonstrated ; sem
condly, the notion has been overcome that play is a special world in
which the child lives and it has been shown that play is a special form
of liaison of the child with society ; thirdly , the psychological nature
of the role , of play actions and make - believe conditions has been un
covered and on this basis the theory of " symbolism " in juvenile games
has been overcome ; finally , fourthly , it has been shown that play is
a dominant type of activity in the pre - school age group , exerting a
formative influence on the central , pivotal line of development of
the personality of the child of pre - school age .
4

In Soviet child psychology great attention has been devoted to

questions of the emergence and development of speech . Initially, ques
tions of the development of speech were treated mainly in diary mater
ials . This, of course , gave the materials a descriptive character .
Numerous materials from diaries were systematized in the works of N. A.
Rybnikov [2247 , [225] . In the sequel , the investigations were differ
entiated and began to acquire a more and more experimental character .

- 348 -
The research on the development of speech followed several lines :
a) initial stages of the emergence of speech ; b) development of forms
and functions of speech ; c ) assimilation of the grammatical structure
of the mother tongue ; d ) development of the auditory aspect of speech .
In researches of N. I. Krasnogorskiy [7447, M. M. Kol'tsova
[logical
121], [mechanisms
1227, 2. I. ofBarabashova [ī57 ,[ 167, were studied the physio
the emergence of speech in children . It was shown
that the word initially emerges as a first signal system stimulus and
only gradually acquires the properties of a special stimulus . At the
basis of the tie - in of a word with the object which it designates, ac
cording to these researches , there lie the mechanisms of a temporary
connection . According to the data of 2. I. Barabashova , a dominant
role in the establishment of a temporary connection between the word
and the object is played by the orientational reflex . The strongest re
flex at the end of the first year of life is the orientational one to
visual stimulations , in virtue of which the liaison between word and ob
ject is most easily established on the basis of the visual orientational
reflex . These data coincide with earlier data obtained by G. L.
Rozengart- Pupko [216], who showed that the understanding of words orig
inates first of all on the basis of a visual perception . According to
data of F. I. Fradkina [ 262], the understanding of speech on the basis
of linguistic means as such emerges only toward the end of the first
year of life . Prior to this (at 7-8 months of age ) the formation of a
temporary connection to a word is not distinguished in any way whatever ,
on principle, from the formation of a connection to other audi tory stim
uli; afterward ( 10-11 months of age) the formation of a conditioned re
flex to a word requires four times less reinforcement than the formation
of such a reflex to other auditory stimuli .
In almost all researches (M. M. Kol'tsova , Z. I. Barabashova, F.
I. Fradkina ) it is noted that at the very outset the word emerges as a
complex stimulus, in which a strong component is the accented syllable
or the intonational nuance of the word . Only gradually does there
z.
emerge a differentiation of words according to their audio make- up .
I. Barabashova [ 16 ], in her research on the conditioned connections to
verbal stimuli , defined a number of their specific peculiarities . Among
these are : a) an alteration of the motor component of the orientational
reaction , on the basis of which is formed the connection ; the orienta
tional reaction is directed not to an object but to an adult ; b ) condi
tioned connections are formed with the same celerity no matter what
the reinforcement procedure may be ; the physiological mechanism of their
formation is the same as in the case of the formation of conditioned con
nections between two indifferent stimuli , and the connections possess
bilateral passage ; c) the conditioned connections to verbal stimuli are
characterized by instability in external expression but by greater solid
ity . The connection to a verbal stimulus is retained after the orienta
tional reaction of the child to the object has already been extinguished .
The great solidity of the connections of name -words with objects shows
the special significance of the word as a stimulus and shows up in the
difficulty of altering a connection once it has been established .
349 -
 As a number of researches have shown , the understanding by a
child of words in the early stages of development is built up not on
the perception of their phonetic composition but rather on a catching
of the general rhythmic -melodic structure of the word or phrase , This
stage in the development of understanding N. Kh . Shvachkin [ 2727 called
the period of pre - phonic development of speech . The succeeding period ,
in which the perception of the linguistic instruments (phonemes) as such
acquires ever greater significance , he called the period of phonic
speech . Shvachkin made a detailed investigation of the perception by
the infant of speech in the phonic period of its development. By teach
ing children the understanding of words differing from one another by
a single phoneme, he established the general course of phonemic develop
ment in children aged from 11 months to 1 year 10 months .
According to the data of Shvachkin , the phonemic development pas
ses through the following six stages : distinction of vowels; distinction
of the presence of consonants; distinction of sonorants and articulated
explosives ; distinction of hard and soft consonants; distinction of
sonorants; distinction of explosives ( each of the stages itself consists
of consecutive stages ) . According to the data of Shvachkin , toward the
end of the second year of life , the infant makes use in his understand
ing of speech of a differentiated perception of all the phonemes of the
Russian language . As in the very initial stages of the development of
phonetic perception so also in the final ones the author stresses the
significance of hearing in distinction of the finest acoustic nuances .
This is specially important in the distinction of consonants in the ar
ticulation of which there is a close resemblance ( for example in the
articulation of voiced and unvoiced consonants ). In distinguishing
between them the child must orient not to the similarity in articula
tion but to the very fine shades of audio distinction , thus he must
be guided by hearing .
Simultaneously with the development of auditory perception of
speech there occurs an intensive development of the active vocabulary
of the child and a mastery of pronunciation . The question of the as
similation of the audio complement of a language and its use in the ac
tive speech of a child has been most fully treated in the work of A. N.
Gvozdev (587 which represents the result of meticulous observations on
the development of the speech of the child carried out by the great
linguist and a collection of all the materials of diaries of Russian
authors relative to this question . In this work it is established that
most often in place of absent, not yet assimilated sounds there appear
sounds from among the number of those already present in the child's
speech and which are closest in articulation to the missing and re
quired ones . The system of substitution is based , in the main , on the
articulational affinity of sounds, in the first instance on their group
ing in respect of place of formation , more rarely in respect of the
method of formation , A. N. Gvozdev established that the assimilation
of a new sound does not, in the majority of instances, occur all at

350 -
once ; rather it is a gradual process via intermediate sounds among which
stand out specially clearly the group of variants which are transitional
between the new sound and the substitute . In this research is noted the
exceptionally early appearance of audi tory checking on the pronunciation
of newly assimilated sounds . Among the factors determining the assim
ilation of the audio side of speech A. N. Gvozdev specially underscores
the role of the motor sphere, the elaboration of the required articula
tions .
In foreign literature the question of the period of so - called
Hautonomous speech " has been widely treated ( Ament, Preyer , Stern ,
l'yasberg and others ) . Well -known are instances in which one and the
same name- word (most often of all in the phonetic sense representing a
fragment of some word from the language of adults ) is transferred from
one object to others and in virtue of this begins to have many meanings.
A research of T. Ye. Konnikova [7247 has been devoted to therevelation
of the psychological nature of these multi -meaning words. On the basis
of a large quantity of observations and special experiments , the author
showed that the speech of this period is not " autonomous" but rather
represents a natural transitional stage from non - linguistic forms of
communication to linguistic ones as such . According to the data of the
research , the possession by a word of many meanings is a characteristic
feature not only of those words which relate to various objects but
also of those which are tied in by a stable bond with one object. Words
having a single meaning in respect of their external manifestations are
in this period possessed of many meanings in respect of their internal
structure . Konnikova convincingly shows that the multiple meanings of
words of this period stands in relation to and in function of the char
acter of the activity of the child , his relations with adults . These
words are, in respect of their origin , interlaced with and welded to
the affective situation of a concrete action together with adults or
performed with the aid of adults . In virtue of this there is re
flected in them not a certain definite object but rather the entire
situation of the action as a whole . The generalizations at the basis
of these words bear the character of situational affective generaliza
tions . In virtue of this the possibilities of a utilization of these
words for communication are exceptionally limited . The disintegration
of these generalizations are most intimately linked up with the transi
tion to " object " activity . The research of Konnikova is fundamentally
important, since in it for the first time the development of speech ,
specifically the development of the meanings of children's words, is
considered in function of the character of the relations of the child
and adults, of the character and content of the child's activity .
Ye , K. Kaverina [1027 has made a detailed research of speech des
velopment in the first years of the life of the child, directing chief
attention to the emergence and development of forms of communication of
adults with the child ( the understanding by the child of words relating
to the designation of objects, to the designation of actions and various
instructions to do things). According to data of L. S. Slavina (2347,
- 351 -
children are able in the third year of life to understand not only the
speech of adults directed to the organization of practical actions but
also narrational speech . The understanding of the speech of adults
containing generalizations on objects transcending the limits of im
mediate experience creates the opportunities for the utilization of
speech as a basic instrument of cognition .
A. N. Gvozdev divides early childhood ( up to three years of
age) into two periods in respect of the assimilation of language. The
first ( from 1 year 3 months to 1 year 10 months) is characterized as
the period of sentences consisting of amorphous word - roots which are
used in a single constant form in all instances in which they are em
ployed . This period clearly breaks down into two portions: a) the
time of the one - word sentence and b) the time of sentences of several
words ( though in the main two -word sentences ) .
The second period ( from 1 year 10 months to 3 years) is char
acterized as the period of assimilation of the grammatical structure
of the sentence , connected with the formation of grammatical categories
and their external expression . It is distinguished by the rapid growth
of various types of simple and complex sentences , in which the various
parts of the sentence receive expression via the specific instruments
of language . Within this period are noted three portions: a) the
time of the formation of the first forms; b ) the time of the use of the
inflectional system of the Russian language for the expression of syn
tactical relations; c) the time of the assimilation of official words
for the expression of syntactical relations ,
As researches show , the speech of the child in early childhood ,
while serving as an instrument of communication with adults and other
children , is directly linked up with a practical activity carried out
by the child or with a palpable situation in which or on account of
which the communication occurs . In virtue of the fact that the activ
ity of the child of this age is carried out in the majority of in
stances ei ther together with adults or with their aid , communication
bears a situational character , assuming a dialogue form .
The transition to the pre - school age is characterized by a
change in the manner of life of the child , by the emergence of new
relations with adults and of new types of activity , all of which neces
sarily leads to a differentiation of the forms and functions of speech .
In virtue of the growing independence of the child and the need for
communication with adults there arise new tasks of communication , con
sisting in the transmission by the child to the adults of his exper
iences , impressions, plans which have arisen apart from direct
communication with the adults . There is developed a new form of speech ,
the report or narration . On the basis of the collective life of chil
dren which has by now developed there arise new tasks: agreeing on
common activity , on the distribution of roles, on checking of the ac
tivity of one another , on evaluation and briefing and the like , and
there occurs a further development of the forms of dialogue speech . In

- 352 -
connection with the development of independent activity there arise
and develop the intellectual functions of speech . The new demands of
communication and activity which lead to the emergence and develop
ment of new forms and functions of speech inevitably lead to an in
tensive mastery of language , its vocabulary reserve and its grammatical
structure ,
S. L. Rubinshteyn [ 2217 has specially highlighted the " situa
tional " and the " contextual" forms of speech . The former do not re
flect fully the content of thought in spoken forms . Their content
becomes intelligible to the interlocutor only if he takes into ac
count the situation of which the child is talking and likewise the
gestures, mimicry and intonation and the like . The second are char
acterized by the fact that their content is revealed in the context
itself and becomes intelligible apart from any consideration by the
listener of any certain definite situation . ... M. Leushina [156], in
her study of the peculiarities of coherent speech in pre - school age
groups , set the children in their utterances various tasks in various
contexts of communication . On the basis of a large amount of exper
imental material, she showed that speech in the same children may beand
now more situational , now more contextual in function of the tasks
context of the communication . At the same time it was demonstrated
that there is a noticeable fall - off in the indices of situationality
during the pre - school period and a growth of traits of contextuality in
the speech of children even in cases of tasks and contexts stimulatory
of situational forms of speech . On the basis of her research , Leushina
comes to the conclusion that it is precisely the development of coherent
speech which plays the dominant role in the process of speech develop
ment during pre -school age . 2. M. Istomina [99 ] in her research like
wise discovered a considerable fall - off of the situational elements in
speech between the fifth and sixth years of life and a levelling off of
the degree of coherence of utterances in various contexts .
Thus it has been shown that the pre - school period of development
is a period of intensive development of coherent " contextual " speech .
The basis of this development is the new type of relations between the
child and adults , the new types of activity of the child and in connec
tion with this the new tasks set communication , while the basic condi
tion is the mastery of the vocabulary complement and grammatical
structure of the language .
In connection with the emergence in the pre - school period of
new types of independent activity of the child (play, drawing, model
ling , building and the like) there emerge also new functions of
speech .
In 1923, G. Piaget published his work devoted to the problem of
the development of the functions of speech in children . He was the
first to describe the new form of speech called " egocentric . " In
contradistinction to " socialized " speech which fulfills the function of
communication , egocentric speech , opined Piaget, does not fulfill this

· 353 -
function but is a talking to oneself . According to the data of Piaget,
egocentric utterances occupy a great place in children of younger pre
school age and gradually decrease with age , being supplanted by social
ized speech . The problem of egocentric speech occupies a central place
in the entire conception of child development in Piaget . Egocentric
speech is for Piaget a symptom of egocentric consciousness , growing
out of a primordial autism of the infant. L. S. Vygotskiy 417 was
the first person in Soviet child psychology to subject to a sharp
theoretical and experimental critique the theory of egocentrism of
Piaget as a whole and the theory of egocentric speech in particular .
In an experimental research , the essence of which consisted in elucidat
ing the line along which a debilitation or intensification of the social
elements of a situation will influence the egocentric speech of a child
it was convincingly demonstrated that each and every complication or ex
clusion of the possibility of communication led not to a heightening but
to a lowering of the egocentrism of speech . These results led Vygotskiy
to the assertion that egocentric speech is by its nature social speech ,
sprung from the loins of social speech but not yet definitively sep
arated from social speech, a special form of speech to oneself. In con
nection with the fact that the coefficient of egocentric utterances
rose sharply upon introduction of complications into the course of ac
tivity as compared with the situation in which activity is executed
without difficulties , Vygotskiy advanced the contention that egocentric
speech is a means of thought, i.e. executes the function of reflection
of a plan of solution of a task . On this basis he came to the conclu
sion that egocentric speech does not disappear but rather is converted
into interior speech .
Later, s. L. Rubinshteyn [220 ] subjected to a critique the theory
of egocentrism , by showing that egocentric speech arises out of a max
imal social " situational " speech .
of interest are facts obtained in the research of V. Ye . Syrkina
[245]. In thisresearch there was brought to light the dependence of
egocentrism on the one hand on the character and content of activity and
on the other hand on the character of communication with those around
the speaker . She measured the coefficient of egocentrism in a situation
of communication with a stranger adult ( the experimentor ), with stranger
children and with familiar children in cases of free drawing and in the
resolution of an intellectual task . The greatest coefficient of ego
centrism was obtained in a situation of communication with an unknown
adult, a lesser one in a situation of communication with unfamiliar
children and the lowest of all in a situation with familiar children .
Thereby was demonstrated that in the case where the possibilities of
communication were externally the same the egocentrism of speech de
pends substantially upon the possibilities of real collaboration . The
higher the possibility of real collaboration the lower the coefficient
of egocentrism in juvenile speech . Since the forms of collaboration
depend substantially upon the content and character of the activity , it

354 -
is natural that the functions of egocentric speech should also prove to
be different in different species of activity , reflecting the possible
forms of real collaboration and aid . The facts obtained in the research
of V. Ye . Syrkina provided D. B. El' konin [2927 with grounds for saying
that egocentric speech grows out of social speech and the real collabora
tion of children with adults . Its appearance and development are bound
up with the appearance of new forms of activity and with the disintegra
tion of the old forms of joint activity with adults and expresses the
conflict occurring between the growing independence and the continuing
tendency to joint activity with adults . Egocentric speech is not only
social in respect of its origin but is also socially directed and is a
sui generis spoken equivalent of a real practical collaboration in one
sort or other of activity; upon the appearance of difficulties it re
flects the possible content of collaboration and aid and eo ipso objec
tively fulfills a regulatory function in respect of the activity .
Egocentric speech is abbreviated not in proportion to the development
of collaboration , as Piaget thought, but rather in proportion to the
development of the independence of the child .
A. A. Lyublinskaya [168] obtained interesting material on the
functions of speech interpolated into practical activity . According
to her data , speech may play , first , the role of formulation of a task
in case of difficulties, secondly, the function of a planning of one's
own activity . Over the period of pre - school age, speech , which was
originally interpolated into activity over its entire course , is con
centrated later upon its inception . In connection with this there oc
curs an alteration in the activity itself in which toward the end of
the
the pre - school age period there are clearly in evidence two stages:
first, that of decision and planning in a spoken form ; the second , that
of practical execution of the decision and plan adopted . In connection
with the question of the emergence in the pre- school age period of the
regulatory and planning function of speech , there are interesting data
on the relation and attitude of the child to a verbal instruction con
taining not only a reference to the object ( theme ) of the task but also
a reference to the methods of its execution . These data were obtained
by N. G. Morozova[7847. Over the whole period of pre - school age there
occur , according to the data of this research , substantial shifts in
the attitude of the child to instructions . Toward the end of pre..
school age there is formed a complete acceptance of an instruction and
its delayed execution , both in regard to the theme of the assignment
and ( which is the important thing) also in regard to the methods of ex
ecution . All the data obtained in these researches ( L. S. Vygotskiy ,
V. Ye . Syrkina , A. A. Lyublinskaya , N. G. Morozova ) witness to the fact
that, during pre- school age , speech acquires a regulatory and planning
function in regard to activity performed by the child .
There is every reason to suppose that at the root of the emer
gence and development of this function of speech there lie alterations
in the interrelations of the first and second signals systems which oc
cur during the entire period of pre - school age .
- 355 -
 Many researches of physiologists and psychologists have been
devoted to the question of the interrelations of the first and second
signals systems. In the research of 0. P. Kapustnik [70 ] there was
established for the first time the fact that upon the formation in a
child of a conditioned reflex to an external stimulus the verbal sym
bol of this stimulus is enlisted into the connection and vice versa ,
in the elaboration of a conditioned reflex to a word the immediate
stimulus signified by that word is also enlisted into the connection .
The mechanism of this phenomenon was called by A. V. Ivanov
Smolenskiy elective ( selective ) generalization or irradiation . In the
further researches of 2. L. Senkevich [2337 , E. P. Smolenskaya [236] ,
N. N. Traugott [ 2507, v. K. Faddeyeva Z2557, L. Ye. Khozak [ 2637 and
others, the fact was established of the transmission from the first
signals system into the second and vice versa in respect of various
types of inhibitory ( differential , conditioned ) and complex stimuli .
General conclusions from all these works were drawn by A. G. Ivanov
Smolenskiy 1967. However , as further researches showed , the interac
tion of the signals systems on the basis of elective irradiation is
only one of the forms of interaction . This form of interaction , as
the data of D. B. Elikonin (2897 have shown , takes place even in the
youngest pre- schoolers . In this same research there were obtained
facts showing that , in the second half of the pre - school age period ,
there arise new interrelations of an inductional type between the sig
nals systems . I. P. Pavlov pointed out that in the normal state the
second signals system takes " under its wing " the activity of the first
signals system . This means that the second signals system , being more
mobile , can exert a versatile regulatory action on the first signals
system , emerge in the capacity of a regulator of activity in respect of
directly perceived stimuli . To the question of the interrelation of
the two signals systems upon the formation of_motor reactions have been
devoted numerous researches of A. R. Luriya [7647, [ 165 ] and collabor
ators ( for details on these researches cf. the article of A. R. Luriya
in the present anthology ) . In connection with research on the process
of formation of motor habits and voluntary movements in pre - school age
groups, the question of the interrelation of the signals systems and of
the regulatory role of the second signals system was studied by A , V ,
Zaporozhets [877,[ 887, and his collaborators Ya . 2. Neverovich [189 ],,
G. A. Kisyluk Z1147 , T. v. Yendovitskaya [73] and others . In these re
searches it was shown that the capacity for effecting a complex system
of actions according to a verbal instruction grows steadily over the
period of pre- school age . It was established that the developmental
capacities for the execution of a complex action according to a verbal
instruction are in direct connection with the alteration of the char
acter of orientation in the context of the imminent action . By teach
ing children orientation by various methods, it is possible to raise to
a higher level the execution of actions according to a verbal instruc
tion . At the same time it was demonstrated that even in pre- school

- 356 -
years there is possible the formation of comparatively high forms of
orientation achieved in the mind without reliance on external objects
and the formation of externally expressed orientational actions . The
child may be brought to an understanding of verbal instructions only
if this understanding be organized in such a way that he can orientate
actively in the context of an imminent action . A. V. Zaporozhets em
phasizes, on the basis of experimental facts , the crucial significance
of the organization of the orientational activity of children of pre
school age for the restructuring of the interaction of the signals sys
tems .
An intensive development of coherent speech in pre- school age is
impossible without the assimilation by the child of the grammatical
structure of his mother tongue . To this question , i.e. to the question
of the assimilation by the child of the grammatical structure of his
mother tongue, there have been devoted a whole series of researches ,
First of all must be mentioned the fundamental work of A. N. Gvozdev ,
" Formation in the Child of the Grammatical Structure of the Mother
Tongue, " [ 4197 . This research represents a systematic description of
the process of communication with adults , embracing all its aspects:
syntax , morphology , processes of word formation and word inflection .
In comparsion with the previously published materials , both Russian
and foreign , it represents the most complete , systematic and qualified
research . It has been carried out with unusual meticulousness by a
highly qualified linguist . Being mainly linguistic in its content, it
does not provide an answer to the question of the psychological and phys
iological mechanisms of the process of the assimilation of language .
However , revealing , as it does , the logic of the process of assimila
tion , such a research is an essential condition of a subsequent psycho
logical analysis of this process . Gvozdev generalizes the material
collected by him and refers pre- school age to the third period of as
similation , the period of the assimilation of the morphological system
of the Russian language, characterized by the assimilation of the types
of declensions and conjugations . In this period there occurs a delimi
tation according to individual types of declension and conjugation of
morphological elements which were in fact always univocal but which had
used to be confounded . At this same time there are assimilated to a
great extent all the singular , "lone wolf" types of forms . Character
izing the results of the assimilation of the grammatical structure of
the Russian language which the child achieves in this period , Gvozdev
writes : " The level of mastery of the mother tongue attained by school
age is very high . At this time the child has already mastered the en
tire complex system of grammar , including the most subtle laws of syn
tax and morphological order obtaining in the Russian language and like
wise a firm and faultless utilization of a plethora of special singular
" lone wolf " forms, to such a degree that the Russian language he has
assimilated becomes for him a genuinely native language . And the child
obtains in it a perfect instrument of communication and thought " [49].

357 -
 K. Buehler advanced in his day the contention that at the basis
of the process of assimilation of the grammatical structure of a lang
uage lies allegedly a discovery made by the child of the inflectional
nature of the language . After this discovery and understanding of the
basic principle of inflected languages , consisting in the fact that
various objectively existing relations can be expressed in speech by way
of audio changes of the morphological parts of words, the assimilation
of grammatical structure does not present any difficulties; and it is
precisely for this reason that the child assimilates a language so com
paratively easily and rapidly . Such an explanation cannot be accepted
by Soviet psychologists and has more than once been subjected to a
critique . A whole series of psychologists, linguists and pedagogues
have contended that there is present in the child at the age of from 2
to 5-7 years a " feel for language which is what enables him to manage
the most complex linguistic phenomena. In Russian prerevolutionary, K ,
D. Ushinskiy pointed to this more than once . In our Soviet literature,
that excellent connoisseur of language, the writer X. Chukovskiy [273]
stressed , with complete justice , the active role of the process of as
similation and protested against the theories of a mechanistic and
passive assimilation of language. A. N. Gvozdev likewise notes the spe
cial linguistic " gift " of children of pre - school age , especially under
scoring the creative and independent character of the process of
creation of new words often encountered during this period . Both the
ascription to the child of a " feel for language and the rapprochement
of the word - building of the child with the word - creation of the verbal
artist are unacceptable . However it is a firmly established fact that
there is a special sensitivity to linguistic phenomena discoverable in
pre- school age children ,
Independent work - formation , frequently encountered in the speech
of the child , is an index of the assimilation by the child of the sui
fixes of the Russian language. D. N. Bogoyavlenskiy [267 subjected this
question to an experimental check . After a preliminary explanation to
the children of the meaning of several unfamiliar words, he proposed
them thereafter in a story in the form of new word - forms with the suf
fixes -enok , -ishche, -shchik . It was discovered that children well
understand word formations with the suffixes -enok , -ishche; less well
those with suffix -nik ; and with greatest difficulty those with suf
fix -shchik . The comparative difficulty of understanding words with
suffixes -nik and -shchik the author explains by the fact that in the
case of word - constructs with these suffixes there is a change in the
basic lexical meaning of the words , whereas in the case of constructs
with diminutive and augmentative suffixes it remains unchanged . In
another series of experiments, D. N. Bogoyavlenskiy proposed to the
children themselves that they pronounce the diminutives of words delib
erately chosen as being unknown to them . The majority of the children
easily coped with this assignment .

358 -
 Independent word - formation , to which attention is chiefly drain
in proof of the peculiar " linguistic feel " proper to the pre - school age
child , is not something exceptional . In actual fact the child is per
forming a no less active work in assimilation of word modifications, for
instance in the assimilation of such an abstract and purely formal cate
gory as the category of gender in Russian and the agreements with verbs
and adjectives therewith connected . There is no fundamental difference
between the assimilation of word formation and the assimilation of word
modifications . ( It can only be assumed that the latter is more diffi
cult since the meaning of the morphemes is here more abstract. )
F. A. Sokhin [ 241 ] undertook a purely theoretical attempt to ex
plain the mechanisms lying behind the assimilation of grammatical forms
in the light of the teaching of I. P. Pavlov . Analyzing, on the basis
of A. N. Gvozdev's materials, the mastery of the instrumental case ( in
the sense of instrumentality ) and the alteration of the verb according
to gender in the past tense , Sokhin notes three stages . In the first
there occurs an establishment of a stereotype and its generalization .
On the basis of the stereo type there arises a conventionalized_use of
the same forms ( instrumental case always with the ending -om [ the end
ing proper actually only to the masculine and the verb always in the
form of the feminine with the ending -a ) . In the second stage, under
the influence of communication , this generalized relationship begins
to become unsettled ; there appear new forms of expression of the same
grammatical relations . There arises a new stereotype, which subordi
nates to itself the first ( for instance, the coy endings [proper
actually only to the feminine ) begin to dominate in the instrumental
case and the endings of the masculine gender in agreement with verbs ,
At the third stage there occurs a differentiation of the generalized
relationships; the functions of these two stereotypes are delimited
( there occurs a differentiation of the endings of the instrumental
case in function of gender ) . The way Sokhin saw it, the mastery of the
grammatical structure of a language occurs on the basis of a complex dy
namic of stereotypes, their generalization and subsequent differentiam
tion . The assumptions of Sokhin raised a number of questions for fur
ther research . It remained unclear how there arises in the child the
original orientation to a specific morphological portion of a word .
There has begun in Soviet child psychology in the very recent past
an accumulation of factual materials revealing the essence of the process
of the assimilation by the child of the grammatical structure of lang
uage , Among thesebelong the works of F. A. Sokhin_[242 ], A. V. Zakharoya
1917, N. P. Serebrennikova [232], M. I._Popova [208] , 5. N. Karpova [ 102],
R. Sh . Karimova [70 ], v. I. Yadeshko [2947, N. v .Chrelashvili [2727
and others .
F. A. Sokhin [ 242] subjected to an experimental investigation the
formation of the understanding by the child of the preposition as a gram
matical form expressing relations between objects . The method of inves
tigation consisted in the elucidation of the understanding of the

359
preposition in function of the concrete , sensory peculiarities of the
relationships of objects expressed in the preposition . ( In one and
the same instruction a change was made in the objects which were sup
posedto be put into relations expressed by thepreposition "nan [ on ] .)
In this research it was established that, at the first stage, the
understanding of grammatically constructed utterances is determined sub
stantially by non - grammatical elements and relies directly on object
relationships . The preposition is not yet isolated in the sentence in
the capacity of an independent grammatical element . At the following
stage the grammatical element is isolated and becomes a signal of ob
jective relationships, but it is not yet tied in with a concretely
objectified form of these relationships . At the last stage there oc
curs an abstraction from the concrete objective relations and the gram
matical element becomes a grammatical form expressing objective
relationships in abstraction from all concreteness . There is every rea
son to suppose that this is the path followed by the formation not only
of the meanings of prepositions, but also the meaning of case endings ,
suifixes, prefixes, and the like ,
Thus , for example , F. I. Fradkina , T. Ye . Konnikova in the re
searches already mentioned showed that the understanding of the words
of adults in general relies initially on the objective situation and
only gradually does communication become in the strict sense linguis
tic, relying on linguistic means ,
M. P. Serebrennikova [232 ], who made a study of the mastery by
three - year olds of the system of declensions of nouns , stresses that
the breakthrough in the development of speech which consists in the
transition to a grammatical formation of words occurs as a result of
the perfection of the phonemic ear and of articulation .
The development of the phonemic ear permits the child : a) to
isolate the less accented syllables in a word , the result of which is
a development of the word ; b ) to isolate the word in the general stream
of speech of the adult, the result of which is the growth of the vocab .
ulary complement of the child's own speech ; c) to isolate within words
the morphological elements ( signifying relations between objects) , on
the basis of which there occurs a mastery of the grammatical forms .
A research of M. I. Popova [208] was devoted to a treatment of
the question of the conditions under which there occurs an isolation
in the word of the morphologically important element . So as to get a
clearer picture there were taken morphological elements not having a
clear object significance and being to a considerable degree formal .
Such elements are the gender endings of verbs in the past tense used
to agree with nouns of masculine and femining gender . A. N. Gvozdev
points out that the formation of gender agreement follows a long course
of development and is assimilated comparatively late , approximately at
the age of three , In the first series of her experiments, Popova showed
the general course of the assimilation of gender agreement in ordinary
circumstances and established that it is an orientation of the child to
the form of the noun which lies at the basis of agreement. Subsequent

- 360 -
experiments showed that a simple repetition of the proper agreement
according to a model proposed by an adult did not lead to the desired
result . In a final series of experiments the child's making of the
noun agree as it should with the verb in the past tense was interpolated
into the chain of practical activities of the child with objects in such
a way that the success of the entire activity as a whole depended on the
correctness of the agreement. Under these condi tions there appears
fairly rapidly in children an orientation to the audio form of the word
and the children arrive at the proper agreement considerably more easily
than in the event of simple repetition , often bypassing the stages of
assimilation which they pass through in the case of assimilation of
agreement in ordinary circumstances , The chief result of this research
was the establishment of the fact that in the assimilation by the child
of the gramatical structure of a language the cardinal condition is
the formation of an orientation to the audio form of the word .
A. V. Zakharova [917 investigated the question of the mastery
pre - school aged children of the categories of cases of nouns .
by
In this
research it was established that, throughout pre - school age, there is
a considerable increase in the number of relations expressed by each
case . The assimilation of the case forms occurs in a certain definite
sequence ; first of all there is assimilated their construction in nouns
of feminine gender ending in -2 and of the masculine gender ending in
the hard sign ; somevihat later that of the masculine and feminine gender
ending in the soft sign ; still later and with great difficulty that of
the neuter gender . In the assimilation of the declension of nouns of
the neuter gender there is clearly revealed the dependence on accent or
lack of accent on the ending: the declension of nouns with an accented
ending is assimilated more rapidly ; that of nouns with an unaccented
ending is assimilated more slowly . Even in junior pre- school age chil .
dren there are revealed instances of " dual " declension of one and the
same word in Iunction of how it is pronounced in the nominative case .
The data of the research of A. V. Zakharova show that the as
similation of the morphological system of the Russian language, which
goes on at such an intensive rate during pre- school age , occurs on the
basis of the orientation of the children in the audio (material ) form
of words . In younger children this sort of orientation does not come
out so clearly , it is only beginning to be formed ; among senior pre
school children it is already perfectly clearly pronounced .
The data of the research of M. I. Popova , N. P. Serebrennikova ,
and A. V. Zakharova shows that at the basis of the so - called " feel for
language" there apparently lies the orientation in the audio form of
the word connected with the development of phonemic ear which is emerg
ing , and intensively developing during this age period . As researches
show , in the assimilation of the grammatical structure of the mother
tongue, the pre- school child follows the path from orientation to the
audio form of the morphemes to orientation to the various individual
phonemic marks. The cultivation of a phonemic ear occupies one of the
leading positions in this process .

361 -
 Into the assimilation by the child of the grammatical struc
ture of language there enters not only a mastery of grammatic forms
but also the mastery of the vocabulary complement of speech . To the
question of the recognition by the child of pre - school age of the verbal
complement and structure of sentences, is devoted a work of S. N.
Karpova [1077. Tracing the formation of the activity of the isolation
of individual words in a sentence according to the stages of the forma
tion of a mental action as established by P. Ya. Gal'perin , S. N.
Karpova shows that the capacity to isolate words in a sentence is formed
over the period of the entire pre- school age and may be considerably
advanced by special techniques of teaching.
In connection with the role which is played by orientation to the
audio form of the word in the assimilation of the grammatical structure
of language those works acquire special significance in which there has
been subjected to research the development of the phonemic ear in pre
school age . The work of N. Kh . Shvachkin already mentioned was of
great significance for the understanding of the process of phonemic
development in the period of the emergence of speech . The question of
the development of phonemic speech and its significance for the assimi .
lation of the audio aspect of speech was elaborated in detail by R. Ye .
Levina [T507 . On the basis of a rich experience at work in the field
of the study of children with various defects of speech , R. Ye . Levina
came to the conclusion on the cardinal significance of the phonemic ear
for the mastery of the phonemic aspect of speech . Particularly diffi
cult of practical assimilation are the phonemes which are most subtly
distinguished one from another . This conclusion was confirmed by M.
A. Aleksandrovskaya 37, who carried out research on the defects of
pronunciation in a great number of children aged from 5 to 8-9. Trac
ing the correction of defects of pronunciation in children of pre
school age , M. A. Aleksandrovskaya came to the conclusion that the ac
tive purposeful work at development of a phonemic ear in children
exercises a considerable influence upon the mastery of pronunciation of
difficult sounds .
On the basis of her materials , R. Ye . Levina noted the basic
stages of development in the child of linguistic awareness . She noted
five stages in all .
In the first stage there is a complete absence of any differentia
tion of sounds , of any understanding of speech , or of any active speech
of the child itself . This is the pre - phonemic stage of the development
of speech . In the second stage there arises a distinction of the most
different phonemes but there is lacking a differentiation of those
closely resembling one another . The pronunciation of the child is in
correct and distorted . The child does not distinguish proper and im
proper pronunciation of other people nor his own and reacts in the same
way both to a properly pronounced word and to words pronounced as he
himself pronounces them . At the third stage there occur decisive
shifts . The child begins to hear the sounds of the language in accord

362 -
with their phonetic marks . He recognizes likewise improperly pronounced
words but he is capable of making a distinction between a correct and
an incorrect pronunciation . At this stage there coexist the previous
stammering background and the new linguistic background that is just
in process of formation . Speech still remains incorrect but there is
beginning in it an accommodation to a new perception , an accommodation
expressed in the appearance of intermediate sounds between the pronunci
ation of child and the pronunciation of adults , At the fourth stage new
forms of the perception of sounds gain the ascendancy . However the pre
vious form is still not entirely supplanted . The child at this stage
still recognizes improperly said words . The act of speech of the child
is attaining to almost complete correctness , Finally at the fifth stage
there is completed the process of phonemic development. The child hears
and speaks properly . At this stage he ceases to recognize improperly
pronounced words . There are forming within him subitle and differentiated
audio images of words and individual sounds ,
At pre- school age the child is going through , in the main , the
last two stages .
A. N. Gvozdev [48 ] specially points out the fact that from the
age of two or three years children begin to recognize the peculiarities
of their own pronunciation and even to defend a proper pronunciation .
A new higher stage of phonetic development sets in in connection
with the mastery of reading and writing , which require the capacity to
analyze the audio composition of words , The question of the possibil
ities of the formation of a mental action of audio analysis of words by
children of pre- school age was experimentally researched by D. B.
El'konin [290 ]. The formation of the mental action of audio analysis
of words, traced through the stages of the formation of a mental ac
tion elaborated by P. Ya , Gallperin , led to good results and showed the
entire possibility of the formation of such an action among senior pre
schoolers who have not been taught reading and writing . According to
the assumptions of D. B. El'konin , the formation of the mental action
of the audio analysis of words is apparently a prerequisite for a suc
cessful mastery of reading and writing which can only be successfully
commenced in the second half of pre - school age upon condition of the
elaboration of special methods, accommodated to the level of mental de
velopment of children of this age .
As a result of all the works on the development of speech in pre
school age there were successfully overcome the theories of spontaneous
development of the speech of the child and there was shown the factual
and theoretical inconsistency of the conceptions which attempt to ex
plain the process of the development of speech by " intuitive discover
ies" of the nominative function of the word and the inflectional nature
of language particularly by the " linguistic feel , " or " instinct " and the
like . It was shown that at the basis of the process of the development
of speech in the child there lies the assimilation by him of language
in direct communication with adults . Assimilation is a process which
has its own logic and is determined by the generic conditions of life
and activity of the child in the final analysis by the condition of
his education .
- 363 -
 A number of researches have been devoted to the study of the role
of speech in the development of various spheres of the psychic life of
the child . In the work of G.L. Rozengart-Pupko [216] and in a series
of work of A. A, Lublinskaya [ 771], [172] [ 1737 ,there was elucidated
the role of speech for the development of perception , for the formation
of representation , and the whole of the cognitive activity of children
of younger and pre - school age . In these researches it was shown that
the mastery of the word and its utilization substantially altered the
perception of an object , its individual aspects , marks and relation
ships . The introduction of the word as designating certain definite
marks of objects is of crucial significance for its isolation in the
object , for the formation of representations. The assimilation of
words gradually restructures the entire sensory , immediate cognition
by the child of reality . This is natural since it is by means of the
word that the process of cognition is converted from an immediate proc
ess into one directed by_adults ,
B. N. Zal'tsman [72] has shown the role of speech for the forma
tion of the proper reproduction; A. R. Luriya and F. Ya. Yudovich [ 7667
have elucidated the significance of speech for the entire psychic de
velopment as a whole; .. R. Luriya [ 1647 has shown the role of speech
in the development of the motor sphere in cases of normal and abnormal
development; A. V, Zaporozhets [887 has established the role of speech
in the formation of voluntary movements . All of these researches have
show convincingly and upon a great amount of factual material the
enormous significance which speech and its development have for the en
tire psychic development of children of pre- school age .
5

In the general course of the psychic development of the child an

important place is occupied by the development of the motor sphere, of
movement and motor habits . Thanks to the development of the motor
sphere there is a complication and an improvement of the directly prac
tical contact of the infant with the surrounding world of objects . In
Soviet child psychology immediate practical activity is ascribed a dom
inant significance for the entire psychic development; therefore it is
natural that a good deal of attention should have been devoted to the
study of the development of movements and motor habits .
In the works already mentioned of N , M. Shchelovanov, N. L.
Figurin , and M. P. Denisova , there was studied the generic course of
the development of movement in the first year of life . Fundamentally
important is their drawing of attention to the liaison of the develop
ment of the earliest forms of movement and the development of early forms
of orientational - exploratory activity , especially with visual orienta
tional reaction .
M. N. Shchelovanov [2847 pointed out that the development of the
movements of the hand under the control of and on the basis of vision ,
fundamentally distinguishes the path of development of the very early
movements of the child from their development in animals .
364 -
 N. L. Figurin and M. P. Denisova emphasize the tie - in of the de
velopment of early movements with the complex of animation , " occurring
in the second month of life , of grasping movements with the development
of visual concentration , of the first directed movements with reaction
nto the novel . " Later the development of movement and actions was sub
jected to a more profound study in the work of P. Ya, Abramovich
Lekhtman 1. ( 759), who traced in detail the interconnection in the
development of the various forms of movement, the unification of indi
vidual motor reactions into motor systems, the appearance of the first
resultative and repeated action . According to the data of P. Ya .
Abramovich - Lekhtman the first " object " actions are forming at the end
of the first and at the beginning of the second year of life . In the
second and third years of life , there occurs an intensive mastery of
" object actions . In the work of F. I. Fradkina [ 261 ] the development
of " object " actions is treated mainly in connection with the emergence
of dramatic play .
Toward the beginning of the pre - school age period the children
arrive at a comparatively high level of development of movements and
" object " actions . As early as the very beginning of the pre - school
age period there is observed a transition from simple " object" actions
to such forms of activity as see the child realizing a previously set
goal (drawing , modelling, designing, elementary work processes mak
ing cut-outs from paper, pasting up , carving out of wood , etc. ) . The
emergence of these forms of activities present new demands on the de
velopment of voluntary movements and on the formation of motor habits .
These forms of activity are most intimately linked with the use of var
ious tools ( pencil , scissors, hammer and the like) . In connection with ,
this special importance accures to the formation of implemental opera
tions .
P. Ya . Gal? perin (457 was the first to point up the fundamental
difference between tools as used by man and auxiliary instruments used
by animals and to trace the basic stages of the formation of implemen
tal operations in children . The beginning of the mastery of implemen
tal operations he refers to early childhood . However , within the
limits of early childhood the child masters the use of only a few house
hold tools and appliances. Decisive advances in the mastery of imple
mental operations occur in pre - school age . According to the data of
P. Ya , Gal'perin , the formation of the mastery of implemental opera
tions passes through the following stages .
At the first stage, the children constantly repeat, with small
variations, actions which are of one and the same type and not very ef
fective . Gradually there begin to be more and more successful techniques
but they are not extrapolated by the child from the common mass nor are
they fixed in his mind .
At the second stage , there appear sections of activity when dur
ing the course of a comparatively protracted time period the child is
performing one and the same operation . A convenient position of the
tool which has been come upon by chance is held onto and the effort of
the child is directed toward making use of it.

- 365 -
 At the third stage, the child makes active efforts deliberately
to create the favorable position . Typical is the isolation of individ
ual techniques which have proven successful in past experiences and
persistent efforts to reproduce them .
Finally at the fourth stage the child takes into account the
properties and connections of things and begins to master the habit of
executing the appropriate movements .
It is entirely natural that the mastery of various tools in func
tion of their complexity may be found in one and the same child to be
at different levels . As is shown in an unpublished research of Ya. 2.
Neverovich , devoted to an analysis of the process of the formation of
striking movements with the hammer , children of pre - school age rarely
reach the highest stage of mastery and usually remain at the second
stage . In this research it was demonstrated that the difficulties of
mastery are complicated by the fact that the child , imitating an adult
and trying for the first time to reproduce one or another implemental
operation , devotes his main attention not to his own movement by means
of which the operation is being executed , but rather to its result. If
this set of the child to the result can be successfully removed , then
the effectiveness of the mastery of the implemental operation is con
siderably increased .
Ye. G. Levi-Gorinevskaya [ 749 ] has collected a great amount of
material characterizing the development of the basic motions ( walking,
running , jumping , and throwing) , in children of pre- school age from the
aspect of the quantitative indices . However the question of the quali
tative restructuring of movements was neither put nor treated in this
research .
A great work has been carried out at the study of the psycholog
ical peculiarities of_the_formation of movements and motor habits by
[88],
A. V. Zaporozhets [86] , [88 ], [ 89 ] and his collaborators, Ya . 2.
Neverovich[ 189], [ 1901,T.v. Yendovitskaya [73], T. 0.Ginevskaya
[507, G. A. Kislyuk (1147, [115] , A. G. Polyakova [202] and others.
Even in the first researches devoted to the study of the depend
ence of the motor functions on the motives and the conditions of activ
ity , it was shown that in one and the same child the basic indices of
movements change substantially in function of the activity in which they
are interpolated and the conditions in which they are executed . Thus
for example it turned out that in the context of play or competition ,
the indices of jumping are considerably improved in comparison with
what they were in the contexts of a simple assignment. A detailed an
alysis has shown that behind the purely quantitative alterations there
lies a profound qualitative restructuring of the movements . On condi .
tion that the aim ( the fulfillment of one or another movement) is bound
up with the motive in such a way that the child becomes able to compre
hend the connection between the two , the character of the fulfillment
of a motor act is altered , the act in this context becoming the subject
of consciousness . The principal alteration consists in the fact that

- 366 .
the movement begins patently to disintegrate into two mutually inter
connected phases: the phase of preparation and the phase of execution .
The isolation of the phase of preparation leads to a new type of organ
ization of the motor act : in the phase of preparation the imminent
movement is correlated with the task and its conditions . Precisely this
different organization of movements, this qualitatively new regulation
of them is what leads to the quantitative alterations . However in the
first researches the psychological content of the preparatory stage of
an action was still not shown up since the process of its formation was
hidden from observation .
In further researches there was undertaken the effort to uncover
the psychological content of the preparatory phase for the fulfillment
of an action . On the basis of the reflex theory elaborated in Soviet
psychology along the lines noted in the works of I. M. Sechenov and I.
P. Pavlov , A. V. Zaporozhets advanced the contention concerning the
crucial role of orientational - exploratory activities in the formation
of motor habits and voluntary movements, which activity is what repre
sents the content of the preparatory phase .
In the elaboration of motor habits by various means ( by means
of independent trials, imitation , with the aid of verbal instruction )
it was discovered that aside from the operational executive movements
serving directly the attainment of a result , the child performs a number
of actions which , by their character and role in the subsequent behavior ,
are substantially distinct from the operational executive movements as
such . While not leading directly to the attainment of the final result,
this activity makes it possible more accurately to orientate in the sit
uation and secures the execution of the operational movement in accord
with the conditions of the task . Such activity was called orientational .
exploratory . In further experiments there was traced the formation of
the various motor habits in the context of the possibility of an abbrev .
iation of such orientation - exploratory activity and without preliminary
orientation . These experiments showed that the level of intensity and
peculiarity of the orientational activity influences the speed of the
formation of a habit , the character of the motor behavior of the child ,
the subsequent functioning of the habit .
Experimental data bear witness to the fact that as a result of
orientational - exploratory activity , there are formed in the child new
connections and there are actualized old connections corresponding to
the conditions of the task set . On this basis there arises in the in
fant a notion of the situation of an imminent action by which he is
then guided in his own further behavior .
In other series of experiments it was shown that the orientational
exploratory activity itself does not remain constant but develops . In
the earlier stages the motor - tactile orientation is of crucial signifi
cance in the formation of motor habits ; subsequently the eye , which
used to follow the hand , accumulates its experience and obtains the cam
pacity of fulfilling orientational - exploratory movements on its own .

- 367 -
In the later stages there emerges the possibility of a verbal regulation
of the formation of the motor habits behind which is concealed the
orientational - exploratory activity , which is traversed without any di
rect perception of the conditions , by way of a mental orientation
within the situation . At this highest stage the orientational
exploratory activity is converted into mental activity . The data ob
tained in a research by A. V. Zaporozhets are of fundamental
importance. In the first place, they show the possible origin of men
tal activity from orientational - exploratory activity ; secondly, they
reveal the psychological content of the preparatory stage of the forma
tion of motor habits and the regulation of voluntary movements . For
child psychology which treats the pre - school age child the experimental
facts obtained in these researches are important because of the fact
that they establish wherein consist the qualitative alterations of the
entire motor behavior of children at this age , which behavior is becom
ing in the strict sense of the word voluntary , that is psychically reg
ulated in accord with the notions of the conditions of an imminent ac
tion .
In Soviet child psychology there has been in evidence a funda
mentally new approach to the study of the development of the individual
psychic processes and to the comprehending activity of the subject,
which activity emerges each time in specific forms inextricably con
nected with the entire system of interrelations of the child and real
ity around him , in the first instance practical relations . The
development of the cognitive processes in the child ( perception , memory ,
thought) has been tied in with the development of his personality , with
the general development of his activity , and has been understood as a
development of " the organs of its individuality (Marx ) .
The early age periods, including the pre- school period , are per
iods of the dominance of direct immediate sensory cognition by the child
of reality . Naturally attention has been devoted in Soviet child psy
chology likewise to the study of the process of the development of per
ception .
The accumulation of sense experience begins at a very early age .
According to the data of N. M. Shchelovanov, N. L. Figurin and M. P.
Denisova , the basis on which the development of perception occurs is
formed by the orientational reactions appearing in a certain definite
order beginning with the first weeks of life , or as the authors call
them " the reactions of concentration , consisting in the optimal set
of the organs to the stimulus with complete or partial inhibition of
movements . It is precisely on this basis , beginning with the first
month of life , that there are formed the first conditioned reflexes from
all analyzers . ( For more details on this cf. Section 2 of the present
article . )
In the initial period of development according to G , L.
Rozengart- Pupko [2167 , visual reception is of predominant significance.
In connection with the fact that the satisfaction of the basic needs of

- 368 -
the child is accomplished by adults, the first visual reactions are di
rected to the adults who are looking after the child . On the basis of
a visual perception of the face of the speaking adult there arise the
first reactions of animation , the first movement of following . Via the
adult there is also established the liaison of the infant with the ex
ternal world . According to the data of the same researchers objects
begin to attract the child only when they are objects of the activity
of adults . The development of visual perception is from the very be .
ginning bound up with the movement of the eyes : initially there arises
a directing of the gaze to an object, then later a following of the ob
ject, finally an examination of the object by way of movements of the
eye along and around the object . It may be assumed that the " move
ments of the eyes along and around the object are the basis for the
formation of the visual image of the object. Of great significance for
the development of perception is the inclusion of the word into the
process of communication of the adult with the child . As the researches
of G. L.Rozengart-Pupko [216], and N.Kh . Shvachkin(2797 have shown,
the initial generalizations arise in connection with the use by the
adults of words in communication with the child . The understanding of
the first words which name objects , as was experimentally established
by 2. N. Barabashova [75], arise on the basis of the visual analyzers
(according to data of these researches , the difference in the signifi
cance of the analyzers for the establishment of a liaison between
the name - word and the object is only erased by the age of three). As
has already been pointed out , the development of the movements of the
hand likewise occurs under the control of the visual analyzer and with
this analyzer having dominant importance. However the development of
manipulative and "object" actions with objects begins even in the first
year of life to be subjected to the activity of perception . F. R.
Dunayevskiy[71], has shownthat the childreacts to stimuli, at least
to some of them , not only by a direction of the analyzer to the source
of the stimulation , but also by active actions, in the main , of his
hands . The orientational reflex which I. P. Pavlov characterized as a
" what's that? " reflex is supplemented by the " what is this for ? " orien
tational reflex , The combination of visual perception with manipulam
tion leads to the formation of connections between the visually- and
tactually -kinesthetically perceived qualities of objects, which lie at
the root of the perception of shape, size , volume and remo teness of the
object. The visual analyzer accumulates these connections, as a result
of which it becomes possible to get along with only a visual perception
in the perception of all these qualities . This means great advantages
both in respect of the speed of analysis of what is perceived and in
respect of the possibility of simultaneous grasping of a great number
of individual components , on the basis of which there becomes possible
the formation of an image of the object .
The highlighting of visual perception out of object activity
represents a fairly protracted process . According to the data of A.

- 369 -
A. Pressman [2107, the visual image of the object is based in pre-pre
schoolers and younger pre - schoolers upon haptic- kinesthetic bases .
The process of visual perception is not separated from " object" action
and is an integral part of it. At the subsequent stage there appear
the specific visual reactions of following with the gaze the contours
of objects , reactions which precede the performance of individual ele
ments of a practical action . Finally , at the third stage , the process
of visual perception is differentiated from the "object" action . At
this stage , the image of the contour of objects or of their parts is
formed on the basis of the visual perception and practical action only
confirms the adequacy of the image which has been formed . Having ab
sorbed into itself the entire experience of practical familiarization
with objects , visual perception begins to develop as an independent ac
tivity .
T. 0. Ginevskaya [507, has shown that an important peculiarity
of the perception of young pre- schoolers is represented by the undif
ferentiatedness and incompleteness of the images which arise in the
process of familiarization with objects by means of touch . Younger
children , according to Ginevskaya's data , orient upon recognition of
an object to some one mark , most frequently a functional one ; the med
iun pre - schoolers try to extrapolate characteristic marks of the exter
nal appearance of the object but do not undertake planned attempts to
feel it out , and only older children ( six years of age ) are not satis
fied with first impressions in recognition , do not orient to individual
marks, but rather undertake planned attempts to feel the object and
look for marks essential for the formation of an image of the object.
In this way the perception by the resources of touch is differentiated
into an independent activity , which fulfills the task of the creation
of an image of the object .
The peculiarities of the formation of an image of objects in
younger pre - schoolers is determined by the fact that the task of prac
tical mastery of an object may not require a detailed differentiated
image ; they are likewise determined by the fact that the process of
perception is not differentiated from the practical activity with the
object ,
N. L. Agenosova 27, and A. I. Nekhlyudova [ 1967, have re
searched the subordination of the process of visual perception to the
task of search for an identical object according to a model . These re
searches have shown that at pre - school age there arises the necessity
of a more detailed familiarization with a model . Younger children do
not try to concretize an image and use the most generic notions of an
object , generalized in a word ; older children make use of a more or less
articulated image created on the basis of a more detailed analysis . In
accord with this , the very process of searching itself is substantially
reorganized ; in younger pre- schoolers the searches for an identical ob
ject bear a chaotic character and require reliance on external actions
( for example on movements of the hand ) ; the older pre- schoolers require

- 370
this considerably less and the search acquires traits of an organized
process. M. N. Volokitina [ 32 ] and S. G. Yakobson [295 ] have shown
that the capacity consequentially to follow with the eye the contours
of an object is likewise formed gradually . Initially this sort of fol
lowing is impossible and requires the support of the hand tracing the
contours and only gradually does it become an independent act. S. G.
Yakobson expressed the contention that the capacity visually to trace
the contours of an object lies at the basis of the abstraction of the
form and is one of the conditions of the formation of the capacity ac
tively to reproduce the outline of shapes .
There is reason to suppose that the isolation of visual percep
tion like that of other species of perception into a system of independ
ent actions whose basic task is the formation of an image of an object
is in function of the emergence and development of such forms of activ
ity as require the reproduction of the object in another form . The
content of the image which is formed in this connection depends sub
stantially on the material in which the object is reproduced . The ma
terial is varied in various species of activity ( drawing, modelling,
designing and building, and the like ) .. As the researches_of_Ye. I.
Ignatiyev 1927, B. A. Sazont'yev, [228],A. F. Mit'kina[ 1827, and the
experience
of progressive educators have shown , descriptive and pic
torial activity which develops at high speed in pre- school age, is of
special significance for the formation of perception , of the methods
and techniques of the creation of an image of objects . Of cardinal
significance here is the embodiment of an image in the materials speci
fic for this sort of activity .
A. R. Luriya [1637 has shown in his research that the formation
of individual operations of perceptions depend substantially upon the
conditions of activity . In his experiments the formation of analyzing
operations occurred more successfully in contexts in which the model was
given in an inarticulate form and its articulation by the child was re
quired in accord with those elements out of which it was supposed to be
reproduced ,
In the researches of_A._Ya. Kolodnaya [T207, A. Ye . Kozyreva
[ T187, A. A. Lyublinskaya [1707, there were studied the perception and
differentiation of spatial relations. It was shown that the differentia
tion of right and left occurs on the basis of a more actively operating
right hand . The perception of spatial relations between objects is con
nected with practical orientation among them and by the degree of differ
entiatedness of these relations in speech in the communication of adults
with children . _5. V.Mukhin [T857 .M, N.Volokitina ( 327, F. Ş.
Rozenfelld[ 2177,s. n.Shabalin- [2731, 12747, Ye. v.Gordon[707, L.
I. Kotlyarova [ 1407, 2. M. Boguslavskaya (unpublished research ) and
others have investigated the perception of shapes and colors by chil
dren of pre - school age . In the researches of Shabalin , S. V. Lukin ,
and 2. M. Boguslavskaya , there was shown the unjustifiability of the
alternative putting of a question in respect of the perception of

- 371 -
shape or color of objects , which was characteristic for Gestalt psy
chology ; and it was experimentally proven that children may distinguish
objects both according to shape and according to color in function of
the task which faces the child and of the conditions of the activity .
Ye . V. Gordon established the fact that for the perception of relative
or absolute color qualities of an object the character of the ties be
tween the color and the object are of basic importance . The most fav
orable conditions for the perception of color in its absolute qualities
are present in those instances when the color emerges as a characteris
tic trait of the object . L. I. Kotlyarova showed , on the example of
the process of touching, the importance of movement in relation to the
object, without which the appropriate_image is not formed . A. N.
Zakharov 1907 and A. G. Ruzskaya [218] researched the role of the word
and of immediate experience in the formation of a generalization of
immediately perceived material and showed that the word may become the
means of distinction and generalization of objects and fulfill a reg
ulatory function in the cognitive activity in connection with the de
velopment and enrichment of the sensory activity of the child only in
the instance in which the word is the signal of those connections and
relations which are reflected in sensory experience . Otherwise , as
often happens, the introduction of the word into the process of distinc
tion and generalization in younger_pre - schoolers may even exert a re
verse influence . 2. I. Istomina [100 ] made a study of the perception
and naming of color in children of pre- school age and established that
the formation of connections between the word and the color is a later
formation than is the proper distinction of colors : the sensory dif
ferentiation of colors precedes the differentiations of color in dem
signations ,
The question of the development of the elementary sensory
functions in pre- school age has not been studied sufficiently . The
data obtained by Ye. A. Arkin 7 , T. V. Yendovitskaya [727 ,1747, A.
D. Kogan [1197 , demonstrate that in the development of acuity of vi
sion , exactness of distinction of color tone, tonal ear during the
entire pre - school period of childhood there occur substantial ad
vances . Yendovítskaya has demonstrated that the qualitative advances
of the development of the elementary sensory functions occur under
the following conditions: a) in such an organization of activity as
gives to the peculiarities of the external influences a substantial
importance for its execution ; b ) when in the course of the activity
there appears in the child the need not only to act in accord with per
ceived marks but to designate these marks verbally .
Several researches were devoted to the study of the more complex
species of perception, G. T. Ovsepyan ( 1987 made a study of the percep
tion and comprehension by children of the content of pictures and demon
strated that the fullness of perception of what is depicted in the
picture depends on the degree of comprehension of the content of the
picture as a whole . When , in virtue of the complexity of the material

- 372 -
depicted , the child did not comprehend its content, he listed in his
narration only individual objects ; in cases of a more accessible con
tent, the child listed not only the objects but also narrated about
actions and relations .
On the basis of the work of G. T. Osepyan , S. L. Rubinshteyn
[222 ] subjected to a critique the theory of the formal stages ofobser
vation which prevailed in Western European psychology ( Stern and others )
and demonstrated that one and the same child may reveal various stages
of observation in function of the content of what he is perceiving .
In the works of T. O. Ginevskaya [51], V. V. Mistyuk [181], K. Ye.
peculiarities of
Khomenko [265], detailed researches were made on theHere
the perception of pictures by pre - school children . it was demon
strated that this sort of perception is an act , complex by its compo
sition , whose execution is connected with the proper correlation of
the drawing with the actuality reflected in it. The difficulties which
here arise in children are bound up with the peculiarities of the means
with the help of which reality is being pictured . The elimination of
these difficulties requires the mastery of certain special techniques
of perception ( taking into account of indirect signs, transfer of ver
tical relations into horizontal ones , movement from the semantic center
of the picture, and the like) . A. v. Zaporozhets [837 wrote of the
process of development of perception that " in connection with the gen
eral development of the personality , with the complication of practical
and play activity of the child , in connection with the fact that he is
in fact learning to use ordinary human implements in accord with their
destination , his elementary sensory functions are being converted into
complex actions of perception , which embrace the object from various
aspects and lead to the emergence in consciousness of an integral , ob
jective , orthoscopic perceptual image.
All the researches carried out in Soviet psychology demonstrate
that , in pre- school age , perception is converted into an activity sub
ordinated to the task of the formation of an adequate image of the ob
ject, within which task there are beginning clearly to stand out
individual methods ( examination , listening and the like) of which the
child disposes and which he is beginning to use as they should be used .
In almost all the researches of Western European and Russian
prerevolutionary psychologists there are remarks on the intensive de
velopment of memory in the pre- school age period .
The fact of a considerable heightening of the effectiveness of
recall in pre- school age was studied in a number of researches. P. I.
Zinchenko 1927, 1937, demonstrated this in respect of the reproduction
of pictures;A. N. Leont'yev_[151], in respect of the reproduction of
words; N.A. Korniyenko [1317 , both in respect of visual and in respect
of verbal material . In the research of N. A. Korniyenko it was demon
strated that the tempo of development of recall of verbal material in
pre - school age exceeds the tempo of development of recall in visual ma
terial . The greatest advance in the development of memory for words is

- 373 -
observed at the age of four or five . In all the researches mentioned
there were employed the usual methodological techniques in which the
child is presented with a special task of recall and then reproduction
of the material shown him .
In the life of the pre - school child , special tasks of recall of
any sort of material whatsoever for the purpose of its subsequent repro
duction are encountered very rarely . A characteristic feature of re
call and memorization in early childhood and in the first half of the
pre - school age period is their inclusion into the fulfillment of_some
other sort of task which is not mnemonic as such . Zinchenko 1937 has
shown that over the entire pre- school age period the effectiveness of
involuntary memory remains higher than that of voluntary memory . In
the first half of the pre- school age period the effectiveness of volun
tary memory does not increase , whereas in the second half it increases
almost by twice over ; the reverse picture is observed in the effective
ness of involuntary memory : in the first half it increases by some
what more than twice over , while in the second half the speeds of
growth of the effectiveness of involuntary memory are considerably re
duced .
The facts obtained in various researches, both Soviet and for
eign ( summed up by A. A. Smirnov (2327) show that, in pre- school age ,
comprehended material is recalled somewhat better , but over the entire
course of this period the productivity of the recall of meaningless
material is growing more intensively than the recall of comprehended
material . Smirnov [2377 points out thatthe cause of the ease of re
call of meaningless material consists in the peculiar relation which
it elicits to itself on the part of children and in what place it oc
cupies in activity . In the case of involuntary recall, the productiv
ity depends in the first instance on how this material is correlated
with the tasks of the activity being carried out by the child .
The considerable heightening of the effectiveness of voluntary
recall and the fall -off of involuntary points to qualitative altera
tions in the very character of the mnemic process. It witnesses to
the making of mnemic activity into a special activity . The question
of the emergence in the development of pre- school_age children of spe
cial mnemic tasks was studied by 2. M. Istomina 1987. Including recall
and remembering into the system of tasks of various activities ,
Istomina discovered that under certain circumstances a special task of
committing to memory and recalling material essential in the course of
the execution of the activity is isolated from among the number of the
other tasks facing the child .
The most favorable condition for the appearance of the intention
to commit to memory and recall turned out to be the fulfillment of a
practical assignment of adults , in which recall was elicited by the re
quirements of the activity . Indispensable for the appearance of this
intention is such a relation of the mnemic aim to the task of the activ
ity as renders possible an isolation and identification of this aim by

- 374 -
the child . At the same time, it was shown in this research that the
intention to recall arises earlier than the intention to commit to
memory . These facts are fundamentally important, since they demon
strate the specific feature of all mnemic activity , namely the commit
ting to memory of something for subsequent use . Thus , the task of
utilizing in the future is a characteristic feature of the mnemic task .
In the light of the facts obtained , every memorization has as its aim
the subsequent recall and arises in the first place under the influence
of recall . In this same investigation it was discovered that the isola
tion of the mnemic task is not always accompanied by the use of special
methods for recall . The use of such methods is encountered more fre
quently in older children . These are either the repetition of the mater
ial after an adult or a supplementary independent repetition of it .
Later the methods of recall become more complex . The question of the
use of various means in memorization was investigated for the first time
by A. N. Leontiyev [ 1517. The research revealed that during pre- school
age there occurs a development of memory with the use of external sup
ports. In the researches of_Ye , V. Gordon (617, L. V. Zankov and D. M.
Mayants 1793 , T. A.Korman[128], [129],there was likewisedemonstrated
the use of various methods of memorization by children of medium and
older pre - school age .
In this way , it was established by the researches of Soviet psy
chologists that in the second half of the pre - school age period there
occurs an isolation of the specific memic activity with its special
tasks and methods . Herein consist the qualitative alterations of the proc
esses of memory , which occur in this period. Since in the pre - school
age period there predominate those species of activity in which the neces
sity of a conscious utilization of what has been formerly assimilated
is not sufficiently pronounced , the mnemic activity likewise is mani .
fested sporadically in its specific form . However , it has already been
isolated as an independent activity and this is , as the facts obtained
in the researches demonstrate , the special achievement of the pre - school
age , which will later be developed in the context of learning at school ,
for which memorization with the aim of a subsequent reproduction is a
typical feature .
The problems of the development of the thinking activity at jun
ior ages , specifically at the pre - school age , have interested Soviet
psychologists not only with the aim in view of uncovering the peculi
arities of the development of thinking in these ages but also because
these researches cast light on the nature and origin of thinking in
general .
In the researches of P. Ya . Galiperin [45], there has been
brought to light the origin of the earliest manifestations of thinking .
By presenting to children a series of practical tasks, the solution of
which required the application of the simplest instrument or tool,
Gal'perin established the basic stages of the mastery of implemental
operations and demonstrated that the emergence of intellectual opera
tions in the child is bound up with the transition to implemental

· 375 -
operations in practical activity . At the same time it was shown that
the intellectual operations are initially isolated out of practical ac
tivity and then begin to serve the latter .
Summing up his research , Gallperin points out that " thought ito
self represents an individual form of the activity of the subject , which
arises at a certain definite level of the development of his practical
activity , out of it, on the basis of it, as its proliferation . Think
ing takes over from practical activity its experience, its techniques,
the direction of its movement; and represents, thus, at the start,
nothing other than its_ideal reproduction . "
V. I. Asnin [13] researched the process of the emergence of in
tellectual operations within the practical activity of the child . In
experiments built up on the principle of transfer, he demonstrated that
in the process of transfer there occurs a generalization and by that
very fact an isolation of certain operations in the capacity of intel
lectual ones , in which are reflected the laws governing the nexus of
objects . In these researches it was demonstrated that even as early as
pre - school age there occurs an intensive transition to properly instru
mental operations, an isolation and generalization of certain practical
operations in the capacity of intellectual ones , beginning to anticipate
the execution of the practical activity .
Soviet researchers devoted great attention to the elucidation of
the peculiarities of the primary logical forms of the thought of the
child and of their nexus with his immediate practical activity .
A. V. Zaporozhets and G. D. Lukov [e27 subjected to an experimen
tal critique the facts of syncretism and insensitivity to conflict and
contradiction of juvenile thought established in the researches of
Piaget . By suggesting to children that they make statements about the
way various objects float in the water and then giving the children an
opportunity to check practically on these statements , it was demonstrated
that even in a three - year old child there arises as a result of practical
experience a sui generis nexus of judgments , although it is not estab
lished on purpose and is still not substantiated . Under the influence
of the perception of a series of analogous facts , the child begins to
assume that subsequent facts , too , will occur in a similar way . In the
sequel , in the second half of the pre- school age , there appear active
efforts to coordinate his judgments and to find a basis for their co
ordination . Thanks to the isolation of this substantiating judgment,
judgment acquires a convoluted character . To substantiate his judg
ments , the child appeals to his practical activity . Even in this re
search there was already shown the aspiration of children to penetrate
more and more deeply into the causal nexus between objects in the sub
stantiation of their judgments . In the sequel , the capacities of the
child for the establishment of the causal dependences between physical
phenomena on the example of the floating of bodies was studied in a work
of A. A. Venger [357. On the basis of an explanation by children of the
floating of bodies , the author adduces convincing materials to show that

376 -
even four - year old children look for reasons for the floating of bodo
ies . The fact of what properties of bodies the children connect with
their floating depends on which of these properties can be isolated by
the children . After specially teaching the children the distinction of
the material out of which various things are made, the author demon
strated that , as soon as the children learn how to distinguish the ob
jects according to material , they begin to explain floating of bodies
by peculiarities of the material and to give the appropriate substanta
iation for this . Venger demonstrated that the causal explanations of
the children of this age are limited by the properties of objects ac
cessible for isolation .
A. A. Lyublinskaya [ 168] showed that it was precisely in the
resolution of practical tasks and the overcoming of difficulties con
nected with their resolution that there appears the formulation of the
question of the causes of the difficulties , The emergence of such
questions points to the appearance of a primary notion on the presence
of causal nexus . At the same time, as research has shown , the emer
gence of such questions exerts a vital influence on the very process
of the solution by the child of a practical task, imparting to all the
actions a bias touard searches for the proper solution .
The question of the peculiarities of visual - graphic_thinking
was subjected to study in the work of K. Ye . Khomenko [267 and the
works of D. M._Aranovskaya [117, 0. M. Kontsevaya [1257 , T. N.
Titarenko [2467 , devoted to the study of the peculiarities of the under
standing by children of pre - school age of various genres of literary
productions ( fables, fairy- tales ) . In these researches it was shown
that the transition to visual - graphic thinking is most intimately tied
in with the emergence of new types of activity requiring from the child
reliance on representations of the object . Most clearly are these new
conditions of activity presented in dramatic play , which requires an
operating with images of objects and by that very fact forms the think
ing activity which relies on images . Researches of the understanding
by the child of literary productions has shown that it relies on im
ages and represents a sui generis activity of co - experiencing and co
operation with the hero of the literary work . At the same time, it was
shown that the understanding depends on the composition of the literary
work , which may either complicate or, on the contrary, facilitate the
process of cooperation in the course of which occurs the following of
the fate of the literary hero and on the basis of this also understand
ing . The intimate tie- in of visual - graphic thinking with real practical
actions was revealed likewise in the literal understanding by children
of various figurative expressions. However , the understanding by pre
school age children of metaphorical expressions may be raised to a
higher level on condition that it be interpolated into such a context
as created the possibility of an interpolation of the understanding
into the wider context of concrete practical relations . All of these
materials were summed up by A. V. Zaporozhets [ 31]. In the research
of A. V. Zaporozhets and G. D. Lukov which has been mentioned it was

- 377 -
shown that the child is able to establish certain simple causal nexus
and verbally to judge concerning them . V. V. uliyenkova [ 2517 showed
the possibility of a solution by pre- schoolers of the simplest logical
tasks requiring deductive reasoning in the event that the premises are
known to the child from previous experience . The question of the tran
sition to ratiocinative forms of thought has been resolved in a research
of G. I. Minskaya [7727. By a proposal to children of pre-school age
of the solution of the same tasks connected with mechanical relations
on a visual - actional , visual - graphic and verbal plane, it was demon
strated that the children solved the problems most successfully of
all on the visual - actional plane, and least well on the verbal plane.
It came out that the absence of experience at solving problems on the
visual - actional plane has a deleterious effect on solving them on the
visual - graphic and the verbal plane; on the contrary , the teaching of
how to solve them on the visual - actional plane heightens the effective
ness of the solution on the visual - graphic and verbal planes .
In this research it was brought out that visual -actional , visual
graphic and verbal thinking are not independent species of thinking , but
rather stages of a single path of development, in which the visual
actional form of solution of tasks is the genetically primary . From it
there gradually emerge the higher forms; their emergence is tied in with
the fact of how the formation of the orientational - exploratory activity
is occurring , which activity absorbs into itself and generalizes the
practical experience of the solution of problems . By that very fact it
was shown that in pre - school age there is possible a transition to
ratiocinative , verbal thinking on condition of an appropriate organizam
tion of the orientational - exploratory activity .
V. A. Gorbacheva [ 547 has shown that over the whole period of pre
school age there is occurring a transition from generalizations at the
basis of which there lies an isolation of a functional mark of an object
to higher types of generalization , This transition is effected on the
basis of comparison , differentiation and generalization of the marks of
objects . In the younger pre- schoolers there are in the main external
marks, in the older ones they are more substantial ones , affording the
opportunity for the formation of certain of the simplest generic con
cepts. A. I, Zakharov 1907 and A. G. Ruzskaya [218 ] showed that the
organization of the orientational - exploratory activity of children in
relation to objects , directed to the isolation of the marks of objects
entering into a generalization , is of predominant significance for the
process of generalization .
The question of the formation of mental activities has been
studied in detail by P. Ya . Gal'perin (46 ) and his collaborators . In
these researches there have been established the stages of the forma
tion of mental actions and there has been demonstrated the importance
for this of the orientational - exploratory activity in relation to the
conditions of the imminent action . The stages of the formation of men
tal actions, established by P. Ya . Gal'perin , have been confirmed upon
analysis of the process of the development of the cognitive activity
of children of pre - school age in the research of 2. M. Boguslavskaya
[257.
- 378 -
 A great number of researches (G.Ş. Kostyuk [T35], [ T367, Ye.I.
Korzakova
[ 122], N. A. Menchinskaya 1787,A. K. Gribanova [62 , M._V.
Vovchik-BlakiInaya( 38 ), v. V. Davydov 1657 , A. V. Brushlinskiy (307 )
have been devoted to the problem of the assimilation by pre- schoolers
of counting and the concept of number .
A comparison of the process of formation of mental actions on
the functional plane and of the process of formation of ratiocinative,
verbal thinking at pre- school age shows that the pre - school age is a
period in which there is occurring an isolation out of practical ac
tivity of intellectual operations and a primary emergence of verbal
forms of thinking and of mental actions .
6

Although the question of the development of the personality of

the child has been elaborated least fully as compared with other ques
tions, nevertheless the accumulation along this line of factual mater
ial provides a basis for a few generalizations.
L. S. Vygotskiy was the first in Soviet child psychology to come
out with a general theory of pre - school age [43]. In accord with his
generic conception of consciousness and of its development, he considered
that " the most essential thing in the development of the child and of
his consciousness is not only the fact that individual functions of con
sciousness of the child grow upon transition from one age to another ,
but rather than the essential thing is that there grows and develops
the personality of the child , there grows and develops the conscious
ness of the child as a whole .
" This development and growth of consciousness makes itself felt
in the first instance in the fact that there are changes in the relation
ships between individual functions" ( page 25 ) . Vygotskiy considered
that in pre- school age there is in process of formation an entirely new
system of functions in which a central role is played by memory , and
that, consequently, the cardinal peculiarity of pre - school age is the
accumulation and processing of the immediate experience of the child .
Such a new system of structuring of consciousness leads to a number of
consequences . First , there is a radical change in the thinking of the
child . It makes the transition to thinking in images and representa
tions, the presence of which signifies the first stage of abstract
thinking . The second consequence is the restructuring of the character
of interests and needs . There arise the first affective generaliza
tions, substitutions and switch - overs of interests . The third conse
quence is the transition to entirely new types of activity which may
be called creative, in which the child proceeds from plan to action .
Finally at pre- school age there emerge for the first time internal eth
ical instances, there are developed ethical rules and there are developed
the first general representations concerning the world , nature , the self;
there arises the first rough draft of a child's outlook and philosophy .

· 379 -
 The factual changes pointed out by Vygotskiy really do occur
at pre- school age ; however , subsequent researches have demonstrated
that they cannot be tied in with the dominant position of memory ,
that it is not a new structure of consciousness at all which deter
mines the developrient of the activity of the child and of his relations
with adults, but , on the contrary , it is the emergence of a new type
of relations of the child with adults, of new types of activity , which
determines the changes of consciousness as a whole and of its individ
ual functions . Vygotskiy gets much nearer to the nub of the question
of the formation of the personality of the pre - school child when he
characterizes the type of teaching, i.e. , the type of relations with
adults , which emerges in pre - school age . Unfortunately he did not
succeed in developing sufficiently fully the contention concerning the
special relations of the child with adults which arise in pre - school
age .
A. 1. Leontiyev [152 ], [T537 was the first after Vygotskiy to
propose a general theory of pre - school age . Pre - school childhood ,
according to Leontiyev , is a period of an initial de facto development
of personality, a period of development of personality "mechanisms of
behavior .
The de facto development of personality consists in co - subordina
tion of motives which appears at the beginning of pre - school age and
develops over the whole course of it . These changes in the structuring
of activity Leontlyov considers crucial and links up with them all those
concrete alterations which are observed in pre - school age , especially
highlighting among them the development of the voluntariety of certain
psychic processes ,
The theoretical notions of Leont'yev considerably advanced the
general theory of the development of the personality of the child in
the pre - school age period . The co - subordination of motives, high
lighted by him in the capacity of a central element is in the most im
mediate connection with the formation of personality .
The question of the emergence of the primary co - subordination
of motives was subjected to an experimental research by K. M. Gurevich
[647. The facts obtained in this research lead to the following con
clusions: a) at the thresold of pre - school age there appears an " ideal "
motivation of actions; b) on the basis of the " ideal " motivation the
co - subordination of motives arises earlier than on the basis of immed
iate motivation ; c) the fulfillment of a desire given in an " ideal "
form can be more easily postponed in time than can the fulfillment of
a desire given in immediate form . N. M. Matyushina [175] subjected
to a special study the question of the conflict of motives during pre
school age . The data of this research confirmed the tenet to the ef
fect that in pre - school age the conflict of mo tives is absent. At
pre - school age for the first time there appears a conflict of motives,
and during the entire course of pre - school age there is occurring a
series of substantial shifts in the co - subordination of motives , there
are arising mo tives which are new in respect of their content, among

- 380 -
which motives those of a moral content begin to play an important role .
In function of the character of the task facing the child the so
subordination of motives may emerge in various forms : the same mo tives
may turn out to be more effective, now less effective in respect of the
subordination of immediate impulses. A. N. Golubeva [527 , when she pre
sented to children tasks which required the overcoming of difficulties
and were connected with an experience of success or failure, discovered
that the motives of a social content ( act for the success of the whole
collective of children ) begin to emerge as effective even in the medium
age group and acquire great significance in the elder age group . The
motives of success and failure in younger children do not exert any sort
of influence on the overcoming of difficulties . In the medium pre- school
age group , failure does not stimulate any manifestation of perseverance ,
while success does stimulate it. In the older pre- school children ,
both success and failure acquire a stimulatory significance . In some
of these children there appears an interest in the process of the over
coming of difficulties itself . A new point in the behavior of older
pre- schoolers is the consciousness of the fact that a retreat in the
face of difficulties casts a bad light on them ; therefore the majority
of children of this age stubbornly refuse to " give in " even after they
have de facto ceased the activity in question . Thus , all of these rem
searches show that at pre - school age there are appearing motives new in
respect of their content and there is forming their co - subordination ,
A research of Ya. 2. Neverovich [188 ] has shown the peculiarities
of the stimulatory force of various motives in the case of the execution
by children of a work assignment . Motives which are social in their
content acquire a great stimulatory force even in the smallest children ,
provided that the connection between the content of the work to be car
ried out and these motives is clear to the children . At the same time
it was established that these motives are assimilated by children pre
cisely in work activity .
In intimate liaison with the appearance of the system of motives
and their co - subordination stands the emergence of primary moral evalu
ations . Their development in pre - school age is manifested in the rela
tion and attitude of the child to the heroes of literary works .
Researches of A. N. Tsivanyuk [ 2687, 0. I. Soloviyeva_ [239] , Ye .
F. Lukina [1607, T. I. Titarenko (2467, K. Ye. Khomenko (2627 and
others , in which was studied the perception by children of fairy - tales
and other literary works, demonstrated the initial fusion of the immed
iately emotional attitude and the ethical evaluation of the deeds of
the heroes of a work and their gradual differentiation ,
A. V. Zaporozhets [85], summing up the works of his collaborators
devoted to the analysis of the perception by the pre - school age child
of literary works , shows that the transition from a simple unmotivated
evaluation , fused with an immediate emotional attitude , to a motivated
moral evaluation is bound up in pre - school age children with the de
velopment of internal coexperiencing and cooperation in thought with
the heroes of the literary works . The emergence in pre - school age

381 -
together with a practical action of an interior action in imaginary
conditions creates the opportunity actively to live through events and
deeds in which the child does not himself take an active part, and by
this to comprehend the motives of acts and to differentiate his own
emo tional attitude and moral evaluation . The question as to the extent
to which children can subordinate their own conduct to ethical norms
has been treated in a research of R. N. Ibragimova 1947. It was shown
in this research that the rudiments of a sense of duty are engendered
even in the youngest pre - schoolers under the influence of an evalua
tion on the part of adults of an act done by the child .
According to the data of P. N. Ibragimova, a moral sense of
duty emerges first in relation to children their own age , then in
relation to adults and later in relation to babies or younger chil
dren . All the types of these manifestation of a sense of duty are
represented fairly broadly in the medium pre - school age group . The
basic condition for the emergence of moral feelings over the course
of the entire pre - school age period is the moral evaluation of actions
and deeds on the part of adults . Although very few data have been ac
cumulated on the development of the moral feelings, there is , nonethe
less , every ground for supposing that the pre - school age is a period of
intensive assimilation of moral feelings . Specially important among
these is the assimilation of a sense of duty and the formation of duty
in the capacity of a cardinal element of activity, which is of great
significance for the transition to such compulsory socially signifi
cant activity as schooling .
Intimately linked with the appearance at pre - school age of new
mo tives of activity , their cosubordination and the formation of ethical
feelings and instances, there occurs a radical restructuring of the en
tire conduct of the child .
Z.M. Manuylenko [1747 has subjected to a special
question of the development of voluntary behavior .
research the
The data obtained
by her show that there appear at pre - school age for the first time a
conduct mediated by representations, The vital point is not the content
of the image which is mediating the conduct of the child , i.e. the ques
tion as to whether it is given in the form of a generalized rule or in
the form of an image of the conduct of a concrete person , The import
ant thing is that the image of conduct for the first time emerges as
its regulator; for the first time conduct begins to be compared with
an image , and the latter begins to emerge as a model . It is precisely
at this point that there occurs a qualitative alteration of the whole
of conduct ; from being unmediated it becomes mediated by standards and
rules of conduct ; for the first time there arises the question as to
how one ought to behave and the necessity of the creation of a prelim
inary image of behavior , In senior pre- school age, as the data of
Manuylenko have shown , the direction of his conduct becomes the ob
ject of the consciousness of the child .

- 382
 The question as to how there occurs the assimilation of the stand
ards and rules of conduct which become the regulators of conduct of_the
child himself has been researched in a work of V. A. Gorbacheva [537.
She established the peculiarities of the process of the assimilation of
everyday rules in the home and of the rules of mutual relations and dem
onstrated that both types of rules are intensively assimilated during
pre - school age ,
In the research of R. N. Ibragimova and A. N. Golubeva there
are references to the formation in pre- school age of self - evaluation .
This question has been specially researches byV. A. Gorbacheva (527 .
Data obtained by her show that older pre - schoolers are able properly
to evaluate not only their comrades but themselves as well in those
cases in which the qualities subject to evaluation afford sufficiently
obvious indices for this. B. G. Anan'yev 57 considers that self
evaluation , which appears in pre - school age , is a most complex product
of the development of the conscious activity of the pre - school child .
The emergence of self -evaluation and the discovery for himself
of his own experiences represents for the pre - school child a cardinal
result of his development during pre - school age .
Thus , the researches devoted to the formation of the individual
aspects of the personality show that the pre - school age is truly a
cardinal period of the development of the personality .

- 383 -
 LITERATURE

1. R. Ya . Abramovich , Razvitiye predmetnogo deystviya u rebenka na

pervom godu zhizni ( Development of Action of Infant With Objects
in First Year of Life ) , Candidate's Dissertation , Leningrad ,
1946 .
2. N. L. Ageno sova , Razvitiye proizvol'nogo vospriyatiya u detey
do shkol'nogo vozrasta (Development of Deliberate Perception in
Children of Pre - School Age ) , Candidate's Dissertation , Moscow ,
1948 .
3. L. A. Aleksandrovskaya , Nedostatki proiznosheniya u detey
starshego do shkol'nogo vozrasta ( Defects of Pronunciation in
Children of Older Pre - School Age ) , Candidate's Dissertation ,
Moscow , 1955 .
4. N. M. Aksarina , Osobennosti razvitiya detey tret'yego goda
zhizni i vospitaniye ikh v yaslyakh i domakh rebenka ( Peculi
arities of Development of Children of Pre - School Age and Their
Training in Creches and Children's Homes ) , Candidate's Dis
sertation , Moscow , 1944 .
5. B. G. Anan'yev , " On the Putting of the Question of the Develop
ment of Child Self - Awareness , " Izvestiya APN RSFSR News of
the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences ) , No. 18 , 1948 .
6. Ye . A. Arkin , Rebenok ot goda do chetyrekh let ( The Child From
the Ages of One to Four) , Uchped giz (State Teacher Training
Publishing House ) , 1931 .
7. Ye . A. Arkin , Rebenok i yego igrushka v usloviyakh pervobytnoy
kul'tury ( The Infant and Its Toy in the context of Primitive
Culture ), Izd - vo in - ta OZDIP ( Publishing House of the Institute
of the Division for Health Protection of Children and Young
People ) , 1935 .
8. Ye . A. Arkin , " First Reports on the Study of the Play of Pre
School Age Children , " Anthology Igra í trud do shkol'nikov ( The
Play and the work of Pre - School Agers ) , Moscow , 1936 .
9. Ye . A. Arkin , Doshkol'nyy vozrast ( The Pre - School Age ) , Moscow ,
1948 .
10 . Ye . A. Arkin , " Questions of Soviet Pre - School Training, " An
thology of Articles , Editor A. P. Usova , RSFSR Academy of Peda
gogical Sciences Publishing House, 1950 .
11 . D. M. Aranovskaya , Zavisimost ' ponimaniya rebenkom skazki ot
yeye kompozitsii ( Dependence of a Child's Understanding of a
Story on Its Composition ) , Candidate's Dissertation , Moscow ,
1944 .
12 . I , A. Aryamov , Osobennosti detskogo vozrasta . Ocherki (Peculi
arities of Childhood . Vignettes ) , Pedagogical Publishing House ,
Moscow , 1953 .
13 . V. I. Asnin , Razvitiye naglyadno - deystvennogo myshleniya u
rebenka (Development of Visual- Actional Thought in the Infant ) ,
Lin Ukrainian / , Works of Ukrainian Conference on Pedagogy and
Psychology , Vol . II , Kiev , 1941 .

384 -
14 . V. I. Asnin , " On the Conditions of Reliability of a Psychological
Experiment , " Lin Ukrainian / , Uchenyye zapiski Khar'kovskogo GPI
( Academic Reports of Khar'kov State Pedagogical Institute ) ,
Vol. VI , 1941 .
15 . 2. I. Baraba shova , " Role of Various Analyzers in Formation of Con
ditioned Connections to Verbal Stimuli in Children at an Early
Age , " Izvestiya APN RSFSR ( News of RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical
Sciences ) , No. 75 >, 1956 .
16 . 2. I. Barabashova , " Description of Conditioned Connections to
Verbal Stimuli in Children at an Early Age , " Izvestiya APN
RSFSR ( News of RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences ) , No. 75 ,
1956 .
17 . M. Ya . Basov , Metodika ob'yektivnykh psikhologicheskikh
nablyudeniy nad det'mi ( Methodology of Objective Psychological
Observations on Children ) , 2nd edition , 1927 .
18 . S. N. Belyayeva -Ekzemplyarskaya , Muzykal'nyye perezhivaniya v
do shkol'nom vozraste ( Experiences of Music at Pre - School Age ) ,
1925 .
19 . V. M. Bekhterev and N. M. Shchelovanov , " Arguments in favor of
a Genetic Reflexology , " Anthology Novoye v refleksologii i
fiziologii nervnoy sistemy ( New Points in Reflexology and
Physiology of the Nervous System ) , 1928 .
20 . N. A. Bikchentay , Pervichnyye i zaimstvovannyye otvety detey
( Primary and Second - hand Answers of Children ) , Candidate's
Dissertation , Moscow , 1939 .
21 . S. R. Blagaya , " Study of the Play of Three - Year - olds With Motors
on the Lot , " Anthology Igra i trud do shkol'nikov ( The Play and
the work of Pre - School Agers ) , Moscow , 1936 .
22 . S. R. Blagaya and 2. Ye . Uchiteleva , " Play With Motors in Indoors
Context , " Anthology , Igra i trud do shkol'nikov ( The Play and
the Work of Pre - School Agers ) , Moscow , 1936 .
23 . L. S. Bogachenko and V. K. Faddeyeva , " On the Typological Peculi
arities of Higher Neural Activity According to Materials of Ex
perimental Researches on the Circuit - Closing Function and the
Interaction of the First and Second Signal Systems in Children ,"
Zhurnal vysshey nervnoy deyatel'nosti im . I. P. Pavlov ( The
imeni I. P. Pavlov Journal of Higher Neural Activity ) , Vol .
III , No. 5 , 1953 .
24 . 2. M. Boguslavskaya , Vydeleniye tsveta i formy predmetov v
zavisimosti ot soderzhaniya deyatel'nosti ( Singling Out of
Color and Shape of Objects in Function of the Content of Ac
tivity ) ( in printing ) .
25 . 2. M. Boguslavskaya , " Development of the Cognitive Activity of
Children of Pre - School Age in the context of a Topical Didactic
Game , " Izvestiya APN RSFSR ( News of RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical
Sciences ) , No. 64 , 1955 .
26 . D. N. Bogoyavlenskiy , Psikhologiya usvoyeniya orfografii ( The
Psychology of the Mastery of Orthography ) , Izd -VO APN RSFSR

- 385 -
 (RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences Press ) , Moscow ,
1957 .
27 . L. I. Bozhovich , " Psychological Questions of the Preparedness
of the Infant for School Instruction , " Anthology , Voprosy
psikhologii rebenka doshkol'nogo vozrasta ( Questions of Pre
School Age Infant Psychology ) , Izd - VO APN RSFSR ( RSFSR
Academy of Pedagogical Sciences Press ) , 1948 .
28 . 2. N. Borisova , " Duty Assignment in Kindergarten as a Means of
Training Responsibility in Pre - School Age Children , " Uchenyye
zapiski LGPI im . Gertsena ( Academic Reports of the imeni
Gertsen Leningrad State Pedagogical Institute ) , Vol. CXXVI ,
1956 .
29 . A. I. Bronshteyn , " Comparative Evaluation of the Development
of the Auditory Analyzer of Children and of Certain Animals in
the First Months of Life , " Izvestiya APN RSFSR ( News of the
RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences ) , No. 75 , 1956 .
30 . A , V. Brushlinskiy , " Some Questions of Child Thinking in the
Context of the Mastery of Counting , " Doklady APN RSFSR (Re
ports of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences ) , No. 3 ,
1957 .
31 . G. N. Bystroletova , " Formation of the Conditioned Reflex to
Time in Neonati in Connection with the Daily Rhythm of Feeding , "
Zhurnal vysshey nervnoy deyatel'nosti ( Journal of Higher Neural
Activity ) , Vol . IV , No. 5 , 1954 .
32 . E , G. Vatsuro and M. Dzh . Kashkay , " Some Data on Research of
Pre - School Age Higher Neural Activity , " Izvestiya APN RSFSR
( News of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences ) , No. 75 ,
1956 .
33 . E. G. Vatsuro , P. S. Shpanov , " Alteration of the Degree of Ac
tivity of the Components of Simultaneous Complex Stimuli in
Pre - School Age Children , " Izvestiya APN RSFSR ( News of the
RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences ) , No. 75 , 1956 .
34 . A. V. Vedenov , Vospitaniye voli u rebenka v sem'ye ( Training of
the Will in Children in the Family Circle ) , Uchpedgiz ( State
Teacher Training Publishing House ) , Moscow , 1953 .
35 . A. A. Venger , Razvitiye ponimaniya prichinnosti u detey dosh
kol'nogo vozrasta (Development of the Concept of Causality in
Children of Pre - School Age ) , Candidate's Dissertation , Moscow ,
1958 .
36 . R. N. Vershinina and Ye . F. Rybalko , " On the Question of the
Relationships of Two - Year - Old Children , " Uchenyye zapiski LGU
( Academic Notes of the Leningrad State University ) , No. 8 ,
Izd - vo LGU ( Leningrad State University Press ) , No. 214 , 1955 .
37 . M. G. Vityaz ' , " Development of Creative Play in a Junior Kinder
garten Group , " Anthology , Psikhologicheskiye voprosy_irgy i
obucheniya v doshkol'nom vozraste ( Psychological Questions of
Play and Instruction in Pre - School Age Groups ) , Izd - vo APN
RSFSR ( RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences Publishing House ) ,
Moscow , 1957 .

- 386 .
38. M. V. Vovchik - Blokitnaya , " Peculiarities of the Recognition by
Pre - School Age Children of Quantitative Relations and of Ob
jects , " Materialy soveshchaniya po psikhologii ( 1-6 iyulya
1955 ..) (Papers of a Conference on Psychology ( 1-6 July 1955 ) ) ,
Izd - VO APN RSFSR ( RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences Pub
lishing House ) , Moscow , 1957 .
39. M. N. Volokitina , " Peculiarities of the Perception of a Drawing
of Plane Figures at Pre - School Age , " Uchenyye zapiski instituta
psikhologii ( Academic Notes of the Psychology Institute ) ,
Vol . I , 1940 .
40 . A. V. Voytno - Yasenetskiy, M. S. Melik - Parsadanyan , " Generalized
Motor Reactions in Neonati, " Izvestiya APN RSFSR ( News of the
RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences ) , No. 75 , 1956 .
41 . L. S. Vygotskiy , Myshleniye i rech ' . Izbr . psikhologicheskiye
issled . ( Thought and Speech . Selected Psychological Researches ) ,
Izd -VO APN RSFSR ( RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences Publish
ing House ) , Moscow , 1956 .
42 . L. S. Vygotskiy , " The Problem of Development in Structural Psy
chology , " in K. Koffka , Osnovy psikhicheskogo razvitiya (Funda
mentals of Psychic Development ) , 1934 .
43 . L. S. Vygotskiy , Obucheniye i razvitiye v do shkol'nom vozraste .
Izbr . psikhologicheskiye issled . ( Instruction and Development
in Pre - School Age . Selected Psychological Researches ) , Izd - vo
APN RSFSR ( RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences Publishing
House ) , 1956 .
44 . L. S. Vygotskiy , Razvitiye vysshikh form vnimaniya v detskom
vozraste ( Development of Higher Forms of Attention in Child -
ren ) , Ibid .
45 . P. Ya . Gal'perin , Psikhologicheskoye raslichiye orudiy cheloveka
i vspomo gatel'nykh sredstv u zhivotnykh i yego znacheniye
( Psychological Difference Between Human Tools and Auxiliary
Resources Employed by Animals and Its Significance ) , Candi
date's Dissertation , Khar ' kov , 1937 .
46 . P. Ya . Gal'perin , " Experience of the Study of the Formation of
Mental Activities , " Doklady na sove shchanii po vopro sam
psikho logii ( 3-8 iyulya 1953) ( Reports at a Conference on Ques
tions of Psychology ( 3-8 July 1953 ) ) , Izd -VO APN RSFSR ( RSFSR
Academy of Pedagogical Sciences Publishing House ) , 1954 .
47 . H , G , Gartsshteyn , " On Developmental Peculiarities of Conditioned
Inhibition , " Anthology , Opyt sistematicheskogo issledovaniya
uslovnoreflektornoy deyatel'nosti rebenka ( Experience of a Sys
tematic Investigation of the Conditioned Reflex Activity of the
Infant ) , Editor , A. G. Ivanov - Smolenskiy , Moscow- Leningrad , 1930 .
48 . A. N. Gvozdev , Usvoyeni ye rebenkom zvukovoy storony russkogo
yazyka ( Mastery by the Infant of the Auditory Aspect of the
Russian Language ) , Izd - vo APN RSFSR ( RSFSR Academy of Pedagogi
cal Sciences Publishing House ) , 1948 .

- 387 -
49. A. N. Gvozdev , Formirovaniye u rebenka grammaticheskogo stroya
russkogo yazyka ( Formation in the Infant of the Grammatical
Structure of the Russian Language ) , Parts I and II , Izd - vo APN
RSFSR ( RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences Publishing House ) ,
1949 .
50 . T. 0. Ginevskaya , " Development of Hand Movements in Touching,"
Izvestiya APN RSFSR ( News of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical
Sciences ) , No. 14 , 1948 .
51 . T. 0. Ginevskaya , " Significance of Composition in Perception by
Children of an Illustrative Drawing , " Uchenyye zapiski Khar ' .
kovskogo GPI ( Academic Notes of Khar'kov State Pedagogical In
stitute ) , Vol . VI , 1941.
52 . A. N. Golubeva , Psikhologicheskiye osobennosti proyavleniya
nastoychivosti u detey do shkol'nogo vozrasta ( Psychological
Peculiarities of the Manifestation of Perseverance in Pre
School Age Children ) , Candidate's Dissertation , Moscow , 1955 .
53 . T. I. Gorbatenko , Osobennosti pod ra zaniya u detey do shkol'nogo
vozrasta ( Peculiarities of Imitation in Children of Pre - School
Age ) , Candidate's Dissertation , Moscow , 1955 .
54 . V. A. Gorbacheva , " On the Question of Generalization and Con
cretization in the Process of the Formation of Objective Con
cepts in Children of Pre - School Age, " Uchenyye zapiski Lenin
gradsko go GPI im . Gertsena (Academic Notes of the imeni Gertsen
Leningrad State Pedagogical Institute ) , Vol. LXV , 1948 .
55 . V. A. Gorbacheva , " Formation of Conduct and Behavior of Child -
ren in a Junior Kindergarten Group , " Izvestiya APN RSFSR ( News
of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences ) , No. 52 , 1954 .
56 . V. A , Gorbacheva , " Experience of a Study of Individual Psycho
logical Peculiarities of Three - Year - Old Children , " Izvestiya
APN RSFSR ( News of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences ) ,
No. 52 , 1954 .
57 . V. A. Gorbacheva , " On the Question of the Formation of Evalua
tion and Self - Evaluation in Children , " Izvestiya APN RSFSR
( News of RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences ) , No. 18 , 1948 .
58 . V. A. Gorbacheva , " About the Mastery of Rules of Conduct by Pre
School Age Children , " Izvestiya APN RSFSR ( News of the RSFSR
Academy of Pedagogical Sciences ) , No. 1 , 1945 .
59 . V. A. Gorbacheva , " On the Continuity of Pre - School Training and
Educative Work in the First Grade , " Izvestiya APN RSFSR ( News
of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences ) , No. 49 , 1953 .
60 . Ye . V. Gordon , Rol' predmetnosti v vospriyatii rebenkom akhro
maticheskikh tsvetov ( Role of Objectivity in Perception of
Achromatic Colors by the Infant ) , Candidate's Dissertation ,
Khar'kov , 1947 .
61 . Ye . V. Gordon , " Peculiarities of the Development of Memory in
Children , " Doshkol'noye vospitaniye ( Pre - School Training ) ,
Ukrainian SSR , No. 9 , 1953 .

- 388 -
62 . A. K. Gribanova , Psikhologicheskiy analiz ovladeniya det'mi -
doshkol'nikami operatsiyami pervonachal'nogo scheta ( Psycho
logical Analysis of the Mastery by Pre - School Children of the
Operations of Initial Counting ) , Candidate's Dissertation ,
Odessa , 1955 .
63 . T. A. Gubenko , Tvorcheskiye igry kak faktor umstvennogo vospitaniya
detey doshkol'nogo vozrasta ( Creative Games as a factor in the
Mental Training of Pre - School Age Children ) , Candidate's Disserta
tion , Kiev , 1950 .
64 . K. M. Gurevich , Razvitiye volevykh deystviy u detey mlad shego
do shkol'nogo vozrasta ( Development of Volitional Activities in
Younger Pre - School Age Children ) , Candidate's Dissertation ,
/ no place of publication given) , 1940 .
65 . V. V. Davydov , " On the Formation of the Initial Concept of Number ,
Doklady APN RSFSR ( Reports of the RSF SR Academy of Pedagogical
Sciences ) , No. 3 , 1957 .
66 . A. N. Davydova , " Experience of a Monographic Study of Children
With Traits of Various Types of Nervous System , " Izvestiya APN
RSFSR ( News of RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences ) , No. 52 ,
1954 .
67 . A. N. Davydova , " Experience of an Experimental Psychological In
vestigation of Volitional Manifestations in Young Children ,
Uchenyye, zapiski LGU ( Academic Notes of the Leningrad State
University ) , No. 214 , 1956 .
68 . V. S. Da shkovskaya , " First Conditioned Reactions in Normal
Neonati and in Several Pathological conditions, " Zhurnal vysshey
nervnoy deyatel'nosti , Vol. III , No. 2 , 1953 .
69 . M. P. Denisova and N. L. Figurin , " Experience of a Reflexologi
cal Study of a Neonatus , " Anthology , Novoye v reflexologii ii
fiziologii nervnoy sistemy ( New Points in the Reflexology and
Physiology of the Nervous System ) , No. 1 , 1925 .
70 . M. P. Denisova and N , L. Figurin , " Early Conditioned Reflexes
in Children , " Sovetskaya pediatriya ( Soviet Pediatrics ) , No. 6 ,
1935 .
71 . F. P. Dunayevskiy , " An Attempt to Study the Higher Neural Ac
tivity With an Experimental Expansion of the Possibilities of
Its Manifestation in Children in the First Years of Their Life , "
Izvestiya APN RSFSR (News of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical
Sciences ) , No. 75 , 1956 .
72 . T. V. Yendovitskaya , Dinamika elementarnykh sensornykh funktsiy
v do shkol'nom vozraste ( Dynamic of the Elementary Sensory Func
tions in Pre - School Age ) , Candidate's Dissertation , Moscow ,
1947 .
73 . T. V. Yendovitskaya , " The Role of the Word in the Execution of
Simple Actions by Pre - School Age Children , " Izvestiya APN RSFSR
( News of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences) , No. 14 ,
1954 .

- 389 -
74. T. V. Yendovitskaya , " On the Question of the Development of Visual
Sensations in Children of Pre - School Age , " Izvestiya APN RSFSR ,
No. 64 , 1955 .
75 . R. I. Zhuovskaya , " Recollection and Reproduction of Verses by
Sma 11 Children , Do shkol'noye vospitaniye (Pre - School Training ) ,
No. 12 , 1957 .
76 . V. P. Zalogina , " Training of an Amicable Children's Collective
in a Creative Game , " Anthology , Tvorcheskiye igry v detskom sadu
( Creative Games in Kindergarten ) , Uchpedgiz ( State Teacher
Training Publishing House ) , Moscow , 1945 .
77 . B. N. Zal'tsman , " The Role of Speech in the Formation of Volun
tary Reproduction in Pre - School Age Children , " ſin Ukrainian ) ,
Uchenyye zapiski instituta psikhologii ( Academic Notes of the
Psychology Institute ) , Vol. V , Kiev , 1956 .
78 . L. V. Zankov , Pamyat ' (Memory ) , Uchpedgiz ( State Teacher Training
Publishing House ) , Moscow , 1949 .
79 . L. V. Zankov and D , M. Mayants , " Recollection and Reproduction
of Objects in Deaf - and - Dumb Pre - School Children and in Those
Capable of Hearing, " Anthology , Voprosy psikhologii glukhonemykh
i umstvenno otstalykh detey ( Questions of Psychology of Deaf
and - Dumb and Mentally Retarded Children ) , Moscow , 1940 .
80 . A. V. Zaporozhets, " The Role of the Elements of Practice and
Speech in the Development of Thinking in the Infant , " Uchenyye
zapiski Khar'kovskogo GPI ( Academic Notes of the Khar'kov State
Pedagogical Institute ) , Vol . I , 1939 .
81 . A. V. Zaporozhets , " Thought and Activity of the Infant , Lin
Ukrainian / , Trudy respublikanskoy nauchnoy konferentsii po
pedagogike i psikho logii (Works of the Republic Scientific Con
ference on Pedagogy and Psychology ) , Vol . II , Kiev , 1941 .
82 . A. V. Zaporozhets, G. D. Lukov, " On the Development of Judgments
in the Early Years of Life ," Lin Ukrainian / , Uchenyye zapiski
Khar'kovskogo GPI ( Academic Notes of the Khar'kov State Peda
gogical Institute ) , Vol . VI , 1941 .
83 . A. V. Zaporozhets, " Peculiarities and Development of the Process
of Perception , " Lin Ukrainian/ , Uchenyye zapiski Khar'kovskogo
GPI ( Academic Notes of the Khar'kov State Pedagogical Institute ),
Vol. VI , 1941 .
84 . A. V. Zaporozhets , " Development of Logical Thinking in Pre - School
Age Children , " Anthology , Voprosy psikhologii rebenka doshkoll
nogo vozrasta ( Questions of the Psychology of the Pre - School Age
Infant ) , Izd -vo APN RSFSR ( RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences
Publishing House ) , Moscow , 1948 .
85 . A. V. Zaporozhets , " The Psychology of the Perception by Pre - School
Children of a Literary Work , " Trudy vserossiyskoy nauchnoy kon
ferentsii po doshkol'nomy vospitaniyu ( Works of the All - Russian
Scientific Conference on Pre - School Training ), Uchpedgiz ( State
Teacher Training Publishing House ) , Moscow , 1948 .

- 390 -
86 . A. V. Zaporozhets , " Modification of the Motor Activity of the
Pre - School Infant in Function of the Motives and Conditions of
Its Exercise , " Izvestiya APN RSFSR ( News of the RSFSR Academy
of Pedagogical Sciences ) , No. 14 , 1948 .
87 . A. V. Zaporozhets , " Modification of the Interrelations of the
Two Signal Systems in the Process of the Development of the
Pre - School Child , " Doklady na soveshchanii po psikhologii
(3-8 iyulya 1953 ..) ( Reports at a Conference on Psychology ,
3-8 July 1953 ) , Izd - VO APN RSFSR ( RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical
Sciences Publishing House ) , 1954 .
88 . A , V. Zaporozhets , " Development of Voluntary Movements, " Doklady
na XIV mezhdunarodnom kongresse po psikho logii ( Reports at the
14th International Congress on Psychology ) , Izd - VO APN RSFSR
( RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences Publishing House ) , Mos
cow , 1954 .
88a . A. V. Zaporozhets , Razvitiye proizvol'nykh dvizheniy (Development
of Voluntary Movements ) , Doctoral Dissertation , Moscow , 1958 .
89 . A. V. Zaporozhets, Psikhologiya . Uchebnoye posobiye dlya dosh
kol'nykh peduchilishch (Psychology . A Textbook for Pre - School
Teacher Training Colleges) , 2nd edition , Uchpedgiz ( State Teacher
Training Publishing House ) , Moscow , 1955 .
90 . A. N. Zakharov , Usloviya formirovaniya obobshcheniya u detey
do shkol'no go vozrasta ( Conditions of the Formation of Generali
zation in Children of Pre - School Age ) , Candidate's Dissertation ,
Moscow , 1954 .
91 . A. V. Zakharova , K voprosu o razvitii grammaticheskogo stroya
rechi u detey do shkol'nogo vozrasta ( On the Question of the De
velopment of the Grammatical Structure of Speech in Children of
Pre - School Age ) , Candidate's Dissertation , Moscow , 1955 .
92 . P. I. Zinchenko , " The Problem of Involuntary Recollection , "
Uchenyye zapiski Khar'kovskogo GPI inostrannykh yazykov (Aca
demic Notes of the Khar'kov State Pedagogical Institute of For
eign Languages ) , Vol. I , 1939 .
93 . P. I. Zinchenko , " The Dependence of Involuntary Recollection on
the Motives of the Activity , " Lin Ukrainian ) , Institute of Psy
chology Nauchnyye zapiski (Scientific Notes) , Vol. I , Kiev ,
1949 .
94 . R. N. Ibragimova , Pervyye_zachatki chuvstva dolga u detey dosh
kol'nogo vozrasta ( First Beginnings of a Feeling of Duty in Pre
School Age Children ) , Candidate's Dissertation , Moscow , 1952 .
95 . A. G. Ivanov - Smolenskiy , Metodika issledovaniya uslovnykh
reflek sov u cheloveka (Methodology of Research on Conditioned
Reflexes in Man ) , Izd - vo rabotnik prosveshcheniya (" Educator "
Publishing House ) , Moscow , 1929 .
96 . A. G. Ivanov - Smolenskiy , " On the Study of the Joint Operation of
the First and Second Signals Systems, " Zhurnal vysshey nervnoy
deyatel'nosti ( Journal of Higher Neural Activity ) , Vol. I ,
No. 1 , 1951 .

- 391 -
 97 . Ye . I. Ignat'yev , " Influence of the Perception of an Object on
Drawing From Memory , " Anthology , Psikho logiya risunka i
zhivopisi (Psychology of Drawing and Painting ) , Izd - VO APN
RSFSR ( RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences Publishing House ) ,
1954 .
98 . 2. M. Istomina , " Development of Voluntary Memory at Pre - School
Age , " Izvestiya APN RSFSR ( News of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogi
cal Sciences ) , No. 14 , 1948 .
99. 2. M. Istomina , " Influence of the Verbal Image and of Visual Ma
terial on the Development of Speech in the Pre - School Infant,
Izvestiya APN RSFSR ( News of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical
Sciences ) , No. 81 , 1956 .
100 . 2. M. Istomina , " Perception and Naming of Color in Pre - School
Age Children , " Doklady APN RSFSR ( Reports of the RSFSR Academ
of Pedagogical Sciences ) , No. 2 , 1957 .
101 . N. A. Itina , V. V. Makarova , D. B. Malakhovskaya , " Research on
the Interaction of Conditioned and Unconditioned Reflexes in
the Process of the Development of the Child , " Izvestiya APN
RSFSR ( News of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences ) , No.
75 , 1956 .
102 . Ye . K. Kaverina , o razvitii rechi deteypervykh let zhizni ( On
the Development of Speech in Children During the First Years
of Life ) , Medgiz ( State Medical Publishing House ) , 1950 .
103 . 0. P. Kapustnik , " Interrelation Between Direct Stimuli and Their
Symbols , " Anthology , Osnovnyye mekhanizmy uslovnoreflektornoy
deyatel ' nosti rebenka ( Basic Mechanisms of the Conditioned Re
flex Activity of the Infant ) , Leningrad , 1930 .
104 . 0. P. Kapustnik , " On Differential Inhibition and Its Develop
mental and Typological Peculiarities, " Anthology , Opyt sis
tematicheskogo issledovaniya uslovnoreflektornoy deyatel'nosti
rebenka (Experience
of a Systematic Research on the conditioned
Reflex Activity of the Infant ) , Moscow - Leningrad , 1930 .
105 . 0. P. Kapustnik and V. K. Fadeyeva , " Extinction of Conditioned
Reflexes in Children from Five to Twelve Years of Age , " ibid .
106 . R. Sh . Karimova , K voprosu oznachenii osvoyeniya rebenkom
elementov grammaticheskogo stroya dlya razvitiya yego myshleniya
( On the Question of the Significance of the Mastery by the In
fant of the Elements of Grammatical Structure for the Develop
ment of His Thinking Process ) , Candidate's Dissertation , Lenin
grad , 1954 .
107 . S. N. Karpova , " Recognition of the Verbal Composition of Speech
by the Pre - School Age Child , " Voprosy psíkhologii ( Questions of
Psychology ) , No. 4 , 1955 .
108 . N. I. Kasatkin , " Development of the Auditory and Visual Condi
tioned Reflexes and Their Differentiations in Babies, " Sovetskaya
pediatriya ( Soviet Pediatrics ) , No. 8 , 1935 .
109 . N. I. Kasatkin , Ranniye uslovnyye reflek sy v ontogeneze cheloveka
( Early Conditioned Reflexes in the Ontogenesis of the Human In
dividual ) , Moscow , 1948 .

- 392 -
110 . N. I. Kasatkin , Ocherk razvitiya vysshey nervnoy deyatel 'nosti
u rebenka rannego vozrasta ( Outline of the Development of Higher
Neural Activity in a Young Infant ) , Moscow , 1951 .
111 . N , I. Kasatkin , " Early Conditioned Reflexes of the Infant , "
Zhurnal' vysshey nervnoy deyatel'nosti ( Journal of Higher
Neural Activity ) , Vol . II , No. 4 , 1952 .
112 . N. I. Kasatkin , N. S. Mirzoyants, A. P. Khokhitva , " On the Ori
entational Conditioned Reflexes in Children During the First
Year of Life , " Zhurnal vysshey nervnoy deyatel 'nosti ( Journal
of Higher Neural Activity ) , Vol. III , No. 2 , 1953 .
113 . S. I. Kaydanova , " Formation of Conditioned Reflexes to a System
of Complex Stimuli and Reflection of This Process in the Second
Signal System , " Izvestiya APN RSFSR ( News of the RSFSR Academy
of Pedagogical Sciences), No. 75 , 1956 .
114 . G , A. Kislyuk , Obrazovaniye dvigatel'nykh navykov u detey dosh
kol'nogo vozrasta pri naglyadnom nokaze i pri slovesnoy in
struktsii (Formation of Motor Habits in Pre - School Age Child
ren in the Case of Visual Demonstration and in the Case of
Verbal Instruction) , Candidate's Dissertation , / no place of
publication given / , 1953 .
115 . G , A. Kislyuk , " On the Question of the Formation of Motor Habits
in Pre - School Age Children , " Voprosy psikhologii ( Questions of
Psychology ) , No. 6 , 1956 .
116 . M. S. Klimov , S. A. Berenitskaya , R. S. Ayzikovich and A. A.
Androshchuk , " Influence of Schedule and Feeding on the Condi
tion of the Higher Neural Activity in Infants in Arms, " Zhurnal
vysshey nervnoy deyatel'nosti ( Journal of Higher Neural Ac
tivity ) , Vol . V , No. 2 , 1955 .
117 . V. Kovsharova , " Experience of Experimental Influence on the Re
action of Choice and on the Infant's Articulations Therewith
Connected , " Anthology , Na putyakh izucheniya vysshikh form
neyrodinamiki rebenka ( Along the Line of Study of the Higher
Forms of Neurodynamic of the Infant ) , Moscow , 1934 .
118 . A. Ye . Kozyreva , K voprosu o pervonachal'nom razvitii vospriyatiya
prostranstva u detey ( On the Question of the Initial Development
of the Perception of Space in Children ) , Izd - vo LGU ( Leningrad
State University Publishing House ) , 1949 .
119 . A. D. Kogan , " On the Question of the Development in Children of
a Tonal Speech Ear ," Doklady na soveshchanii po vopro sam
fiziologicheskoy akustiki ( Reports at a Conference on Questions
of Physiological Acoustics ) , Leningrad , 1954 .
120 . A. Ya . Kolodnaya , " Development of a Differentiation of the Di
rections ' Right ' and ' Left ' in Pre - School Age Children , IZ
vestiya APN RSFSR ( News of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical
Sciences ) , No. 53 , 1954 .
121 .
M. M. Kol'tsova , " On the Emergence and Development of the Second
Signal System in Man ," Trudy fiziologicheskogo instituta im .
I. P. Pavlova ( Works of the imeni I. P. Pavlov Physiological
Institute ) , Vol. IV , 1949 .

393 -
122 . M. M , Kol'tsova , " The Comparative Role of the Various Analyzers
in the Development of the Generalizing Activity of the Word in
the Infant , " Voprosy psikhologii ( Questions of Psychology ) ,
No. 4 , 1951 .
123 . T. A. Kondratovich , Rol ' illyustratsii v ponimanii khudozhestven
nogo teksta det'mi do shkol'nogo vozrasta ( The Role of Illustra
tions in the Understanding of an Artistic Text by Pre - School
Age Children ) , Candidate's Dissertation , Moscow , 1954 .
124 . T. Ye . Konikova , Nachal'nyy etap v razvitii rechi ( Initial Stage
in the Development of Speech ) , Candidate's Dissertation , Lenin
grad , 1947 .
125 . 0._M . Kontsevaya , " Understanding of Fairy - Tales by Children ,
Lin Ukrainian / , Trudy respublikanskoy konferentsii po pedagogike
i psikhologii . Psikhologiya (Works of a Republic Conference on
Pedagogy and Psychology . Psychology ) , Vol . II , Kiev , 1941 .
126 . 0. M. Kontsevaya , " On the Formation of Logical Thought in Pre
School Age Children , " Materialy sove
Materialy_soveshchaniy po psikhologii
( 1-6 iyulya 1955 ..) ( Papers of Conferences on Psychology ( 1-6
July 1955 ) ) , Izd - vo APN RSFSR (RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical
Sciences Publishing House ) , 1957 .
127 . Ye . I. Korzakova , Usvoyeniye operatsiy scheta det'mi doshkol' .
nogo vozrasta (Mastery of Counting Operations by Pre - School
Age Children ) , Candidate's Dissertation , Moscow , 1951 .
128 . T. A. Korman , " On the Dynamic of Thought and Reproduction , "
Do shkol'noye vospitaniye ( Pre - School Training ) , No. 3-4 , 1944 .
129 . T. A. Korman , " The Differences between the Verbal - Semantic
Memory of Younger and Older Pre - School Children , " Do shkol'noye
vospitaniye ( Pre - School Training ) , No. 7 , 1945 .
130 . V. I , Korniyenko , " Observations on the Use of the Vertical and
the Horizontal Line in Children's Drawings, " Anthology ,
Psikhologiya risunka i zhivopisi (Psychology of Drawing and
Painting ) , Izd - vo APN RSFSR ( RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sci
ences Publishing House ) , 1954 .
131 . N. A. Korniyenko , Uznavaniye i vosproizvedeniye naglyadnogo i
slovesnogo materiala det'mi do shkol'nogo vozrasta ( Recognition
and Reproduction of Visual and Verbal Material by Pre - School
Age Children ) , Candidate's Dissertation , Moscow , 1955 .
132 . K. N. Kornilov , Ocherk psikho logii rebenka rannego vozrasta ( Out
line of the Psychology of the Young Infant ) , 2nd edition , Giz
( State Publishing House ) , Moscow , 1921 .
133 . N. V. Koroleva , " The Role of Play in the Formation of a Positive
Attitude to Labor in Older Pre - School Age Children , " Anthology ,
Psikhologicheskiye voprosy igry i obucheniya v do shkol'nom
vozraste ( Psychological Questions of Play and Instruction in
the Pre - School Age Period ) , Izd -VO APN RSFSR ( RSFSR Academy of
Pedagogical Sciences Publishing House ) , Moscow , 1957 .
134 . G. S. Kostyuk , " On the Role of Heredity , Environment and Train
ing in the Psychic Development of the Infant, " Lin Ukrainian ) ,

- 394 -
 Trudy respublikanskoy nauchnoy konferentsii po pedagogike i
psikhologii. Psikhologiya ( Works of a Republic Scientific Con
ference on Pedagogy and Psychology . Psychology ) , Vol . II ,
Kiev , 1941 .
135 . G. S. Kostyuk , " On the Development of the Concept of Number in
Children , " Lin Ukrainian / , Institute of Psychology , Nauchnyye
zapiski ( Scientific Notes ) , Vol. I , Kiev , 1949 .
136 . G. S. Kostyuk , " On the Development of Thought in Children ,"
Doklady na XIV mezhdunarodnom kongresse po psikho logii (Re
ports at the 14th International Congress on Psychology ) , Izd - vo
APN RSFSR ( RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences Publishing
House ) , 1954 .
137 . G. S. Kostyuk , " On the Question of Psychological Laws , " Vopro sy
psikhologii ( Questions of Psychology ) , No. 1 , 1955 .
138 . G. S. Kostyuk , " Some Questions of the Interrelation of Training
and the Development of Personality , " Voprosy psikhologii (Ques
tions of Psychology ) , No. 5 , 1956 .
139 . L , I. Kotlyarevskiy , " Neu rodynamic of Conditioned Circuits Sud -
denly Arising in Difficult Situations," Anthology , Na puti
izucheniya vysshikh form neyrodinamiki rebenka ( On the Road to
a Study of the Higher Forms of the Neurodynamic of the Infant ) ,
Editor , A. G. Invanov - Smolenskiy , Moscow , 1934 .
140 . L. I. Kotlyarova , Znacheniye dvigatel'nogo momenta v protsesse
o sya zaniya ( Significance of the rotor Element in the Process of
Touching ) , Candidate's Dissertation , Moscow , 1948 .
141 . L. I. Kotlyarova , " Perception of Familiar and New Objects by
Pre - School Age Children , " Materialy soveshchaniya po psikhologii
(1-6 iyulya 1955 .. ) ( Papers of a Conference on Psychology ( 1-6
July 1955 ) ) , Izd - VO APN RSFSR ( RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical
Sciences ) , 1957 .
142 . N. I. Krasno gorskiy , Razvitiye ucheniya o fiziologicheskoy
deyatel'nosti mozga u detey (Development of the Theory of the
Physiological Activity of the Brain in Children ) , Biomedgiz
( State Biological Medical Publishing House ) , Moscow- Leningrad ,
1935 .
143 . N. I. Krasnogorskiy , " Phasic Modifications of the Activity of
the Great Hemispheres in Children , " Zhurnal vysshey nervnoy
deyatel'nosti ( Journal of Higher Neural Activity ) , Vol . I ,
No. 1 , 1951 .
144 . N. I. Krasnogorskiy , " On the Physiology of the Development of
Childhood Speech , " Zhurnal vysshey nervnoy deyatel'nosti ( Journal
of Higher Neural Activity ) , Vol. II , No. 4 , 1952 .
145 . N. I. Krasnogorskiy , " On the Typical Peculiarities of the Higher
Neural Activity in Children , " Zhurnal vysshey nervnoy deyatel ' .
nosti im . I. P. Pavlova ( The imeni I. P. Pavlov Journal of Higher
Neural Activity ) , Vol . III , No. 2 , Moscow , 1953 .
146 . Ye . Krichevskaya , Moya Marusya . Zapiski materi (My Marykin . A
Mother's Jottings ) , Moscow , 1919 .

- 395 -
C
147 . Ye . F. Lazurskiy ( ed . ) , Yestestvennyy eksperiment i yego
shkol'noye primeneniye (Natural Experiment and Its School Ap
plication ) , Part II , 1918 .
148 . A. P. Larin , O sushchnosti i prichinakh detskogo upryamstva
( On the Essence and Causes of Childish Stubbornness ) , Candi
date's Dissertation , Moscow , 1953 .
149 . Ye . G. Levi -Gorinevskaya , Razvitiye osnovnykh dvizheniy u detey
do shkol'nogo vozrasta ( Development of the Basic Movements in
Pre - School Age Children ) , Izd -VO APN RSFSR ( RSFSR Academy of
Pedagogical Sciences Publishing House ) , 1955 .
150 . R. Ye . Levina , Nedostatki chteniya i pis'ma u detey ( Reading
and Writing Deficiencies in Children ) , Uchpedgiz ( State Teacher
Training Publishing House ) , Moscow , 1940 .
151 . A. N. Leont'yev , Razvitiye pamyati ( Development of Memory ) ,
Uchpedgiz ( State Teacher Training Publishing House ) , Moscow
Leningrad , 1931 .
152 . A. N. Leont'yev , " Psychic Development of the Infant During
Pre - School Age , " Anthology , Voprosy psikhologii rebenka do sh
kol'nogo vozrasta ( Questions of the Psychology of the Pre
School Age Child ) , Izd - VO APN RSFSR (Publishing House of the
RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences ) , 1948 .
153 . A. N. Leont'yev, " Psychological Bases of Pre - School Play and
Games, " Sovetskaya pedagogika ( Soviet Pedagogy ) , No. 8-9 , 1944 .
154 . A. N. Leont'yev , " Toward a Theory of the Development of the
Infant Psyche, " Sovetskaya pedagogika ( Soviet Pedagogy ) , No. 4 ,
1945 .
155 . A , N. Leont'yev , " Urgent Problems of the Development of the In
fant Psyche ," Izvestiya APN RSFSR ( News of the RSFSR Academy of
Pedagogical Sciences ) , No. 14 , 1948 .
156 . A. M. Leushina , " Development of Coherent Speech in the Pre - School
Child , " Psikhologiya rechi (Psychology of Speech ) , Uchenyye
zapiski LGPU im . Gertsena ( Academic Notes of the Leningrad
State Pedagogical Institute imeni Gertsen ) , Vol. 35 , 1941 .
157 . A. M. Leushina , " Significance of Repetitive Recitation for
the Development of Coherent Speech in the Pre - School Child , "
Trudy vserossiyskoy konferentsii po do shkol'nomy vospitaniyu
( Works of the All - Russian Conference on Pre - School Training ) ,
Uchpedgiz ( State Teacher Training Publishing House ) , Moscow ,
1948 .
158 . A , M. Leushina , " On the Question of the Cultivation of Logical
Thought in the Pre - School Child ," Uchenyye zapiski LGPI im .
Gertsena , kafedra do shkol'noy, pedagogiki (Academic Notes of
the Leningrad State Pedagogical Institute imeni Gertsen , Chair
of Pre - School Pedagogy ) , Vol. LVI, 1947 .
159 . R. Ya . Lekhtman - Abramovich and F. I. Fradkina , Etapy razvitiya
igry i deystviy s predmetami v rannem detstve ( Stages of De
velopment of Play and Activity With Objects in Early Childhood ) ,
Medgiz ( State Medical Publishing House ) , Moscow , 1949 .

- 396 .
160 . Ye . F. Lukina , Vospriyatiye geroicheskikh rasskazov det'mi
starshego do shkol'nogo vozrasta ( Perception of Heroic Tales by
Children of Older Pre - School Age ) , Candidate's Dissertation ,
Moscow , 1950 .
161 . G. D. Lukov , Ob osoznanii rebenkom rechi v protsesse igry ( On
the Recognition by the Infant of Speech in the Process of
Play ) , Candidate's Dissertation , Leningrad , 1937 .
162 . A. R. Luriya , Opatologii grammaticheskikh operatsiy ( On the
Pathology of Grammatical Operations ) , Izvestiya APN RSFSR
( News of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences ) , No. 3 ,
1946 .
163. A. R. Luriya , " Development of Constructive Activity of the Pre
School Child , " Anthology , Voprosy psikhologii rebenka dosh
kol'nogo vozrasta ( Questions of the Psychology of the Infant
of Pre - School Age ) , Izd -VO APN RSFSR ( RSFSR Academy of Peda
gogical Sciences Publishing House ) , 1948 .
164 . A. R. Luriya , " Peculiarities of the Interaction of the Two Sig
nal Systems in the Formation of Motor Reaction in the Case of
Normal and of Abnormal Development, " Doklady na soveshchanii
po psikhologii ( 3-8 iyulya 1953 g . ) (Reports at a Conference
on Psychology ( 3-8 July 1953 ) ) , Izd - vo APN RSFSR ( RSFSR Academy
of Pedagogical Sciences Publishing House ) , Moscow , 1954 .
165 . A. R. Luriya , " Some Problems of the Study of the Higher Neural
Activity of the Normal and the Abnormal Infant, " Anthology ,
Problemy vysshey nervnoy deyatel'nosti normal'nogo i anormal '.
nogo rebenka (Problems of the Higher Neural Activity of the
Normal and Abnormal Infant ) , Vol . I , Izd - VO APN RSFSR ( RSFSR
Academy of Pedagogical Sciences Publishing House ) , 1956 .
166 . A. R. Luriya and F. Ya . Yudovich , Rech ' i razvitiye psikhi
cheskikh protsessov u rebenka ( Speech and the Development of
the Psychic Processes in the Infant ) , Izd - VO APN RSFSR (RSFSR
Academy of Pedagogical Sciences Publishing House ) , 1956 .
167. N. I. Lysenko , Istochniki vozniknoveniya i razvitiya chuvstva
simpatii u detey rannego vozrasta ( Sources of the Emergence
and Development of Sympathy Feeling in Young Children ) , Candi-
date's Dissertation , no place of publication given / , 1952 .
168. A. A. Lyublinskaya , " Causal Thinking of the Child in Action , "
Izvestiya APN RSFSR ( News of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical
Sciences ) , No. 17 , 1948 .
169 . A. A. Lyublinskaya , " Image , Thought and Speech in the Rational
Activity of the Infant , " Uchenyye zapiski LGPI im . Gertsena
( Academic Notes of the Leningrad State Pedagogical Institute
imeni Gertsen ) , Vol . LIII , 1946 .
170 . A. A. Lyublinskaya , "'Mastery of Spatial Relationships in the
Pre - School Child , " Anthology , Problemy psikhologii (Problems
of Psychology ) , Izd - vo LGU ( Leningrad State University Publish
ing House ) , 1948 .

- 397 -
171 . A. A. Lyublinskaya , " ' The Role of Language in the Development of
the Cognitive Activity of the Child , " Doklady na soveshchanii
po psikho logii ( 3-8 iyulya 1953 g . ) ( Reports at a Conference on
Psychology ( 3-8 July 1953 ) ) , Izd - vo APN RSFSR ( RSFSR Academy
of Fedagogical Sciences Publishing House ) , 1954 .
172 . A. A. Lyublinskaya , " The Role of Speech in the Development of
Visual Perception in Children , " Anthology , Voprosy detskoy i
obshchey psikhologii ( Questions of Child and General Psychology ),
Izd - vo APN RSFSR ( RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences Fublish
ing House ) , 1954 .
173 . A. A. Lyublinskaya , " Some Peculiarities of the Interrelationships
of Words and the Visually Apprehended in the Formation of Repre
sentations in the Pre - School Child , " Voprosy psikhologii ( Ques
tions of Psychology ) , No. 1 , 1956 .
173a . A. A. Lyublinskaya , Ocherki psikhicheskogo razvitiya rebenka
( Outlines of the Psychic Development of the Infant ) , Izd - vo
APN RSFSR ( RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences Publishing
House ) , 1959 .
174 . z . M. Manuylenko , " Development ofVoluntary Behavior in Children
of Pre - School Age , " Izvestiya APN RSFSR ( News of the RSFSR
Academy of Pedagogical Sciences ) , No. 14 , 1948 .
175 . N. M. Matyushina , Bor'ba motivov u detey doshkol'nogo vosrasta
( The Conflict of Motives in Children of Pre - School Age ) , Candi
date's Dissertation , / no place of publication given/ , 1945 .
176 . N. A. Menchinskaya , " Questions of the Development of the Think
ing Process of the Child in the Diaries of Russian Authors , "
Uchenyye zapiski instituta psikhologii ( Academic Notes of the
Psychology Institute ) , Vol . I , 1941 .
177 . N. A. Menchinskaya , Dnevnik o razvitii rebenka ( A Diary of the
Development of a Child ) , Izd - vo APN RSFSR ( RSFSR Academy of
Pedagogical Sciences Publishing House ) , 1948 .
178 . N. A. lienchinskaya , Psikhologiya obucheniya arifmetike (Psy
chology of the Teaching of Arithmetic ) , Ch . IV . Uchpedgiz
( State Teacher Training Publishing House ) , l'oscow , 1955 .
179 . G. I. Minskaya , Perekhod ot naglyadno - deystvennogo k rassuzh
dayushchemy myshleniyu u detey do shkol'nogo vozrasta ( Transi
tion From Visual - Actional to Ratiocinative Thinking in Children
of Pre - School Age ) , Candidate's Dissertation , Moscow , 1954 .
180 . N. S. Mirzoyants, " The Conditioned Orientational Reflex and Its
Differentiation in the Infant ," Zhurnal vysshey nervnoy deyatel'
nosti ( Journal of Higher Neural Activity ) , Vol . IV , No. 5 , 1954 .
181 . V. V. Mistyuk , ' 'Perception by the Child of a Picture of love
11
ments , Uchenyye zapiski Khar'kovskogo GPI ( Academic Notes of
the Khar'kov State Pedagogical Institute ) , Vol . VI, 1941 .
182 . A. F. Mit'kina , Psikhologicheskiy analiz formirovaniya obrazov
u detey do shkol'nogo vozrasta v protsesse risovaniya (Psycho
logical Analysis of the Formation of Images in Children of Pre
School Age in the Process of Drawing ) , Candidate's Dissertation ,
/ no place of publication given / , 1955 .

• 398 -
183 . I. N. Morozov , Pervyy_shag k izucheniyu rebenka ( First Step Toward
Child Study ) , Moscow , 1924 .
184 . N. G. Morozova , " Development of Attitude of Pre - School Age Child
ren to a Verbal Assignment , " Izvestiya APN RSFSR ( News of the
RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences ) , No. 14 , 1948 .
185 . S. V. Mukhin , " Perception of the Color and Shape of Objects by
Pre - School Age Children , " Uchenyye_zapiski MGPI im . Lenina
(Academic Notes of the Moscow State Pedagogical Institute imeni
Lenin ) , Vol. XXVII , 1941 .
186 . G. D. Na roditskaya , " Childhood Development of New Conditioned
Connections Without Preliminary Elaboration , " Anthology , Na
puti k izucheniyu vysshikh form neyrodinamiki rebenka ( Approach
to a Study of the Higher Forms of Neurodynamic of the Child ) ,
Moscow , 1934 .
187 . Ya . Z. Neverovich , " Psychological Analysis of the Process of
Formation of a Love of Work in Older Pre - School Age Children , "
Izvestiya APN RSFSR ( News of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical
Sciences ) , No. 64 , 1955 .
188 . Ya . 2. Neverovich , " Motives of Work Activity of the Pre - School
Age Child , " Izvestiya APN RSFSR ( News of the RSFSR Academy of
Pedagogical Sciences ) , No. 64 , 1955 .
189 . Ya . Z. Neverovich , " The Role of the Orientational - Investigative
Activity in the Formation of Habits in Children , " Doklady na
soveshchanii po psikhologii ( 3-8 iyulya 1953 g . ) ( Reports at
a Conference on Psychology ( 3-8 July 1953 ) ) , Izd -VO APN RSFSR
( RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences Publishing House ) , 1954 .
190 . Ya . 2. Neverovich , " Mastery of Movements of Objects in the Pre
Pre - School and the Pre - School Ages, " Izvestiya APN RSFSR (News
of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences ) , No. 14 , 1948 .
191 . K. A. Nekrasova , K voprosu o formirovanii obshchikh ponyatiy u
detey starshego do shkol'nogo vozrasta ( On the Question of the
Formation of Generic Concepts in Older Pre- School Age Children ) ,
Candidate's Dissertation , Moscow , 1949 .
192 . Ts . P. Nemanova , " The Earliest Positive and Negative Defensive
and Alimentary Conditioned Reflexes to Vestibular Stimulations
in the Nursing Infant, " Voprosy pediatrii ( Questions of Pedi
atrics ) , Vol . VII , 1935 .
193 . Ts . P. Nemanova , " Conditioned Reflexes to Olfactory Stimulations
in the Nursing Infant," Fiziologicheskiy zhurnal (Physiological
Journal) , Vol . XXVII , No. 6 , 1939 .
194 . Ts . P. Nemanova and A. M. Levikova , " Concerning the Order of
Appearance of Conditioned Reflexes From Various Sense Organs in
the Child During the First Months of Life , Report 2 , " Voprosy
pediatrii ( Questions of Pediatrics ) , Vol . XII , No. 5 , 1940 .
195 . Ts . P. Nemanova , " Concerning the Order of Appearance of Condi
tioned Reflexes From Various Sense Organs in the Child During
the First Months of Life , Report 1 , " Voprosy pediatrii (Ques
tions of Pediatrics ) , Vol . XII , No. 2-3 , 1940 .

• 399 -
196 . A. I. Nekhlyudova , " On the Question of the Development of the
Processes of Perception in Children of Pre - School Age , " An
thology , Opyt ob'yektivnogo izucheniya detstva ( Experience of
an Objective Study of Childhood ) , Leningrad , 1924 .
197 . I. P. Nechayeva , " Toward a Functional Description of the Auditory
Analyzer of the Young Child , " Zhurnal vysshey nervnoy deyatel ' .
nosti ( Journal of Higher Neural Activity ) , Vol. IV , No. 5 ,
1954 .
198 . G. T. Ovsepyan , " Development of Observation in the Infant ,
Uchenyye zapi ski LGPI im . Gertsena (Academic Notes of the
Leningrad State Pedagogical Institute imeni Gertsen ) , Vol .
XVIII , 1939 .
199 . A. Pavlova , Dnevnik materi . Zapiski o raxvitii rebenka ( A
Mother's Diary . Notes on the Development of an Infant ) , Moscow ,
1924 .
200 . N. P. Paramonova , " On the Question of the Development of the
Physiological Mechanism of Voluntary Movements , Voprosy
psikho logii ( Questions of Psychology ) , No. 3 , 1955 .
201 . N. P. Paramonova , " On the Formation of the Interaction of the
Two Signal Systems in the Normal Child , " Anthology , Problemy
vysshey nervnoy deyatel'nosti normal'nogo i anormal'nogo
rebenka (Problems of the Higher Neural Activity of the Normal
and Abnormal Child ) , Vol . I , Izd - vo, APN RSFSR ( RSFSR Academy
of Pedagogical Sciences Publishing House ) , Moscow , 1956 .
202 . K. T. Patrina , Osobennosti ponimaniya znacheniya slova det'mi
starshego doshkol'nogo vozrasta ( Peculiarities of the Under
standing of the Meaning of a Word by Children of older Pre
School Age), Candidate's Dissertation , / no place of publica
tion given/ , 1955 .
203 . Ye . I. Pashkovskaya , Vozniknoveniye i razvitiye myshleniya rebenka
rannego vozrasta ( Emergence and Development of Thinking in Young
Infants ), Candidate's Dissertation , / no place of publication
given / , 1955 .
204 . T. V. Petukhova , Razvitiye proizvol'nogo vnimaniya u detey dosh
kol'nogo vozrasta (Development of Voluntary Attention in Pre
School Age Children ) , Candidate's Dissertation , /no place of
publication given/ , 1951 .
205 . R. N. Polikanina and L. Ye. Probatova , " Emergence and Development
of the Alimentary Motor Reflex in Premature Children , " Zhurnal
vysshey nervnoy deyatel'nosti im . I. P. Pavlova ( Journal of
Higher Neural Activity imeni I. P. Pavlov ) , Vol . V , No. 2 , 1955 .
206 . R. N. Polikanova and L. Ye . Probatova , " Development of the Ori
entational Reaction to a Visual Stimulus in Premature Children ,
Zhurnal vysshey nervnoy deyatel'ností im . I. P. Pavlova ( Journal
of Higher Neural Activity imeni I , P. Pavlov ) , Vol. V , No. 2 ,
1955 .
207 . A. G. Polyakova , Psikhologicheskiy analiz protsessa usvoyeniya
navykov putem podrazhaniya u detey ( Psychological Analysis of

. 400 -
 the Process of Mastery of Habits by way of Imitation in Child
ren ) , Candidate's Dissertation , Moscow , 1956 .
208 . M. I. Popova , K vopro su ob ovladenii grammaticheskimi elementami
yazyka det 'mi preddo shkol'nogo vozrasta ( On the Question of the
Nastery of the Grammatical Elements of Language by Pre - Pre
School Age Children ), Candidate's Dissertation , / no place of
publication given) , 1956 .
209 . L , A. Parembskaya , " Everyday Work in the Home as a leans of
Training Pre - School Age Children in Self - Reliance ,
Uchenyye
zapiski LGPI im . Gertsena (Academic Notes of the imeni Gertsen
Leningrad State Pedagogical Institute ) , Vol . CXXVI , 1956 .
210 . A. A. Pressman , " On the Role of Activity With Objects in the
Formation of the Visual Image in Children , " Anthology , Problemy
psikhologii ( Problems of Psychology ) , Izd - vo LGU ( Leningrad
State University Publishing House ) , 1948 .
211 . R. M. Pen , " Peculiarities of Conditioned Inhibition in Five - Year
olds, " Anthology , Eksperimental'nyye issledovaniya vysshey
nervnoy deyatel'nosti rebenka ( Experimental Investigations of
the Higher Neural Activity of the Infant ) , / no place of pub
lication given/ , 1933 .
212 . R. li , Pen , " Formation of New Conditioned Connections by way of
Imitation , " Anthology , Na puti izucheniya vysshikh form neyro
dinamiki rebenka ( Approach to the Study of the Higher Forms of
Neurodynamic of the Child ) ; 1934 .
213 . A. M. Rayevskiy , " On the Psychology of Recollections in Children , "
Institute of Psychology , Nauchnyye zapiski, Vol. I , Kiev , 1948 .
214 . N. I. Reynval'd , ' 'Peculiarities of the Execution of a Spoken In
struction by a Pre - School Age Child , " Voprosy psikhologii (Ques
tions of Psychology ) , No. 3 , 1955 .
215 .
R. M. Rimburg , " The Game and Play as a Form of the Active Cog
nitive Activity of Older Pre -School Age Children ," Uchenyye
zapiski LGPI im . Gertsena (Academic Notes of the imeni Gertsen
Leningrad State Pedagogical Institute ) , Vol. CXXVI, 1956 .
216 . G. L. Rozengart -Pupko , Rech ' i razvitiye vo spriyatiy v rannem
detstve ( Speech and the Development of Perceptions in Early
Childhood ) , Izd - vo AMN ( Academy of Medical Sciences Publishing
House ) , Moscow , 1948 .
217 . F. S. Rozenfel'd , " Peculiarities of Tactile Perceptions of the
Pre - School Child , " Izvestiya APN RSFSR News of the RSFSR
Academy of Pedagogical Sciences ) , No. 17 , 1348 .
218 . A , G. Ruzskaya , Rol' neposredstvennogo opyta i slova v obrazovanii
obobshcheniy u detey doshkol'nogo vozrasta ( The Role of Direct
Experience and of the Word in the Formation of Generalizations
in Pre - School Age Children ) , Candidate's Dissertation , Moscow ,
1954 .
219 . S. L. Rubinshteyn , " The Problem of Activity and Consciousness in
the System of Soviet Psychology," Uchenyye zapi ski MGU ( Academic
Notes of the Moscow State University ) , No. 90 , Izd - vo MGU (Pub
lishing House of Moscow State University ) , 1945 .

. 401 -
220 . S. L. Rubinshteyn , Osnovy obshchey psikhologii ( Fundamentals of
General Psychology ) , 2nd edition , Uchpedgiz ( State Teacher
Training Publishing House ) , Moscow , 1946 .
221 . S. L. Rubinshteyn , " On the Psychology of Speech . The Fsychology
of Speech , " Uchenyye zapiski LGPI im . Gertsena ( Academic Notes
of the Leningrad State Pedagogical Institute imeni Gertsen ) ,
Vol . XXXV, 1941 .
222 . s . L. Rubinshteyn , " On the Question of the Stages of Observa
tions , " Uchenyye zapiski LGPI ( Academic Notes of the Leningrad
State Pedagogical Institute ) , Vol . XVIII , Leningrad , 1939 .
223 . I. P. Rumyantseva , Psikhologiya detey -- stsenicheskikh ispol
niteley (Psychology of Children Stage Ferformers) ,Candidate's
Dissertation , Moscow , 1949 .
224 . N. A. Rybnikov , Slovar ' russkogo rebenka ( Vocabulary of the Rus
sian Child ) , Moscow - Leningrad , 1926 .
225 . N. A. Rybnikov , Yazyk rebenka ( Language of the Child ) , 2nd edi
tion , Moscow , 1926 .
226 . V. A. Rybnikova - Shilova , Moy dnevnik (My Diary ) , Part I , 1928 .
227 . N. Soboleva , Zapiski o razvitii rebenka ot rozhdeniya do 14 let
(Notes on the Development of a Child From Birth to the Age of
14 ) , 1930 .
228 . 3. A. Sazont'yev , K vopro su o razvitii izobrazitel'nykh sposob
nostey u detey do shkol'nogo vozrasta ( On the Question of the
Development of the Imaginative Faculties in Pre - School Age
Children ) , Candidate's Dissertation , Moscow , 1953 .
229 . Yu . A. Samarin , " Experience of the Experimental Psychological
Study of the. Typological Peculiarities of the Nervous System in
Children , " Izvestiya APN RSFSR (News of the RSFSR Academy of
Pedagogical Sciences ) , No. 52 , 1954 .
230 . P. Samo rukova , Tvorcheskaya igra kak sredstvo znakomstva s
okruzhayushchey obshchestvennoy_zhizn'yu ( Creative Play and
Games as a Means of Acquainting With the Surrounding Social
Life ) , Candidate's Dissertation , Leningrad , 1951 .
231 . R. Ya . Sandler , Vzaimootnosheniya detey na vtorom godu zhizni
(Mutual Relationships of Children in the Second Year ) , Medgiz
( State Medical Publishing House ) , 1950 .
232 . N. P. Serebrennikova , K voprosu ob ovladenii det'mi - preddo shkol' .
nikami elementami grammaticheskogo stroya yazyka ( On the Ques
tion of the Mastery by Pre - Pre - School Children of the Elements
of the Grammatical Structure of the Language ), Candidate's Dis
sertation , Leningrad , 1953 .
233 . 2 , L. Senkevich , " On the Interaction of the First and Second
Signal Systems in the Elaboration of Conditioned Inhibition and
Conditioned Disinhibition to One and the Same Stimulus , " Zhurnal
vysshey nervnoy deyatel'nosti im . I. P. Pavlova ( The imeni I. P.
Pavlov Journal of Higher Neural Activity ) , Vol. II , No. 5 , 1952 .
234 . L. S. Slavina , Ponimaniye det'mi rannego vozrasta ustnogo rasska za
(Understanding by Young Children of an Oral Story ) , Candidate's
Dissertation , Moscow , 1944 .

. 402 -
235 . L. S. Slavina , " Development of the Motives of Play Activity of
the Child , " Izvestiya APN RSFSR (News of the RSFSR Academy of
Pedagogical Sciences ) , No. 14 , 1948 .
236 . E. F. Smolenskaya , " On Verbal Symbols of the Conditioned and Dif
ferential Stimulus, " Anthology , Na puti k izucheniyu vysshikh
form neyrodinamiki rebenka ( Approach to the Study of the Higher
Forms of Neurodynamic of the Child ) , 1934 .
237 . A , A. Smirnov , Psikhologiya zapominaniya ( Psychology of Recall ) ,
1948 .
238 . N. Sokolov , Zhizn ' rebenka ( Life of the Child ) , 1919 ,
239 . 0. I. Solov'yeva , Vospriyatiye russkoy volshebnoy skazki det'mi
starshego doshkol'nogo vozrasta ( Perception of the Russian Tale
of liagic by Older Pre - School Age Children ) , Candidate's Disserta
tion , Moscow , 1946 .
240 . A. I. Sorokina , " Motives of Questions of Fre - School Age Children ,
Uchenyye zapiski LGPI ( Academic Notes of the Leningrad State
Pedagogical Institute ) , Vol. LI , 1947 .
241 . F. A. Sokhin , " Some Questions of the lastery of the Grammatical
Structure of Language in the Light of the Physiological Theory
of Pavlov , " Sovetskaya pedagogika ( Soviet Pedagogy ) , No. 7 , 1956 .
242 . F. A. Sokhin , Nachal'nyye etapy ovladeniya rebenkom grammati
che skim stroyem yazyka ( Initial Stages of the Mastery by the
Child of the Grammatical Structure of the Language ) , Candi
date's Dissertation , Moscow , 1955 .
243 . Y. Stanchinskaya , Dnevnik materi ( A Mother's Diary ) , 1924 .
244 . N. V. Sukhanova , " On the Question of the Development of the
Tactile -Kinesthetic Analyzer in Pre - School Age Children , "
Izvestiya APN RSFSR ( News of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical
Sciences ) , No. 75 , 1956 .
245 . V. Ye . Syrkina , Problema egotsentricheskoy rechi v issledovani
yakh Piazhe ( The Problem of Egocentric Speech in the Researches
of Piaget ) , Work submitted for diploma , LGPI ( Leningrad State
Pedagogical Institute ) , 1934 .
246 , T. I. Titarenko , " The Child's Understanding of a Tale , " Trudy
respublikanskoy konferentsii po pedagogike i psikhologii (Works
of a Republic Conference on Pedagogy and Psychology ) , Vol . II ,
Kiev , 1941 .
247 . B. M. Teplov , Esikhologiya muzykal'nykh sposobnostey ( The I sy
chology of Musical Talents) , Izd - VO APN RSFSR ( RSFSR Academy
of Pedagogical Sciences Publishing House ) , 1947 .
248 . B. M. Teplov , " Psychological Questions of Artistic Training ,
Izvestiya APN RSFSR ( News of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical
Sciences) , No. 11 , 1947 .
249 . N. A. Tikh , " Tasks of Personality Training in Early Childhood
and the Process of Formation of Personality Demands, " Doklady
na soveshchanii po psikho logii lichnosti ( Reports at a con
ference on the Psychology of Personality ) , Izd - vo APN RSFSR
( RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences Publishing House ) ,
Moscow , 1956 .

403 -
250 .
N. N. Traugott , " Interrelation of Direct and Symbolic Projection
in the Process of the Formation of Conditioned Inhibition , "
Anthology , Na puti k izucheniyu vysshikh form neyrodinamiki
rebenka ( Approach to a Study of the Higher Forms of the Neuro
dynamic of the Child ) , 1934 .
251 . U. V. ul'yenkova , Psikhologiya deduktivnykh umo zaklyucheniyu
detey doshkol'nogo vozrasta (Psychology of Deductive Conclu
sions in Pre - School Age Children ) , Candidate's Dissertation ,
Moscow , 1954 .
252 , L. I. Umanskiy , Opyt issledovaniya individual'no -tipologicheskikh
osobennostey detey starshego do shkol'nogo vozrasta ( Experience
of an Investigation of the Individual- Typological Peculiarities
of Older Pre - School Age Children ), Candidate's Dissertation ,
/ no place of publication given/ , 1955 .
253 . A. P. Usova , " On the Question of Creative Games and Play of
Children at Pre - School Age and on the Rules for Managing Them , "
Uchenyye zapiski LGPI im . Gertsena ( Academic Notes of the imeni
Gertsen Leningrad State Pedagogical Institute ) , Vol . LVI , 1947 .
254 . V , K , Fadeyeva , " Formation of Conditioned Connection by way of
Orientational - Exploratory Reactions , " Anthology , Na puti k
izucheniyu vysshikh form neyrodinamiki rebenka ( Approach to the
Study of the Higher Forms of the Neurodynamic of the Child ) ,
1934 .
255 . V. .K . Fadeyeva , " Peculiarities of the Interaction of the First
and Second Signal Systems in the Formation of a Conditioned Re
action toa Complex Stimulus in Children , " Zhurnal vysshey
nervnoy deyatel'nosti im . I. P. Pavlova ( The imeni I. P. Pavlov
Journal of Higher Neural Activity ) , Vol. I , No. 3 , 1956 .
256 . Yu . N. Fausek , Obucheniye gramote i razvitiye rechi po sisteme
Montessori ( Teaching of Reading and Writing and Speech Develop
ment and Training According to the Montessori Method ) , 1922 .
257 . N. L. Figurin and M. P. Denisova , " Experience of an Experimental
Reflexological Study of Early Differentiations of the Con
junctival Reflexes in Babies, " Anthology , Novoye v oblasti
refleksologii ( New Points in the field of Reflexology ) , 1925 .
258 . N. L. Figurin and M. P. Denisova , " Stages of Infant Development
From Birth to One Year , " Anthology , Voprosy geneticheskoy
refleksologii ( Questions of Genetic Reflexology ) , 1929 .
259 . N. L. Figurin and M. P. Denisova , " Experimental Study of the
Reaction to the New , " Anthology , Voprosy, geneticheskoy re
fleksologii ( Questions of Genetic Reflexology ) , 1929 .
260 . G. S. Filippyuk , Psikhologicheskiye osobennosti nablyudeniyu
detey do shkol'nogo vozrasta ( Psychological Peculiarities of
Observations in Pre - School Age Children ) , Candidate's Disserta
tion , / no place of publication given/ , 1955 .
261 . F. I. Fradkina , Psikhologiya igry v rannem detstve ( geneti
cheskiye korni do shkol'noy igry ) ( The Psychology of Play in
Early Childhood ( Genetic Roots of Pre - School Play ) ) , Candi
date's Dissertation , Moscow , 1946 .

. 404 -
262 . F. I. Fradkina , " Emergence of Speech in the Infant , Uchenyye
zapiski LGPI ( Academic Notes of the Leningrad State Pedagogical
Institute ) , Vol . XII , 1955 .
263 . L. Ye . Khozak , " Attempt at Modification of the Articulation of
a Child by way of Experimental Organization of His Activity , "
Anthology , Na puti izucheniya vysshikh form neyrodinamiki
rebenka (Approach to a Study of the Higher Forms of the Neuro
dynamic of the Child ) , 1934 .
264 . L. Ye . Kho zak , " Formation of Conditioned Connections in an In
fant by Way of Cross - Circuiting on the Basis of Past Experi
ence , " Anthology , Na puti k izucheniyu vysshikh form neyro
dinamiki rebenka ( Approach to a Study of the Higher Forms of
the Neurodynamic of the Child ) , 1934 .
265 . K. Ye . Khomenko , " Perception of Representations of Spatial and
Perspective Relationships in Young Children , " Uchenyye zapiski
Khar'kov skogo GPI ( Academic Notes of the Khar'kov State Peda
gogical Institute ) , No. 1 , 1939 .
266 . K. Ye . . Khomenko , " Emergence of Visual -Actional Thinking in the
Infant , " Trudy respublikanskoy konferentsii ( Works of a Repub
lic Conference ) , Vol . II , Kiev , 1941 .
267 . K. Ye . Khomenko , " Understanding of the Artistic Image by Young
Children , " Lin Ukrainian ) , Uchenyye zapiski Khar'kovskogo GPI
(Academic Notes of the Khar'kov State Pedagogical Institute ) ,
Vol. VI , 1941 .
268 . N. A. Tsivanyuk , Osobennosti ponimaniya ckazki u detey ot 3 do
5 let ( Peculiarities of Understanding of a Fairy - Tale by Child
ren of the 3-5 Age Group ) , Candidate's Dissertation , Moscow ,
1953 .
269. A. N. Tsimmerman , " Participation of the Olfactory Ana lyzer in
the Analytico - Synthetic Activity of Children from 4 to 7 Years
of Age , " Izvestiya APN RSFSR (News of the RSFSR Academy of
Pedagogical Sciences ) , No. 75 , 1956 .
270 . P. R. Chama ta , Orazvitii samo so znaniya rebenka ( On the Develop
ment of the Self - Awareness of the Infant ) , Institute of Psy
chology , Vol . I , Kiev , 1949 .
271 . A. V. Cherkov, Psikho logiche skiy analiz ovladeniya rebenkom
normami ob shchestvennogo povedeniya na osnove igry (Psychologi
cal Analysis of the Mastery by the Child of the Standards of
Social Behavior on the Basis of Play and Games ) , Candidate's
Dissertation , Moscow , 1949 .
272 . N. v . Chrelashvili , " On the Question of the Grammatical Modifica
tion of Words in the Speech of the Child , " Tezisy dokladov na
sove shchanii po psikhologii ( 1-6 iyulya 1955g. ) ( Abstracts of
Reports at a Conference on Psychology ( 1-6 July 1955 ) ) , Izd - vo
APN RSFSR ( RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences Publishing
House ) , 1955 .
273 . K. Chukovskiy , Ot dvukh do pyati (From Two to Five ) , 1955 .

405 -
274 .
S. N. Shabalin , Predmetno - poznavatel'nyye momenty v vo spriyatii
formy do shkol'nikom ( object - Cognitive Elements in the Percep
tion of Shape by a Pre - School Child ) , /no further bibliographi
cal information given) .
11
275 . S. N. Shabalin , ''Perception of Shape by the Pre - School Child ,
Uchenyye zapiski LGPI im . Gertsena ( Academic Notes of the imeni
Gertsen Leningrad State Pedagogical Institute ) , Vol . XVIII,
1939 .
276 . N. Kh . Shvachkin , " Development of Forms of Speech in the Younger
Pre - School Child , " Anthology , Voprosy psikhologii rebenka
doshkol'nogo vozrasta ( Questions of Psychology of the Child of
Pre - School Age ) , Izd - vo APN RSFSR ( RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical
Sciences Publishing House ) , Moscow -Leningrad , 1948 .
277 . N. Kh . Shvachkin , " Development of Phonemic Perception of Speech
in Early Childhood , " Izvestiya APN RSFSR (News of the RSFSR
Academy of Pedagogical Sciences ) , No. 13 , 1948 .
278 . N. Kh . Shvachkin , " Psychological Analysis of Early Judgments of
the Infant , " Izvestiya APN RSFSR ( News of the RSFSR Academy of
Pedagogical Sciences ) , No. 54 , 1954 .
279 . N. Kh . Shvachkin , " Experimental Study of Early Generalizations
of the Infant , " Izvestiya APN RSFSR ( News of the RSFSR Academy
of Pedagogical Sciences ) , No. 54 , 1954 .
280 . F. N. Shemyakin , ' Development of the Hand in the First Year of
the Child's Life , " Uchenyye zapi ski instituta psikhologii (Aca
demic Notes of the Institute of Psychology ) , Vol . II , 1941 .
281 . G. I. Shinakova , " Peculiarities of the Formation of Spatial
Motor Associations in Children , " Uchenyye zapiski LGU ( Aca
demic Notes of the Leningrad State University ) , No. 8 , No.
203 , 1955 .
282 . M. 0. Shraftzettser , " Experience of the Use of the Defensive
Reflex to Strong Light ( Light Method ) for Elaboration of the
Earliest Conditioned Reflexes in the Nursing Infant , Voprosy
pedagogiki ( Questions of Pedagogy ) , Vol . VII, No. 6 , 1935 .
283 . M. G. Shtivel'man , O podrazhanii u detey rannego vozrasta ( On
Imitation in Young Children ) , Institute of Psychology , Vol . I ,
Kiev , 1948 .
284 . N. M. Shchelovanov and N. M. Ak sarina , Vospitaniye detey rannego
vozrasta v det skikh uchrezhdeniyakh ( Training of Young Children
in Child Institutions ) , 3rd edition , 1955 .
285 . D. B. El'konin , " Psychological Questions of the Play of Pre - School
Children , " Doshkol'noye vospitaniye ( Pre - School Training ) , No.
11 , 1947 .
286 . D. B. El'konin , "Psychological Questions of Pre - School Play and
Games, " Anthology , Voprosy psikhologii rebenka do shkol'nogo
vozrasta ( Questions of the Psychology of the Pre - School Child ) ,
Izd - VO APN RSFSR ( RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences Publish
ing House ) , Moscow , 1948 .

- 406 -
287. D. B. El'konin , " Play and Games and the Psychic Development of
the Pre - School Child , " Trudy vserossiyskoy konferentsii po
do shkol'nomu vospitaniyu ( Works of the All - Russian Conference
on Pre - School Training ) , 1949 .
288 . D. B. El'konin , " Some Problems of the Physiology of the Higher
Neural Activity and Child Psychology , " Sovetskaya pedagogika
( Soviet Pedagogy ) , No. 11 , 1951 .
289 . D. B. 21 'konin , ' 'Peculiarities of the Interaction of the First
and Second Signals System in Children of Ere - School Age , "
Izvestiya APN RSFSR ( News of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical
Sciences ) , No. 64 , 1954 .
290 . D. B. El'konin , " Some Questions of the Psychology of the Assimi
lation of Reading and Writing , Voprosy psikhologii ( Questions
of Psychology ) , No. 5 , 1956 .
291 . D. B. El'konin , Tvorcheskiye rolevyye igry detey do shkol'no go
vozrasta ( Creative Character Games of Pre - School Children ) ,
Izd - VO APN RSFSR ( RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences Pub
lishing House ) , 1957 .
292 . D. B. El'konin , Razvitiye rechiv do shkol'nom vozraste (Develop
ment of Speech at the Pre - School Age ) , Izd - vo APN RSFSR ( RSFSR
Academy of Pedagogical Sciences Publishing House ) , 1958 .
293 . L. A. Yablokov , Vospriyatiye mnozhestva i schet pri formirovanii
pervonachal'nykh ponyatiy o chisle ( Perception of a Plurality
and Counting in the Formation of the Initial Concepts Concern
ing Number ) , Candidate's Dissertation , Moscow , 1952 .
294 . V. I. Yadeshko , Psikhologicheskiye osobennosti formirovaniya
pred lozheniy v rechi detey ot 3 do 5 let ( Psychological Peculi
arities of Sentence and Speech Formation in Children From 3
to 5 ) , Candidate's Dissertation , Moscow , 1956 .
295 . S. G. Yakobson , " Correlation of Sight and Touch in the Percep
tion of Shape by Children of Pre - School Age , " Voprosy psikhologii
( Questions of Psychology ) , No. 3 , 1957 .
296 . A , F. Yakovlevicheva , Znacheniye teksta i risunka , ikh vzaimo
otnosheniy dlya ponimaniya rebenkom doshkol'nogo vozrasta detskoy
knigi ( Significance of Text and Drawings and Their Interrelation
for the Understanding by a Pre - School Age Child of a Children's
Book ) , Cand idate's Dissertation , Leningrad , 1953 .
297 . E. V. Yanovskaya , " Materialistic Bases of Play and Games ,
Sovet skaya pedagogika ( Soviet Pedagogy ) , No. 1 , 1940 .
298 . In the writing of the present survey , use was made of the manu
script of these chapters from the monograph Psikhologiya detey
do shkol'nogo vozrasta (Psychology of Pre -School Age Children ) :
T. V. Yendovitskaya , " Development of Perceptions and Sensations
in the Pre - School Age " and " Development of Memory in the Pre
School Age ' ' ; Ya . 2. Neverovich , " Psychological Peculiarities of
the Work Activity of the Pre - School Child . "

- 407
 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING

D. N. Bogoyavlenskiy and
N. A. Menchinskaya

The development of the psychology of learning , like that of the

whole of pedagogical psychology , was not a straight ahead affair nor
was it symmetrical. There were certain definite turning points which
conditioned its particularly intensive development and qualitative re
organization . The researches on the psychology of learning in the
period after the Great October Socialist Revolution were not a simple
continuation of those researches which had been being carried out dur
ing the prerevolutionary period in Russia ; rather , they signified the
emergence of a new problematic, of new concepts , of new paths of re
search . However , the elaboration of questions of the psychology of
learning did rely to a considerable extent on the postulates and facts
assembled by psychology in the preceding period . It must be noted
that contemporary psychology of learning has received a fairly rich
legacy from the past .
The end of the 19th and especially the beginning of the 20th
century was marked by a broad elaboration of questions of experimental
pedagogy and pedagogical psychology both in foreign countries and in
Russia . Suffice it to say that in the period from 1906 to 1916 there
were convoked five Pan - Russian congresses in psychology and that all
of them were devoted to questions either of pedagogical psychology or
of experimental pedagogy .
In these years there was a very vivid manifestation of the
aspiration to bring psychology into closer liaison with real life and
to elaborate its applied branches . At the same time there was in evi
dence a tendency to set psychology as a theoretical discipline over
against applied psychology and side by side with this an allied ten
dency to replace applied psychology with pedagogy .
Characteristic for that period was one of the speeches of A. P.
Nechayev, in which he set experimental psychology over against the
"windiness of pedagogy " and asserted that all questions of school in
struction could be resolved by the method of experiment .
N. Ye . Rumyantsev speaks outright of the merging of pedagogy
with psychology , having in view in fact an engulfing of pedagogy . As
sertions were made to the effect that the school must proceed not ac
cording to previously established programs and methods of teaching but
rather from the pupil , from his needs . These unjustifiable tendencies
of " pediocentrism " were directly bound up with the theory of free edu
cation , which occupied a dominant position in the bourgeois pedagogy
of that time .
In the se years there were published in Russia a whole series of
manuals on pedagogical psychology ( P. F. Kapterev , M. M. Rubinshteyn ,
A. P. Nechayev and others ) in which an effort was made to provide a
systematic exposition of the questions of psychology and at the same
time to aid the teacher in the organization of schoolroom - training.

408 -
 In spite of the difference of views of the psychologists of the
prerevolutionary period on many vital questions , their published books
on pedagogical psychology all had one thing in common : in these books
were expounded data taken from researches in general psychology , and
the attempt was made to apply these data to facts from the life of the
school . There was in evidence a drastic disproportion between the pre
tensions of the psychologists to substantiate the pedagogic process and
those factual data of psychological researches of which they disposed .
Thus, for example, P. F. Kapterev devoted the main portion of
his book " Pedagogical Psychology, " published in 1883 1967 to an examina
tion of data obtained in researches on general psychology , and " peda
gogical psychology" as such got short shrift with just a few pages in
which the author expounded the pedagogical conclusions from the above
examined contentions ( ' 'Pedagogical attention ... to the formation of
representations , to associations of representations" and the
like -- thus it was that P. F. Kapterev spoke of this ) .
A little later , in the first quarter of the 20th century , the
content of pedagogical psychology began to change . A. P. Nechayev is
already speaking outright about the setting up of psychological experi
ments , " specially adapted to the clarification of questions of a psycho
logical character" / 141 / . However , these experiments were directed to
a study in children of psychic processes carried out apart from the
context of schoolroom instruction .
Thus, for example , A. P. Nechayev and his collaborators re
searched in pupils the peculiarities of the process of perception
( presenting series of letters in a meaningless and meaningful order
and tables of drawings ) ; they also examined the children's notions
from the point of view of their clarity and fullness of content ( there
was brought out the knowledge of the children concerning various ob
jects , and precisely the ability to point out a quality of an object
which was named , to answer a question as to whether they had seen the
object and if they had seen it , then where and when . There were named
among the objects animals , plants , natural phenomena ) .
In addition a research was made of the recall of numbers among
the same pupils , and of the recall of words having various meanings
(designating various sensations ) and the like .
In the processing of the results , the effort was made to estab
lish the mutual relationship between the data of the various experi
ments and thus to divide the pupils into groups possessing various
characteristic peculiarities in the field of psychic processes.
It must be noted however , that, although Nechayev did set him
self the question of establishing various connections between the data
of psychological experiments and the practice of schooling , this was
done as yet only in the most general form and these connections bore
a purely superficial character .
Thus, for example , in studying the pupils ' notions there was
brought out the influence exerted on their clarity and fullness of
content by the kindergarten . ( Observations were made on children

- 409 -
not attending . ) Or there was made a confrontation of the results of
experiments and the evaluation of the progress of the test subjects at
school .
Attention must be drawn likewise to the fact that A. P. Nechayev
and his collaborators made efforts to study changes in the psychologi
cal processes and personality properties in function of age . Thus test
subjects of various ages ( from 9 to 20 ) were asked to write compositions
on one and the same theme ( for example , " along the Neva River " ) and the
researchers tried to get a clear picture of the mental reserve of pupils
of various ages .
The interests of the pupils were also researched on a broad age
basis , whereby it was not the study interests which were under survey .
A. P. Nechayev judged of interests on the basis of the character of
the associations predominantly arising in the pupils in response to the
requirement that they write about something they know which is :
a ) pleasant ; b ) unpleasant ; c ) astonishing ; 4 ) comical . Here the ex
perimentor specially removed the possibility of reflection and choice
of notions arising in the subjects . To this end he asked them to write
" as fast as possible . " An effort was made likewise to correlate the
data obtained with actual interests . There was carried out a confronta
tion of the results of the experiments with the associations with data
of a questionnaire on a favorite book .
The question of the formation of the reading interests themselves
was not , however , subjected to study .
In this period ( the first quarter of the 20th century ) , certain
psychologists were assailed by the need to rethink the subject of peda
gogical psychology and they put the question of the necessity of a spe
cial study of the psychic life of the child in the concrete circum
stances of his activity .
This tendency was strongly pronounced , specifically , in M. M.
Rubinshteyn in one of his books , published in 1913 (174/ .
In an effort to delimit theoretical psychology from applied , the
author writes to the effect that the former " is concerned with the sim
plest processes or with artificially isolated processes , whereas peda
gogical psychology must take the psychic life in the concrete vital
circumstances of its functioning , in the school , at home and else
where " /174 , 21 .
The question of the subject of pedagogical psychology and of its
place in the system of pedagogical sciences was the subject of a serious
discussion in the sequel , in the 1920s , after the Great October Social
ist Revolution in our country .
of interest from this point of view is the discussion between
P. P. Blonskiy and L. S. Vygotskiy , which took place at this time . It
was reflected in Vygotskiy's book , " Pedagogical Psychology ," published
in 1926 1347. Vygotskiy protests against Blonskiy's assertion regard
ing the fact that pedagogical psychology , on the one hand , takes from
theoretical psychology the chapters of interest for the educator , while
on the other hand , it " judges the pedagogical requirements levied by

. 410 .
practical life from the point of view of their correspondence with
the laws of the spiritual life . "
To this thesis Vygotskiy opposes another point of view ; he con
siders useless labor the transfer into pedagogical psychology of
ready -made chapters out of general psychology ; nor does he accept the
second part of the Blon skiy contention either . He points out that " it
is impossible to leave it to practical life to advance pedagogical de
mands and requirements , without any mediation of any science whatever .
This is the business of theoretical pedagogy" /34 , 18 / .
For L. S. Vygotskiy , the conversion of pedagogical psychology
into an independent science did not in the least signify the absorption
by it of pedagogy .
The unacceptability of the second part of Blonskiy's thesis
Vygotskiy also argued by the fact that psychology cannot simply be as
signed the role only of an expert . This provided one more underscoring
of his notion on the necessity of an elaboration on the research plane
of the questions of pedagogical psychology as an independent branch of
science /see Notel .
( / Note ! It must be noted that P. P. Blonskiy practiced in his
psychological researches that sort of treatment of pedagogical psychology
according to which this branch of science has its own proper subject
matter and is not concerned with a simple application of the data of
general psychology to the practical activity of the schoolroom . )
After the October Revolution in our country not only did there
arise in full force the question of the necessity of a revision of the
subject matter of pedagogical psychology ; there also arose the require
ment for a new problematic , for a revision of a number of formerly em
ployed concepts .
The struggle against scholasticism and the supremacy of the
verbal methods of the prerevolutionary school , the effort to realize
the principles of work training - all of this found reflection, like
wise in the works on pedagogical psychology .
The progressive ideas of conscious instruction , advanced by the
Russian revolutionary democrats ( A. I. Gertsen , N. A. Dorbolyubov and
others ) and elaborated by K. D. Ushinskiy , were developed in courses
of pedagogical psychology published in the first years after the Oc
tober Revolution . Deserving of attention from this point of view is
the course of lectures on pedagogical psychology given by N. Ye . Rum
yantsev in 1918 in Petrograd . The concept " application of knowledge"
plays a very great role in the system of his views on pedagogical psy
chology .
However , not a few years went by before psychologists got to
work at a study of the process of the application of knowledge in prac
tice , at a solution of various tasks .
The demands on pedagogical psychology in respect of its subject
matter and problematic considerably outstripped the possibilities of
the carrying out of researches along new lines .

• 411 -
 And even in Vygotskiy's book on pedagogical psychology published
in 1926 ( which must certainly be considered as being a definite mile
stone in the creation of manuals on pedagogical psychology ) , the new
factual data of researches in the field of pedagogical psychology are
still absent . The author was therefore compelled more than once to
make a disproportionately big and unjustified jump from general psycho
logical tenets to the practical side of training and instruction ,
The absence of the necessary research facts on the psychic ac
tivity of the child , collected in the context of training and instruc
tion , was responsible for the exceptional ease with which were effected
psychological " substantiations" of various and sometimes even contra
dictory pedagogical tenets .
The general psychological tenet on thought as the resolution of
a task , on the role of difficulties in the emergence of a thought was
advanced in the capacity of a psychological justification for various
projector methods , such as , for instance , the Dalton plan .
For the method of whole - word teaching of reading and writing the
psychologists found a ready " substantiation " by basing themselves on
the general psychological tenet on the integral character of perception
in children .
Not infrequently various psychologists " substantiated" contra
dictory pedagogical principles , making use in the process of established
psychological laws . In manuals on pedagogical psychology of that period
we often find , for example , a substantiation of the necessity of a
broad utilization of the principle of visualization in teaching , whereby
the authors base their arguments on the property of concreteness native
to juvenile thinking; at the same time , in other manuals , on the con
trary , there is given a substantiation of the harm done by visualization
in teaching and here recourse is had to another law of thinking , namely ,
the fact that thought arises where there are difficulties , obstacles ,
whereas the use of visual aids leads to an expulsion of all difficulty
of thinking for the child ( such , specifically , is the point of view of
L. S. Vygotskiy in his book " Pedagogical Psychology " /34/ ) .
Such arbitrariness in the psychological substantiation of various
pedagogical principles was inevitable at a certain stage of the develop
ment of psychology , inasmuch as psychological facts at that period were
being established and applied apart from concrete context . There were
as yet no researches on the psychic processes of children being carried
out in the context of concrete activity , in the process of teaching and
training .
A drastic breakthrough in the development of Soviet psychology
occurred in the 1930s . It was clearly determined after the decree of
the CC of the Party " On Pediological Distortions in the System of Peo
ple's Commissariats of Education , " issued in 1936 , and certain tenden
cies marking new paths in psychological research , began to be in evi
dence in the period preceding this decree . P. P. Blonskiy , L. S. Vygot
skiy and their collaborators began to carry out researches on the psychic
life of children in the context of their concrete activity ; they put

- 412 -
new theoretical questions , urgent for the practical side of training
and teaching .
A characteristic tendency for the researches of the 1930s was
not the isolated study of psychic functions but rather the study of
them in complex interconnections . A book of P. F. Blonskiy , published
in 1935 , has the title " Memory and Thinking " /13/ . However , while
noting the genetically different levels of the development of memory ,
the author does not limit himself to a showing of the mutual depen
dencies of the two psychic processes (memory and thinking ) but rather
analyzes the mutual relation of memory and feeling , of imagination and
speech , of memory , speech and thinking. By this very fact , the concept
of a psychic function was losing the exclusiveness of its content and
the question was being put of " movements of transition " from one func
tion to another . Even more , in the book of P. P. Blonskiy , there is
emphasized the possibility of such unnoticed transitions as are diffi
cult to determine so that it is not possible to say which function is
in question . This putting of the question exerted in the sequel a sub
stantial influence on the content of the concepts utilized in pedagogi
cal psychology .
Even in P. P. Blonskiy , the concept of " assimilation " acquired
great significance . It later occupied one of the central places in
the system of concepts of the psychology of teaching . Blonskiy noted
that there must be no confusing of the problem of assimilation with
the problem of memory ; assimilation cannot be reduced only to memory ,
it is inextricably linked up with verification and self - checking .
From this point of view , Blonskiy studied the process of the assimila
tion by pupils of a lesson which they have been taught and established
a number of stages which the assimilation passes through . At the
basis of their differentiation , Blonskiy put the varying character of
self - checking .
To Blonskiy belongs an interesting ( though very laconic ) treat
ment of the question of the mutual relation between knowledge and
thinking
For him knowledge emerges in the capacity of a necessary condi
tion of thinking while, at the same time , thinking is not reduced to
a reproduction of pieces of knowledge .
A deliberative thinking , as Blonskiy notes " is developed only
at a certain definite level of the development of memory and a very
high level at that . An empty head does not deliberate : the greater
amount of experience and pieces of knowledge which this head has the
more capable is it of deliberating" / 13, 1727. At the same time he
goes on to point out : " ... between thinking and memory there is re
vealed a difference : the test subject begins to think_when habit or
previous knowledge proves to be insufficient" /13 , 174/ .
Continuing the development of the idea of the interrelation
ship between knowledge and thinking , Blonskiy in his book more than
once treats the question of the dependence of the methods of thinking
on the degree of difficulty of the task , on the degree of habituality
of that task for the one who is resolving it .

• 413 -
 The correctness of this thesis Blonskiy reveals in a whole series
of various experiments . ( Experiments with labyrinths , an experiment in
which the subject is required to find a certain definite thing , experi
ments in memorization of a text . ) According to the data of these re
searches , it emerged that various methods of solution of a task are
discovered not only in various test subjects ( in function of their age
and intellectual development ) but even in one and the same test subject
in function of the degree of difficulty of the task being solved by him .
This conclusion in the works of P. P. Blonskiy did not have cen
tral significance ; it was drawn as it were in passing ; however , in the
sub sequent stages of the development of the psychology of teaching ,
this thesis acquired , as we shall see later , a very great significance .
An important step was taken by L. S. Vygotskiy and his collabo
rators in the definition of new ways of research and in the putting of
new problems .
In his book " Thought and Speech " first published in 1934 and
published in a revised edition in 1956 1351 , Vygotskiy put the ques
tion of the necessity of studying thought in the process of teaching .
The problem of the formation of concepts began to be elaborated
on a new basis in the light of the researches of Vygotskiy and his col
laborators .
There began to be studied not only the formation of concepts on
the basis of artificial material but also the formation of real scien
tific concepts introduced in the process of teaching . There was in fact
begun a study of the assimilation of concepts . ( The first research
which uncovered the assimilation of concepts by pupils in the process
of teaching was the research of Zh . I. Shif , carried out on material
from social science 2291 . )
For the first time there was put the question of the correla
tion in the assimilation of scientific and so - called " everyday" con
cepts acquired by children prior to their school days , aside from the
systematic process of classroom instruction . In Vygotskiy this ques
tion represented in fact an integral part of a wider problem of the
mutual relation of individual concepts and systems of them .
Vygotskiy emphasized that the research precisely of real con
cepts affords the opportunity of putting and solving this problem , in
a smuch as " every new stage in the development of generalization relies
on a generalization of the preceding stages" in these conditions ( as
opposed to the conditions of an artificial experiment ) 135, 3021 .
In a number of experiments and researches , Vygotskiy traced the
restructuring of the relation of the concept to the object and of the
relations of community between concepts . In his first researches he
showed the whole enormous significance of the problem of the formation
of systems of concepts in the process of teaching , which problem began
to be studied widely in the sequel .
Vygotskiy did not limit himself to the establishment of a con
nection between the development of thought and the acquisition of
knowledge ; he subjected to a theoretical and experimental analysis

- 414 -
the more general question of the correlation between teaching and de
velopment . In 1934 , he wrote an article " The Problem of Teaching and
Mental Development in School Age" / 35 / .
A number of propositions stated in this article retain their
full force even at the present time .
Such is his thesis to the effect that teaching and development
do not coincide , although they are in fact connected one with the other
from the first day of the life of the child ; that between them there
are established most complex dynamic dependences, which do not lend
themselves to a single speculative formula 435 , 4521 .
of great fundamental significance is his thesis according to
which a properly organized classroom instruction brings development
along in its wake and does not latch on to the tail of development .
Vygotskiy elaborates the concept of " a zone of most immediate
development , " with the help of which he reveals one very important
thought , namely that if one wants to bring to light the mental de
velopment of a child , one must not orientate only to what has already
been obtained by him , that is , orientate on the stages that he has al
ready passed through and completed , but rather it is necessary to take
into account " the dynamic state of his development , " " those processes
which presently are in a state of fiere " (35 , 478/ .
The view of the mental development as a replacement of quali
tatively peculiar stages of thinking activity , accomplished in the
process of teaching, opened up broad prospects for researches in the
field of the psychology of teaching.
But as far as the concrete attempt of Bygotskiy to characterize
the basic ones among these stages , it had a number of fundamental de
fects , connected with the fact that Vygotskiy approached the isolation
of the stages of mental development from the point of view of the so
called " theory of cultural development . " He took as point of departure
the presumption that the mastery of culture ( that is , of the sum of
historically developed pieces of knowledge ) restructures the psychic
processes of the child , whereby the essence of this restructuring comes
down to a transition from immediate , " natural" forms of behavior to
mediate ( i.e. , utilizing some instrument or sign ) " cultural" acts or
processes . In Vygotskiy there was a setting over against one another
of organic and functional development ; according to his point of view ,
in the first instance there is perfected the neural apparatus , in the
second the technique or method of behavior .
In accord with the theory of cultural development , the process
of mastery of various pieces of knowledge or of an operation passes
through several stages : the first is the stage of natural reactions
without the use of a sign ( in the study of arithmetic , for example ,
this is the stage of the direct perception of quantity without the aid
of counting ) ; at the following stages there emerges the utilization of
a sign , but initially of a sign which is external ( for example , count
ing with the aid of the fingers ) , and later of a sign which is internal
( for example , counting in one's head ) , when the external technique is
as it were turned inward and becomes an internal reaction .

. 415 -
 The contraposition of organic development to function which oc
curred in Vygotskiy , was theoretically inconsistent ; the process of de
velopment was unjustifiably schematized by him and the essence of the
transition from the lower to the higher stages in the process of the
mastery of pieces of knowledge was incorrectly treated by him . In ac
tual' fact , the essence of the alteration cannot be reduced to the fact
that the process loses the character of an external action with objects
and is assimilated in speech . The mastery of speech alters the charac
ter of action with objects . There occurs not a simple " turning" of
external actions inward , as Vygotskiy thought , but a restructuring with
the aid of speech of the actions of the child with objects .
However , if the erroneous interpretation be discarded , then a
rational kernel can be found in those of his theses which can be re
duced to the following thesis : in the process of teaching and master
ing of an abstract piece of knowledge ( or operation ) this piece of
knowledge or operation does not become at once the possession of the
pupil ; the pupil comes to the mastery of it via " object " action .
But the recognition of this thesis does not signify that " ob
ject " action can emerge only in the initial period of the assimilation
of pieces of knowledge , As further researches showed , there exist dy
namic interrelations between " object" action and mental action , and the
return to " object " action is always possible in the later stages of
the formation of mental actions . Even more , in the context of poly
technical schooling , the question of the transition from mental ac
tions to " object " actions acquires great importance.
In this regard the observations of P. P. Blonskiy , described by
him in his book " Memory and Thinking " are of interest .
Blonskiy points out that in the solution of various problems
there may be revealed a varying correlation between thinking and ac
tion . ... in the enormous majority of instances, " he writes , " there
occurs a transition of action into thought and vice versa , but some
times there is in evidence_only action , and sometimes a duplication of
one by the other" /13 , 173/ .
Blonskiy emphasizes that this correlation is determined not only
by the age and intellectual development of the test subjects but that
it depends likewise to a great extent on the degree of difficulty of
the task ; therefore it may alter in one and the same test subject in
the case of the solution various problems .
And so the beginning of the 1930s was marked by the appearance
of a number of researches which substantially advanced the scientific
elaboration of questions of pedagogical psychology .
However this movement was extremely slow ; the development of
the science of psychology at this period was exceptionally retarded as
a result of the uncritical borrowing from the theories of bourgeois
psychologists , as a result of the broad dissemination of pediology .
In the published works it was not always possible to distinguish the
vital psychological research from the " scientificoid " (scientific
seeming ) pediological argumentations and facts . The efforts of many

- 416 -
psychologists were directed to the working out of tests which were sup
posed to determine the level of mental talent of pupils and " measure "
their progress at school .
The loscow Central Pediological Laboratory , which existed in
those years , in its efforts to analyze the causes of lack of progress
of school children , carried out on a broad scale a " research " who se es
sence consisted in determining the coefficients of correlation between
the progress of the school - children on the one hand and the amount of
living- space occupied by them , the amount of meat consumed by them on
the other . This sort of " research " took the place of a scientific
study of the children .
In the schools there dominated the pediologists whose activity
went on split off from the teachers and from classroom activities .
The psychologists did not set over against this harmful practice any
practice based on scientific knowledge of the child .
The situation altered radically after the decree of the CC of
the Party , dated 4 July 1936 , " On Pediological Distortions in the Sys
tem of People's Commissariats of Education" /160 , 69-73 / .
This decree , which condemned the theory and practice of pedi
ology , exerted a crucial influence on the development of the science
of psychology and first of all on the development of that branch of
it which was connected with the school , i.e. , on the development of
pedagogical psychology .
After the decree of the CC of the Party , the psychologists got
to work at a radical review of the fundamental bases of the science .
They began to carry out work at the elimination of the anti -Marxist ,
pseudo - scientific propositions which had penetrated deeply into psy
chology .
Particular attention of the psychologists was directed to over
coming the main law of pediology , according to which the development
of children is fatally determined by two factors , heredity and an " im
mutable environment " ; and for this it was necessary to study the al
terations in the psychic life of the pupils under the influence of
changing pedagogical process , to trace specifically how the methods
of teaching and the content of knowledge learned are reflected in the
psychological peculiarities of the assimilation of classroom materials ,
what significance the activity of the pupils themselves has in the
process of assimilation , The question of a critical rethinking of
the concept of age became acute ; there had to be a revision of those
strict , immutable developmental standards which had been brought over
to our country together with the principles of bourgeois testology and
the use of which was really killing the very idea of development.
The developmental peculiarities of the psychic life of children
began to be linked up most intimately with the conditions of training
and teaching , with the concrete level of teaching, with the experience
which the child acquires in the process of his life .
The contention that the psychic processes not only appear but
also are formed in activity ( a contention advanced by S. L. Rubinshteyn

417 -
in 1934 and thereafter developed by him in his book , " Fundamentals of
Psychology" /170/ ) occupied a central place in psychological theory .
It served as a stimulus for the unfolding of researches studying the
psychic processes in changing conditions of activity , in their develop
ment and fieri .
This aspect of the study contributed to a more accurate isola
tion from the complement of general psychology of the subject matter
and tasks of the psychology of learning as such . The subject of study
became the pedagogically determined classroom activity of the school
child and the task the discovery of its psychological laws .
Such an understanding of the tasks of research made it necessary
to study the psychic activity not as a manifestation of abstract psychic
functions but rather as a human activity , the activity of an active
doer , living in certain socio - historical conditions and guided by so
cially conditioned aims and intentions . Activity was thus considered
as a single , integral, dynamic process .
Establishing as a cornerstone the study of activity as a process ,
psychology by that very fact advanced the contention concerning the im
portant significance of genetic methods of research which enable the
researcher to study that process in the natural conditions of school
room instruction . Such a transition from the study of individual func
tions to the study of concrete activity opened up before pedagogical
psychology broad prospects for the utilization of the results of re
searches in the practice of school teaching.
After the decree of the CC of the Party on the pedio logical dis
tortions there was subjected to a review the question of the interrela
tion of pedagogical psychology and pedagogy ( A. N. Leont'yev came out
in 1937 with an article on this topic in the journal Soviet Pedagogy
/112/ ) .
Substantial corrections were introduced into the formerly wide
spread point of view relative to the fact that psychology substantiates
and lies at the basis of pedagogy ; it was emphasized that pedagogical
psychology in its turn relies and rests on pedagogy , ina smuch as
studies the psychic activity of children in the context of training and
teaching , The task was set of helping the educators , not replacing
them in the direction of classroom training processes . And this help
was to be by way of the elaboration of the scientific bases of an ef
ficient organization of this process .
It is entirely natural that for a certain ( and fairly protracted )
period of time the practical work of the psychologists in the school
was brought to an end since in the process of research work there had
to be created new bases for the elaboration of methods of study of
children with practical aims in view .
Having discarded the test method , psychologists began widely to
elaborate methods of observation , conversation and experiment , devoting
special attention to an increase in the proficiency of the natural ex
periment . Making broad use of the " principle of sections" in that form
in which it was used by genetic psychology ( when data were being compared

- 418 -
-
which had been obtained from children of different age ) , the psycholo
gists who were carrying out research on problems of instruction began
likewise to study the psychic processes of the same children at various
stages of instruction . This gave them the opportunity of speaking with
more reason of those alterations which occurred in the psychic life of
the child as a result of instruction . For these purposes there was
elaborated a new form of natural experiment , the so - called " teaching
experiment" in which the psychologist himself formed the necessary
knowledge , skills or habits , by_combining into one in his experiment
study and action ( cf. on this (123 , 172 , 173/ ) .
From 1936-37 on , research work on the psychology of teaching has
acquired in our country a great scope . At the focal point of the re
searches has stood the process of learning of children in all its va
riety : there has been studied the process of understanding by children
of various classroom material, the assimilation of concepts and the
mastery of thinking operations in the process of learning the funda
mentals of the sciences ; there have been researched the solution of
tasks , the elaboration of habits and skills ; there were studied the
mistakes of the pupils with a view to bringing to light their psycho
logical nature ; there were brought to light the psychological pre
requisites of the most effective assimilation ; there have been sub
jected to research the motives of study of the pupils , the role of
evaluation in the process of assimilation by them of knowledge , etc.
Researches on these questions began to be carried out on a wider
scale as early as 1944 , after the creation of the Academy of Pedagogical
Sciences .
The collaboration in the system of the Academy of the psycholo
gists on the one hand and of the methodologists and educators on the
other and the opportunity for discussion between them contributed to
the choice of a more reasonable problematic of psychological researches
such as would be of greater practical use and interest to the school .
In the process of this collaboration , the psychologists mastered
the skill of taking into account the concrete peculiarities of teaching
( although this was not acquired all at once ) ; they began to analyze from
the psychological point of view the experience of teachers and , by that
very fact , came closer to a solution of the task set the research insti
tutes in the decree of the CC of the Party on the elementary and sec
ondary school, dated 5 September 1931 , " To concentrate the work of the
appropriate research institutes in the main on the study and generaliza
tion of the experience accumulated by the practical officials of the
school" / 1601.
In researches on the psychology of teaching there was most clearly
brought out a tendency to subordinate the logic of the research to the
consequential discovery of the regular peculiarities of various psychic
processes, or , more exactly , of the various aspects of the cognitive
activity of the pupils connected with some one concrete field of knowl
edge .

419
 Thus , the psychology of teaching was dismembered into a whole
series of individual partial branches : " the psychology of the teaching
of reading, " " the psychology of the teaching of arithmetic " and the
líke , each of which was based on researches carried out and in some
cases generalized in monograph type works .
Thus, the main attention was devoted to the discovery not of
the generic laws of the assimilation of classroom material by pupils
of various ages and various levels of school instruction , but rather
of the individual laws specific for the assimilation of material of a
certain definite content .
In connection with this , psychology turned predominantly at this
stage to individual methodologies of teaching various disciplines but
not to a general theory of teaching , not to didactics .
It can be said with full justice that the period from 1936 to
1950 was marked by a predominant development of concrete individual
researches in the field of the psychology of learning .
Herein lay both the strength and the weakness of this stage .
The strong aspect was that psychologists were studying individual con
crete species of teaching and classroom activity and thus making no
ticeable advances in the elaboration of the scientific bases of the
teaching of the various school subjects . But there was inevitably
involved a weak side as well : thrust into the background was the
question of the generic laws governing the thinking activity of
children in the process of learning ; the general theory of learning
was not sufficiently elaborated .
In connection with this during a protracted period there were
no steps taken toward the preparation of systematic manuals on pedagogi
cal psychology or on the psychology of learning in particular ( in the
prerevolutionary period there were , as is well -known , not a few such
manuals ) .
However , there is no doubt that the great number of concrete re
searches have created the basis for new , profounder generalizations.
An important role in the transition of the psychology of learn
ing to a higher level was played by the scientific session devoted to
the problems of the physiological teaching of I. P. Pavlov , which was
held in 1950 .
The assimilation of the Pavlovian theory , the attempt to realize
in researches on the psychology of learning the ideas of Pavlov ( on as
sociations , systemic nature , mutual relations of first and second sig
nals systems , etc. ) contributed to there being singled out for study
the main problems, and to there beginning to be brought out in various
material the generic laws of study , to there being noted the basic out
lines of the theory of learning .
In characterizing in general features the contemporary state of
the psychology of learning it is essential to high - light a number of
the essential peculiarities of it .
The use of the genetic principle , i.e. , the study of phenomena
in fieri this is the main thing which distingui shes all researches

• 420 ..
on the psychology of learning . How the transition is effected from ig
norance to knowledge ; via which successive steps or stages does the
student pass in the mastering of a piece of knowledge , a skill or a
habit ; how do the methods of completion of a school assignment change
these are the questions which interest each and every researcher .
In connection with this task there is being carried out a study
of knowledge and habits manifested in developed form ( in adults ) and
there is being traced the protracted path of the formation of knowledge
and habits in children who are beginning to master them .
N. A. Rybnikov began as early as 1936 to make a broad comparative
study of the_students of various grades in his study of the habits of
reading / 182 / ; this principle has been most fully realized in monographs,
generalizing a number of researches devoted to the question of the mas
tery by the students of various branches of knowledge or various species
of classroom activity . We have in mind the works of L. M. Shvarts ( 222 /
and T. G. Yegorov /59/ devoted to the_question of the habits of reading,
the works of Ye . V. Gur'yanov /46 , 48 / and M. P. Feofanov ( 213 ) , de
voted to the question of the development of writing habits , the work
of N. A. Menchinskaya /123l , devoted to the psychology of the teaching
of arithmetic , the work of D. N. Bogoyavlenskiy (15 , 171 , devoted to
orthography , et al.
In researches on the psychology of learning, the age of the stu
dents is not separated from the level of the teaching , i.e. , there is
effected a comparison of the data obtained from students of various
grades and , consequently , of varying ages ; but insignificant fluctua
tions within one or another age period which are discovered in students
of one and the same grade are not taken into account .
Typical for all researches on the psychology of learning is the
bias toward the revelation of the qualitatively peculiar stages in the
mastery of knowledge and habits . This point as applied to habit is
formulated by L. M. Shvarts as follows in one of his books : " The de
velopment of a habit is nothing more than the replacement of one set
of techniques by another set , more complete and_perfected , thanks to
which the habit changes qualitatively' _222 , 951 , while the formerly
elaborated techniques , as he stresses further , do not disappear but
rather are transformed . Each and every new stage in the development
of a habit is characterized by some sort of technique which is dominant .
However , it is far from always that the highest technique in the quali
tative sense emerges in the capacity of the dominant one . " On the con
trary , " as L. M. Shvarts notes , " as a rule , at any stage of the de
velopment of a habit there may be encountered the first glimmerings of
more perfect techniques .
" But these techniques still have to jell , to develop on the basis
of the old ones and it is only when they have attained a certain definite
level of development that they will supplant the formerly dominant
technique and become more usual , more habitual , more dominant" ( ibid . ) .
This point is equally applicable ( if not more so ) to the process
of the mastery of knowledge . In all researches devoted to this question

. 421 -
there are brought out concrete forms of the mutual relationship of the
old piece of knowledge ( or of the method of its application ) with the
new piece , and there is uncovered a transition from lower to higher
stages of assimilation , there are brought to light the " sprouts of the
new " and their subsequent development . In the establishment of the
various stages , steps or levels (see Notel in the assimilation of
knowledge and habits there comes out their dependence not only on age ,
the level of educational training and development of the pupil , but
also on the degree of perfection of the teaching methods as also on
the content of the classroom material to be cognized .
( /Notel The terms " stage , " " step , " " level" are usually used
as synonyms . However , various authors give preference to one or an
other term . )
This treatment of the question of the stages of development
enters into sharp conflict with that conception of development which
was shared by the pediologists and according to which the stages of
mental development replace one another in virtue of the laws of de
velopmental maturation and with no relation to the content of the ma
terial to be cognized .
This question is examined in articles of A. N. Leont'yev pub
lished in 1937 / 112 / and in 1945 / 113 / ; it is treated likewise by S. L.
Rubinshteyn (172) and G. T. Ovsepyan / 148 / in works published in 1939 .
The work of Ovsepyan and that of Rubinshteyn present not only a theo
retical but also an experimental solution of the question .
It is no exaggeration to say that any research on the psychology
of learning which was carried out in the 1940s and 1950s applied pre
cisely this point of view on the course of the mental development of
the pupil in the process of instruction .
The peculiarity of the utilization of the genetic principle in
the psychology of learning ( as distinct from child psychology ) con
sists in the fact that the alteration is traced along two lines : there
is studied , first , the complication of knowledge and of habits upon
the transition of the pupils at higher stages of instruction to a new
curriculum ; and , secondly , the simplification of the methods of op
erating with knowledge and habits which is observed in school - children
as a result of practicing on one and the same material.
The bias toward a revelation of the qualitatively different
methods of assimilation of and operation with study material is di
rectly tied in with the fact that the researches of Soviet psycholo
gists relative to questions of teaching and instruction are researches
on the psychology of a conscious activity of learning ; they are dras
tically opposed to that bias which dominated for a protracted period
in the psychology of teaching in bourgeois countries and which was
based on the connectionism of Thorndike ( a variety of behaviorism ) .
In researches of this bias , the process of learning is reduced , as is
well -known , to a purely quantitative accumulation of connections be
tween stimulus and reaction , while practice is treated correspondingly
as a mechanical training activity .

. 422 -
 In their study of the basic laws of conscious learning , Soviet
psychologists have subjected to a critique the views of the behavior
ists . This critique was particularly urgent because in the 1930s there
had been published in Russian translation a number of books of Thorndike
devoted to questions of teaching and instruction , ( A critical analysis
of the works of Thorndike and his school was made by L. M. Shvarts (223 /
and N. A. Menchinskaya / 129/ . )
A further characteristic peculiarity of researches on the psy
chology of learning is the fact that they are directed not only to the
expo sure of the generic peculiarities of the process of learning as re
vealed in the pupils of a definite grade and age but also to the un
covering of the individual differences in the learning process . And
here it should be noted that the second point is an essential integral
part of any research whatever .
After all , in each class there are pupils possessing various
capacities for being taught . Some pupils traverse the path from in
complete knowledge to complete very rapidly ; in others this process
is protracted through time and breaks down into a number of stages .
For the researcher who is attempting to uncover the psychological na
ture of the learning process it is extremely essential to have within
the sphere of his study both these paths , even if the study of the
problem of the individual differences is not proposed as a special aim .
To this end the psychologist is interested in the difficulties which
the pupils encounter in the process of instruction and the mistakes
which they make in assimilating and applying knowledge or in forming
habits and putting them to work . The character of the errors , the de
gree of their persistence or , on the contrary , the speed of their dis
appearance , contribute to the revelation of the peculiarities of the
thinking activity of children in the process of learning .
Most often the difficulties of the pupils and their errors
emerge in the capacity of one of the methods of discovering the psycho
logical nature of the learning process , but in individual researches
they comprise_a special problem (cf., for example, the works of N. A.
Rybnikov /1817 , L. V. Zankov_1671 , T. G. Yegorov / 577 , P. A. Shevarev
/ 2247 , Ye . M. Kudryavtseva / 105 / , B. G. Anan'yev 5 _ , _ G . A. Medelyan
/ 122 / , 2. M. Mekhti - zade /130/ , D , G , Pomerantseva (158/ and others ) .
A considerable portion of the researches in the field of the
psychology of teaching , finally , have still another trait in common ,
namely a concern to study not any one psychic function but rather the
cognitive activity which presupposes the participation of a whole series
of psychic functions ( memory , thinking , attention , etc. ) and which pro
ceeds as an integral analytico - synthetic activity .
However , in individual works , the effort is made to take the
other path , concentrating attention on the study of the individual
psychic processes , their role in the learning process . This is pre
cisely the path taken by M. N. Shardakov , author of the book " Outlines
of the Psychology of Learning" /219/ and likewise by I. V. Strakhov ,
author of a work devoted to the question of attention in the process

- 423 -
of learning [ 2077 and N. F. Dobrynin , editor of the book , " A Psycho
logical Analysis of a Lesson " ( 521.
The second path is not a general line in the research work at
the psychology of learning ; however , it cannot be denied that it ,
too , has its justification .
Nor can it be ignored that a whole series of researches on gen
eral psychology , devoted to the study of individual psychic processes
and first of all of memory , are of immediate significance for the solu
tion of questions of the psychology of learning .
This refers to those works in which memory is trea ted as a spe
cial form of human activity ; precisely in virtue of this there is ef
fected in them a unification of three aspects in the consideration of
problems: the aspect of general, of child and of pedagogical psychology .
(We have in mind the works of P. I. Zinchenko / 71 , 721, L. V. Zankov
/68 , 691 , A , A. Smirnov ( 2001.)
* * *

Having concluded a brief characteristic of the stages of the de

velopment of the psychology of learning and of its fundamental specific
features, let us go over to the second part of our article , devoted to
an examination of the results obtained in the treatment of various
problems .
In this article we shall touch only on those works on the psy
chology of learning which characterize the various aspects of the cog
nitive activity of pupils and which represent the main line in the
treatment of the problems of the psychology of learning.
We consider it necessary to highlight the following problems as
the most elaborated : understanding , formation of representations and
concepts , solution of problems and elaboration of skills and habits .
( The question of the mental operations performed in the process of the
assimilation and solution of problems are included in the above -men
tioned problems. ) The question of the conditions of the effectiveness
of assimilation requires examination and above all the question of the
motivation of learning . Also deserving of mention is the problem of
the individual differences of children manifested in the process of
instruction . ( These problems do not exhaust the treatment of the ques
tions of the psychology of learning ; but they are precisely the ones
which belong to the number of the most studied , which occupy the cen
ter of attention of many researchers . )
Understanding enters into the process of assimilation as an es
sential component part ; but at the same time it has been an independent
problem for a whole series of researches .
Therefore we , too , have considered it necessary to outline some
data on the question of understanding in a separate section .
The elaboration of the problem of understanding has been effected
along various lines and on the most varied material : there has been
studied the understanding of principles and dependences expounded in

424 -
various sciences ( mathematics, natural science , history and the like ) ,
the understanding of oral and written speech , the understanding of texts
in the mother tongue and in foreign languages , and the like .
In spite of the specific peculiarities of understanding revealed
in the various species of concrete activity , there has been successfully
established a whole series of general propositions relative to the
psychological nature of understanding .
The character of understanding varies ( as has long since been
established in psychology ) in function of the degree of difficulty of
that cognitive task which has to be resolved . From this point of view ,
too , are distinguished " immediate " understanding (which is effected
forthwith in the process of perception ) and " mediated " understanding ,
which is a process spread out in time and which requires for its ac
complishment a number of thinking operations . The attention of the
researchers on the psychology of teaching has been directed in the
main to the study of the second type of understanding. The alterations
of this process have been traced in two aspects : it has been brought
out how the understanding of one and the same study material changes
in function of the level of teaching and instruction , i.e. , among
pupils of various grades ; and side by side with this has been studied
how the process of understanding changes in one and the same student
as a result of his work at a certain definite material .
In both cases there have been established various definite
levels of understanding .
Numerous facts obtained in researches witness to the fact that
in the initial stage understanding bears an undifferentiated character
and is generic ; later there are isolated various specific features of
the object under study , and , finally , there is accomplished an articu
lated understanding of the whole .
A. N. Sokolov made a study of the_understanding of a fairly dif
ficult foreign - language text by adults 203 / ; he notes that initially ,
in connection with the determination of the meaning of the first words,
there arises in the readers a dim guess as to the general content of
the text ; then there occurs a differentiation and specification of the
meanings of the words and , finally , at the third stage , the highest ,
there occurs the unification of the differentiated meanings of the
words and an exact establishment of the general sense of the phrase of
paragraph .
Analogous changes in the process of understanding have been dis
covered likewise in other material, drastically differing from the ma
terial with which Sokolov had to do in his research , We have in mind
the process of the understanding of the structure of mechanisms . This
process has been studied by S. A. Zhekulin / 60 / among 9th graders and
adults .
As the results of experiments have shown , there began in the
test subjects after a preliminary familiarization with the object (when
there occurred in them an indefinitely generic set to the fact that
this object was destined for some sort of technical ends , that it was

- 425 -
an " instrument " ) a period of analysis and partial synthesis of the ob
ject . At this time there were isolated and recognized various indi
vidual parts of the instrument ( as having a definite purpose ) . The
isolated parts were put in connection one with another .
At this stage there arose an assumption concerning the principle
of its operation . As a result of a series of efforts to find a single
system of interaction between the parts of the mechanism there set in
the crowning stage of " general synthesis ," as it is called by the re
searcher .
In approximately the same way is there effected the alteration
of the understanding of principles_and dependences among pupils of
various grades ( V. N. Kulikov / 109 / and A. D. Vinogradova ( 31 / have
established this for mathematical material, V. V. Bogoslovskiy / 147
for the study of history and the like ) .
The fact that the same basic stages of understanding have been
established in various concrete material witnesses to the fact that
we have here to do with a general law which has at its base the physio
logical laws of generalization and differentiation established by I. P.
Pavlov .
What processes contribute to the accomplishment of a full un
derstanding? This question has attracted the attention of many re
searchers .
L. I. Kaplan devoted her work to an analysis of the understand -
ing of a scientific text by senior graders and adults 1971 and she dis
covered that the reader , in his work at the text in an effort to attain
an understanding of it , does not reproduce the text in that form in
which it is written , but rather reconstructs its verbal formation .
The words of the text elicit in the mind of the reader , as the author
notes , other words, close to them in meaning .
Thus , in the process of understanding there occurs an actualiza
tion of formerly formed connections or associations , the inclusion of
new connections and of formerly formed systems , thanks to which there
is brought about the possibility of arriving at an understanding .
I. P. Pavlov has said that understanding is a " utilization " of
formerly acquired connections and this definition transmits the essence
of the process under examination accurately enough .
Researches have shown that understanding is complicated in the
event that there is a divorce of two associative chains : one subordi
nate to the intention of the author and another reproduced only on the
basis of the preceding experience of the reader reading the text .
This problem comes up acutely in connection with artistic works .
The process of understanding by children of allegories and metaphors
has specially attracted the attention of researchers , ina smuch as in
this case we have to do with a dual meaning the direct one and the
transferred one , with the second being the product of a generalization .
The study of the process of the understanding of figurative meanings
affords the opportunity of penetrating into the peculiarities of the
thinking activity of the individual child , of uncovering the correla
tion in it of concrete and abstract components .

- 426 -
 On this problem are working individual researchers and entire
collectives . A. P. Semenova is the author of a number of researches
devoted to_this question ( they were published in 1941 / 1917 , 1948 / 1927
and 1954 (1991 ) . A team of scientific collaborators of the Ukrainian
Institute of Psychology has devoted to this problematic a considerable
portion of one of the volumes of the " Scientific Notes " published in
1956 (Volume V ) and likewise a number of published articles / 103 ,_1047.
Ye . N. Gopfengaus has also carried out research on this topic 143 / .
The researches show that at the first stages what is dominant is
the visual content of the image ( the fable , for example , is understood
in its superficial , immediate content ) ; the sensory content does not
initially become the carrier of a generalized sense . Moreover , the
more the child is attracted by the immediate visual content the more
difficult it is for him to master in the first stages the generalized
meaning of the image. At the same time , the only way to discover the
figurative sense is to master the concrete content of the work and this
is possible , in turn , only thanks to refraction through the prism of
personal experience . This fact is brought out in detail likewise in the
work of A. F. Yakovlicheva_who made a study of the understanding of a
book by pre - schoolers /238/ .
There have been noted in researches certain definite stages in
the mastery of the figurative meaning typical for students of various
grades ; at the same time it has been shown that one and the same pupil
may yield various results in function of the content of the work . ( The
question of the correlation of the figurative and the abstract components
of the thinking activity of pupils in work at a text will be elucidated
in the course of further exposition , when the problem of the assimila
tion of knowledge is examined . )
The varying role of personal experience and the various forms
of its utilization in the perception of_artistic works have been brought
out in researches of 0. I. Nikiforova /142 , 1431 , who approaches this
question from the point of view of the problem of representations and
the creative imagination .
She shows that even in the perception of individual words there
almost always appear in the test subjects ( students and adults ) repre
sentations which realize the " individual sense of the word ,
In some instances this " individual sense , " I which reflects the
concrete experience of the individual , bound up with the peculiarities
of his personality , is close to the general linguistic meaning of the
word ; in others it deviates sharply from it . In these cases an emo
tionally saturated image "displaces" the sense of the word ,
0. I. Nikiforova has discovered and characterized the various
levels of creation of images upon reading of literary works ( artistic
descriptions ) . Typical for the lower levels is the " acontextuality" of
the operation of the imagination , when the topic or individual words
elicit recollections linked with them and deflect the reader from the
images of the artistic description .

- 427 -
 The higher levels are characterized , on the contrary , by an
exact recreation of the images described in the text .
Nikiforova remarks that past palpable experience used in such
cases has a different character , is broader , more generalized and dif
ferentiated , not reducible to concrete recollections ( as was typical
for the lower levels ) .
A considerable place in researches devoted to the problem of
the understanding of a text is occupied by the question of the role of
illustrations or , as it is otherwise formulated , the question of the
correlation of perception and word .
Those conflicting opinions which used to exist in the old manuals
on pedagogical psychology on the question of the role of visual aids
are entirely eliminated and the question receives a clear solution in
present experimental researches . These researches were begun in 1939
by the colleagues of the Khar'kov Pedagogical Institute and summed up
in an article by A. N. Leont'yev , published in 1947 /114/ .
The author comes to the following conclusion : the function of
the visual material may be various in function of the task which is set
in instruction . In various concrete conditions the visual material may
exert a positive influence or be useless , or even play a deleterious
role as a factor distracting from the main task .
In recent years there has been a great increase in the number
of researches experimentally revealing the varying role of the per
ception of illustrations in the process of understanding of a text at
various stages of instruction and in function of various problems .
This question has been treated in detail by T. G. Yegorov and
his collaborators , as applied to the process of the mastery of the
habit of reading 258 , 597. Interesting data are_contained in the
works of A. F. Yakovlicheva ( 238 / , T. V. Kosma / 1017 , and others .
The study of the problem of the understanding of a text pro
vided the opportunity ( to an even greater degree than the study of any
other problem ) of transcending researches of the intellectual processes
and discovering their connection with the personality qualities of
children .
Even in the study of the process of the understanding of the
principles and rules of arithmetic there was discovered the significance
of the volitional and emotional aspects of the personality of the pupil
which lent_a special qualitative peculiarity to the process of under
standing / 123 / .
Considerably broader opportunities were revealed for the study
of the peculiarities of personality in researches touching on the un
derstanding of artistic texts .
N. G._Morozova , who devoted to this problem a whole series of
researches (135 , 136 , 1371 , notes that in the process of understanding
of the text emotion does participate but does not exhaust the activity
of the personality in the reading . A genuine understanding of the
text presumes not only an understanding of the thought expressed with
the aid of the words , but also an understanding of the sense of the

- 428 -
event or deed described , a discovery of the motive which lies at the
base of them .
The problem of the understanding of what has been read is con
nected by Morozova , L. V. Blagonadezhina and others with the problem
of the attitude toward what is being read .
There is traced the alteration of this attitude in senior
grades . According to data of Blagonadezhina , 5th graders still re
tain that peculiarity of perception of an artistic work which was
typical of younger ages : the identification of themselves with the
good hero of the work , a participation in his deeds and in the events
which happen to him .
The study of literature in the 7th grade alters the character
of the understanding of a literary work : the students are less con
centrated on the main hero , they begin to be interested in secondary
figures , the coparticipation in the deeds of the hero falls into the
background and there emerges in the capacity of the object of recogni
tion and attitude the work itself in its objective content .
Vital aspects in the personality of the child have been uncov- ,
ered by researches dealing with the understanding of individual aspects
of an artistic work . Among these belong the works of T. V. Rubtsova ,
devoted to the question of the understanding by children of junior and
medium school age of the figure of a literary character /176/ , the re
search of B. D. Pray sman revealing the understanding by junior pupils
of the motives of conduct of literary characters / 1621 , and a work of
D. F. Nikolenko in which_there is analyzed the perception by children
of comic situations ( 145 / .
There should likewise be noted a work of T. I. Bochkareva 1267,
in which are collected the remarks of senior graders on their attitude
to the heroes of literary works , which provides material characterizing
their ideals .
But the complex processes of the assimilation of knowledge are
not limited to questions of understanding . In accordance with the re
flex theory , the processes of assimilation of knowledge are considered
in the majority of researches as being a manifestation of the analytico
synthetic activity of the cortex of the great hemispheres with its
basic stages : initial generalization , subsequent differentiation and
higher synthesis .
The application in the se researches of the Pavlovian principle
of associations is an indisputable achievement of the psychology of
learning of the recent past , ina smuch as this principle permits of
constructing psychological theories on natural scientific bases and
of uncovering the laws governing learning as a single integral process .
The first to take the road of a study of the role of associations
in the study activity of the school - child , to begin the uncovering of
their composition and to try to classify them was P. A. Shevarev . In
his work devoted to the question of the nature of algebraic habits,
published as early as 1941 / 225 / , Shevarev established two types of
connections , distingui shing them in the following respects : in the

• 429 -
one case , there are unified concrete , singular perceptions and ac
tions ; in the other , the generic properties of perceptions or actions .
Shevarev shows the process of emergence of connections of the second
type , which play a great role in the study activity of the school
child .
In the sequel , the role of these connections and the process of
their functioning were revealed not only in the simplest habits but
also in more complex capacities for solving problems ( cf. News of the
RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences , No. 80 L226 / ) .
Along a closely allied line proceeded the researches of the
colleagues of the Laboratory of the Psychology of the RSFSR Academy
of Pedagogical Sciences ; in these researches the effort was made to
comprehend the concept of association in the light of the Pavlovian
theory ; they treated synthesis as a formation of associations and
analysis as their dismemberment . In material of the teaching of
various subjects there were revealed the various complications of as
sociations , whereby there were discovered both quantitative and quali
tative changes , in the case of which in the course of instruction one
species of association is transformed into another .
Whereas in the searches of this group there was examined the
question of associations as applied to various individual subjects ,
in the investigations of the sector of Psychology of the Leningrad
Institute of Pedagogy of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences
the question which was in the focus of attention was that of the forma
tion of " inter - subject " associations , i.e. , of those connections which
are formed on the basis of the study of various school subjects , Yu . A.
Samarin elaborated a classification of associations , taking as its basis
the principle of systemic nature , i.e. , the character and degree of
unification of associations into systems .
Researchers studying the process of the formation and actualiza
tion of associations in the course of teaching ascribe great importance
to the question of their mobility (what is had in mind is the capacity
of the students to reorganize the systems of associations elaborated
in them by uniting_associative series out of various systems and form
ing new systems ) [ 88 , 127 , 184 , 185/ .
Typical of all the researches relative to the problem of the
assimilation of knowledge is one peculiarity which is of fundamental
significance . It can be brought down to the following : the process
of the assimilation of knowledge is considered in most intimate liaison
with its application . More accurately , the assimilation and the ap
plication of knowledge are considered as two aspects of a single proc
ess , for the student can fully assimilate only what he has tried to
apply in his study and practical activity . Application thus emerges
not only as a method of manifestation of whether these pieces of
knowledge have really been assimilated but also as a method of their
revelation and reinforcement . To assimilate study material means to
be able to utilize it , i.e. , to be master of it . But here there is
another side of the question . It is not only a matter of the necessity

430 -
of elaboration in the student of special capacities to apply pieces of
knowledge but likewise of the fact that , at the very initial stage of
the assimilation , the acquired knowledge or habit must emerge for the
students as a sort of problem , the methods of whose solution depend
upon their mental activity . ( " An active state of the brain ," as I. P.
Pavlov remarked , is one of the conditions for the formation of associa
tions . )
As it is well -known from the researches not only of psycholo
gists but also of educators , passive assimilation will not lead to the
goal. In the teaching practice of our best teachers there has been
verified a multitude of effective techniques of explanation of new ma
terial , whose essence consists in the fact that the students are pre
sented successively with a number of problems which stimulate their
mental activity , which is an essential condition for the proper as
similation of knowledge .
In the application of knowledge , dominant significance accrues
to the processes of analysis and synthesis and the abstractions and
generalizations derivative therefrom .
A proper analysis of the objects under study ( both objective
and verbal ) leads not only to a dismemberment and a splitting into
parts of an integral whole but also to the abstracting of its essen
tial marks .
For the isolation of the essential marks it is necessary to
consider them as marks common to one series of objects and not proper
to another . Marks abstracted ( abstracta ) are isolated , consequently ,
as common marks and acquire as a result of this a generalized meaning .
Thus, generalization ( as a synthetic activity ) is inextricably
linked with abstraction as a result of analysis . The possibility of
a complete abstraction and generalization ( i.e. , of a mental isola
tion of the common marks or properties of objects ) is effected by
means of a verbal designation of the abstracta , thanks to which the
results of analysis and synthesis are fixed in words .
In further study and instruction , there occurs a systematization
of the concepts assimilated , on the basis of the establishment between
them of certain definite correlations and mutual connections , reflect
ing the real correlation of the objects and phenomena of reality .
On this road from ignorance to knowledge , the pupils encounter
a number of difficulties , whose psychological nature , as is shown by
researches, consists in the insufficient development in the students
of the proper forms of analytico - synthetic activity .
In these researches has been discovered the manifestation of
an initial generalization, which makes itself felt first of all in an
insufficiently full analysis of the phenomena under study , in the se
lection of such common marks as have acquired for the students a sig
nal significance in their real - life practice or in the process of in
struction but in neither case are vital for scientific concepts . Such
a level of analysis is responsible for the improper generalization on
the basis of " everyday concepts" or on the basis of some sort of ex
ternal marks or properties of objects or phenomena . This sort of

431 -
generalization is characteristic for the initial stage of the assimila
tion of concepts relative to the various school disciplines .
In assimilation of grammar , a fact firmly established in a num
ber of researches is the inhibitory influence of lexical meaning of
the word on the processes of grammatical abstraction . This deleteri
ous influence is explained by the fact that, whereas in spoken practice
the real sense and meaning of words and sentences are of basic signifi
cance , in the assimilation of grammar the semantic characteristic of
speech does not , for the most part , determine the content of the gram
matical concepts or rules but is rather an unessential mark so far as
they are concerned , a mark which has to be abstracted from .
In the assimilation of history there is often observed a con
fusion of historical concepts because of the fact that the pupils are
putting into them their own underdifferentiated content , corresponding
to their small_real - life experience. Thus , according to the data of
A. 2. Red 'ko ( 166 ) and L. M. Kodyukova 1981 , elementary school pupils
confused " boyar ," " capitalist " and " big landholder" as rich people and
did not distinguish between a " slave , " a " serf ," a " peasant ! and a
"'worker , " referring all of them to the undifferentiated category , " the
poor . "
In the field of natural science , the initial generalization
often reveal a complete dependence on the everyday experience of the
children . Thus, for example, into the concept " fruit" the students
interpolate such marks as juiciness , edibility and the like ( data of
Ye . M. Kudryavtseva ( 1057 ) . A mouse often is taken by the child to
be a domestic animal, " because he lives at home , " the crocodile for a
mammal , because_he_is " big and fierce and has four legs" ( data of
M. N. Skatkin / 106 / ) .
In the delimitation of the concepts " bird " and " insect " several
pupils ascribed crucial significance to the mark of flight , which did
not allow them to classify as birds the non - flying (as a usual rule )
domestic birds ( the hen , the duck , and the like ) and , vice versa ,
elicited a tendency to classify among birds such insects as , for exam
ple , _butterflies, beetles , and the like ( data of M. S. Peterburgskaya
/154/ ) .
A number of similar facts have been discovered in the researches
of the colleagues of the Leningrad Pedagogical Institute imeni A. I.
Gertsen . M. N. Shardakov / 2207 , summing up these facts, notes that ,
for the junior school - children ( first to fourth grades) there is a
typical tendency to classify objects by unessential , superficial
marks and on the basis of their utilitarian or functional character
( " The cow is a domestic animal ; she gives milk , " " The starling is a
bird because it sings " ) .
Obviously , in all such cases , the lack of differentiation and
the inadequacy of the child's generalizations are explained by the in
sufficiency of analysis and by the poor development of abstracting ac
tivity . The pupils select those common marks which either correspond
to their previous experience or which stand out immediately upon per
ception of the object . These dominant marks are broadly generalized ,

- 432 -
 The next form of analysis which not infrequently serves as the
cause of the formation of inadequate concepts is an elemental analysis .
There is observed in a whole group of pupils during the initial stages
of instruction a tendency to a selection from the complex of signs of
a concept only certain ones of them , which leads to an improper syn
thesis , a one - sided generalization , The signs of the concept in this
case are not correlated one to another , the systemic nature of the con
struction of the concept is violated .
_A_number of researches_(L . I. Bozhovich ( 187, D. N. Bogoyavlen
skiy /15/ , K. G. Pavlova (152/ ) has revealed phenomena of so - called
formalism and naive semanticism in children in the mastery of the con
cept of a word - root . Children's formalism made itself felt in the
fact that , in the evaluation of the radical affinity of words, the
children paid attention only to similarity or difference of the literal
composition of the words , or , in the case of naive semanticism , only
to the semantic characteristic of the words . The generalizations in
both cases proved to be one - sided and therefore incorrect , since the
children were ignoring certain definite relationships extant in lan
guage between the form and the semantics of the root .
In the field of the assimilation of geometric knowledge similar
phenomena have been discovered by V. I. Zykova 176 / . According to her
data , pupils in the first stage of acquaintance with the properties of
a circle operated well with the mark of the closure of the curve and
did not make use here of the mark of the equal distance of points of
the circumference from the center , as a result of which they confused
such geometrical figures as a circle , an ellipse and a closed curve of
irregular shape . In other instances , the pupils made use of another
mark , namely , the presence on the drawing of a designation of the cen
ter of the figure in the shape of a point , in the capacity of a cri
terion for the grouping of geometrical figures . Upon presentation of
two circles identical in radius , one with center designated and one
having no such designation , many pupils asserted that the figure with
out the center designated was not a circle because it " had no center . "
M. N. Shardakov /220/ likewise points to the one - sidedness of
initial generalizations. He does not base himself on the " elemental
analysis" as a cause of the improper synthesis , but in essence he has
in mind these very same phenomena when he speaks , on the basis of a
research of V. S. Ivanova on the assimilation of conditioned and tem
porary connections 801 , of the selection by school children of one
connection while ignoring a variety of them and of the juxtaposition
of several connections with no highlighting of the basic one .
The one - sidedness of generalizations in the given instances de
pended on the use in the capacity of a basis for generalization of one
or more marks without regard to their relation to the other marks . The
forms of elemental analysis have been discovered in a number of re
searches devoted to the assimilation of various school subjects :
arithmetic ( N. A. Menchinskaya / 123 / ) , botany ( Ye . M._Kudryavtseva
/ 105 / ) , reading ( L. M. Shvarts / 222 / , T. G. Yegorov _59 / ) , a foreign
language ( G , G. Saburova /183/ ) and others .

- 433 -
 The peculiarity of such generalizations, as is evident from the
material adduced , consists in the fact that in the application of the
concepts only certain " stronger" signs prove to be operative, and their
influence elicits an unjustifiably broad generalization . The content
of the concept has been contracted in the process while the scope of
the concept , while being excessively expanded in one direction , has
been limited in another . Such an unjustifiable influence of the vari
ous signs of one and the same concept may be designated as an intra
conceptual generalization . Here there is a violation of the systemic
structure of the concept ; between the individual signs of the concept
there have been established improper correlations , in other words, the
given concept has proven not to have been assimilated .
Side by side with this was discovered still another cause of
the errors of school children , at the basis of which lies an inter
conceptual generalization , In the case of inter- conceptual generaliza
tion , one concept or rule , adequately assimilated , is exerting an un
justifiably broad influence on other concepts or rules , which witnesses
to the poor differentiation of the one concept with relation to the
others . In psychology such instances are usually known as an improper
transfer .
In connection with what has been said there arises the question
as to what are the peculiarities of those marks which , according to ex
perimental data , have displayed the tendency to prove " stronger" and
to elicit an unjustifiably broad generalization .
Works at the study of the formation of concepts in school
children contain numerous facts , witnessing first to the fact that
such marks are unessential marks or properties, sensibly perceived or
represented or imagined by the student ; secondly , those which are as
sociated to some extent in the student with representations and concepts
formed in his inadequate real - life experience ; thirdly , there have been
observed instances in which erroneous generalizations on the part of
the student arose as a result of the frequency of repetition of certain
external conditions accompanying classroom drill at the application of
a new concept .
We shall adduce from the works of various authors typical exam
ples , the number of which could be considerably increased .
Fifth graders, who had studied in a geography course the concept
" watershed" ( " boundary between two adjacent river basins" ) , were guided
in the classification under this concept of concrete instances not only
by essential marks pointed out in the definition of the concept but also
by unessential ones , like : " a watershed is a small elevation . " The se
pupils , in answering the question " Is the main Caucasian range a water
shed ? " based their replies on this accidental mark and therefore replied
to the question in the negative . The generalizing influence of the un
essential mark in the given instance was conditioned by the fact that
there was in the text - book a line -drawing illustration , showing a water
shed as a small elevation / 86 / .

- 434 -
 Sixth graders, who were quite familiar with the definition of
a right - angled triangle , when they were shown such triangles in various
spatial positions, were often guided not only by the presence in the
triangle of a right angle but side by side with this they relied on an
external , accidental mark , namely , the presence of the right angle at
the base of the triangle . Therefore , they refused to admit as right
angled triangles those triangles in which the right angle was at the
top or at the side . The non - recognition of such triangles was condi
tioned by the fact that in the text -book and in the drawings which the
teacher and the pupils themselves had drawn they had most often had to
do with right - angled triangles in which the right angle was located at
the bottom / 761 .
Similar data have been obtained in a research of R. G , Natadze ,
carried out on material from natural science ,
On the basis of experiments , the author notes that the child has
special difficulty in mastering the essential marks of concepts when
the visual and palpable elements of concrete objects do not coincide
with the essential marks of concepts when the visual and palpable ele
ments of concrete objects do not coincide with the essential (non
palpable ) marks. Thus , according to his data , first graders who had
been familiarized with such concepts as " mammal , " " fish , " " bird , " " in
sect , " and had undergone appropriate drilling , decline , for example to
class among mammals the dolphin or the whale, in spite of the fact
that , while showing the appropriate pictures the experimentor told the
children that these animals nurse their young , breathe air with the aid
of lungs , etc. Only gradually , upon transition of the children to sec
ond or third grade , did the essential , impalpable marks begin to become
dominant , although even here the author notes that in difficult contexts
the children would slip into the " phenotypical point of view . ' The ex
ternal appearance of the animal " obscures" ( to use the author's expres
sion ) the vital but non - palpable marks in the mind of the child to such
a_degree that the child does not feel any contradiction between them
( 1401 .
The cases formerly adduced of " naive semanticism " of children
in the study of grammar , the examples cited of a confusion of histori
cal concepts ( " big landowner, " " boyar , " " capitalist , " etc. ) show that
the strong marks may turn out to be not the palpable ones but such ones
as the semantic aspect of speech , the concepts of rich and poor , i.e. ,
some sort of primary generalization . In natural science the role of
strong marks may be played by the notions of juiciness and edibility
of a fruit ,
Obviously , such generalized marks have acquired a " signal im
portance " . thanks to the fact that they have played an important role
in the previous personal experience of the child and the new concept
has been understood by the child in the sense which was the closest to
him .
The influence of the frequency of repetition of unessential
marks in the transmission of the class material has already been

435 -
brought out in the above -adduced data of V. I. Zykova , where , beside
the influence of the palpable nature of the superficial mark , there was
also an influence from the repetition of the perception . Here is a
number of similar facts .
Pupils of the first grades , upon introduction of the concept ,
" subject , " were often guided by the fact that in the sentence it occu
pies the first place - in drills they had most often to do with such
sentences / 167 / .
In virtue of the same cause , such a purely superficial circum
stance as the number of words in a phrase often exerted an influence on
the syntactical analysis and parsing by the pupils of a sentence . In
this case , phrases_consisting of less than 3-4 words were not accepted
as being phrases / 150 / . In the formation of the concept , " preposition , "
a generalizing mark was the shortness of the word , thanks to which
circumstance prepositions were often confused with pronouns, conjunc
tions and particles 265 / .
In the cases of inadequate analysis and synthesis described
above there was manifest a weakness of the abstracting activity of the
pupils . The selection of the essential marks of concepts or properties
of objects was hindered by the discrepancies of these marks from the
data of sense perception or everyday notions . The palpability of the
material or the similarity of the unessential features of scientific
concepts with everyday ones fettered the generalizations of the students
and exercised an inhibitory influence on the process of abstraction .
However , it should be noted that not all students of the same
age and the same grade revealed inadequate forms of analysis and syn
thesis , The errors described above are typical of the less developed ,
less capable students . . Apparently the students who successfully man
aged the problems had less need of reliance on sense data and on
formerly.elaborated associations, which witnesses to the presence in
them of more developed forms of abstraction and generalization .
Here there arise questions which are important in a practical
sense : how can tho se pupils be aided in whom the processes of abstrac
tion and generali zation have not attained the proper level ? What con
ditions should be created in the classroom so as to facilitate the
mental activity of the students and keep them from making mistakes ?
At the present time there are numerous researches available ,
which have been carried out on material of the most varied school sub
jects and which permit of noting some of these conditions .
Some of these conditions are : the application in the process
of teaching of comparison in the shape of a contraposition of objects
of thought which are being confused by the pupils and a recognition of
the principle of typical variation of unessential marks .
The importance of comparison for classroom work has long been
well -known both in psychology and in pedagogy . However in the peda
gogical researches there is most often emphasized the role of compari
son in the selection and unification of common similar marks and
properties . The abstraction of common signs of concepts or objects

• 436 -
is , of course , a necessary prerequisite of the formation of any sort
of concepts . We have treated this question above . But , until now ,
there has remained in the shade in pedagogy the question as to what
significance the recognition of typical features of the difference of
phenomena under study has for proper abstraction . Complete clarity
has been introduced into this question by the propositions, estab
lished by I , P. Pavlov and other physiologists concerning the ef
fective conditions of differentiation .
Differentiation , according to the teaching of Pavlov , is
nothing else than the stopping of entry to everything accidentally
similar by way of the formation of inhibitory , negative connections .
On the basis of material on the formation of habits in animals , it
was established by V. P. Protopopov and his collaborators /163/ that
the period of accidental erroneous attempts at solution of problems is
considerably curtailed when the animal has acquired experience of
what ought to be done and what ought not to be done . The method which
led to the blocking of erroneously formed temporary connections was
designated by Pavlov as the method of displacing counteraction / 151,
IV , 129-131 / .
Psychological researches have shown that the Pavlovian technique
of counteraction creates just as favorable conditions for the elabora
tion of differentiation from the second signals system_when applied to
man as from the first for animals . L. A. Shvarts / 221/ showed on the
basis of orthographic and artistic material that the confusion by stu
dents of rules which are alike only in respect of unessential marks
arose only in those instances in which instruction had occurred in
such conditions as limited the confrontation and distinction of those
links of the material which might have inhibited each other , and that ,
on the contrary , this confusion was not present when such confrontation
and distinction had taken place . As a result of research on the as
similation of arithmetic , N. A. Menchinskaya came to the conclusion
that the necessary condition for the formation in school - children of
proper generalizations is the variation of the unessential marks of
the material presented while leaving the essential marks the same
( 1247 .
The further theoretical elaboration of the question of the ap
plication of the method of contraposition and counteraction is con
nected with the works of Ye . N. Kabanova -Meller [ 85 , 86 / . In her re
searches she emphasizes the importance of a generalized recognition by
the pupils of the character of the unessential marks, which , besides
providing for a recognition of the essential , leads by the shortest
path to proper generalizations. In this connection she advanced the
contention concerning the necessity of a recognition by the pupils of
the principle of the variation of typical unessential marks.
Aside from the works mentioned , the positive role of the prin
ciple of contraposition and counteraction has been disclosed in respect
of a number of school disciplines : in respect of arithmetic ( Ya . I.
Petrov ( 155 ) and A. M. Leushina /115/ ) , of geometry ( V. I. Zykova 76 / ) ,

- 437 -
of orthography ( D , N. Bogoyavlenskiy / 577 , s. F. Zhuykov 1647), of
history ( I._V . Gittis and A. A._Znamenskiy 139 / ) , of grammar_ ( A . M.
Orlova / 1497 , V. S. Ivanova 1807 , N. S. Rozhdestvenskiy / 169 / and
others ) . There was organized by Zhuykov , Orlova and Zykova , an ex
perimental teaching project having as its aim to verify the methodology
of instruction as reorganized in accord with the principle of contra
position and counteraction in the context of ordinary classroom teach
ing . In comparison with teaching methods usually applied the experi
mental teaching yielded considerably better results .
Of great practical significance is the question as to the stage
of the study of similar concepts and rules at which there should be uti
lized the technique of counteraction , i.e. , the degree to which the as
similation of one rule should be reinforced before introducing another .
Mention should be made of the " principle of early differentiation " ac
cording to which it is considered that counteraction and contraposition
gives the greater effect the more closely it is adjacent to the initial
moment of acquaintance with the first rule ( D , N. Bogoyavlenskiy /17/ ) .
The data of a special research of A. V. Polyakova / 1597 have per
mitted of making this principle more precise . They show that the in
troduction of a rule to be contraposed yields the greatest effect after
the first rule has been introduced and reinforced by a certain number
of practice drills . However , this question needs further study , taking
into account the character of the similarity of the concepts or rules
being mutually confused .
All of what has been expounded above permits of drawing the con
clusion that , ina smuch as the method of counteraction leads by the most
economical path to the avoidance of errors on the part of the pupils
in the formation and in the application of concepts in practice , the ig
noring by pedagogy of this question can in no wise be justified , the
more so since a systematic application of this method requires in many
cases a revision of the sequence of the distribution of the curriculum
and a revision , too , of certain methodological principles of teaching ,
As follows from all that has been said , in the process of the
assimilation of knowledge the mental operations of abstraction and gen
eralization are of great importance . And here it has been shown that
the level of these operations depends to a great extent on the character
of the material being analyzed . Therefore it is not surprising that
in pedagogical psychology in recent years there have appeared a number
of works devoted to a research of the correlation of the sensory and
the abstract , of the image and the word , in the process of assimila
tion ,
As distinct from formal logic , dialectical logic considers the
process of cognition as a unity of the sensory , the rational and the
practical, Sense cognition , acquired in " object" activity of the human
individual , is capable of properly reflecting marks common to various
objects even if what is common cannot be generalized on the verbal
logical plane . Such instances are conventionally designated in psy
chology as practical generali zations. Such generalizations guarantee

- 438 -
une opportunity of proper generalization of action with a certain defi
nite group of objects without a recognition in the process of the laws
lying at the basis of such proper action .
According to the data of some psychologists , such peculiarities
of practical generalizations depend on an incomplete form of abstrac
tion in which the mark being abstracted is not abstracted from the
given concrete object or phenomenon but rather is noted in its composi
tion . Thanks to this , in the confrontation of a number of objects
there may be noticed their common marks , which under certain conditions
leads to the possibility of an identical action with regard to each ob
ject . Generalization at this level of abstraction occurs on the basis
of analogy ( from the concrete to the concrete ) which affords an oppor
tunity of unifying and classifying objects and phenomena .
This sort of abstraction in concreto ( the term of G. Ya . _Troshin
[2127 ), lies , according to the data of D. N. Bogoyavlenskiy 1177, at
the basis , for example , of the so - called " language sense" which is de
veloped upon mastery by the child of speech and thereafter is manifest
in the elaboration of orthographic habits. The concept of_abstraction
in concreto is used also productively by S. F. Zhuykov 63/ in an
analysis of the structure of the primary grammatical generalizations .
In view of the important role which is played in the assimilation of
concepts by the practical generalizations of the pupils , the attention
of psychologists should be attracted to a further elaboration of this
question .
However , the peculiarities of conscious assimilation of knowledge
consists in the fact that , while performing various activities on the
real or the mental plane , the student should be realizing why he ought
to act thus and not otherwise . This becomes possible only upon a
translation of the practical generalizations onto the verbal - conceptual
plane , since anything abstracted from an integral image of a single ob
ject can only be known by means of words, representing an abstraction
from reality and permitting of generalization .
Abstraction , which isolates some one aspect of an object , which
aspect is , in actual fact , indivisible from that object , permits , in
the process , of a " flight from reality . " But abstractions which
properly reflect reality always retain in the process immediate or
mediate connections with the source of all knowledge - sensations and
perceptions . To speak of the conditions of proper abstraction in
natural scientific terms, such a reflection requires a proper correla
tion of the operation of the first and second signals systems .
This proper correlation , as is shown by many facts adduced above
concerning the formation of false generalizations, is not established
by students without difficulty . In the process of the assimilation of
knowledge , the relation between the sensory and the abstract elements
of knowledge are not always thought of by the youngsters univocally and
in generalized fashion . Several researches help to get a picture of
the dynamic of this process .

• 439 -
 In the works of A. I. Lipkina / 116, 1177 , there was traced the
interrelation of these aspects of thinking at various developmental
stages . It was found that first and second graders cannot formulate
the essential thought of a text ( upon receiving an assignment to think
up titles ) until such time as they have described in words that picture
which is imagined by them in connection with the story that has been
read . In third and fourth graders there is already an alteration in
the correlation of the graphic and the generalizing aspects of the
thinking activity . They can formulate the essential thought of the
text without preliminary description of the mental picture . But in
the process the verbal plan exercised only an insignificant influence
on the pictorial ( in both cases there was fixed only the topical con
tent of the story ) . Both planes of action proved thus to be discon
nected .
Seventh graders compo sed verbal plans without any preparation
via " mental drawing . " Their pictorial plans differed little from the
plans of the fourth graders but in the verbal plans there had appeared
new elements, witnessing to the development of the generalizing aspect
of thought ( evaluational judgments and a causal explanation of events ) .
In the ninth and tenth grades there predominated elements of
logical thinking. This made itself felt not only on the content of
the verbal plans but also in the fact that , when composing pictorial
plans , the students " slipped" from a description of the content of the
text into an analysis of it . And here the verbal plan as composed did
exercise an influence on the process of differentiation and detailiza
tion of the representations of the youngsters .
The author comes to the conclusion that the graphic and the gen
eralizing aspects of thinking develop in a complex interaction and that ,
whereas in the junior graders the image emerges as a necessary factor ,
helping to isolate and generalize the essential , in the activity of the
senior graders a verbally formulated thought determined in large meas
ure the character of the image .

• 440 -
 A whole series of other researches confirms the fact of the
mutual conditioning in the process of development of the cognitive
activity of verbal and graphic thinking . The field of the descrip
tive arts has always been considered as that field in which repre
sentations are of predominant significance ; however the experimen
tal study of the psychology of child's drawings has shown that re
presentations are always clarified and supplemented in those cases
in which the child succeeds in narrating well about the object re
presented (Ye . I. Ignat'yev (817, / 827 ) . There has been clearly
brought out in the works of Ā.Z. RedTko [ 1657 the connection of his
torical representations with logical thinking. Thus for example ,
general representations of the students on the ancient Egyptian
plow are formed comparatively easily under the influence of a pic
ture representation ; however , the parts , the details of the plow are
described and drawn incorrectly by the students until they have
understood the functions and correlations of the individual parts
of the plow in its operations .
A number of projects carried out with pupils of auxiliary
schools have likewise been devoted to the mutual influence of the
word and the representation in the cognitive processes . In them
it is shown how the explanations of a drawing shown to the children
influenced the subsequent alteration of representations ; what role
is played by the inclusion of speech in the examination of pictures ,
what is the peculiarity of representations formed by way of verbal
descriptions, etc. [ 1467, [ 1477 .
A special study of the problem of the word and visual aids
both on the psychological plane and on the didactic plane have been
carried out by a group of collaborators of the Institute of the
Theory and History of Pedagogy of the RSFSR Academy of Peda gogical
Sciences , under the direction of L.V. Zankov Z707 .
The expansion of sense experience comes out in all the above
mentioned researches as a condition for the abstraction of the essen
tial and as a basis for the breadth of generalizations . At the same
time , verbal thinking contributes to a detailization of perceptions
and representations and to their systematization . In the process of
teaching , the word of the teacher organizes the observation of the
pupils , rendering precise the object of observations ; it directs
analysis to the distinction of the essential aspects of phenomena
from unessential aspects ; and , finally , the word as term , being as
sociated with the marks isolated as being common for an entire series
of phenomena , becomes their generalizer , a concept . In this capacity ,
it may itself serve in the capacity of a basis for further generaliza
tion , without any further recourse to observation , by substituting for
a number of concrete objects and phenomena . Thus are created con
cepts of various de grees of abstractness and generalization . But ,
however abstract a given concept may be , its source is always immediate
human experience , human practical or mental activity in relation to a
real reality . Only on this condition will abstractions be scientific

- ‫ܢܐܢܐܢܐ‬
in character and penetrate more broadly and more deeply into the es
sence of phenomena ; otherwise there may appear those "empty and
trashy " abstractions of which V.I. Lenin spoke .
A considerable place is occupied in contemporary psychology by
researches devoted to the question of the stages of mental actions on
the basis of external practical activity . They have been summed up in
an article by P.Ya. Gal'perin , " the development of researches on mental
actions " published in the first volume of "The Science of Psychology
in the USSR . "
The assimilation of abstract concepts is not however the final
link in learning . In the Leninist formula : " from live contemplation to
abstract thinking and from it to practice " the second part is no less
actual : from abstract thinking to practice .
The actuality of this problem is felt special ly strongly here
at the present time when in the Soviet school there has been introduced
labor polytechnical instruction .
Observation and data of several researches bear witness to the
psychological peculiarity of the transition from abstract thinking to
practice , to the sometimes very great difficulties which students have
to overcome in the process . A man as early as L.S. Vygotskiy pointed
this out in his day , when he wrote : " ... the greatest difficulties
which are usually only overcome by the adolescent at the very end of
puberty are represented by the further transfer of the sense or mean
ing of an elaborated concept to every new concrete situations which
are being thought about by him, likewise on an abstract plane .
" The path from the abstract to the concrete is here no less
difficult than used to be the path of ascent from the concrete to the
abstract [ 357."
Although this question , in spite of the great significance
attaching to it , is still little elaborated experimentally , there are
nevertheless data which permit of elucidating some aspects of it .
E.A. Fleshner (2167, presented to senior graders for solution,
four groups of problems in physics : 1) textual problems of an ab
stract content, 2 ) textual problems of a more concrete content ( in
cluding concrete magnitudes) , 3) visual -actional problems of an ab
stract content, ) visual-actional problems of a concrete content .
Problems of an abstract content ( 1) , ( 3) , could be solved only by
having recourse to theoretical knowledge concerning the functional
ratio between weight and volume of bodies . The concrete problems
( 2 ) , ( 4) could be solved both theoretically and by way of a determin
ation of the volume of each of the bodies and their subsequent compar
ison .
According to the data of the author , the visual -actional prob
lems with concrete content ( 4) were solved least well ; somewhat better
were solved the textual problems of concrete content ( 2 ) ; and , final
ly , best of all were solved the problems of an abstract content (1 ) ,
(3 ) .

- 4412 -
 In one of the researches of V.I. Zykova , sixth graders were asked
to solve the same geometrical problem ( on the basis of a theorem well
known to them concerning the determination of the relative magnitude of
the sides of a triangle by the opposite angles ) but in one case the
appropriate drawing was appended to the problem and in the other case a
triangle of the same size and shape which was painted in the shape of
the two slopes of a roof resting on the facade of a building.
The pupils were easily able to solve the first problem but they
experienced difficulties in solving the second one . One of the stud
ents who had not solved the second problem well explained the cause of
his difficulty : " here it is difficult ; there ( i.e. in the ordinary
school problem ) , there is just a triangle but here there is a roof and
a facade ; and so I got mixed up . "
Similar data have been obtained by P.M. Yakobson in the solution
by seventh graders of problems involving designing of a turret crane or
excavator . In spite of the fact that there was a direct mention in the
instruction for the students : " remember about the levers and the arms
of the levers , " " remember about the pullies , " a number of the pupils
made no provisions for a lever - arm in the cabin of the excavator .
They arrived at the necessary abstraction only after a confrontation of
the individual elements of the classroom drawing , a pattern with the
appropriate parts of the excavator showing uponit (2327.
Fleshner explains the difficulties in the solution of the two
species of physics problems by the fact that in the textual problems
the relation of two physical data is presented to the pupils in a
ready -made abstract form and in those same abstract concepts which
the school children are accustomed to using in physics classes , where
as the solution of the visual - actional problems required an independ
ent abstraction from the individual marks of the concrete da ta .
In this case , as the author points out , there occurs a " doubling" of
the difficulties : the pupil had to dismember the abstract correla
tion of concrete data and abstract from a visual perception of the
objects with which he was dealing .
That same factor of a " ready -made " abstraction influenced like
wise the solution by Zykova's test, subjects of the geometrical prob
lem with the ordinary drawing , inasmuch as the drawing represents con
crete objects in an oversimplified schematized fashion , whereas the
drawing of a part of a building requires an independent analysis of
concrete material and an abstraction from it of unessential details .
The same difficulties were observed likewise in the project of Yakob
son .
In the light of these data it becomes clear that the limita
tion of the visualization by patterns and drawings of machines and
instruments in the teaching of polytechnical disciplines , even though
it does aid in the understanding of their construction , still cannot
entirely guarantee effective knowledge . The same thing can be said
of " chalk -drawing " teaching of geometry , " verbal cipher" teaching of
physics and the like .

- 443 -
 The difficulties of the transition from abstract thinking to prac
tice are not however insurmountable . For their liquidation is essential
a systematic practice of the pupils in the application of theoretical
knowledge to the solution of vital working tasks , to a variety of con
crete situation , even in the period of the formation of the abstract
concepts , thanks to which the concepts become mobile and effective .
It can be said , therefore , that the path which the pupils take
in the transition from the abstract to the concrete is to a consider
able extent predetermined by what path has been taken by the teaching
in the period of the assimilation by them of abstract knowledge See
Note7
( Note : In this connection a certain correction should be intro
duced into the above adduced statement of L.S. Vygotskiy , where the
transition from the abstract to the concrete was univocally connected
with developmental peculiarities of the adolescent school child . Such
a limitation of the capacities of children of earlier age levels seems
to us unjustified , as is shown by the data available on the influence
on the content of a material to be assimilated and the methodology of
the teaching of it . )
As has already been pointed out above , the process of the assim
ilation of knowledge is not limited by the mastery of concepts , by the
differentiation of one type of concept from another . Every sort of
scientific knowledge is first of all a system of concepts , the assim
ilation of which presupposes the establishment of certain definite con
nections and correlations between the concepts . Thus , the research of
the process of learning cannot be limited to a study of the ways of
differentiating between concepts ; no less important is the clarifica
tion of how there are elaborated in the pupils the associations be
tween concepts , of how there are formed systemic connections reflect
ing the relationships between objects and phenomena of the real world .
The mastery of a system of concepts is of fundamentally im
portant significance for the development of the thinking of the school
child . As ea as in the works of L.S. Vygotskiy it was noted that
the concept which the school child possesses may be entirely recog
nized only in its correlation with other concepts and that the form
ation of such a hierarchy of concepts as is established on the basis
of relationships of community and relationships of cos ubordination of
concepts 357 is of the most universal significance for the develop
ment of thinking.
Present day researches have uncovered facts confirming these
propositions . Thus , for example , V.I. Zykova has shown that individ
ual concepts of angles in geometry (adjacent , vertical , etc.) are
assimilated most comprehensively when_they are included into a broad
concept " angles with a common apex " [747,_ /767.
In the researches of A.Z. Rediko [1667 it was shown that concepts
on the representatives of various classes ( " slave , " slave owner " ) only
then attain their complete development in the consciousness of the
student when the higher concept "helot system " has been formed, which

444
concept in its turn is based on the preceding knowledge of the students
concerning the representatives of the various classes ,
However , the question of the systemic nature of knowledge is not
exhausted by the logical systematization of knowledge . In accord with
the variety of concrete connections in the real world there is a variety
of relations also between concepts which unite these concepts into sys
tems ( spatial , temporal, casual, and the like ) .
In the works of v.v. Bogoslovskiy 147 and M.N. Shardakov (2207,
devoted to a study of the understanding by school children of the cause
effect nexus there is highlighted the elementary and logical level of
casual explanations . The elementary level is characterized by the
fact that the pupils point to some one cause of a given phenomenon , or
some one effect of a given cause whereby those causes and effects are
oten pointed out which are superificial and secondary . Upon assimila
tion of historical laws , the children mix up in the process cause and
occasion . At a higher stage the school children begin to point out
several causes . However , these causes are juxtaposed : they do not
find among the individual causes the common cause ; or else they point
out general and individual causes without linking them up to ge ther.
Later the school children begin to understand the mutual connec
tions of individual causes without , however , distinguishing the gen
eral cause from the individual ones . Individual partial phenomena
here get a proper causal explanation but the thought of the school
child does not rise to a generalization and formulation of generic
laws or rules .
In proportion to the accumulation of knowledge and the develop
ment of thinking , the school children begin to abstract the essential
causal nexus in the individual phenomena and begin to arrive by an
inductive path at the establishment of generic laws , or rules .
The materials of the research of the understanding by the stu
dents of relationships existing between the plant life and the environ
mental situation , a research carried out by Ye. M. Kudryavtseva [ 1067,
permitted noting certain supplementary peculiarities of the process of
systematization . The author highlights the various types of causal
explanations of pupils in function of the degree of their concretiza
tion .
In the junior classes prior to the study of botany , the causal
explanation of the necessity for the plant life of each component of
the environment (soil , water , sun ) is extremely general and relies on
undifferentiated real - life observations (" You need earth because with
out earth the plant wilts and dries out . " " Because I saw that flowers
are planted in the earth . " ) . More abstract explanations are observed
in students of the third and fourth grades . They usually speak in
general judgments without adducing individual observations ( " Because
plants can't grow anywhere else except in the earth ." " Because plants
always live in the earth . " ) .

- 4:45 -
 Here , there are broader generalizations , but the genuine causal
explanation is still not present . Just as according to the materials
of M.N. Shardakov , the causal explanations begin with the establish
ments of individual dependences between plants and the environment
( "You need earth because there is moisture there . " ) ; Here , there is
a correct mention of the conditions of nutrition of the plant but this
dependence is understood undifferentiatedly and overs implified . With
the systematic study of botany in the fifth and sixth grades , the
causal explanations of the pupils begin to include generalized ele
ments of knowledge in their differeniated concrete significance ( " Be
cause plants take food from there, water and mineral salts . " ) .
And so the content of causal explanations change from being
general inarticulate impressions of an unilateral character in the
direction of becoming statements of generalized causes of the life of
plants concretized by the discarding of the individual ones . The
establishment of cause - effect relation between concepts leads to the
elaboration of systemic knowledge .
An effort to elaborate a classification of systemic associa
tions has been made in the works of Yu . A. Samarin [ 1847, [1857.
He distinguishes "local " and " monolinear " associations , which effect
connections between various individual phenomena without regard to
the system of these phenomena ; limited systemic associations within
the confines of a given topic , section or chapter of a textbook ;
intrasys temic associations effecting a systematization of a series
of associations in function of one or another principle ( for ex
ample , the correlation of historical events in respect of time ) ;
intersubject , or intersystemic associations establishing the core
lations between pieces of knowledge belonging to various branches of
the sciences .
The author notes here that the order of classification corres
ponds in the main to the level of difficulties for these students in
sys tematizing their pieces of knowledge . The difficulty comes in the
formation in the student of intersubject connections , which have a
special significance for the formation of a world outlook and philo
sophy .
Without special practice in the confrontation of pieces of
knowledge of various branches of science , there can be no elaboration
of intersystemic associations in pupils . Although the psychological
aspect of the process of systematization has still not been entirely
uncovered in researches of this sort , the classification of systemic
connections does , indisputably facilitate such a study .
The methodological side of the question of the formation of
systemic ties has been developed by a number of colleagues of the
Leningrad Institute of Pedagogy [ 67, 1307.
/ 307 . In these works there
is stressed the importance of tnē principle of continuity of pieces
of knowledge assimilated by students within the confines of the cur
riculum of a given class and particularly upon transition of the
student from class to class . To this end there has been carried out

- L46 -
an analysis of curricula and textbooks and the most efficient sequence
has been established for the introduction of concepts within the con
fines of school courses and the opportunity has been noted for a con
frontation and unification of the various pieces of knowledge of the
school children in various school disciplines .
The question of the psychology of the formation of sys temic
systems of concepts has been elaborated less fully than the question
of the formation of concepts . However , data available show that in
the general process of assimilation of pieces of knowledge there can
be isolated two series of problems . One type of these problems is
bound up with the process of differentiation of individual concepts ,
with the elimination of the confusion of concepts which are similar
in respect of their unessential marks ; the other problems on the other
hand are associated with the unification of isolated concepts and
representations into strictly scientific systems , with the develop
ment of features of the dialectical thinking of the school children ,
which permits of seeing objects and phenomena in their various con
nections and their mediations . The highest stage of the development
of this sort of synthesizing thinking activity finds its expression
in the formation of the world outlook of the students . This last
requires special investigating.
The problem of the solution of problems has attracted atten
tion of researchers in the field of pedagogical psychology , inasmuch
as the solution of problems is a very important integral part of the
classroom work of the student . It is precisely in the process of the
solution of problems that the students learn to apply knowledge . This
type of work emerges at all stages of teaching : upon introduction of
new material , upon fixation and further deepening of knowledge . At
the same time a study of the solution of problems affords the oppor
tunity to uncover the peculiarities of the thinking activity of the
pupils, their mental operations . Most widely studied is the process
of the solution of mathematical problems - arithmetical and geomet
rical . In most recent years there have appeared researches , analyz
ing the process of solution of physics and technical design problems .
Researches bring out certain common peculiarities of think
ing which appear in the process of the solution of problems from any
concrete field . At the same time they show that the peculiarity of
the material puts its stamp on the thinking activity which is effected
in the solution of the problems , imparting to it a certain definite
specificity .
The solution of problems has been studied from various points
of view : there have been characterized the mental operations which
are carried out in the course of a solution and in the first instance
there have been characterized the operations of analysis and synthesis
and there have been uncovered the peculiarities of the types and tech
niques of analysis and synthesis as applied to the various stages of
teaching and to material which varies in the degree of its difficulty ;
there have been traced the successive stages in the mastery of solving

- 447 -
problems and , specifically , there has been revealed the correlation of
the concrete and the abstract components of the thinking activity ;
there has been studied the recognition and awareness of one's own ac
tions in the solution of problems ; the role of the naming of the typ
ical techniques applied has been brought out and the like .
As has been shown by a number of researches ( N.A. Menchinskaya
_1237 and 2.1. Kalmykova 1947, who have made a study of students,
Ye . K.Andreyeva [ 97, and v.k. Bubnova [277, who researched adults
suffering from affections of the brain) , there are sharply in evidence
two basic types or levels of thinking activity in the process of the
solution of arithmetic problems ( around them are grouped a multitude
of intermediate ones ) . Here it must be kept in mind that the same
students may reveal various levels of solution in respect to tasks which
vary in the degree of their difficulty .
The lower level is characterized by the following : there is a
complete absence of a set to the solution of the problem ; the condition
is dismembered into familiar individual problems , whereby each one of
them is solved . In the habitual way with no awareness whatsoever of
the condition as a whole there is created a fixation on certain most
often used lines of thought .
Thus , there occurs an actualization of well fixed methods of
solution ; i.e. there is accomplished a synthesis without a sufficient
analysis of the condition of the problem . This phenomenon is still
more drastically pronounced in cases with pathological lesions of the
activity of the brain . As was shown by one of the above mentioned re
searches , in these cases it is not the condition ( as a whole ) which
determines the method of action , but on the contrary, the habitual
method of action which leads to reconstruction of the condition of
the problem .
This fact was discovered likewise by I.M. Solov'yev in a study
of mentally retarded school children . The author of the research
noted that if a child proves not to be in a position to alter and
accommodate his knowledge to the conditions of a problem set, he
" changes_the conditions of the problem , adapts them to his own cap
acity (201; 1637 .
Ñ.I. Kuzimitskaya , who likewise made a study of students of
auxiliary schools , discovered that such a transformation of the
condition of a problem occurs not infrequently even in the reproduc
tion of the condition preceding the solution of the problem [1087 .
A higher level as distinct from the one just described is
characterized in the first instance by a set to the solution the
problem . With this are bound up searches for me thods of solution
and the application of varied forms of analysis and synthesis . If
various syntheses ( correlations of data ) are carried out in the
nature of trials , it is forthwith clarified whether this particular
fact must be known and whether it can be known , i.e. the trial is
correlated with the quaerendum , which is given in the condition of
the problem .

. ‫ܢܐܢܐ‬8
 A more or less complex problem can be resolved only as a result
of a " complex" analysis where the analysis embraces not the individual
elements of the condition but their entire totality . Here the pupil
who possesses the capacity to solve the problem does not limit himself
each time to analyzing only those data which should be correlated ; he
takes into account the further course of the solution (Ye.N. Kabanova
Meller speaks in this case of a " foreseeing " 1867, N.A. Menchinskaya
calls this " an anticipatory analysis" _1237 , N.I. Zhinkin calls it
" a planning synthesis " (617. These various appellations conceal one
and the same phenomenon , a phenomenon which is very vital for the
characteristic of the analytico -synthetic activity of thinking . )
For the higher level it is also characteristic that the student
is able to refrain from a reproduction of more habitual techniques and
does not have recourse to them until such time as an over-all analysis
of the conditions of the problem has been completed .
Researches show that the basic characteristic of the levels of
solution applies not only to arithmetic problems of which we were
speaking above , but to problems from other concrete fields likewise .
M.M. Vakhrus hev notes these levels in studying the solution by
students of syllogisms /297 . According to the_data of Ye.N. Kabanova
Meller [867, v.1. Zykova 7767 , A.V. Stepanov (2057, F.N. Gonobolin
627, L.No Landa [1107 , there are revealed approximately the same
Tevels in the giving of geometric proofs and in the solution of geo
metric problems , although here there is also a specificity , condi
tioned by the presence of a drawing .
Ye .n . Kabanova -Meller distinguishes a " constructive " way of
solution (whereby not only is there performed a full analysis of the
condition but the condition is , as it were , " expanded " inasmuch as
conclusions are drawn from it and the drawing is transformed in ac
cord with the problem ) and the opposite " reproductive " way of solu
tion (for which is typical the "welding " of a given formulation of a
question with a given concrete drawing ) .
L.N. Landa goes into detail in the analysis of those trials
which are used by eighth graders in search of a solution of a problem .
At the lower level, there are used a great number of trials ( " trials
of inspection " and " trials of supplementary constructions " ) but they
are usually not motivated , and the pupils do not know what they are
supposed to be going to get as a result of these trials .
At the higher levels , the analytico -synthetic operations are
developed into a system and the supplementary constructions are
motivated and directed to the obtaining of those marks which flow
from an analysis of the conditions of the problem.
Analogous levels have been brought out in relation to physics
and technical designing problems , in the process of the solution of
which practical action is utilized .
E.A. Fleshner , who made a study of the solution of physics
problems by sixth graders (2167, has isolated three groups of stu
dents who reveal qualitatively distinct types of solutions .

- ‫ ويايا‬.
 One of these groups tries one habitual method of solution
and when that doesn't get anywhere gives the problem up ; another
group carried out a whole series of trials , analyzing the condi
tion of the problem along various lines but their trials are not
motivated and the students do not see clearly to what result they
are leading ( " let's try it out, it may be of some use " and the like ) ;
finally the third group carries out a balanced analysis of the condi
tions of the problem and only thereafter does it go on to practical
actions .
According to the data of P.M. Yakobs on who made a study of the
process of the assembling of a mechanism by eighth graders [2327, [2337
the lower level of solution is characterized by the fact that the
pupil does not study the verbal instruction presented to him but goes
straight to work manipulating details , carrying out a plethora of use
less trials . As distinct from this , the higher level of solution is
characterized by an analysis of both the instruction and of the details
and by the presence of a preliminary planning of actions .
The levels described above are distinguished one from another
not only by the character of the analytico -synthetic operations , but
also by the differing correlation of the visual - actional and abstract
components , by the different role of speech in the process of solution
of the problem .
In the solution of technical designing problems , the role of
the word comes out particularly clearly ; in some instances actions are
performed before an analysis of the verbal instructions has been car
ried out ; in others action is inhibited and performed after the in
struction has been analyzed at least in its basic features and there
has been noted a mental plan of actions ( if not of all actions at
least of imminent ones ) ; not infrequently practical trials are pre
ceded by verbally formulated assertions or recall of known laws .
This same problem of the correlation of the concrete and the
abstract aspects of the thinking activity arises likewise in connec
tion with tasks not including a practical action , but in these cases
the concept of the action acquires another sense.
In the researches of N.A. Menchinskaya [1237 , this problem was
resolved as applied to arithmetic problems whereby there was traced
the protracted path of alteration in the correlation of concrete and
abstract components in the thinking of the students during the learn
ing of arithmetic in the elementary and secondary school .
At the initial stage , through which the first graders usually
pass quite rapidly , the process of the solution of the problem comes
down to the carrying out of concrete actions with objects . The role
of speech is extremely insignificant in these cases , inasmuch as it
is limited to the naming of the data given in figures and the result .
Further the carrying out of actions with objects is replaced by ac
tions with numbers, initially abstract and then designated ones .
Arithmetical action is carried out earlier than is the judgment on

- 450 -
these actions , before the appropriate question is formulated .
In these facts , there is revealed one important law govern
ing thinking activity in the course of teaching one and the same
element of knowledge , changes its function , and whereas at one stage
it emerged in the capacity of an abstract piece of knowledge relying
on more palpable processes ( counting initially relied on real actions
with objects ) , in the subsequent stages it becomes concrete and serves
in its turn as a basis for a more abstract thinking operation . ( Junior
grade students are able to explain in words the result they have ob
tained in figures after they have attained it . )
Among senior grade school children who are capable of solving
problems (as also among adults ) , we observe an entirely different cor
relation of the actional and the theoretical aspect of the solution .
They do not carry out any numerical operations until they have
accomplished, on the plane of interior speech , an exhaustive analys is
of the conditions of the problem , until they have dismembered the con
cepts contained in the problem and the laws expressed in it . ) The
process of solution of a problem by adults was studied by 2.1 . Kalmy
kova (927, and she characterized in detail the various techniques of
analys is used by adults . )
As a number of investigations have shown (N.F. Talyzina [2097 ,
N.K. Indik 1847, A.N. Sokolov (2037 , L.P. Doblayev 517) , the " Theoret
ical " solution itself, expressed in judgments , breaks down in its turn
into two parts the " substantiating " and the " operative . " The lat
ter term the author uses to designate the proposition stating how it
is necessary to act . ( The concept " operative proposition" was intro
duced by P.A. Shevarev . ) Both of these types of judgment emerge in the
course of teaching approximately in the same interrelation as was
characterized by us in application to the visual -actional and " the
theoretical " elements of knowledge . In the solution of problem as
signments , the substantiating parts of the judgments bears a more or
less developed character . In psychological works there is given an
analysis of the difficulties which school children encounter in the
mastery of such developed substantiations and there are characterized
the ways for overcoming these difficulties .
In the works there has been shown the immediate dependence of
the elaboration of the capacity to substantiate the solution on the
de gree of difficulty of the study material . Thus , for example , even
the fifth graders already possess this capacity for arithmetical
material, whereas in the study of geometry in sixth grade substantia
tion again becomes their weak point . Pupils in the elementary school
who are studying solutions of problems of construction , as has been
shown in the researches of V.I. Zykova and Yu . V. Rusov (1807 , first
make a sketch and then deliberate on the principles of construction ,
whereby they first acquire the capacity to formulate the course of
the construction itself and later only give the substantiation , ex
plaining why they are constructing this and not another figure . In

-451
the course of instruction there is gradually acquired the capacity of
substantiating the principles of construction before the construction
itself has been practically performed .
Thus , researches reveal a consistent path of the mastery of
abstract thinking by pupils in the solution of problems . Moreover ,
they reveal (and this is no less vital) the development of concrete
thinking of the pupils during the solution of problems in the course of
instruction .
There must be noted the presence of two tendencies in the develop
ment of thinking to a higher level of abstraction and to a richer con
cretization . (What we noted in the exposition of the question of the
assimilation of concepts holds entirely likewise for the solution of
problems . )
In the first grade , as was pointed out above , children who are
being taught to solve problems initially execute actions with ab
stract numbers and then with designated ones . This fact is worthy of
special attention ; it points to a certain definite regularity .
This regularity is especially clearly manifest in the solution
of problems by mentally retarded children , a bus iness which has been
subjected to a special study by I.M. Solov'yev (2017.
As Solov'yev notes , mentally retarded school children operate in
the solution of problems with numbers apart from their " object " signi
ficance ; they operate in the process of solution relying on certain
" schematic stereotypes of word -number relationships " elaborated in
their study experience [201; 1747. To this same tendency , although less
sharply pronounced , point the numerous errors of the pupils of public
schools in the naming of magnitudes in the solution of problems and
likewise their errors in the solution of model problems [ 1087, [ 7237.
At all stages of instruction , the presence of lively notions of
objects and actions described in the text of the problem may exercise
a crucial influence on the success with which they are solved ,
In the junior grades a reliance on representations is essen
tial for the solution of each and every arithmetic problem ; in the
senior grades and among adults the use of images is required in the
solution of problems of a certain structure . And here it is a ques
tion of efficient utilization of images , of a " curtailment of the
image load . " Excessive burdening with details_may_hamper the solution ,
distract from the main aim (cf. on this in 1947, [ 1237).
In the solution of geometric problems and in the execution of
sketching assignments the development of representations ( in the first
instance , spatial ones ) and skillful operation with them acquires en
ormous significance .
In these instances what is demanded of the students is a mental
transformation of the drawing , a mental construction of new drawings ,
a relocation of the visible and imaginary elements and figures and a
confrontation of the visible elements with the imaginary ones and the
like . (on questions of the formation of spatial representations and
operating with them in the solution of problems there are a number of

- 452 -
researches , by Ye . N. Kabanova - Meller [897, Yu . V._Rusov ( 1807, 0.1 . Gal
kina__367, 0.P. Sergeyevich [1937, B.F. Tomov /1197 and v.v. Mistyuk
(133737
On the basis of the study of mental operations which lead to a
successful solution , many researchers put very acutely the question as to
the necessity of specially instructing the children in the efficient
techniques of solution of problems , whereby these researchers emphasize
that these techniques ( such , for example , as balanced analysis , varying
the techniques of analysis , actualization of representations and the
like ) must be formulated by the teacher , brought to the attention of
the pupils and specially developed , i.e. converted into habitual tech
niques of thinking . The researchers emphasize the generalized charac
ter of these techniques , the possibility of a broad transfer of them
to the solution of various problems . From this point of view there is
subjected to a critical analysis the existing practice of teaching the
solution of problems and there is a publication of the best experience
of teachers directed to the training up of effective techniques of
thinking in school children in the matter of the solution of problems
(cf , on this in the works of N.A. Menchinskaya [ 123], 2.I. Kalmykova
1947, L.L._Gurova 457, v.1 . Zykova [ 767, L.N. Landa [1107 , Yu . v.
Rusov (1807 and others .
The ways of solution of problems are exceptionally varied ; they
reflect , as has been shown in researches , the complex interrelations be
tween concrete and abstract mental operations ; in them are realized the
various techniques of analysis and synthesis , of abstraction and gen
eralization ; in the solution of problems there are formed new connec
tions and new systems of connections .
At the same time , the formation of new connections becomes pos
sible only as a result of the actualization and restructuring of assoc
iations elaborated in previous experience . Numerous researches of Sov
iet psychologists have confirmed and concretized the proposition of
I.M. Sechenov , stated by him in his work , " Elements of Thought : " " Not
a single thought goes through the human head in the course of a whole
life which is not made up out of elements which have been registered
in the memory . Even so -called new thoughts which lie at the root of
scientific discoveries are no exception to this rule " (194 ; 441-4427.
In the study of the learning process "solution of problems"
and " habit " prove considerably more closely allied than they are usual
ly considered to be in general psychology . And this is so because in
the learning process we are constantly having to do with the altera
tion of concrete forms both of the solution of problems and of habit,
whereby the solution of problems itself may become a habit . Whereas a
process of complex analyzing and synthesizing (with the presence of
nsearching" operations) is typical for the solution of problems ( the
method of whose solution is not known ) , for the solution of a well
known task or problem of a certain definite type , it is typical that
the analysis and synthesis are accomplished already in the process

- 453
of perception of the condition of and
the instructi
problem (cf. 1947, _7237 ).
on there is observed a
In the process of teaching
multitude of intermediary forms which make it possible to speak of
various skills or "habits " of solving a problem .
For the theory of habit dominant in our day the contention of
K.D. Ushinskiy concerning the " rational " origin of habits , concerning
the process of their formation as a gradual automatization of an ac
tion , still retains its full force .According to this theory a habit
is characterized as an automatized component of some action .
The general psychological conception of activity has exercised
a vital influence on the theoretical elaboration of the problem of habits .
It has been expressed in the fact that the attention of researchers has
been directed to the study of the structural peculiarities of habits in
formation (A.N. Leont'yev [1137 , [1147, Ye.V. Gur 'yanov (477) .
According to these datā , the various methods of execution of an
action must be a special object of study and instruction and pass
through the stage of a consciously regulated process before becoming
automatically performed " operations . " In proportion to the finishing
work done on this score there occurs a unification of the individual
tasks and of the series of individual operations into a single integ
ral task pursuing another aim . Upon their inclusion into a more com
plex action , the individual operations cease to require conscious check
ing ; between the individual links of a complex action there are estab
lished direct connections , thanks to which the psychological structure
of the activity is simplified and there occurs a sui generis " abbrevi
ation " of the discursive processes of thinking .
A distinctive feature of such "conscious" habits is the capacity
in case of necessity of transferring them again to the stage of con
scious control .
The stages through which passes the formation of a habit in vari
ous concrete fields of knowledge (writing , computing , reading , ortho
graphy and the like ) , have also their own specificity which has been
revealed in a number of special researches ; of reading (L.M. Shvarts
(2227 , N.A. Rybnikov / 1817, [1827, B.G. Anan'yev [ 5_7), of writing
( Ye.V. Gur'yanov (167, 487, M.P . Feofanov (2137) , of arithmetic
(N.A. Menchinskaya [1237) ; orthography (D.N. Bogoyavlenskiy [177 ).
One of the cardinal problems of the psychology of habit is the
problem of repetition . As is well - known, theories are very widespread
abroad to the effect that the formation of a habit is a mechanical re
petition of one and the same sort of actions (Watson , Thorndike , and
others ) . According to this theory the main conditions for the forma
tion of a habit is the frequency of the repetitions of the initial
connection between the " stimulus " and the "reaction . "
Soviet psychologists likewise consider that repetition is an
essential condition for the formation and reinforcement of associations ,
but the act of repetition itself according to their data is far more
complex than the repetition of a direct connection between a stimulus
and a reaction . A number of authors (S.L. Rubinshteyn [1707, L.M.

-- 454 -
Shvarts (2227, and others ) , have pointed out that repetitions in the
process of drilling lead not to a reinforcement of the initial tech
niques and methods of execution of actions but rather to their perfec
tion ; that the repeated actions do not copy the preceding ones with
complete accuracy but rather represent alterations of them , sometimes
very radical alterations .
This short of perfection and improvement occurs in the human
individual in the process of the comprehension of actions which he is
performing , a comprehension which restructures the original methods and
techniques of the execution of these actions .
I.P. Pavlov's theory on the reflex nature of the psychic phenom
ena permits of making these propositions more precise and concrete .
In the first place , in the elaboration of new connections repeti
tion does not lead to a mechanical reproduction of the original react
ions , usually broadly irradiated , but rather elicits a differential in
hibition of the non - reinforced components of the stimuli, which leads ,
then , to an alteration of reactions to one and the same "stimulus" in
the sense of their greater specialization . In the human individual
such alterations occur under the regulatory influence of the second
signals system .
Secondly , in the case of practice drilling , there is repeated
not simply a stimulation and a reaction but a whole reflex act as a
whole , i.e. also its middle link , where there occurs the complex
analytico - synthetic activity of the cortex of the hemispheres of the
cerebrum . Consequently , as applied to the human individual , this
means that the positive effect of practice drilling depends not only on
the repeated perception of visual or verbal stimuli , but also on the
repetition of the analyzing and synthesizing thinking operations di
rected to the correction of the initial reactions thanks to a rein
forcement of the proper connections and a " displacement " of the improper
ones .
Thus it should be concluded that in the process of properly
organized practice drill, consciously executed by the pupils , repeti
tion , by perfecting and reinforcing the methods of execution of act
ions , leads likewise to a " finishing " and reinforcement of certain
mental operations , corresponding to the character of the task and the
peculiarities of the material .
,
In the process of practice drill , the initial " searching " tech
niques of actions , the methods of solution of problems are rendered
more precise and improved . The final result is a reinforcement only
of those " trains of thought " and those motor reactions which are the
most direct and effective paths leading to the solution of the prob
lem or to the execution of the action . As a result , tasks which used
to be " real problems " for the school children , are solved forthwith
without any extensive chain of judgments and deductions .
In the works of many psychologists there are included remarks
to the effect that the process of the elaboration of intellectual

- 455 -
skills is characterized by this sort of " abbreviation " of the thinking
operations .
Thus , L.S. Vygotskiy has noted that the development of mental
actions leads in the final analysis to the disappearance of individual
links of the process of ratiocination ( 357.
P.A. Shevarev , describing the species of association , highlights
special associations " in accord with the rule , " the actualization of
which leads to actions according to a rule without recognition of the
rule itself (2247, (2257 .
On the basis of a study of the solution of arithmetical problems
N.A. Menchinskaya comes to the conclusion that the automatization of the
thinking operations signified a curtailment of the process of ratiocin
ation up to and including its entire exclusion in spite of the fact
that_ratiocination continues to lie at the basis of the action performed
_7247.
P.Ya. Gal'perin also considers that the level of abbreviation of
the mental actions is one of the " parameters of their formation . "
Speaking of the abbreviation of mental processes , all researchers
agree that the intellectual skills are the result of a conscious mast
ery of mental operations at previous stages of instruction .
But the question arises as to how the process of abbreviation of
mental activity occurs . What is drawn upon to make possible the cur
tailment of the process of ratiocination ? What stages does this process
pass through in the context of instruction ? To the solution of this
question has been devoted a research of N.K. Indik 1847 .
In the analysis of the collected material (the construction by
pupils of chemical equations) , Indik selects , within the structure of
judgments leading to a solution of a problem , two psychologically dis
tinct elements : the substantiating and the operative ( terms intro
duced by P.A. Shevarev ) . The substantiating judgments are generic
theoretical judgments which are recognized by the pupils in the cap
acity of a basis for the execution of subsequent individual actions
and answer the question why is it necessary to act in this way or
that . As operative elements of a judgment the author classifies those
of them which answer the question : what must be done and how . The
operative elements of a judgment are further intimately linked up with
the executive portion of the action , i.e. , with individual operations
realizing the general theoretical proposition as applied to the condi
tions of the given problem .
In the solution of a complex problem , the process of ratiocin
ation breaks down into a number of links , corresponding to those an
cillary operations which must be performed for the solution of the prob
lem as a whole . The substantiating and operative judgments are observed
then in each such link .
The gradual picture of the elaboration of intellectual skills
the author sketches as follows : at the beginning of instruction there
is accomplished a whole chain of deductions descending from the more
generic propositions to more concrete ones . Each link in the solution

-456 -
of a problem requires an extended judgment , transitions from one link
to another demand reflection and thought . Each action is performed as
a result of the substantiating of the theoretical proposition which
lies at its root ; by performing the action , the pupil thanks to this ,
recognizes why it is necessary so to act .
In the course of further instruction , the structure of ratiocin
ation undergoes alterations along the following lines . First , there
occurs a unification of the individual links into one integral action ,
transitions from one link to another are accomplished ever more freely
and easily and finally between the executive portion of the first link
and the substantiating element of the second, there is formed a direct
associated connection without any interruption of the course of the
ratiocination as a whole . Secondly , the substantiating portion of the
ratiocination becomes ever less extended . This is expressed both in
temporal indices and in the gradual deverbalization of ratiocination :
in an ever more laconic nature of the judgments of the pupils , which
begin to express only the very essence of what is regulating the accom
plishment of the action .
In the end , the process of ratiocination is abbreviated to a
maximum and actions follow one another in a strictly determined order
without refelction . The substantiating judgments cease to play a dir
ecting role and remain in the form of " background connections" which
are actualized only in case of difficulties .
The entire process of the elaboration of intellectual skills is
considered by the author as a formation of systemic ties with the reg
ulatory role accruing to the second signals system .
On material having to do with the solution of physics problems
[1997, A.N. Sokolov likewisecame to similar conclusions on the cur
tailment and disappearance from the chain of deductions in the first
instance of substantiating judgments and initial propositions . Here
he draws attention to the circumstances that the disappearance of the
substantiating judgment does not always witness univocally to a high
level of intellectual skill or to the elaboration of solid systemic
associations : the absence of the substantiating portion of judgments
is sometimes explained by an insufficient understanding of the con
ditions of the problem , by an incapacity theoretically to substantiate
one's actions . In such a case , the actions assume the character of
chaotic trials and can only yield the right solution by pure chance .
Data on the abbreviation of ratiocination witnesses to the
gradual deverbalization of the process of the solution of problems .
If this fact be considered in the light of I.P. Pavlov's understand
ing of the process of automatization as a gradual reduction of the
expenditure of neural labor then it may be presumed that in the given
case we have to do with a reduction of this expenditure in the second
signals system , a reduction which is bound up with a lowering of the
level of its regulatory activity . The neural processes in such a
case " may be accomplished in part by the inhibited areas of the cor
tex " ( Pavlov ) on the basis of neural connections in the first signals

- 457 -
system which have already been es tablished and reinforced ( cf. in this
regard the article of Ye.I. Boyko (247 ).
But the exclusion of mental processes directed to the recogni
tion and perfection of the methods and techniques of the execution of
actions does not signify a debilitation of the awareness of the proces
ses of sensation and perception . Thus , for example , data on the forma
tion of sports motor habits witnesses to the fact that the perceptions
by sportsmen of actions which they are performing acquire great clar
ity and accuracy when these sportsmen have reached a high level of
proficiency . After practice drill and tryouts they can tell of all the
details of all the movements they have just performed and the positions
of various bodily organs [1797.
In the field of school habits the research of Ye . N. Kabanova
Meller is indicative in this regard . This research was devoted to the
formation of the_habit of the reading by school children of a topo
graphical plan /877. She showed that the techniques and methods of the
establishment by the pupil of the spatial correlations between the ele
ments of the terrain on the plan initially demand a high level of aware
ness expressed in verbal generalizations and formulations of rules . But
upon attainment of a high level of progress these actions are deverbal
ized and automatized . However , the automatization of these actions is
characterized by a greater facility of transfer of objective correla
tions into a word, which witnesses to the enhancement of the level of
their recognition . Thus , according to her data , a habit is character
ized by two marks : a reduction of the awareness of one's actions and
an increase of the awareness of the sensory element, given in immedi
ate perception or in representation .
Such features of automatized intellectual skills as de verbal
ization , the unification of the individual operations into an integ
ral action , the "lightning speed " of action , all of which have been
noted by researchers , support the idea that the process of formation
and the peculiarities of structure of intellectual habits and skills
are subordinate to laws common to those governing motor habits inas
much as all these traits are also characteristic of them. This is
entirely natural since the mental actions play an important role like
wise in the acquisition of motor habits . In both motor and intellect
ual habits there stand out in equal measure the substantiating ele
ments which respond to the question why : in both is to be noted like
wise an operative portion , where there is decided what must be done
and how ; to an equal de gree there is in evidence the stage of " fin
ishing " of the given action . The basic difference between these two
species of automatized actions consists evidently only in the fact
that , whereas in the case of motor habits we had to do with real act
ions , in the elaboration of intellectual habits automatization oc
curs on the plane of mental operations . Physiological data also wit
ness to the community of the laws governing the formation of these
two species of skills and habits . We have in view I.P. Pavlov's
proposition to the effect that the laws governing neural activity are

- 458 -
the same both for the first and for the second signals systems which
signifies , obviously , that the laws of stereotyping of neural activ
ity are the same for motor and mental habits .
To all this should be added that the automatization of mental
actions does not signify the reduction of thought to a habit . To the
extent to which problems requiring solution require the application of
knowledge in a new set up , to altered material , thinking again returns
to the path of its extended forms , to the path of an analysis of ma
terial , of a differentiating of knowledge and systemic generalizations .
Intellectual habits , like all habits , are in this case only components
of a creative thinking activity , which facilitates the solution of
new problems .
A cardinal condition for the successful assimilation of know
ledge is the arousing in the students of interests in study and learn
ing , which contributes to a heightening of their mental activity .
It is well - known that importance was ascribed by I.P. Pavlov
to the "active state of the cortex of the cerebral hemispheres " for
the formation of temporary connections . He noted that if the brain
passes to an indifferent state then no connections are formed in the
brain .
In physiological experiments , a heightened cortical activity
has been elicited by appropriate unconditioned reinforcement of the
orientational reaction of an animal . In relation to the human indivi
dual , the stimuli of a social nature acquire cardinal significance .
In the broad sense , stimulation of mental activity in psychology
is bound up with the training in the student of volitional personality
qualities , of cognitive interests , of an understanding of the social
significance of assimilated pieces of knowledge , with a training up in
the school children of a respons ible attitude to work .
The most elaborated at the present time is the question of the
appearance and influence on the study activity of the cognitive inter
est of the school child .
In a number of researches it is shown that pieces of knowledge
are assimilated in various ways by school children in function of how
the latter relate to study . The training of study interests and of
a responsible attitude to study aids in the conversion of the knowledge
to be assimilated into convictions serving as a basis for the formation
of the world outlook of the school children . Here there are being
studied the conditions which guarantee a proper training in the family
and in the school of broad social motives of learning . In these works
there is stressed the importance of a study of the motivational aspect
of learning on the plane of the general development of the personality
of the child .
Certain researches have proven experimentally the possibility of
a restructuring of the study activity via a restructuring of motivation ,
via an alteration of the attitude of the child to learning . Thus , for
example , L.S. Slavina , who has worked with intellectually passive first
graders , succeeded in eliminating the negative attitude of the child

- 459 -
to thinking operations by changing the motivation of his activity . She
interested the children in a certain definite method of solution of
arithmetical problems , requiring independent mental efforts , by linking
up the application of this method with a "winning " of little cards
which were attractive to the children . In the sequel this method was
transferred by them to their study work generally (1987.
F.I. Fradkina has shown that in the restructuring of motivation
of a school child the creative games organized extracurricularly may
have great significance (2177 .
The question as to the connections between intellectual activ
ity and learning has been the subject of a special study by L.M. Zyubin .
The author notes that a responsible attitude to study and intellectual
activity are intimately linked one with another . However , he observes
that a positive attitude to learning does not always elicit a high
level of intellectual activity and vice versa intellectual activity may
arise with a generally indifferent attitude to study . This sort of
lesion of the unity of intellectual activity and a conscious attitude
to learning the author explains in terms of the level of the knowledge
assimilated (various levels of its systemic nature ( 787).
The conditions of the appearance of interest in study work has
been researched likewise in works by A.K. Abdullayev [ 1 /, N.A. Bel
yayeva Z117, L.V. Blagonadezhina [ 127, L.1. Bozhovich [187 , 197,
v.Ğ. Ivanov [797, N.G. Morozova 1367 , 11377, M.F. Morozov [1307 , 1.M.
Podberezin (1577, S.G. Yakobson 22357 .
The formation of technical interests in industrial activity has
been investigated by M.G. Davletshin 497 and A.K. Perov (1537 .
The approach to the problem of mental activity from the point of
view of the social and personal importance of the object_of study has
been taken most consequentially by N.F. Dobrynin 1537, 547, 557.
Basing himself on the reflex theory of I.P. Pavlov , the author advances
in the capacity of a generic condition for the arousing of mental act
ivity na signal importance " of the stimuli , their vitally important
significance for the human individual . He does not share the opini
of many psychologists who consider that at the basis of the activity of
psychic operations there lie orientational reflexes . In his opinion ,
the orientational reflex permits only of noticing the required stimu
lations connected with the change in the external condition . However ,
if this change of conditions does not entail anything immediately im
portant for the individual , then the orientational reflex fades . Men
tal activity of the school child , manifest in a deliberate attention
is connected with the importance for the pupils of those pieces of
knowledge which are being imparted to them by the teacher .
On the basis of a recognition of the personal and social import
ance which they possess are founded all the required associations and
systems of associations .
This contention can scarcely be disputed . But it should be noted
that it is extremely vague , whereas in our opinion the solution of the
question as to why the various aspects of pieces of knowledge being

- 460 -
learned acquire for the school children at various developmental levels
a different " signal importance " would be of the very greatest theoret
ical and practical significance .
It must be assumed that in the light of the Pavlov theory the
solution of this question should be linked up with an analysis of those
forms of reinforcement , thanks to which various stimuli acquire signal
significance . In the application to the human individual , a reinforce
ment assumes the most varied socially conditioned forms , but the role
or reinforcement in the structure of cognitive activity as a reflex act
ivity does not for all that become less important .
We assume that the use of the concept " reinforcement " will help
to enrich both the theory of " relations " and the theory of signal im
portance .
A number of facts permit of distinguishing two forms of rein
forcement immediate ( or direct) and mediate ( or indirect) reinforce
ment .
As immediate reinforcement should be classified various forms of
approval or disapproval , various forms of calling attention ( verbal and
written ) to the erroneousness or the correctness of the actions of the
pupils . The main role here is played by the evaluation of the student's
work by the teacher although there are possible other forms of reinforce
ment as well ( influence of the textbook, examples of a comrade ) .
Typical here is the circumstance that such a reinforcement is
directly included into the process of the study activity of the pupil ,
is one of its links . The evaluational activity of the teacher is of
great significance for the activation of learning . This has been
shown by numerous researches by a number of authors (B.G. Anan'yev
[77, m.n. Volokitina Z327, 337, L.I, Bozhovich , N.G. Morozova,
1.š. slavina (227, g.v. Mazurenko 1217 , K.A. Moskalenko [1387,1.M.
Tsvetkov [2317, 1.v. Strakhov [2067, [2017 and others) .
But besides the direct reinforcement there should in our opin
ion be distinguished the evaluation of his own activity by the pupil
himself , an evaluation which he makes basing himself on his own (in
his opinion correct) practical or study experience . In this instance
the reinforcement exercises its influence immediately thanks to a trans
fer of the reinforcement present in previous experiences into a new sit
uation .
Such a reinforcement in the formation of associations and their
sys tems has in all probability enormous importance inasmuch as the
mediate reinforcement links up the process of the formation and fixing
of knowledge with the past experience of the human individual . A pos
itive attitude of the student to study , the signal importance of vari
our components of knowledge depend not only on the conditions obtain
ing at a given moment but also on the previous experience of the schol
ar upon which the new pieces of knowledge are being built up : that
which is new and , by associating with past experience , corresponds to
it , receives in this way a mediate reinforcement and emer ges as a fac
tor stimulating intellectual activity along a certain definite line .

- 461 -
 The selection by students of individual " strong " marks of concepts
connected with their everyday experience , of which we have spoken earlier ,
corresponds to such an understanding of the matter . In the same way it
should be assumed does the emotional aspect of previous experience oper
ate . By being interpolated into the current cognitive activity , it cre
ates a certain prerequisite for the activation of certain definite meth
ods of actions in one set of circumstances and for inhibition in other
sets of circumstances .
An analysis of the various forms of reinforcement of study act
ivity of the school child permits of understanding from the point of
view of the reflex theory certain old problems of the psychology of at
tention as , for example , the tie-in of " the uninteresting " with the
" interesting , the correlation of " the new" and "the old" and the like ,
all of which have for the most part remained undeservedly neglected and
forgotten in contemporary works devoted to the research of the interest
of the school child .
Of great practical significance is the question of the means of
attracting the attention of the student in class . Here there should be
distinguished at least two aspects of this problem : first , the attrac
tion of attention , the arousing of activity of the school children
in the process of the execution of study ass ignments ; secondly , the
arousing of interest as a preliminary condition for work at new materi
al .
The study of the first group of questions is being carried out
in the great majority of researches devoted to the study of the psych
ology of the active assimilation of concrete school disciplines .
In the present summary article we have already treated this
question , speaking of the general conditions , which guarantee the ef
fectiveness of the analytico - synthetic activity of the pupil (visualiza
tion and the word , comparison and contrast, recognition of the prin
ciple of typical variation) .
This question is also treated in numerous works_devoted to the
study of the problems of_attention (B.G. Anan'yev 147, F.n. Gonobo
lin 617 , M.A. Danilov 1507, N.F. Dobrynin 537 , 567 , S.M. Rives
[1687 , 1.v. Strakhov [2017 ,' m.n .Shardakov (2197 ,- andothers .
The question of the means for creating a preliminary stimulation
favorable to the assimilation of new material has been studied compara
tively less . Both the educators and the psychologists consider import
ant such factors as the communication to the student of the aim of the
lesson , the establishment of a tie -in with previous knowledge , the cre
ation in the student of a " problem situation ," the enlistment of facts
eliciting an emotional attitude to the topic of the lesson and the like .
However , there are still very few experimental works devoted to the re
search of this question on the material of the various school discip
lines . Of these may be mentioned the dissertations of N.D. Zavalova
[667 , and G.M. Tereshchenko (2107, in which there have been studied on
material from grammar , orthography , and in part arithmetic and natural
history , certain conditions for the creation of preliminary interest

- 462 -
(correlation of the verbal and the visual in the explanation of the aim
of the lesson, methods of creating a "problem situation" and certain
others ) .
M.A. Danilov 1507 analyzes this question on the general didactic
plane .
The problem of the individual differences in learning have been
studied less in comparison with the studies of the general regular
features of learning . Therefore we shall briefly touch on the results
of researches on this problem.
The researchers of the problem of individual differences go by
various ways : some of them try to study the whole variety of indi vidual
peculiarities manifest in children of the same age and level of instruc
tion . Taking this variety and versatility as a point of departure , they
group children according to basic categories at the basis of the dis
tinction of which lies a whole totality of features . ( This was the
path taken by Yu . A. Samarin [1867, m.n. Volokitina /337, v.1 . Samokh
valova [1897 and others .) This approach may be called predominantly
synthetic . The specificity of the other path consists in the fact
that there are selected certain definite traits of the thinking activ
ity which are put at the basis of a grouping of students according to
categories . ( This has been the line_taken by the researches of N.A.
Lisenkova (1187, N.A. Menchinskaya _1237, K.G. Pavlova [1527, T.P.
Terekhova Z2117 , v.K. Bubnova 287 , R.I.Ginzburg 107, P.M. Yakobson ,
_2347 .). This is in the main an analytic approach .
Both approaches are justified and compliment one another , each
has its own advantage .
In the first instance there is better retained in the process of
the study the integrity of personality , whereas in the second with the
selection of the dominant traits of thinking activity there is to be
noted the possibility of the bringing to light of the typical pecular
ities of thought directly influencing the character of the assimilation
of knowledge .
Researches of the first group have yielded material which ex
plains how the generic bias of the personality , the peculiarities of
the volitional and emotional spheres , the character traits and the
peculiarities of thought are combined and interact one upon the other .
Thus , Yu.A. Samarin characterizing the style of mental work of senior
school children reveals the peculiarities of organization not only of
the mental processes but also of the volitional and emotional ones ,
reveals the influence of the general bias of the student on the proc
ess of his self -organization , including into this bias the world out
look , the interest , the set to the future .
Furthermore he directs attention to the degree of mestery of
the technical techniques of mental operations .
As for researches on the second group , in these there have
been brought out the following typical properties of thinking activ
ity in the process of the assimilation of knowledge which exercises
a directing influence on the success of the assimilation : flexibility

- 463 -
or mobility of the thinking processes , peculiarities of the correla
tion of the concrete and abstract components of the thinking activity
(based on various types of connection between the two signals sys
tems a closely knit or a "wobbly " connection as I.P. Pavlov would
say and the character of the execution of the analytico -synthetic op
erations . In the recent pas t in connection with the study of the
technical activity of students still another criterion has acquired
importance ; this is the predominant inclination of the student to
theoretical or to practical activity or a harmonious development
characterized by a high level both of theoretical_knowledge and of
practical skills ( in the works of P.4 . Yakobson Z2337 ,2347).
In researches there has been traced the level of persistence
of these properties in students over several years of school : it has
been shown how these peculiarities of thinking activity are reflected
in the process of the assimilation and application of knowledge , how
they are manifest in various concrete forms in the assimilation of
knowledge from various areas and at various levels of instruction (up
on the curriculum becoming more difficult) .
For the elaboration of the problem of individual differences in
the process of learning, great importance accrues to new data obtained
in researches devoted to the typological peculiarities of the higher
neural activities of the human individual ( cf. anthologies on this
topic , edited by B.M. Teplov ) .
The effort of one of the authors of these anthologies , N.S.
Leytes attracts attention particularly . He has attempted to approach
the psychological characteristics of temperament making broad use of
the study_of_the vital manifestations of various types of nervous
systems [1117. Leytes has carried out protracted observations on
senior graders , subjecting to detailed analysis the peculiarities of
their mental operations .
In this research the attempt is made to unite both the synthetic
al and the analytical approach to the study of students , i.e. , there
are studied various individual features of conduct while at the same
time the integral characteristic of the temperament and accordingly
of the type of nervous system is not lost sight of in the process . It
may be assumed that in the course of time there will occur likewise ,
in researches on the psychology of instruction devoted to individual
differences , a unification of both the synthetic and the analytic
approach in the study , i.e. , it will be possible to attain an integ
ral characteristic of the personality of the student while at the
same time uncovering the individual most typical features of his
thinking activity in the process of the assimilation and application
of knowledge .
The treatment of the problem of individual differences direct
ly creates a basis for the individual approach to the student in the
classroom . Special researches have been carried out to bring to light
the influence of the various methods of personal approach of the

464
teacher upon the alterations of the processes of the thinking activ
ity of the student . ( Psychological researches of teachers on these
questions are reflected in a number of anthologies of " Pedagogical
Readings " published in 1953 [627, 1955 Z757, and 1956 (957.)
Such , in its general features , is the present state of re
searches of certain basic problems of the psychology of learning .
As a result of researches on the psychology of learning there
have been elaborated the prerequisites of an effective , conscious
assimilation of knowledge presupposing the skill widely to apply
them in various new circumstances . Demands have been levied for an
efficient format of children's books and textbooks . ( The last ques
tion has been expounded in a whole series_of_works mentioned above ;
it is also treated in a summary article _1257).
Psychological data have been obtained which contribute a sub
stantial supplementation to the content of didactical principles
( awareness , activization of learning, visualization , solidity) .
Specifically there has been elaborated the principle of variation of
study materials ( which is known in didactics as the principle of vari
ety in practice drills ) , which is of significance likewise for an
efficient utilization of visual aids and for a heightening of the
awareness and active nature of the learning process . There have been
established the psychological prerequisite of an effective structuring
of practice drills .
The results of researches on the psychology of teaching can be
utilized not only in didactics but in individual methodologies .
Psychology has contributed its considerable portion to the
elaboration of the scientific basis of the methodology of the teach
ing of a number of school subjects : the Russian language (reading ,
orthography , grammar ) arithmetic , geometry , natural science, history ,
geography , drawing , , etc ..
However , the results available are not yet being implemented
in an organized fashion into the practice of teaching .
The introduction of the results of researches on the psychol
ogy of teaching into the practice of the schools is an urgent task .
And there are still a multitude of unsolved problems posed by a
school system which is re gearing on a new polytechnical basis ,

- 465 -
 LITERATURE

1. A. K. Abdullayev , Razvitiye poznavatel'nykh interesov u ucha

shchikhsya pervo go i vtorogo klassov nachal'noy shkoly (Develop
ment of Cognitive Interests in Pupils of First and Second Grades
of Elementary School ) , Avtoreferat kand . diss . in - t . psikho logii
( Author's Abstract of Candidate's Dissertation , Psychology In
stitute ) , Moscow , 1953 .
2.
B. G. Anan'yey (ed . ) . " Formation of Space and Spatial Representa
tions in Children , ' ' Izvestiya APN RSFSR ( News of RSFSR Academy
of Pedagogical Sciences ) , No. 36 , 1956 .
3. B. G. Anan'yev , " The Problem of Representation in Soviet Psycho
logical Science , Filosofskiye zapiski ( Philosophical Reports ),
Vol. V , Izd - vo ÁN SSSR TUSSR Academy of Sciences Press ) , Mos
cow , i950 .
4. B. G. Anan'yev , Vospitaniye vnimaniya shkol'nika ( Training of
the Pupil's Attention ) , Izd - VO APN RSFSR TRSFSR Academy of
Pedagogical Sciences Publishing House ) , 1946 .
5. B. G. Anan'yev , " Analysis of Difficulties Encountered in the
Process of Mastery by Children of Reading and Writing, IZ
vestiya APN RSFSR ( News of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical
Sciences) , No. 50 , 1955 .
6 .. B. G. Anan'yev ( ed . ) , " Continuity of Educational- Training Work
in IV and V Grades , Izvestiya APN RSFSR ( News of the RSFSR
Academy of Pedagogical Sciences ) , No. 72 , 1956 .
7. B. G. Anan'yev , " The Psychology of Marks in School Trudy in .
stituta po izucheniyu mozga im . V. M. Bekhtereva iworks of the
imeni V. M. Bekhterev Brain Institute ) , No. IV, Leningrad , 1935 .
8.
B. G. Anan'yev and A. N.Popova ,, " Some Psychological Questions
of the Alphabetical Period of the Initial Teaching of Reading
and Writing , " Izvestiya APN RSFSR ( News of the RSFSR Academy
of Pedagogical Sciences) , No. 26 , 1950 .
9. Ye . K. Andreyeva , Narusheniye obrazovaniya sistem smyslovykh
svyazey pri porazhenii Tobnykh doley mozga (Lesion of the For
mation of Systems of Semantic Connections in cases of Affec
tion of the Frontal Regions of the Brain ) , Avtoreferat kand .
diss . in - t . psikhologii ( Author's Abstract of Candidate's Dis
sertation , Psychology Institute ) , Moscow , 1951 .
10 . N. K. Balats'ka , Rozuminnya prisliviv uchnyami molod shikh klassiv
( Understanding of Adverbs by Junior Grade Pupils) , Zin Ukrainian ) ,
Ministry of Education of Ukrainian SSR , Institut psikhologii .
Naukovi zapiski ( Institute of Psychology . Academic Notes) ,
Vol. I, Radyans'ka shkola ( Soviet School ) , Kiev , 1949 .
11 . N. A. Belyayeva , Aktivizatsiya interesa k ucheniyu kak odno iz
sredsty povysheniya uspevayemo sti ( Stimulation of Interest in
Learning as One Means to Increase Progress in School ) , Avto
referat kand . diss . in - t . psikho logii (Author's Abstract of
Candidate's Dissertation , Psychology Institute ) , Moscow , 1955 .
12 . L. V. Blagonadezhina , " Influence of the Study of Literature on
Students ' Independent Reading , Izvestiya ADN RSFSR ( News of
the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences), No. 73 , 1955 .
13 . P. P. Blonskiy , Pamyat ' i myshleniye (Memory and Thinking ) , Sot
sekgiz (State Socio - economic Publishing House ) , Moscow , 1935 .
14 . V. V. Bogoslovskiy, " Understanding and Assimilation of Historical
Causality by IV to VII Grade Pupils , " Uchenyye zapiski LGPI im .
A. I. Gert sena ( Academic Reports of the Leningrad State Peda
gogical Institute imeni A. I. Gertsen ) , Vol . XCVI , 1954 .
15 . D. N. Bogoyavlenskiy ,, " On the Psychology of the Orthography of
Non - Accented Vowels," Izvestiya APN RSÉSR ( News of the RSÉ SR
Academy of Pedagogical Sciences) , No. 12 , 1947 .
- 466 -
16 . D. N. Bogoyavlenskiy and N. A. Menchinskaya , Psikhologiya usvo
yeniya znaniy v shkole ( Psychology of the Assimilation of Knowl
edge in the School ) , Izd -VO APN RSFSR ( RSFSR Academy of Peda
gogical Sciences Publishing House ) , 1959 .
17 . D. N. Bogoyavlenskiy , Psikhologiya usvoyeniya orfografii (Psy
chology of the Assimilation of Orthography) , Izd - vo APN RSFSR
( RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences Publishing House ) , 1957 .
18 . L. I. Bozhovich , " Psychological Analysis of the Use of the Rule
on Unaccented Vowels of the Root , " Sovetskaya pedagogika ( Soviet
Pedagogy ) , No. 5-6 , 1937 .
19 . L. I. Bozhovich , " Psychological Analysis of Formalism in the
Assimilation of Knowledge by School - Children , Sovetskaya
pedagogika ( Soviet Pedagogy ) , No. 11 , 1945 .
20 . L. I. Bozhovich , " The Attitude of School - Children to Learning as
a Psychological Problem , " Izvestiya APN RSFSR ( News of the RSFSR
Academy of Pedagogical Sciences ) , No. 36 , 1951 .
21 . L. I. Bozhovich , " Cognitive Interests and Ways to Study Them , "
Izvestiya APN RSFSR ( News of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical
Sciences ) , No. 73 , 1955 .
22 .
L. I. Bozhovich , N. G. Morozova , L. S. Slavina , " Development of
Motives of Study in Soviet School - Children , " Izvestiya APN
RSFSR (News of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences ) , No.
36 , 1951 .
23 . L. I. Bozhovich , N. G. Morozova , L. S. Slavina , " Psychological
Analysis of the Significance of Marks as a Motive of Study Ac
tivity of School - Children , " Izvestiya APN RSFSR ( News of the
RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences ) , No. 36 , 1951 .
24 . Ye . I. Boyko , " Toward a Posing of the Problem of Skill and Habits
in Contemporary Psychology , " Sovetskaya pedagogika ( Soviet
Pedagogy ) , No. 1 , 1956 .
25 . T. N. Borkova , Ye . V. Gur'yanov and 0. S. Karandeyeva , " Forma
tion of skills and Habits in Manual Training Classes for Junior
Pupils , " Materialy soveshchani ya po psikhologii ( Papers of a
Conference on Psychology ) , Izd - VO APN RSFSR ( RSFSR Academy of
Pedagogical Sciences Publishing House ) , 1957 .
26 . T. I. Bochkareva , " The Pictorial and the Conceptual in the Forma
tion of a Type Literary Image in the Senior Pupils , " Uchenyye
zapiski LGPI im . A. I. Gertsena ( Academic Notes of the Leningrad
State Pedagogical Institute imeni A. I. Gertsen ) , Vol. XCVI ,
1954 .
27 . V. K. Bubnova , " Solution of Arithmetical Problems by Those Suf
fering From Brain Affections , " Izvestiya APN RSFSR ( News of the
RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences ) , No. 71 , 1955 .
28 . V. K. Bubnova , " Individual Differences in Understanding of a
Popular Scientific Text by Junior Pupils , " Voprosy psikhologii
( Questions of Psychology ) , No. 4 , 1955 .
29 . M. M. Vakhrushev , Ponimaniye i usvoyeniye shkol'nikami II , IV i
VI klassov nekotorykh form deduktivnykh umo zaklyucheniy (Under
standing and Assimilation by 2nd , 4th and 6th Grade Pupils of

- 467 -
 Certain Forms of Deductive Reasoning ) , Avtoreferat kand . diss .
( Author's Abstract of Candidate's Dissertation ) , Leningrad , 1956 .
30 . N. M. Verzilin ( ed . ) , " Development of Biological Concepts , '
Izvestiya APN RSFSR ( News of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical
Sciences ) , No. 82 , 1956 ,
31 . A. D. Vinogradova , " Understanding and Assimilation by 4th - 6th
Grade Pupils of Functional Mathematical Dependence , " Uchenyye
zapiski LGPI im . A. I. Gertsena ( Academic Reports of the Lenin
grad State Pedagogical Institute imeni A. I. Gertsen ) , Vol .
XCVI , 1954 .
32 . M. N. Volokitina , Ocherki psikhologii shkol'nikov pervogo klassa
( Outlines of the Psychology of 1st Grade Pupils ), Uchped giz
( State Teacher Training Publishing House ) , Moscow , 1954 .
33 . M. N. Volokitina , Ocherki psikhologii mlad shikh shkol'nikov
( Outlines of the Psychology of Junior Pupils) , Izd - VO APN
RSFSR ( RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences Publishing House ) ,
1955 .
34 . L. S. Vygotskiy , Pedagogicheskaya psikhologiya (Pedagogical Psy
chology ) , Izd - vo " Rabotnik prosveshcheniya " ( " The Educator"
Publishing House ) , Moscow , 1926 .
35 . L. S. Vygotskiy , Izbr. psikhologicheskiye proizv . ( Selected
Psychological Works) , Izd - VO APN RSFSR ( RSFSR Academy of Peda
gogical Sciences Publishing House ) , 1956 .
36 . 0. I. Galkina , " Development of Representations of Space in
Children in 1st Grade Drawing Classes ," Izvestiya APN RSFSR
( News of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences ) , No. 86 ,
1956 ,
37. P. Ya . Gal'perin , " Experience of the Study of the Formation of
Mental Activities , " Doklady na soveshchanii po vopro sam psikho
logii ( Reports at a Conference on Questions of Psychology ) ,
Izd - VO APN RSFSR ( RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences Pub
lishing House ) , 1954 .
38 . P. Ya .. Gal'perin and N. F. Talyzina , " The Formation of Initial
Geometric Concepts on the basis of Organized Activity of the
Pupils, " Voprosy psikho logií ( Questions of Psychology ) , No. 1 ,
1957 .
39 . I. V. Gittis and A. A. Znamenskiy , " On the Question of the In
crease of the Awareness of Pupil's Knowledge on History , " Iz
vestiya APN RSFSR ( News of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical
Sciences ) , No. 59 , 1954 .
40 . R. L. Ginzburg , " On the Typology of the Assimilation of Class
Material by School -Children , " Voprosy psikhologii ( Questions
of Psychology ) , No. 5 , 1956 .
41 . F. N. Gonobolin , Vospitaniye vnimaniya u ucha shchikhsya ( Train
ing of Attention in Pupils ) , Izd - vo APN RSFSR ( RSFSR Academy
of Pedagogical Sciences Publishing House ) , 1955 .
42 . F. N. Gonobolin , " On the Question of the Understanding of Geo
metric Proofs by Pupils , " Izvestiya APN RSFSR ( News of the
RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences ) , No. 54 , 1954 .

. 468 -
43 . Ye . N. Gopfengaus , " Understanding of a Literary Figure by 1st
Grade Pupils, " Izvestiya APN RSFSR ( News of the RSFSR Academy
of Pedagogical Sciences ) , No. 61 , 1954 .
44 . M. A. Guzeva , " Peculiarities of the Differentiation of Space in
Children in Work Classes , " Izvestiya APN RSFSR ( News of the
RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences ) , No. 86 , 1956 .
45 . L. L. Gurova , Osobennosti resheniya arifmeticheskikh zadach
neuspevayushchimi ucha shchimisya V- VI klassov (Peculiarities of
the Solution of Arithmetical Problems by Poor Students of the
5th and 6th Grades ) , Avtoreferat kand . diss . in- t . psikhologii
(Author's Abstract of Candidate's Dissertation , Institute of
Psychology ) , Moscow , 1953 .
46 . Ye . V. Gur'yanov , Razvitiye navyka pis'ma u shkol'nikov (Develop
ment of the Knack of Writing in School - Children ) , Uchped giz
( State Teacher Training Publishing House ) , Moscow , 1940 ,
47 . Ye . V. Gur'yanov , " Habit and Action , " Uchenyye zapiski MGU im .
Lomonosova ( Academic Reports of the imeni Lomonosov Moscow
State University ) , No. 90 , 1945 .
48 . Ye . V. Gur'yanov , Psikhologicheskiye osnovy uprazhneniy pri obu
chenii pis'mu ( The Psychological Bases of Exercises in the
Teaching of Writing ) , Izd - VO APN RSFSR ( RSFSR Academy of Peda
gogical Sciences Publishing House ) , 1948 .
49 . M , G. Davletshin , " The Formation of Technical Interests of 5th
to 7th Grade Pupils of the Secondary School, " Uchenyye zapiski
Tashkent skogo GPI (Academic Notes of the Tashkent State Peda
gogical Institute ) , 1956 .
50 . M. A. Danilov , " Preparation of Pupils for Active Perception of
New Pieces of Knowledge , " Sovetskaya pedagogika ( Soviet Peda
gogy ) , No. 8 , 1947 .
51 . L. P. Doblayev , "Thinking Processes in the Construction of Equa
tions ," Izvestiya APN RSFSR ( News of the RSFSR Academy of Peda
gogical Sciences ) , No. 80 , 1957 .
52 . N. F. Dobrynin ( ed . ) , Psikhologicheskiy analiz uroka (A Psycho
logical Analysis of a Lesson ) , Uchped giz ( State Teacher Train
ing Publishing House ) , Moscow , 1952 .
53. N. F. Dobrynin , " The Problem of the Activity of the Personality
and of the Activity of the Mind, " Uchenyye zapiski MGPI im .
V. P. Potemkina ( Academic Reports of the imeni V. P. Potemkin
Moscow State Pedagogical Institute ) , Vol . XXXVI , No. 2 , 1954 .
54 . N. F. Dobrynin , " The Problem of Importance and Meaningfulness
in the Formation of Temporary Connections in Man , " Doklady na
sove shchanii po vopro sam psikhologii ( Reports at a Conference
on Questions of Psychology ), Izd - VO APN RSFSR ( RSFSR Academy
of Pedagogical Sciences Publishing House ) , 1954 .
55 . N. F. Dobrynin , " The Problem of the Activity of the Personality
and the Principle of Social Importance and Meaningfulness in
Psychology , " Doklady na soveshchanii po vopro sam psikhologii
lichnosti (Reports at a Conference on Questions of the Psychology

. 469 -
 of Personality ) , Izd - VO APN RSFSR ( RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical
Sciences Publishing House ) , 1956 .
56 . N. F. Dobrynin , " The Problem of Importance and Meaningfulness in
Psychology , " Materialy soveshchaniya po psikhologii (Papers of
a Conference on Psychology ) , Izd - vo APN RSFSR ( RSFSR Academy
of Pedagogical Sciences Publishing House ) , 1957 .
57 . T. G. Yegorov , " The Psychology of Mistakes in Reading at Various
Stages of Instruction , " Izvestiya APN RSFSR ( News of the RSFSR
Academy of Pedagogical Sciences ) , No. 1 , 1945 .
58 . T. G. Yegorov and Ye . V. Gur'yanov ( ed . ) , " Questions of the
Psychology of Teaching Reading and Writing , " Izvestiya APN RSFSR
( News of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences ) , No. 42 ,
1952 .
59 . T. G. Yegorov , Psikhologiya ovladeniya navykom chteniya ( The
Psychology of the Mastery of the Knack of Reading ) , Izd - VO APN
RSFSR ( News of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences ) , 1953 .
60 . S. A. Zhekulin , " Processes of Understanding the Structure of
Mechanisms, " Materialy soveshchaniya po psikhologii ( Papers of
a Conference on Psychology ) , Izd - vo APN RSFSR ( RSFSR Academy of
Pedagogical Sciences Publishing House ) , 1957 .
61 . N. I. Zhinkin , " Development of the Written Speech of 3rd to 7th
Grade Pupils ," Izvestiya APN RSFSR ( News of the RSFSR Academy
of Pedagogical Sciences ) , No. 78 , 1956 .
62. N. I. Zhinkin ( ed . ) , Anthology , Psikhologicheskiye voprosy raz .
vitiya rechi ucha shchikhsya v shkole ( Psychological Questions
of the Development of the Speech of Pupils in the School ) ,
Izd - VO APN RSFSR ( RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences Pub
lishing House ) , 1953 .
63 . S. F. Zhuykov , " Assimilation by Pupils of the Verb as a part of
Speech , " Anthology , Voprosy psikhologii usvoyeniya grammatiki
i orfografii ( Questions of the Psychology of the Assimilation
of Grammar and Orthography ) , Izd - VO APN RSFSR ( RSFSR Academy
of Pedagogical Sciences Publishing House ) , 1959 .
64 . S. F. Zhuykov , " On the Psychology of the Formation of Orthographic
Habits, " Izvestiya APN RSFSR ( News of the RSFSR Academy of Peda
gogical Sciences ) , No. 80 , 1957 .
65 . S. F. Zhuykov , " Initial Generalization of Language Material by
Junior Pupils , " Voprosy psikho logii ( Questions of Psychology ) ,
No. 2 , 1955 .
66 . N. D. Zavalova , Voprosy vnimaniya pri izuchenii grammatiki v v
klasse ( Questions of Attention in the Learning of Grammar in
5th Grade ) , Avtoreferat kand . diss . in - t . psikhologii ( Author's
Abstract of Candidate's Dissertation , Institute of Psychology ) ,
Moscow , 1956 .
67 . L. V. Zankov , " On Errors in the Reproduction of a Chronological
Sequence of Historical Events, " Sovetskaya pedagogika ( Soviet
Pedagogy ) , No. 7 , 1940 .

. 470 -
68 . L. V. Zankov , Pamyat ' shkol'nika , yeye psikhologiya i pedagogika
( The Pupil's Memory , Its Psychology and Pedagogical Training ) ,
Uchpedgiz ( State Teacher Training Publishing House ) , Moscow ,
1944 .
69 . L. V. Zankov , Pamyat ' (Memory ) , Uchpedgiz ( State Teacher Train
ing Publishing House ) , Moscow , 1949 .
70 . L. V. Zankov , Sochetaniye slova uchitelya i sredstv naglyadnosti
v obuchenii . Didakticheskiye issledovaniya ( Combination of the
Teacher's Spoken Word and Visual Teaching Aids in Teaching.
Didactic Researches ) , Izd - VO APN RSFSR ( RSFSR Academy of Peda
gogical Sciences Publishing House ) , Moscow , 1958 .
71 . P. I. Zinchenko , " On Forgetting and the Reproduction of Class
room Knowledge , " Nauchnyye zapi ski Khar'kovskogo GPIIYaz ( Sci
entific Reports of the Khar'kov State Pedagogical Institute of
Foreign Languages ) , Vol . I , 1939 .
72 . P. I. Zinchenko , " Involuntary Recall , Sovetskaya pedagogika
( Soviet Pedagogy ) , No. 9 , 1945 .
73 . V. I. Zykova , " Correlation of the Word , the Perception of the
Sketch and the Practical Action in the Solution of Geometry
Problems by 6th Graders ," Materialy so veshchaniya po psikhol
ogii ( Papers of a Conference on Psychology ) , Izd - VO APN RSFSR
( RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences Publishing House ) , 1957 .
74 . V. I. Zykova , " Operation With Concepts in the Solution of Geome
try Problems, " Izvestiya APN RSFSR (News of the RSFSR Academy
of Pedagogical Sciences ) , No. 28 , 1950 .
75 . V. I. Zykova and N. A. Menchinskaya ( ed . ) , Puti povysheni ya
uspevayemosti po matematike (psikhologo - pedagogicheskiye
issledovaniya uchiteley ) (Ways to Increase Progress in Mathe
matics (Psychologico -Pedagogical Researches of Teachers ) ) ,
Izd - VO APN RSFSR ( RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences Pub
lishing House ) , 1955 .
76 . V. I. Zykova , Ocherki psikhologii usvoyeniya nachal'nykh geo
metricheskikh znaniy ( Outlines of the Psychology of the As
similation of Geometric Knowledge ) , Uchpedgiz ( State Teacher
Training Publishing House ) , Moscow , 1955 .
77 . V. I. Zykova , " A Psychological Analysis of the Use of Geometric
Knowledge and of the Solution of Problems with a Concrete Real
Life Content, " Anthology , Psikhologiya primeneniya znaniy k
resheniyu uchebnykh zadach (Psychology of the Application of
Knowledge to the Solution of Class Assignments ) , Editor, N. A.
Menchinskaya , Izd - vo APN RSFSR ( RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical
Sciences Publishing House ) , 1958 .
78. L. M. Zyubin , " On the Connection of Intellectual Activity and
the Conscious Attitude of the Student to Learning, " Anthology ,
Psikhologiya i pedagogika ( Psychology and Pedagogy ) , Editor ,
V. N. Miyasishchev , Uchenyye zapi ski LGU ( Academic Reports of
the Leningrad State University ) , No. 9 , No. 214 , Leningrad ,
1956 .

· 471 -
79 . V. G. Ivanov , " Formation of the Interests in Students of the
Senior Secondary School Classes, " Materialy sove shchaniya po
psikhologii ( Papers of a Conference on Psychology ) , Izd - vo APN
RSFSR ( RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences Publishing House ) ,
1957 .
80 .
V. S. Ivanov , " Understanding by School-Children of Conditioned
and Temporary Connections and Relationships, " Anthology , Voprosy
detskoy i obshchey psikhologii ( Questions of Child and General
Psychology ) , Editor , B. G. Anan'yev , Izd - VO APN RSFSR ( RSFSR
Academy of Pedagogical Sciences Publishing House ) , 1954 .
81 . Ye . I. Ignat'yev , " Questions of the Psychological Analysis of
the Process of Drawing, " Izvestiya APN RSFSR ( News of the RSFSR
Academy of Pedagogical Sciences ) , No. 25 , 1950 .
82 . Ye . I. Ignat'yev , " Formation of a Complex Image , Suitable for
High - Grade Drawing From Memory, " Anthology , Psikhologiya
risunka i zhivopisi ( The Psychology of Drawing and Painting ) ,
Editor , Ye . I. Ignat'yev , Izd - vo APN RSFSR ( RSFSR Academy of
Pedagogical Sciences Publishing House ) , 1954 .
83 . Ye . I. Ignat'yev , " On Certain Peculiarities of the Study of Rep
resentations and the Imagination ," Izvestiya APN RSFSR ( News of
the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences ) , No. 76 , 1956 .
84 . N. K. Indik , Myslitel'nyye protsessy pri formirovanii novogo
deystviya ( Thought Processes in the Formation of a New Action ) ,
Author's Abstract of Candidate's Dissertation , In - t . psikhologii
( Institute of Psychology ) , Moscow , 1951 .
85 . Ye . N. Kabanova -Meller , " Psychological Analysis of the Use of
Geographic Concepts and Laws , " Izvestiya APN RSFSR ( News of the
RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences ) , No. 28 , 1950 .
86 . Ye . N. Kabanova - Meller , " The Role of the Sketch and the Applica
tion of Geometric Theorems, " Izvestiya APN RSFSR ( News of the
RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences ) , No. 28 , 1950 .
87 . Ye . N. Kabanova -Meller , " Formation of the Habit of Reading a
Topographical Plan by the Students , " Materialy soveshchaniya
po psikhologii ( Papers of a Conference on Psychology ) , Izd - vo
APN RSFSR ( RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences Publishing
House ) , 1957 .
88 . Ye . N. Kabanova -Meller , " Assimilation and Application of Geo
graphical Spatial Concepts by Pupils, " Izvestiya APN RSFSR
( News of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences ) , No. 61 ,
1954 .
89 . Ye . N. Kabanova -Meller , " Formation of Spatial Representations in
the Process of the Assimilation by Students of a Scale Sketch , "
Izvestiya APN RSFSR ( News of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical
Sciences ) , No. 76 , 1956 .
90 . Ye . N. Kabanova -Meller , " Formation of Geographical Representa
tions in 5th to 7th Grade Pupils, " Izvestiya APN RSFSR ( News of
the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences ) , No. 76 , 1956 .

.472 -
 91. Ye . N. Kabanova - Meller , " On the Role of the Visual Material in
the Processes of Abstraction and Generalization in Pupils ,
Voprosy psikhologii ( Questions of Psychology ) , No. 2 , 1955 .
92 . Z. I. Kalmykova , " Processes of Analysis and Synthesis in the
Solution of Arithmetical Problems ," Izvestiya APN RSFSR ( News
of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences ) , No. 61 , 1954 .
93 . 2. I. Kalmykova , " Psychological Prerequisites for Increasing
the Progress of Pupils in the Solution of Arithmetic Problems, "
Anthology , Povysheni ye uspevayemosti ucha shchikhsya nacha l'noy
shkoly ( Increasing the Progress of Elementary School Pupils ) ,
Editor , E. I. Monoszon , Izd - VO APN RSFSR (RSFSR Academy of
Pedagogical Sciences Publishing House ) , 1955 .
94. 2. I. Kalmykova , " Processes of Analysis and Synthesis in the
Solution of Arithmetic Problems , " Izvestiya APN RSFSR ( News of
the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences ) , No. 71 , 1955 .
95 . z . I. Kalmykova ( ed . ) , Anthology , Voprosy psikho logii obucheniya
i vospitaniya v shkole (Pedagogicheskiye chteniya ) ( Questions
of the Psychology of Teaching and Training in the School
( Pedagogical Readings ) ) , Izd - VO APN RSFSR ( RSFSR Academy of
Pedagogical Sciences Publishing House ) , 1956 .
96 . P. V. Kapterev , Pedagogicheskaya psikhologiya (Pedagogical Psy
chology ) , St. Petersburg , 1914 .
97 . L. I. Kaplan , Psikhologicheskiy analiz ponímaniya nauchnogo
teksta (Psychological Analysis of the Understanding of a Sci
entific Text ) , Author's Abstract of Candidate's Dissertation ,
Moscow , 1953 .
98 . L. M. Kod yukova , " The Psychology of the Assimilation of His
torical Concepts by 4th Graders , " Izvestiya APN RSFSR ( News of
the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences ) , No. 61 , 1954 .
99 . 0. M. Kontseva , Psikhologichniy analiz rozv'yazannya prosto
arifmetichnoi zadachi dit'mi-semilitkami ( Psychological Analysis
of the Solution of Simple Arithmetical Problems by Seven - Year
) , Lin Ukrainian / , Ministry of Education Ukrainian SSR ,
Institute of Psychology , Naukovi zapiski ( Academic Reports ) ,
Vol . I , Kiev , 1949 .
100. 0. M. Kontseva , " Formation of an Arithmetical Sense in Pupils
of the Junior Grades , " Lin Ukrainian / , Institute of Psychology ,
Naukovi zapiski ( Academic Reports ) , Vol . II , Kiev , 1950 .
101 . T. V. Ko sma , " Understanding by_Junior Pupils of a Descriptive
Literary Text, " /in Ukrainian ) , Institute of Psychology ,
Naukovi zapiski ( Academic Reports ) , Vol. II , Kiev , 1950 .
102 . G. S. Kostyuk , " On Several Priority Tasks of Soviet Psychology ,"
Sovetskaya pedagogika ( Soviet Pedagogy ) , No. 3 , 1937.
103. G. S. Kostyuk , " On the Psychology of Understanding," /in
Ukrainian) , Ministry of Education Ukrainian SSR , Institute of
Psychology , Naukovi zapiski ( Academic Reports ) , Vol . II , Kiev ,
Radyans'ka shkola ( Soviet School ) , 1950 .

- 473 -
104 . G. S. Kostyuk , " On the Genesis of the Concept of Number in Child
ren , Lin Ukrainian / , Ministry of Education Ukrainian SSR , Insti
tute of Psychology , Naukovi zapiski institutu psikhologii URSR
( Academic Reports of the Institute of Psychology of the Ukraine ) ,
Kiev , 1949 .
105 . Ye . M. Kudryavtseva , " Psychological Analysis of the Difficulties
Encountered in Assimilation of Botany by 5th and 6th Graders , "
Izvestiya APN RSFSR ( News of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical
Sciences ) , No. 61 , 1954 .
106 . Ye . M. Kudryavtseva , " Assimilation and Application of Knowledge
on the Life of Plants , " Anthology , Psikhologiya primeneniya
znaniy k resheniyu uchebnykh zadach ( Psychology of the Applica
tion of Knowledge to the solution of Classroom Assignments ) ,
Editor , N. A. Menchinskaya , Izd - VO APN RSFSR ( RSFSR Academy of
Pedagogical Sciences Publishing House ) , 1958 .
107 . Ye . M. Kudryavtseva , Izmeneniye uznavaniya predmetov v khode
razvitiya uchashchikhsya ( Changes in the Recognition of Objects
in the Course of the Development of the Pupils ) , Author's Ab
stract of Candidate's Dissertation , In - t . psikhologii ( Institute
of Psychology ) , 1954 .
108. M. I. Kuz'mitskaya , Osnovnyye trudnosti v reshenii arifmeticheskikh
zadach ucha shchimisya vspomo gatel'nykh shkol (Basic Difficulties
Encountered by Auxiliary School Pupils in Solving Arithmetic
Problems ) , Author's Abstract of Candidate's Dissertation , Mos
cow , 1954 .
109 . V. N. Kulikov , Ponimaniye funktsional'noy zavisimo sti (na ma
teriale resheniya primerov i zadach ucha shchimisya IV klassov )
(Understanding of Functional Dependence (On Material of the So
lution of Examples and Problems by 4th Graders ) ) , Author's
Abstract of Candidate's Dissertation , Moscow , 1952 .
110 . L. N. Landa , K psikhologii formirovaniya metodov rassuzhdeniya
(na materiale resheniya geometricheskikh zadach na dokazatel'stvo
ucha shchimisya VII- VIII klassov) ( On the Psychology of the Forma
tion of the Methods of Judgment and Reasoning on the Material
of Solution of Geometric Problems by Proof by 7th and 8th
Graders) ) , Author's Abstract of Candidate's Dissertation , In - t .
psikhologii ( Institute of Psychology ) , Moscow , 1955 .
111 . N. S. Leytis , " Experience of a Psychological Description of
Temperaments, " Anthology , Tipologicheskiye osobennosti vysshey
nervnoy deyatel'nosti cheloveka ( Typological Peculiarities of
the Higher Neural Activity of Man ) , Editor , B. M. Teplov , Izd - vo
APN RSFSR ( RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences Publishing
House ) , 1956 .
112 . A. N. Leont'yev , " Psychology and Pedagogy, " Sovetskaya pedagogika
( Soviet Pedagogy ) , No. 2 , 1937 ,
113 . A. N. Leont'yev , " Toward a Theory of the Development of the In
fant Psyche ," Sovetskaya pedagogika ( Soviet Pedagogy ) , No. 4 ,
1945 .

- 474 -
114 . A. N. Leont'yev , " Psychological Questions of the Consciousness
and Awareness of Learning , " Izvestiya APN RSFSR ( News of the
RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences ) , No. 7 , 1947 .
115 . A , M , Leushina , " Development of Quantitative Representations and
Computing Habits in Children in the Process of Classroom Instruc
tion in 1st Grade, " Izvestiya APN RSFSR ( News of the RSFSR
Academy of Pedagogical Sciences ) , No. 70 , 1955 .
116 . A. I. Lipkina , " Interaction of the Image and the Word in Work at
a Classroom Text , " Izvestiya APN RSFSR ( News of the RSFSR
Academy of Pedagogical Sciences ) , No. 61 , 1954 .
117 . A. I. Lipkina , " The Role of Representations in the work of
Children at a Literary Text, " Izvestiya APN RSFSR ( News of the
RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences ) , No. 76 , 1956 .
118 . N. A. Lisenkova , Psikho logicheskiy analiz tipologicheskikh
osobenno steypis'mennoy rechi shkol'nikov starshego vozrasta
( A Psychological Analysis of the Typological Peculiarities of
the Written Speech of Senior Pupils ) , Author's Abstract of
Candidate's Dissertation , In - t . psikho logii ( Institute of Psy
chology ) , Moscow , 1950 .
119 .
B. F. Lomov , " Peculiarities of the Development of Representations
of Space in the Process of the Initial Training in Sketching ,
Izvestiya APN RSFSR ( News of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical
Sciences ) , No. 86 , 1956 ,
120 . A , A. Lyublinskaya , " Some Peculiarities of the Mental Activity
of 1st Graders ," Materialy soveshchaniya po psikhologii (Papers
of a Conference on Psychology ) , Izd -VO APN RSFSR ( RSFSR Academy
of Pedagogical Sciences Publishing House ) , 1957 .
121 . G. V. Mazurenko , Psikhologicheskiye usloviya vospitatel'nogo
vozdeystviya na uchashchikhsya otsenki ikh znaniy ( Psychologi
cal Conditions of the Educative Influence on Pupils of the
Evaluation of Their knowledge ) , Author's Abstract of Candidate's
Dissertation , In - t . psikhologií ( Institute of Psychology ) , Mos
cow , 1951 .
122 . G. A. Medelyan , " Psychological Analysis of Errors in Solution
of Arithmetic Problems by 5th and 6th Grade Pupils ," Izvestiya
APN RSFSR ( News of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences ) ,
No. 71 , 1955 .
123 . N. A. Menchinskaya , Psikhologiya obucheniya arifmetike (Psychology
of Teaching Arithmetic ) , Uchpedgiz ( State Teacher Training Pub
lishing House ) , Moscow , 1955 .
124 . N. A. Menchinskaya , Ocherki psikhologii obucheniya arifmetike
( Outlines of the Psychology of Teaching Arithmetic ) , Uchpedgiz
( State Teacher Training Publishing House ) , Moscow , 1st Edition ,
1947 ; 2nd Edition , 1950 .
125 . N , A. Menchinskaya , " Psychological Demands on the Text - Book , "
Izvestiya APN RSFSR ( News of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical
Sciences ) , No. 63 , 1955 .

475 -
126 . N. A. Menchinskaya , " Intellectual Activity in the Solution of
Arithmetic Problems , " Izvestiya APN RSFSR ( News of the RSFSR
Academy of Pedagogical Sciences ) , No. 3 , 1946 .
127 . N. A. Menchinskaya , " On the Problem of the Psychology of the As
similation of Knowledge , " Izvestiya APN RSFSR ( News of the
RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences ) , No. 61 , 1954 .
128 . N. A. Menchinskaya , " Interrelation of the Word and the Image in
the Process of the Assimilation of Knowledge by School- Children , "
Doklady na soveshchanii po vopro sam psikhologii (Reports at a
Conference on Questions of Psychology ) , Izd - VO APN RSFSR ( RSFSR
Academy of Pedagogical Sciences Publishing House ) , 1954 .
129 .
•
N. A. Menchinskaya , " The Political Self - Expo sure of Edward
Thorndyke , " Sovetskaya pedagogika ( Soviet Pedagogy ) , No. 12 ,
1950 .
130 . Z. M. Mekhti - zade, " Psychological Analysis of the Main Difficul
ties Encountered in the Assimilation by 5th Graders of the
Section on the Divisibility of Numbers and Operations With
Fractions, " Izvestiya APN RSFSR ( News of the RSFSR Academy of
Pedagogical Sciences ) , No. 71 , 1955 .
131 . Ye . A. Mileryan , " Formation of Capacities to Apply Knowledge
in Practice in Senior Students , " Tezisy dokladov na sove shchanii
po vopro sam psikho logii truda ( Abstracts of Reports at a Con
ference on Questions of the Psychology of Labor ) , Izd - vo APN
RSFSR ( RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences Publishing House ) ,
1957 .
132 . V. V. Mistyuk , " Some Questions of the Formations of Production
Habits and Knacks in Senior Students , " Tezisy dokladov na
soveshchanii po vopro sam psikho logii truda ( Abstracts of Re
ports at a Conference on Questions of the Psychology of Labor ) ,
Izd - vo APN RSFSR ( RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences Pub
lishing House ) , 1957 .
133 . V. V. Mistyuk , " Some Peculiarities of Perception and Comprehen
sion by School- Children of Scale Drawings , " Materialy sove
shchaniya po psikhologii (Papers of a Conference on Psychology ),
Izd - VO APN RSFSR ( RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences Publish
ing House ) , 1957 .
134 . M. F. Morozov , " Emergence and Development of Learning Interests
in Younger School - Age Children , " Izvestiya APN RSFSR ( News of
the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences ) , No. 73 , 1955 .
135 . N. G. Morozova , " On the Understanding of the Text , " Izvestiya
APN RSFSR ( News of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences) ,
No. 7 , 1947 .
136 . N. G. Morozova , " Psychological conditions for the Emergence and
Alteration of the Interests of Children in the Process of
Reading Popular Science Literature , " Izvestiya APN RSFSR ( News
of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences ) , No. 73 , 1955 .
137 . N. G. Morozova , " Emergence and Alteration of the Cognitive In
terest in Adolescents , " Doklady na soveshchanii po voprosam

. 476 -
 psikhologii ( Reports at a Conference on Questions of Psychology ) ,
Izd - VO APN RSFSR ( RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences Publish
ing House ) , 1954 .
138 , K , A , Moskalenko , Otsenka znaniy ucha shchikhsya pri zakreplenii
novo go materiala i yeye psikhologicheskoye znacheniya ( Evalua
tion of the Pupils ' Knowledge Upon Fixation of New Material and
Its Psychological Significance ) , Author's Abstract of Candidate's
Dissertation , In - t . psikhologii ( Institute of Psychology ) , Mos
cow , 1954 .
139. Myshleniye shkol'nika ( The Thinking of the School - Child ) ,
Uchenyye zapiski LGPI im . A. I. Gertsena ( Academic Reports of
the Leningrad State Pedagogical Institute imeni A. I. Gertsen ) ,
Vol . XCVI , 1954 .
140 . R. G. Natadze , " On the Mastery of ' Concrete ' Natural Science Con
cepts , " Materialy soveshchaniya po psikhologii (Papers of a
Conference on Psychology ) , Izd - vo APN RSFSR ( RSFSR Academy of
Pedagogical Sciences Publishing House ) , 1957 ,
141 . A. P. Nechayev , Sovremennaya eksperimental'naya psikho logiya v
yeye otnoshenii k vopro sam shkol'nogo obucheniya ( Contemporary
Experimental Psychology in Its Relation to the Questions of
School Instruction ) , 2nd Edition , Vol . I , Petersburg , 1909 .
142 . 0 , I. Nikiforova , " The Role of Representations in the Perception
of the Word , the Phrase and the Description , " Izvestiya APN
RSFSR ( News of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences ) ,
No. 7 ,> 1947 .
143 . 0. I. Nikiforova , " On the Recreating Imagination in Reading
Literary - Artistic Works , " Materialy_soveshchaniya po psikhologii
(Papers of a Conference on Psychology ) , Izd - vo APN RSFSR ( RSFSR
Academy of Pedagogical Sciences Publishing House ) , 1957 .
144 . D. F. Nikolenko , " Peculiarities of the Comprehension by Junior
School - Children of Certain Grammatical Categories, " Materialy
soveshchaniya po psikhologii ( Papers of a Conference on Psy
chology ) , Izd - VO APN RSFSR ( RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sci
ences Publishing House ) , 1957 .
145 . D. F. Nikolenko , " Comprehension by Children of_Comical Situations
in Their Literary- Artistic Representation ," Lin Ukrainian ) ,
Institut psikhologii . Naukovi zapiski ( Institute of Psychology .
Academic Reports ) , Vol . I , Kiev , 1949 ,
146. M. M. Nudel'man , " On Certain Peculiarities of the Representations
of Auxiliary School Pupils, " Anthology , Osobennosti poznavatel ' .
noy deyatel'nosti ucha shchikhsya vspomogatel'noy shkoly (Peculi
arities of the Cognitive Activity of Auxiliary School Pupils ) ,
Izd - VO APN RSFSR ( RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences Publish
ing House ) , 1953 .
147 . M. M. Nudel'man , " On the Modification of Visual Representations
in cases of Forgetting Among Deaf - and - Dumb and Mentally Retarded
Children , " Anthology , Voprosy psikhologii glukhonemykh i umst
vennootstalykh detey ( Questions of the Psychology of Deaf - and

- 477 -
 Dumb and Mentally Retarded Children ) , Editors , L. V. Zankov and
I. I. Danyushevskiy , Uchpedgiz ( State Teacher Training Publish
ing House ) , Moscow , 1940 .
148. G. T. Ovsepyan , " Development of Observation Talent in the Child , "
Uchenyye zapiski LGPI im . A. I. Gertsena ( Academic Reports of
the Leningrad State Pedagogical Institute imeni A , I. Gertsen ) ,
Vol. XVIII , Leningrad , 1939 .
149 . A. M. Orlova , " Psychological Bases for the Differentiation by
Pupils of the Main Types of Simple Sentences , " Izvestiya APN
RSFSR ( News of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences ) , No. 78 ,
1956 .
150 . A. M. Orlova , " Psychology of the Mastery of the Concept ' Subject ,
Izvestiya APN RSFSR ( News of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical
Sciences ) , No. 28 , 1950 ,
151 . I. P. Pavlov , Poln . sobr. soch . ( Complete Collected Works ) ,
Izd - VO AN SSSR ( USSR Academy of Sciences Press ) , Moscow - Lenin
grad , 1951 .
152 . K. G. Pavlova , Individual'nyye osobennosti myslitel'noy deyatel ' .
nosti pri usvoyenii grammatiki ( Individual Peculiarities of
the Thinking Activity in the Assimilation of Grammar ) , Author's
Abstract of Candidate's Dissertation , In - t . psikhologii ( Insti
tute of Psychology ) , Moscow , 1954 .
153 . A. K. Perov , " Development in Pupils of Tendencies to and Interests
in Production Activity , " Doklady na soveshchanii po vopro sam
psikhologii lichnosti ( Reports at a Conference on Questions of
the Psychology of Personality ), Izd - VO APN RSFSR ( RSFSR Academy
of Pedagogical Sciences Publishing House ) , 1956 .
154 . M. S. Peterburgskaya , Psikhologiya usvoyeniya yestestvoved
cheskikh ponyatiy uchashchimisya nachal'noy shkoly ( The Psy
chology of the Assimilation of Natural Science Concepts by Ele
mentary School Pupils ) , Author's Abstract of Candidate's Dis
sertation , Moscow , 1954 .
155 . Ya . I. Petrova , " Formation in 1st Graders of the Concepts ' So - and
So Much More or Less , ' " Anthology , Voprosy obshchey i detskoy
psikhologii ( Questions of General and Child Psychology ) , Editor ,
B. G. Anan'yev , Izd - vo APN RSFSR (RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical
Sciences Publishing House ) , 1954 .
156. " Training in Child and Pedagogical Psychology , " /in Ukrainianī,
Naukovi zapiski instituta psikhologii ( Academic Reports of the
Institute of Psychology ) , Vol . V , Radyans'ka shkola ( Soviet
School ) , Kiev , 1956 .
157 . I. M. Podberezin , " On Certain Questions of the Study of Interest ,
Doklady na soveshchanii po vopro sam psikhologii lichnosti (Re
ports at a Conference on Questions of the Psychology of Per
sonality ) , Izd - vo APN RSFSR ( RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sci
ences Publishing House ) , 1956 .
158. D. G. Pomerantseva , Psikhologiya oshibok ustnoy rechi mlad shikh
shkol'nikov ( Psychology of Oral Speech Errors of Junior Pupils ) ,
Author's Abstract of Candidate's Dissertation , Moscow , 1953 .

- 478 -
159 . A. V. Polyakova , " Differentiation of Similar Grammatical Material
in function of the Conditions of Teaching," Anthology , Psi
khologiya primeneniya znaniy k resheniyu uchebnykh zadach (Psy
chology of the Application of Knowledge to the solution of
Classroom Assignments ) , Editor , N. A. Menchinskaya , Izd - vo APN
RSFSR ( RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences Publishing House ) ,
1958 .
160. Postanovleniye partii i pravitel'stva o shkole ( Decree of the
Party and the Government on the School ) , Uchpedgiz ( State
Teacher Training Publishing House ) , Moscow , 1939 .
161 . Reports of a Republic Psychology Conference , Lin Ukrainiani,
Ministry of Education of Ukrainian SSR , Institut psikhologii .
Naukovi zapiski ( Institute of Psychology . Academic Reports ) ,
Vol . VI , Kiev , 1956 .
162 . D. B. Praysman , " Comprehension by Junior School -Children of the
Motives of the Conduct of Literary Characters ," Lin Ukrainian ) ,
Ministry of Education of Ukrainian SSR , Institut psikhologii .
Naukovi zapiski ( Institute of Psychology . Academic Reports ) ,
Vol . V , Kiev , 1956 .
163 . V. P. Protopopov , Issledovaniya vysshey nervnoy deyatel'nosti v
yesestvennom eksperimente ( Investigations of the Higher Neural
Activity in a Non -Controlled Experiment ) , Go smedizdat ( State
Medical Publishing House ) , Kiev , 1950 .
164 . D. I. Rami shvili , " On the Psychological Nature of Pre - Scien
tific Concepts , Doklady na soveshchanii po vopro sam psikhologii
( Reports at a Conference on Questions of Psychology ), Izd - vo
APN RSFSR (RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences Publishing
House ) , 1954 .
165 . A , 2. Red'ko , " Ways of Formation of Representations in 5th
Grade Pupils in the Study of History , " Izvestiya APN RSFSR
( News of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences ) , No. 76 ,
1956 .
166 . A. Z. Red ' ko , " Assimilation of Historical Concepts by Pupils
of 5th to 7th Grades , " Izvestiya APN RSFSR ( News of the RSFSR
Academy of Pedagogical Sciences ) , No. 28 , 1950 .
167 . Ya , B. Reznik , " Formation of Correct Representations and Con
cepts in Children , " Sovetskaya pedagogika ( Soviet Pedagogy ) ,
No. 7 , 1939 .
168 . S. M. Rives , " How to Secure Attention in Class ," Anthology ,
Voprosy sovet skoy didaktiki ( Questions of Soviet Didactics ) ,
Izd - vo APN RSFSR ( RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences Publish
ing House ) , No. 4 , 1950 .
169 . N. S. Rozhdestvenskiy , " Contrast as One of the Properties of
Morphological Composition , " Russkiy yazyk v shkole ( The Russian
Language in the School ) , No. 3-4 , 1946 .
170 . S. L. Rubinshteyn , Osnovy psikhologii ( Fundamentals of Psy
chology ) , Uchpedgiz ( State Teacher Training Publishing House ) ,
Moscow , 1st Edition , 1940 ; 2nd Edition , 1946 .

- 479 -
171 . S. L. Rubinshteyn , " Questions of Psychological Theory , " Vopro sy
psikhologii ( Questions of Psychology ) , No. 1 , 1955 .
172 . S. L. Rubinshteyn , " On the Question of Stages of Observations ,
Uchenyye zapi ski LGPI im . A. I. Gertsena (Academic Reports of
the Leningrad State Pedagogical Institute imeni A. I. Gertsen ) ,
Vol . XVIII , Leningrad , 1939 .
173 . s . L. Rubinshteyn , " Thoughts on Psychology , " Uchenyye zapiski
LGPI im . A. I. Gertsena ( Academic Reports of the Leningrad
State Pedagogical Institute imeni A. I. Gertsen ) , Vol . XXXIV ,
Leningrad , 1940 .
174 . M. M. Rubinshteyn , Ocherk pedagogicheskoy psikhologii v svyazi
s obshchey pedagogikoy (Outline of Pedagogical Psychology in
Connection With General Pedagogy ) , Izd- vo " Zadruga " (Zadruga
Publishing House ) , Moscow , 1913 .
175 . T. V. Rubtsova , " Understanding by Young School-Age Children of
the Psychology of a Literary Character , " Lin Ukrainian ), In
stitut psikhologii . Naukovi zapiski ( Institute of Psychology .
Academic Reports ) , Vol . II , Kiev , 1950 .
176 . T. V. Rubtsova , " On the Recognition by School - Children of the
Moral Qualities of an Individual, " Materialy soveshchaniya po
psikhologii (Papers of a Conference on Psychology ) , Izd - vo
APN RSFSR ( RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences Publishing
House ) , 1957 .
177 . T. V. Rubtsova , " Understanding by Young Readers of the Heroic
Literary Character , " Ministry of Education of Ukrainian SSR ,
Institut psikhologii. Naukovi zapiski ( Institute of Psychology .
Academic Reports ) , Vol . I , Kiev , 1949 .
178 . N. Ye . Rumyantsev , Pedagogicheskaya psikhologiya ( Pedagogical
Psychology ) , Publication of the Teacher Training Department of
the Commissariat of Public Education , Petersburg , 1918 .
179 . P. A. Rudik , Psikho logiya (Psychology ) , Uchpedgiz ( State Teacher
Training Publishing House ) , Moscow , 1955 .
180 . Yu . V. Rusov , Psikhologicheskiy analiz protsessov resheniya
geometriche skikh zadach na po stroyeniye ( Psychological Analysis
of the Processes of Solution of Construction Assignments in
Geometry ) , Author's Abstract of Candidate's Dissertation ,
Moscow , 1955 .
181 . N. A. Rybnikov , " On Reading Mistakes and Techniques of Combat
ting Them , " Sovetskaya pedagogika ( Soviet Pedagogy ) , No. 8-9 ,
1939 .
182 . N. A. Rybnikov , " The Reading Habit of the Present - Day School
Child , Anthology , Chteniye v nachal'noy i sredney shkole
( Reading in the Elementary and Secondary Schools ) , Editor ,
K. B. Barkhin , VKIP (A11- Union Confederation of Institutes of
Pedagogy ) , 1936 .
183 . G. G. Saburova , " Psychological Peculiarities of the Analysis of
Grammatical Forms of a Foreign Language in the Process of
Translation , " Izvestiya APN RSFSR ( News of the RSFSR Academy
of Pedagogical Sciences ) , No. 78 , 1956 ,

- 480 -
184 . Yu . A. Sama rin , " Study of the Systematization and Mobility of
Associations in the Mental Activity of School - Children , Doklady
na soveshchanii po vopro sam psikhologii ( Reports at a Con
ference on Questions of Psychology ) , Izd -VO APN RSFSR ( RSFSR
Academy of Pedagogical Sciences Publishing House ) , 1954 .
185 . Yu . A. Samarin , Psikhologicheskiye osnovy sistemno sti i dinamich
nosti umstvennoy deyatel'nosti shkol'nika (Psychological Bases
of the Systematization and Dynami sm of the Mental Activity of
the School - Child ) , Author's Abstract of Candidate's Disserta
tion , Leningrad , 1955 .
186 . Yu . A. Samarin , " The Style of Mental Work of Senior School
Children , " Izvestiya APN RSFSR ( News of the RSFSR Academy of
Pedagogical Sciences ) , No. 17 , 1948 .
187 . Yu . A. Samarin , " On the Associational Nature of Mental Activity ,
Voprosy psikhologii ( Questions of Psychology ) , No. 2 , 1957 .
188 , Yu , A. Samarin and M , P , Ashmutayt , " Peculiarities of the Mental
Activity of 4th Grade Pupils and Their Preparedness for 5th
Grade Study , " Izvestiya APN RSFSR ( News of the RSFSR Academy
of Pedagogical Sciences ) , No. 72 , 1955 .
189 . V. I. Samokhvalova , Individual'nyye razlichiya v uchebnoy rabote
shkol'nikov pervogo klassa ( Individual Differences in the Study
Habits of 1st Grade Pupils ) , Author's Abstract of Candidate's
Dissertation , In - t . psikhologii ( Institute of Psychology ) , Mos
cow , 1952 .
190 . A , P. Semenova , " Some Questions of the Comprehension of Allegory
by School - Children , " Uchenyye zapi ski LGPI im . A. I. Gertsena
( Academic Reports of the Leningrad State Pedagogical Institute
imeni A , I. Gertsen ) , Vol . XCVI , Leningrad , 1954 .
191 . A. P. Semenova , " A Psychological Analysis of the Concept ) ,
Uchenyye zapiski LGPI im . A. I. Gertsena (Academic Reports
of the Leningrad State Pedagogical Institute imeni A. I.
Gertsen ) , Vol. XXXV , Leningrad, 1941 .
192 . A. P. Semenova , " Correlation of Concretization and Generaliza
tion in the Comprehension of Figurative Meanings," ibid . , Vol.
LXV , Leningrad , 1948 .
193 . 0. P. Sergeyevich , " Formation of Representations on Space in
Children in Connection with the Assimilation of the Elements
of Geometry and Geography , " Izvestiya APN RSFSR ( News of the
RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences ) , No. 86 , 1956 .
194 . I. M. Sechenov , Izbr . filosof skiye i psikhologicheskiye proizv .
( Selected Philosophical and Psychological Works ) , Izd -VO AN
SSSR ( USSR Academy of Sciences Press ) , Moscow - Leningrad , 1947 .
195 . I. Ye . Sinitsa , " Peculiarities of Pupils ' Perception of Un
familiar Words, " Materialy soveshchaniya po psikhologii ( Papers
of a Conference on Psychology ) , Izd - VO APN RSFSR (RSFSR Academy
of Pedagogical Sciences Publishing House ), 1957 .
196 . M. N. Skatkin , " How to Bring Children to Primitive Generaliza 11
tions in Classes in Natural Science in the Primary Grades ,
Nachal'naya shkola ( The Elementary School ) , No. 7 , 1940 .

- 481 -
197 . A. V. Skripchenko , " Peculiarities of Generalization in 1st and
2nd Grade Pupils , " Materialy soveshchaniya po psikhologii
( Papers of a Conference on Psychology ) , Izd - vo APN RSFSR ( RSFSR
Academy of Pedagogical Sciences Publishing House ) , 1957 .
198 . L. S. Slavina , " Psychological conditions for Increasing Progress
in One of the Groups of Backward Grade I Pupils , " Izvestiya
APN RSFSR ( News of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences ) ,
No. 36 , 1951 .
199 . L. S. Slavina , " The Role of the Family in the Formation of the
Attitude of the School - Child to Learning at School , " Izvestiya
APN RSFSR ( News of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences ) ,
No. 36 , 1951 .
200 . A. A. Smirnov , Psikhologiya zapominaniya ( The Psychology of
Recall ) , Izd -vo APN RSFSR ( RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sci
ences Publishing House ) , 1948 .
201 . I. M. Solov'yev , " The Thinking Process of Mentally Retarded
School - Children in the Solution of Arithmetic Problems, " An
thology , Osobennosti poznavatel'noy deyatel'nosti uchashchikhsya
v spomo gatel'noy shkoly (Peculiarities of the Cognitive Activity
of Auxiliary School Pupils ) , Editor , I. M. Solov'yev , Izd - vo
APN RSFSR ( RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences Publishing
House ) , 1953 .
202 . A. N. Sokolov , " Interior Speech and Comprehension ," Uchenyye
zapiski instituta psikhologii ( Academic Reports of the Insti
tute of Psychology ) , Vol . II , Moscow , 1941 .
203 . A. N. Sokolov , " Psychological Analysis of the Comprehension of a
Foreign Text, " Izvestiya APN RSFSR ( News of the RSFSR Academy
of Pedagogical Sciences ) , No. 7 , 1947 .
204 . A. N. Sokolov , " Processes of Thought in Solution of Physics
Problems by the Pupils , " Izvestiya APN RSFSR (News of the RSFSR
Academy of Pedagogical Sciences ) , No. 54 , 1954 .
205 . A. V. Stepanov , K voprosu o psikhologicheskoy prirode matemati
cheskogo razvitiya shkol'nika ( On the Question of the Psycho
logical Nature of the Mathematical Development of the School
Child ) , Author's Abstract of Candidate's Dissertation , Moscow ,
1952 .
206. 1. V. Strakhov , Psikhologicheskiy analiz metodiki ustnogo opro sa
uchenikov na urokakh (Psychological Analysis of the Methodology
of Oral Questioning of Students in Classes ) , Saratov , 1953 .
207 . I. V. Strakhov , " Questions of the Psychology of Attention in
School , " Uchenyye zapiski Sa ratovskogo GPI ( Academic Reports
of the Saratov State Pedagogical Institute ) , No. 18 , 1954 .
208 . L. M. Sultankhudzhanova , " The Individual Approach in Work With
1st and 2nd Grade Pupils, " Anthology , Voprosy psikhologii obu
cheniya i vospitaniya v shkole ( Questions of Classroom Instruc
tion and Training ) , Editor , z . I. Kalmykova, Izd -VO APN RSFSR
(RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences Publishing House ) , 1956 .

• 482 -
O
209 . N , F. Talyzina , " Peculiarities of Ratiocination in the Solution
of Geometry Problems, " Izvestiya APN RSFSR ( News of the RSFSR
Academy of Pedagogical Sciences ) , No. 80 , 1957 .
210 . G. M. Tereshchenko , o neko torykh usloviyakh aktivizatsii
protsessa obucheniya ( On Certain Conditions for Activization
of the Teaching Process ) , Author's Abstract of Candidate's
Dissertation , Moscow , 1955 .
211 . T. P. Terekhova , " Individual Peculiarities of the Thinking Ac
tivity of Pupils in the Process of the Assimilation of His
torical Knowledge , " Uchenyye zapiski Tambovskogo GPI (Academic
Reports of the Tambov State Pedagogical Institute ) , No. 10 ,
1956 .
212 . G. Ya . Troshin , Sravnitel'naya psikhologiya normal'nykh i
nenormal'nykh detey (Comparative Psychology of Normal and Ab
normal Children ) , Vol . I , Protsessy umstvennoy_zhizni ( Processes
of the Mental Life ) , Petrograd , 1915 .
213 . M. P. Feofanov , Psikhologiya pis'ma ( The Psychology of Writing ) ,
Izd - vo Ranion ( Ranion Press ) , Moscow , 1930 .
214 . M , P. Feofanov , Razvitiye sintaksicheskikh otno sheniy v
pis'mennoy rechi ucha shchikhsya ( Development of Syntactical
Attitudes in the Written Speech of Pupils ) , Author's Abstract
of Doctoral Dissertation , Moscow , 1952 .
215 . M. P. Feofanov , Ocherki psikhologii usvoyeniya russkogo yazyka
uchashchimisya vspomo gatel'noy shkoly ( Outlines of the Psychology
of the Assimilation of the Russian Language by Auxiliary School
Pupils ) , Izd - VO APN RSFSR (RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences
Publishing House ) , 1955 .
216 . E. A. Fleshner , " The Psychology of the Assimilation and Applica
tion by School - Children of Certain Concepts of Physics , " An
thology , Psikhologiya primeneniya znaniya kresheniyu uchebnykh
zadach ( The Psychology of the Application of Knowledge to the
Solution of Classroom Assignments ) , Editor , N. A. Menchinskaya ,
Izd - vo APN RSFSR ( RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences Publish
ing House ) , 1958 .
217. F. I. Frankina , " The Role of Play and Games in the Formation of
an Attitude to Learning and of the Educational Interests of the
School-Child , " Izvestiya APN RSFSR ( News of the RSFSR Academy
of Pedagogical Sciences ) , No. 73 , 1955 .
218 . M. N. Shardakov , " The Thinking of the Pupil During Class, "
Uchenyye zapi ski LGPI im . A. I. Gertsena (Academic Reports of
the Leningrad State Pedagogical Institute imeni A. I. Gertsen ) ,
Vol. LXV , 1948 .
219 . M. N. Shardakov , Ocherki psikhologii ucheniya ( Outlines of the
Psychology of Learning ), Uchpedgiz ( State Teacher Training Pub
lishing House ) , Moscow , 1951 .
220 . M. N. Shardakov , Ocherki psikho logii shkol'nika ( Outlines of the
Psychology of the School - Child ) , Uchpedgiz ( State Teacher Train
ing Publishing House ) , Moscow , 1955 .

- 483 -
221 . L. A. Shvarts , " The Role of Comparison in the Assimilation of
Similar Material, " Izvestiya APN RSFSR ( News of the RSFSR Academy
of Pedagogical Sciences ) , No. 12 , 1947 .
222 . L , M. Shvarts, Psikho logiya navyka chteniya ( The Psychology of the
Habit of Reading ) , Uchpedgiz ( State Teacher Training Publish
ing House ) , Moscow , 1941 .
223 . L. M. Shvarts , " Criticial Analysis of the Psychological Conception
of Thorndyke , " Sovetskaya pedagogika ( Soviet Pedagogy ) , No. 2 ,
1937 .
224 . P. A. Shevarev , " Experience of a Psychological Analysis of Mis
takes in Algebra , " Izvestiya APN RSFSR ( News of the RSFSR
Academy of Pedagogical Sciences ) , No. 3 , 1946 ,
225 . P. A. Shevarev , " On the Question of the Nature of Algebraic Habits, "
Uchenyye zapiski instituta psikhologii (Academic Reports of the
Institute of Psychology ) , Vol . II , 1941 .
226 . P. A. Shevarev ( ed . ) , " Researches on the Psychology of Intellec
tual Habits and skills, " Izvestiya APN RSFSR ( News of the RSFSR
Academy of Pedagogical Sciences ) , No. 80 , 1957 .
227 . P. A. Shevarev , Obo shchennyye assotsiatsii v uchebnoy rabote
shkol'nika ( Generalized Associations in the Studying of the
Pupil ) , Izd - vo APN RSFSR ( RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences
Publishing House ) , 1959 .
228 . Zh . I. Shif , Ocherkí psikhologii usvoyeniya russkogo yazyka
glukhonemymi shkol'nikami ( Outlines of the Psychology of the
Assimilation of the Russian Language by Deaf -and - Dumb School
Children ) , Uchpedgiz ( State Teacher Training Publishing House ) ,
Moscow , 1954 .
229 . Zh . I. Shif , Razvitiye nauchnykh ponyatiy u shkol'nika (Develop
ment of Scientific Concepts in the School - Child ) , Uchpedgiz
( State Teacher Training Publishing House ) , Moscow - Leningrad ,
1935 .
230 . M. K. Shcherbak , " Individual Differences of Elementary School
Pupils in Creative Writing Assignments, " Anthology , Psikhologi
cheskiye voprosy razvitiya rechi ucha shchikhsya v shkole (Psy
chological Questions of the Development of the Pupils ' Speech
in School ) , Editor , N. I. Zhinkin , Izd -vo APN RSFSR ( RSFSR
Academy of Pedagogical Sciences Publishing House ) , 1953 .
231 . I. M. Tsvetkov , " Techniques of Training in the Process of Evalu
ating the knowledge and Conduct of Pupils in Class , " Uchenyye
zapiski Yaroslavskogo GPI im . K. D. Ushinskogo (Academic Reports
of the Yaroslavl ' State Pedagogical Institute imeni K , D. Ushin
skiy ) , No. 21 , 1956 .
232 . P. M. Yakobson , " Psychological Peculiarities of the Constructive
Activities of 7th Grade Pupils, " Voprosy psikhologii ( Questions
of Psychology ) , No. 3 , 1956 .
233 . P. M. Yakobson , " Psychological Description of the Constructive
Activity of 6th and 7th Grade Pupils , " Materialy soveshchaniya
po psikhologii (Papers of a Conference on Psychology ) , Izd -vo

. 484 -
 APN RSFSR ( RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences Publishing
House ) , 1957 .
234 . P. M. Yakobson , " Peculiarities of the Thinking of Pupils in the
Execution of Technical Assignments, " Anthology , Psikhologiya
primeneniya znaniy k resheniyu uchebnykh zadach ( The Psychology
of the Application of Knowledge to the Solution of Classroom
Assignments ) , Editor, N. A. Menchinskaya , Izd - vo APN RSFSR
( RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences Publishing House ) , 1958 .
235 . S. G. Yakob son , " Influence of the Social Significance of Facts
Learned in Classroom Literature on the Interest of the Pupils , "
Izvestiya APN RSFSR ( News of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical
Sciences ) , No. 73 , 1955 .
236 . I. M. Yakovleva , " Peculiarities of the Assimilation of Measures
of Length by 1st and 2nd Grade Pupils ," Izvestiya APN RSFSR
( News of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences ) , No. 86 ,
1956 .
237 . I. M. Yakovleva , " Formation of Spatial Representations and As
similation of Measuring Knacks in 1st Grade ," Izvestiya APN
RSFSR (News of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences ) ,
No. 70 , 1955 .
238 , A. F. Yakovlicheva , " Significance of the Interrelation of Text
and Drawing for the Comprehension of a Children's Book by a
Pre - School- Age Child , " Uchenyye zapiski LGPI im . A. I. Gertsena
( Academic Reports of the Leningrad State Pedagogical Institute
imeni A. I. Gertsen ) , Vol . CXII , 1955 .
239 . V. L. Yaroshchuk , " Psychological Analysis of the Processes of
Solution of Model Arithmetic Problems, " Izvestiya APN RSFSR
( News of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences ) , No. 80 ,
1957 .

- 485 -
 QUESTIONS OF THE PSYCHOLOGY OF LABOR

By S. L. Gellershteyn
In order to determine the content and direction of the works of
Soviet researchers in the field of the psychology of labor , one must sort
out a large amount of material not all of it of equal value accum

ulated in the main in the period of most intensive development of the so

viet psychology of labor , a period from which we are separated by more
than twenty years, and one must also survey everything that has been done
in most recent years, when the psychology of labor again began to occupy
a more important place in Soviet psychology .
It is advisable to begin the survey with an outline of the most
significant and long - range problems. Among these should be included in
the first instance the problem of the development and perfecting of work
habits and skills , the acquisition of proficiency and the development of
talents for the restructuring of habits already formed upon encounter with
new demands or altered circumstances,
In the 1930's there was defined in the psychology of labor as a
scientific discipline a most mature and theoretically developed trend which
responded to many practical questions connected with the task of the devel .
opment of occupational habits and skills . At that time the psychology of
labor disposed of numerous experimentally obtained facts which witnessed
to the lats governing the process of practice in the occupational activity
of the individual . Basing itself on these facts , the psychology of labor
established in a number of concrete instances the most effective methods
of development and perfecting of valuable occupational qualities .
Thus , it was established that the factor of repetition is of itself
the necessary but patently not the sufficient condition for genuine prac
tice . In their efforts to find the most effective techniques of practice ,
the psychologists clarified that the qualitative shifts observed in the
course of practice have as their main cause a shift in " interior " work tech
niques . It was proven that the delays expressed in the appearance of the
so - called plateaus on the " practice curves" are not in the least a witness
to a stoppage of practice but rather conceal within themselves hidden and
covert searches after new ways of mastering the habit, a sui generis
" creative pause " (Experimental material relative to this topic was pre
sented by ne in a report at the 9th International Congress of Psychology
held in the US in 1929 -- cf. S. Hellerstein , The Problem of the Training
of Intellectual Functions , Ninth International Congress of Psychology ,
Princeton , USA , 1930 Author's Name and Title Given in English in orig
inal ]) . Precisely for this reason there not infrequently appeared after
a protracted "marking time " in the course of practice an unexpected leap
ahead , symbolizing a transition to a new, qualitatively more valuable me
thod of mastery of the activity .

- 486
 It turned out likewise that the " interior " reorganization of the
activity which was effected at this critical stage of practice was most
intimately bound up with a restructuring of the interaction of the per
ceptual and motor apparatus, with a change in the character of sensory
regulation of motion , with the actualization of the processes of thought.
Numerous experimental works have shown that the chiselling of a habit ,
i.e. , the attainment of its greatest coordinational precision, is bound
up with a more refined operation of the regulatory sensory apparatus.
In the course of practice the activity of this apparatus is by no means
univocal since the sensory functions enter into new relationships not
only with movements but with other sensory functions as well , thereby en
riching the perception of objects important for occupational proficiency .
One fact became of specially great practical significance . That was that
by directing the activity of the sense organs to an evaluation of the pro
cess and results of each action (both erroneous and correct actions ) and
thereby reviving the vestiges of the sensations connected with the action ,
we can elicit in the course of the execution of the work supplementary
stimulu to the search for and reinforcement of more perfected techniques ,
to a more proficient organization of the direct and feedback link between
the action and the perception ,
Psychologists who made a study of work activity from this point of
view succeeded in showing that sometimes the analysis of a labor opera
tion by the person performing it ( an analysis which arises spontaneously
in the process of work ) can be organized , directed and made a conscious
and purposive act. Thus new ways were noted of perfecting the qualities
which are occupationally important. Psychologists were able in a number
of instances to substantiate and apply in practice special exercises which
contributed to a more successful mastery of the occupation , to an under
standing of the " secrets" of occupational proficiency .
In their study of the special techniques used by skilled workers,
psychologists were able to convince themselves of the fact that the most
refined of these techniques, not infrequently requiring an enormous pro
duction experience , are discovered and deciphered the more easily the more
clearly the sensations are recognized which arise during the execution of
various actions . Basing themselves on a knowledge of the psychological
nature of the work techniques especially important for an occupation , the
psychologists built up on the basis of these techniques special series of
successive training exercises and applied these in practice for the develop
ment and perfecting of occupationally important functions . This trend be
came paramount in the Work Psychology Laboratory of the Institute of In
dustrial Safety headed in those days by the author .
Along the same line were working , often independently of each other ,
other researchers concerned with questions of the psychology of labor :
in railtransport, A. P. Shushakov and A. I. Kolodnaya [727, 1317 ; in road
transport, s.A. Zhekulin E17 ; in several industrialenterprises ofLenin
grad , A , A. Tolchinskiy [58] and his colleagues, N. K. Gusev and B. A.
Serebryakov; in communications, T. G. Yegorov [207 ; in the footwear industry ,

. 487 -
0. P. Kaufman [35]; in the textile industry, G. V. Mel ' tser ( 397; among
women hosiery workers, K. Grineva and M. Liberman [ 127; among women per
forators in computing machine enterprises, S. Ya . Rubinshteyn [467 et al .
In the Work Psychology Laboratory of the Institute of Industrial
Safety , V. V. Chebysheva and L. 0. Seletskaya were set the task of im
proving the function of_the_distinction of the properties of steel by
steel - workers [119], [61], [697, [707 , [71]. ( These works have not lost
their fundamental significance , despite the fact that at the present time
much has changed in the technology of steel - smelting and in the work of
the steelworker ). In those days there were not as yet any well - elaborated
methods whereby those in training could learn to make a reliable judgment
on the state of the metal by outward signs . At the same time an exper
ienced steelworker would determine rapidly and extremely accurately , at
a glance at a sample of the metal taken out of the kiln and cooled on the
spot , such properties as its deoxidation , its carbon content . A psy
chological analysis showed that in these instances there were taken into
account the size of the grain - crystals, the density of their settling ,
the shape, the presence of fibers and of protuberances , the homogeneity
or heterogeneity of structure , the luster , the presence of pits , etc.
Now it was precisely to these points that the trainees were made to pay
attention in the process of the special exercises . Thanks to constant
self- checking and comparison of their own judgments with objective data
the trainees attained excellent results in a short time , learning to
determine almost infallibly at one glance at the sample the percentagewise
carbon content with an error of as little as 0.1 % ( experienced steelworkers
attain an error of as little as 0.02 % ) . These experiments showed of what
an enormous significance for the attainment of proficiency are special
exercises directed to the thorough - going development of the perception and
distinction of the occupationally important properties of an object .
A still more palpable result was attained when this same principle
was put at the basis of a " training " of the functions of color discrimina
tion . For the steelworker it was exceptionally important at that time
( this research belongs to the period 1932-1934 ) to be able to determine
the temperature of the furnace by the glow of the walls and of the crown
of the open - hearth furnace . With rising temperature the tint of fireproof
material changes : the red tints metamorphose into pinkish ones and then
into a blinding white , An exact description of all the finest shades of
color characteristic of the temperature of the glow permitted of drawing
up special tables, in which were reproduced all the color shades of the
furnace . Subsequently there was constructed and installed a special in
strument which reproduced more accurately than the tables the shades of
color of the walls of the furnace . The use of this instrument for the
" training in color discrimination was most effective : in a comparatively
short time the trainees learned to distinguish color as do experienced
steel workers who have years of experience on which to rely . Here too a
crucial role was played by auto - control , expressed in a constant compari
son of objective and subjective data in the course of each exercise .

• 488 -
 No less important were the works of Yu. V. Kotelova , B. B. Mitlina
and A. A. Neyſakh [407 at " training " of attention and observation talent
in machine operators of the mechanized chemical industry .
The occupation of machine - operator is an example of an occupation
requiring constant observation and checking on instruments . This is the
most typical occupation for contemporary mechanized production and for
the industry of tomorrow . In processes of this sort the center of grav
ity is transferred from physical efforts to the functioning of the organs
of sense and thought. The activity of a machine-operator requires at
times a very great emotional exertion , intensified by the knowledge of
its great responsibility , especially in the context of a development of
malfunctionings and the need speedily to eliminate them .
Interest in the psychological study of the occupation of machine
operators was dictated mainly by the fact that faulty actions of machine
operators lead to serious breakdowns and breakdowns in this branch of in
dustry entail extremely serious consequences . Now the faulty actions
themselves are in the main occasioned , all other things being equal , by
disruption of attention and watchfulness . This is why it was important
to find a way to construct such a system of exercises as would , combined
with the accepted methodology of occupational training , contribute to the
development of the forms of attention and watchfulness specifically import
ant for this occupation .
For researchers the problem arose of training of the faculty of
accurate organization of the psychic activity expressed in the successive
concentration of attention on the readings of numerous instruments by
which the machine operator judges of the course and possible malfunction
ings of the production process . At any given moment the attention of the
operator is directed to those indices which are of greatest importance
This
for the proper estimation of the course of the production process .
enables him to make the necessary decisions at the proper time . But since
breakdown situations arise comparatively rarely , the operator is sometimes
taken unaware by them and does not easily make the switchover from the
" tranquil " course of his activity to " extraordinary actions . The impos
sibility of foreseeing where the danger may arise and the necessity of
taking a decision without the slightest delay occasionally give rise to
a condition of confusion of mind . A specially constructed training ap
paratus reproduced typical breakdown situations and habituated the young
machine operators to eliminate that tension and those lacunae which are
observed even in experienced operators when they encounter unexpected
I stimuli . " The point of these special exercises , carried out with the
help of the training apparatus, was to train the individual to be ready
to encounter seldom occurring situations and to be able quickly to mobil
ize for " extraordinary " reactions . The effectiveness of the exercises car
ried out on this training apparatus exceeded all expectations : the
persons trained on this apparatus showed a noticeable superiority in the
capacity to prevent malfunctionings and potential breakdowns . This work
is of profound fundamental significance . It demonstrates the real

- 489 -
possibility of a participation by psychologists in the construction and
use of special exercises for the improvement of occupationally important
functions . The theoretical and practical importance of these researches
can scarcely be overestimated . It should be stressed that, in all in
stances in which special exercises were used for the development and im
provement of the qualities vital for work activity , the attainment of
success depended not in the first instance on the construction of the
training apparatus , no matter how clever it might be , not even on the
length of time for which the exercises were continued nor yet the exterior
similitude of the training apparatus to the work post, but rather on the
interior , psychological similitude of the practised activity and that ac
tivity to which the effect of the exercise was to be transferred . And
here a crucial role was played by the organization of self - checking .
It is by no means always to the point to make use of complex ap
paratus and a cumbersome training apparatus for the special exercises.
Sometimes the goal can be achieved by simpler means . It is well - known
that a high productivity depends in a number of instances on the individ
ual techniques of the worker at calculating precisely all his work move .
ments in time , Not infrequently these individual techniques remain un
conscious to the workers themselves and are not handed on to the other
workers executing analogous labor operations ( See Note] . The rhythm
of work movements , thanks to which there is attained as it were a fusion
of individual operations into an uninterrupted and smoothly flowing cur
rent of actions, guarantees minimal losses of time and precision in the
organization of successive transitions from one sort of action to another .
There is a certain definite ratio between the work rhythm and the develop
ment of a " time sense . "
( Note7 It is difficult to overestimate the enormous significance
of that movement which has presently caught up the most proficient workers
in various branches of industry and agriculture and impelled them to fol
low the example of Valentina Gaganova in transmitting their experience to
the backward ones . This movement does not, however , lessen the tasks of
psychology ; it only facilitates their solution .)
The study of individual techniques of "mastery of times in oc
cupational labor operations has made it possible to suggest the most ef
fective ways of directing the work process in time. This has been shown
with particular clarity by V. M. Davidovich , K. M. Karaul'nik and Yu , 0 .
Shpigel ! in a study of the work of the polishers in the Sharikopodshipnik
( ball - bearing factory [ 187. The attainment of a high productivity depends
in very many instances on the individual techniques of the polishers at
calculating exactly timewise all their work movements . Upon comparison
of the individual methods of attaining a high productivity it was noted
that some polishers attain it on the basis of certain techniques while
others attain it on the basis of other techniques . Thus , in some in
stances the decisive role accrues to the rhythmic nature of the work
movements , in other instances the factor making for a high productivity
is an accurate organization of successive transitions from certain ele
ments to others, etc. A study of all these individual variations led to

- 490 -
the idea that it might be possible to create such a model of the organizam
tion of the work process as would combine and as it were sum up all these
valuable qualities . Preliminary chronometry of the work of the best pol
ishers showed that a special role is played by the accurate estimate of
time intervals . It emerged that the same amount of time was not spent on
the identical elements of the labor operations by various workers who
were attaining a high productivity and quality of work . Calculation showed
that worker P. attained the indices of worker 0. in respect of individual
elements of the labor operations, but her time gain per detail amounted
to 15 % over that of 0. An attempt was made to decipher in detail all the
techniques used by worker P. and all the time elements expended by her on
these techniques .
The data acquired were presented in the form of a visual schedule
which was demonstrated and explained to other workers who were also ex
tremely highly productive , This opened the way to the transmission of ex
perience and to the comparison of these other workers' own , less perfect
work techniques with the more perfect techniques . It turned out that the
perception and assimilation of a new work technique is accomplished bet
ter and more quickly when the work process is visually presented in the
form of its component elements . Thus , one of the best workers was given
visual instruction , having to do basically with two points : 1 ) checking
of details in machine time; 2) the observance of a constant succession
of work techniques for the securing of the necessary rhythm . In the
very first day of work the time spent on the processing of a detail was
reduced from 56.3 seconds to 45.6 seconds .
Further analysis showed that an obstacle to automatization of
work and to the observance of the most convenient rhythm is the heter
ogeneity of the rings in respect of the measurements of their coupling
margins . In this connection there is an increase in the demand made on
the time sense . " As an experiment the rings were sorted in respect of
the size of the coupling margins into three groups: the tight , the nor
mal and the loose . And in the very first day of work the average time for
processing the ring was reduced , in the case of one of the best workers,
from 49.4 to 42 seconds .
The method proposed by the psychologists for making the work rhy
thmical increased the productivity of labor of the best workers up to
214 % . The effect of the exercises was manifested mainly in those workers
who prior to the beginning of the exercises were not themselves able to
work out techniques of rhythmic work , since they had never paid attention
to the uniqueness of those sensations on which rests the proper estimate
of a time interval . But the productivity of labor was most drastically
increased in the case of poor workers . Individual examples are extremely
indicative . Thus , worker M. , who never turned out more than 240 rings per
shift , processed 332 rings on the very first day . Worker G. , who barely
turned out 200 rings per shift, forthwi th began to process up to 324.
On the basis of these data it was felt advisable to work out spe
cial exercises for the development of one of the vital qualities , the
time sense . "

• 491 -
 The method elaborated by psychologists for the improvement of the
work process and the making of it rhythmic revealed great reserves for the
increase of the productivity of labor and opened up the way for the trans
fer to other occupations as well of those qualities which facilitate the
estimate of one's own movements in time and secure a coordinated and rhyth
mic character to the cycle of alternating work operations and techniques .
Many years ago in experiments with sportsmen we were able to convince our
selves that special exercises in the exact perception of the micro - elements
of time served as a powerful stimulus to the mastery of swift actions. On
the basis of the capacity, attained with the aid of the special exercises,
accurately to determine the latent time of one's own reactions, sportsmen
of various specialities learned to regulate their own movements in time
with exceptional accuracy [147, [157.
There is no doubt that the principle of practice exercises or " train
ing" based on the utilization of the regulatory role of the sensory func
tions in the direction of movements has a very wide range of application
long -range , since there is virtually no species of sensory -motor activity
in respect of which this principle may not be utilized . Such exercises
should contribute to an enhancement of the occupational habits and skills
in the so - called high - speed occupations, their enhancement indeed quali
tatively
In connection with the great role of sensory functions in presenta
day occupations, the works devoted to a study of spatial representations
in various occupations are of special interest. Let us mention only two
works along this line, devoted to the study of the process of sketch_read
ings and carried out by 0. P. Kaufman and Ye. N. Kabanova -Meller [247,
[ 327 .
The act of sketch reading requires several special visual perception
habits . It came out that the basic sign of these habits is the capacity
to perceive a three - dimensional shape in such a way that the third dimen
sion ( depth ) is , as it were , excluded from the perception . Such a habit
is formed by way of an overcoming of the usual techniques of immediate
perception . In the reading of plan drawings there has to be , as it were ,
a reconstruction of the real three - dimensional structure of the object via
an amalgamation to it of the third dimension , i.e. , depth . It was estab
lished that this complex psychic process is not formed all at once but
rather goes through several definite stages and is encumbered with various
difficulties . On this basis there was worked out a method of teaching
graphic reading which made it possible to attain a gradual transition from
visual perception of the object to conventional perception and to a sub
sequent mental operation with a three - dimensional shape .
Experimental verification of this method proved its great effective
ness : the experimental group of experimental subjects more speedily at
tained successes in the development of spatial perceptions and spatial
thinking than did the control group . It also emerged that this method rep
resents a valuable " training " technique for the development of spatial
perceptions and spatial thinking in persons who had been poor at reading
plans and designs . These persons gradually freed themselves from the in
hibitory influence of palpable- visual perception and from the inertia of

- 492 -
the usual techniques of visual fixation of the object: little by little
they learned how to generalize partial and fragmentary habits and to con
vert them into a generalized technique of spatial thinking. This was
successfully achieved thanks to special methodological techniques which
impelled to an intensified self - checking . Successive and graduated ( in
respect of difficulty ) assignments , calculated to achieve a gradual
transition from the processing in visual perception of a really visible
shape to its representation and finally to a manipulation of it in a men
tal representation , aided the trainees to master the habit of correct
" looking at things . " In this research was achieved the capacity to train
up a certain definite sensory set, typical for all occupations connected
to some degree or other with the necessity of reading designs and plans.
We shall not go into the theoretical value of this work which enriches
even general psychology with new facts on the development of the percep
tion of space and spatial forms. But the broad scope of its practical
applicability must be underscored .
The long - range plan of development of projects in the field of the
psychology of labor must provide for the increase of the thoroughness of
projects of the above-mentioned trend and for the extension of the results
already attained to numerous types of labor , especially those in which oc
cupational proficiency is to some degree dependent on the interior organ
ization of thinking and sensory -motor acts . Specifically , this
principle should be most effective in all operating occupations which make
great demands on speed and plasticity of motor reactions, as also in all
those occupations for which the tempo and rhythm of work is of great im
portance . Among these belong almost all assembly - line type occupations,
an investigation of which has shown that there exist definite ways to
exercise and practice the " sense of timing and rhythm " of work . And at
the same time it was proven that a considerable heightening of the pro
ductivity of labor can be attained by way of a grouping of labor opera
tions according to their rhythmical proximity . Thus , the delimitation
of assembly and adjustment operations and a study of the temporal indices
typical of each led the authors of one research to the conclusion that
these operations do not have the same rhythm nor yet the same variation
of temporal indices . On this basis the idea was advanced that it would
be possible to constructs occupations of the assembly - line type which
unite, into one complex , operations having the most constant rhythm and
the least variability of temporal indices .
All the researches mentioned were based on the results of a me
ticulous psychological analysis of the corresponding professions . Typ
ical for Soviet psychology of labor even at the earliest stage of its
development was the aspiration to the most complete and detailed study
possible of the psychological peculiarities of the basic occupations in
the cardinal branches of industry , agriculture and transport , Study of
occupations from the descriptive psychological point of view
(Professiography) as a distinct branch of the Soviet psychology of labor
occupied a leading position in it . The initiator of the psychological
study of occupations in connection with the tasks of occupational training ,

• 493 -
rationalization of labor , the campaign against fatigue and accident
proneness, the improvement of the system of occupational selection and
vocational guidance , etc. , was I. N. Shpil'reyn , who got together for
this purpose a group of specialists: psychologists , physiologists,
physicians, engineers , economists, etc. He advanced the idea of the
"labor" method of learning an occupation and gave his own original_treat
ment_of the processes of automatization and deautomatization , 15707 ,
[71a7.
The scope of the application of the psychology of labor to the
broad group of questions posed by practice was not limited , of course , to
the line of researches which we have elucidated . An enormously important
task arose for the psychology of labor in connection with polytechnical
training . The psychology of labor in its day , in an effort to approach
a solution of this task , noted a number of psychological questions which
have remained , unfortunately , unresolved . This would be the place
briefly to recall them .
Polytechnical training aids the students to acquire an understand
ing of the principles of present- day production and to assimilate those
work habits which facilitate the practical orientation in contemporary
technology and aid the students rapidly to accomodate to new types of
labor activity . No matter what organizational forms are assumed by poly
technical training , one aspect of this problem entirely retains its funda
mental importance . We have in mind the question of the increasing import
ance of labor , or more concretely , the development of technical thinking
in the work process , combined with the mastery of theoretical skills and
knowledge . When approached from the point of view of the tasks of poly
technical training , work habits and skills cannot be considered as an end
in themselves . These habits ( strictly speaking , they are not habits ) must
satisfy certain definite requirements; they must include the prerequisites
for generalization which facilitates the development of technological hor
izon and thinking . The establishment of such work habits and skills and
the efficiency of the transition from one type of them to other types in
the course of polytechnical training presupposes a knowledge of the com
parative value of various types of work from the point of view of the "de
velopment factor " potentially included in them . Research must be done on
how, in the work process , the capacity of generalization is developed , on
how individual knacks and habits metamorphose into more general ones and
on how there is effected the transfer of the habits acquired to new condi
tions . Several special researches carried out in the field of the psy
chology of labor in the All - Union Institute of Experimental Medicine
( 1935–1936 ) showed what a role is played by special methods of practice
exercises in the development of this capacity for generalization [127,
[307, [387 , 04 .
The examples cited are , it seems to us, sufficient proof of the
conclusion on the theoretical and practical value of psychological re
searches directed to the improvement of the system of work training and
to the mastery of occupational proficiency . A leading place should be

494 -
assigned to this far from entirely elucidated (by us ) problem in the com
piling of the program of projects on the psychology of labor for the next
few years . As for self- checking in its most elementary sense , this idea
could be realized even now in its simplest and most accessible form . We
have in mind the installation in a number of enterprises ( where it is ap
propriate and justified ) of elementary recording instruments, automatic
chronometers or meters , affording the worker the opportunity of seeing
palpably at each given moment the results of his labor either in indices
of time or of production . We used to use this sort of meter for research
purposes and convinced ourselves of its practical importance . In Germany
in the 1920's and 1930's the Poppelreiter meter gained widespread use ,
It was known as the " Arbeitsschauuhr" ( Visual Work Clock7 and our own ex
perience confirmed its value as a method of automatic checking making it
possible to take into account the time for execution of each work opera
tion and micropauses . But it should be borne in mind that objective re
cording of the work process should not supplant self - checking , that this
recording is only one of the prerequisites of such checking .
Witness to this is borne by the research of V. M. Kogan [297, de
voted to an analysis of the work of a stamper turning out connecting - rods
for automobiles . The observations were made in the imeni Likhachev car
factory . The work tempo of the stamper was high enough : time for turn
ing out two connecting - rods ( twin production ) was 0.3-0.4 minutes . In the
stage of preliminary observation it was revealed that the time of execution
of the operation itself fluctuated comparatively little : a consecutive
series of 10-12 rhythmic blows of the steam hammer lasts from 12 to 14.4
seconds , There was a considerably greater variation of the time of the
ancillary operations: the seizure of the piece with pincers and its trans
fer to the die and positioning there, checking on its position before the
first pressure on the lever of the hammer -- the amount of time expended
on these processes taken together varied from 3 to 9 seconds . Observa
tions showed that an economy of time is achieved by the stamper mainly
in respect of these ancillary operations; when the worker tries to make
up for lost time he curtails to a minimum the time of transfer and posi
tioning ( 2-3 seconds) . On days of uninterrupted work , the fluctuations
of the time spent on ancillary operations increased considerably and it
was not possible to establish any sort of law for the changes of tempo .
So far as the time of execution of the individual operation was concerned,
it often transpired that slower cycles were encountered in the middle of
the work -period than at its end . A frequent appearance of such slow operam
tions lasting more than 24 seconds were , however , predominantly encounter
ed at the end of the shift; however , this could be noted only on those
days when the stamper was not hurrying and was working normally .
In the work process the question arose of the importance of the workom
er being informed of the production accomplished by him in various time
intervals . It emerged that the stamper knows well from the number of
pieces in the furnace the general scope of his work , but that he can never
tell how many connecting - rods he has turned out per hour or up to the
lunch break . His notions of his productivity were expressed in general

- 495 -
phrases ( "I worked well but the furnace held me up " ) . He knew too of the
ratio existing between the tempo of work and the occurrence of hold - ups:
the more time wasted unproductively , the quicker was the tempo .
These facts led to the following experiment being set up : one
worker began to be informed of the scope of the produce he had turned
out -- at first every hour , then every half- hour . In view of the fact
that hold - ups were often encountered , he was also told the average time
of stamping one connecting - rod . The information sounded about like this :
" 86 rods ; 3 minutes hold - up ; 18 seconds per rod . " A preliminary colla
tion of the material showed that even such simple information is of sub
stantial stimulatory significance . If at the start the hourly production
amounted to 80-90 rods, then at the end of a month it had reached an aver
age of 100 rods . It further transpired that the worker increased the speed
of his work during the first ten minutes immediately following the giving
of the information to him .
On the basis of these observations there was introduced a more de
tailed calculation of the productivity of labor and a change was made in
the form in which the worker was informed of the amount he had done . In
stead of being told as before that he had turned out so - and - so many rods ,
that there had been so - and - so much hold - up , that he had spent so - and - so
much time on one rod, the worker was now told : You did 46 rods in a half
an hour and in the next half - hour you must turn out 48 rods" ( basis for
such were the average data for the preceding three days) . Subsequent
observation showed that the productivity of labor in the second half
hour exceeded by 2-6 rods the productivity of the preceding half -hour
( aside from hours in which the hold - ups exceeded 15 minutes ) .
The experiment stretched over a total period of four months . It
is noteworthy that prior to the setting up of the experiment the produc
tivity was ( on an average) 650 rods per shift, whereas in the fourth
month the record figure of 960 rods per shift had been attained .
The results of this research point to the stimulatory influence of
the very fact of the worker being informed about his time- expenditures
on work operations. And here detailed indices are more important than stom
mary indications . The worker is not always able to regulate himself the
intensity of labor unless he has external criteria of the time- expenditures
per unit of produce . Such stimulation leads to efforts being mobilized at
the moment of the worker being informed . This contributes to a mainte
nance of the evenness of the work and to a general acceleration of the
speed of work . This can be judged not only by the reduction of the aver
age time for turning out one produce unit from 12-13 to 8 seconds, but
also by the acceleration of the work speed in the first half-hours, when
the stamper has not yet received any supplementary stimulus .
In everyday occupational work the knowledge of the time involved
can acquire an organizational significance only if it is translated into
the language of concrete measures of work brought to the attention of the
worker somehow or other in the course of his work . This sets visually be
fore him a concrete goal at every given moment and leads to time being con
verted from a factor external in relation to the work into an interior
organizational stimulus, positively influencing the course of a protracted
labor operation .

• 496 -
 Let us now go on to another , likewise exceedingly promising trend
in the field of the psychology of labor , known as engineering psychology .
This has to do with the psychological study of lathes , control levers,
signalling installations and tools in the broad sense of that word . The
question used also to be posed of the constant participation of psycho
physiological specialists in the work of designing organizations which
designed models of new types of machines , transport mechanisms, control
panels, signalling installations and control and measuring instruments .
This question is becoming still more acute in connection with automa
tion , since an ignorance or ignoring of psychophysiological require
ments is by no means rare in the designing even of the most up - to - date ,
high - grade machines .
This relates in the first instance to those aggregates on which
are located instruments requiring simultaneous or successive perception .
In the designing of this sort of aggregates the designer does not by any
means always take into account the laws of the optimal organization of
visual perception . Yet the distribution of the individual elements which
are the object of perception ought to be accomodated in the first instance
to their concrete function . It is by no means a matter of indifference
how often the eyes must turn to a specific instrument, how easily visible
the object is , what is the stress on central and peripheral vision , etc.
In cases of poor distribution of the elements on an instrument panel or
board the visual fatigue is increased , the level of visual attention is
rapidly lowered and faulty actions begin to occur , often entailing ser
ious consequences . This holds, of course , not only for visual perception ,
but for auditory , etc. , as well.
On the design and positioning of the elements of a machine and
its parts depends the rational method of linking up sensory and motor func
tions, for , as a rule there arises , either right after an act of perception
or within a short time after it, the necessity of executing certain defi
nite actions , So the signalling installation and the control panel ought
to satisfy certain definite requirements. Now at first glance this seems
to be a purely designing task but it is easy to see that it has a psy
chological aspect . It is specially important that the psychological side
of the problem of designing be taken into account in those occupations
in which breakdown situations can occur . In the case of a great number
of successive acts of perception and of motor acts tied in with them ,
there not infrequently arises a tendency to repetitions and stereotyp
ing , to a sui generis motor perseveration and inertia , which may entail
irreparable consequences . These tendencies can be overcome by way of a
rational organization of the visual and motor field . If the design and
distribution of control levers do not have a logical connection with the
objects of perception , then the proper sensory -motor coordination is eas
ily distrubed .
To this section of the projects belongs likewise the problem of
the designing of the instruments themselves , specifically the choice of
the sizes , shapes , scales and their divisions, scripts , etc. It must be
remembered that present- day occupations make ever greater demands on the

• 497 -
activity of the sense organs at the expense of a debilitation of the role
of the motor apparatus . Skill and proficiency in many professions de
pends in the first instance on the capacity rapidly, soon enough and ac
curately to perceive the various signals which dictate the necessity of
various actions . With an increase of the proportion of signalling in
stallations the role of the organs of perception is likewise enhanced .
Designing can , if it relies on certain definite psychophysiological
criteria , and must in each individual case suggest what form of sig
nalling will guarantee the optimal conditions for the functioning of the
sensory apparatus. (See Note7
( Note ] In connection with the growing interest in the problems
of engineering psychology, the magazine Voprosy psikhologii [Questions of
Psychology includes in its issues from time to time extensive surveys of
the numerous foreign researches in this field [ 35] , [ 16 ]. The reader will
find valuable material in the monograph of E. T. McCormick , Human Engineer
ing , N. Y. , 1957 ) .
If it is to answer the demands of modern progressive industry and
transport, the psychology of labor cannot evade this group of questions
and must take whatever part it can in their solution . In the first instance
special researches must be carried out in order to determine the objects
the study of which promises the most effective utilization of psychology
in the designing or redesigning of the mechanisms which the human being
operates and the tools which he uses .
The earliest research in this field of the psychology of labor --
that of N. A. Bernshteyn 137 -- was devoted to a psychophysiological re
construction of the motorman's work post, while another research , that of
G. N. Skorodinskiy and Ye . E. Mendeleyeva [īisted in Bibliography however
as Mendeleva ] [507, was devoted to a study of control levers on hoisting
and- transport mechanisms, specifically on electrical overhead travelling
cranes , derrick and steam cranes . In the latter work it was established
that the design of the work posts is patently unsuitable from the point
of view of the distance apart of the control levers, the differentiation
of the foot pedals of the brake , of the boom and of the loading , and fi
nally of the direction of motion of the control levers ; and that this
serves as a source of possible errors and breakdowns or accidents .
On the basis of this research , appropriate suggestions were in
troduced . They provided for an alteration of the distances between the
levers , a stricter differentiation between similar levers , a change in the
direction of movements . It was also suggested that there be introduced
a supplementary audio signalling , differentiated in function of the in
crease or decrease of danger ; and that the visual field of the machinist
be divided into two parts , a central one for the basic signals and a periph
eral one for the accessory signals, etc ,
In this section of projects belong also the work of B. N. Severnyy
[487, devoted to the study of the visibility of road signs, and likewise
the researches of N. A. Eple [737 and N. v. Zimkin [237 , devoted to the
design of aircraft instrument panel instruments .

. 498 -
 Similar researches would be particularly in place in respect to oco
cupations characterized by control functions performed on mechanisms in
the context of an operational field in various parts of which are concen
trated objects of perception and control instruments . Obviously such ques
tions are better resolved not in respect of already designed tools and
control mechanisms, but rather in the stage of the actual designing , when
all alterations are much easier to make .
Let us turn , in conclusion , to the problem of occupational selec
tion . Obviously the crucial role in the increase of the productivity of
labor is played by the mechanization of labor and the automation of the
production processes . But is the role of the individual psychological
factor thereby eliminated ? It must be borne in mind that present- day types
of labor are not becoming less skilled in connection with automation .
Nor are the concepts of occupational skill and occupational proficiency
being downgraded in present- day production . Rather they are acquiring a
new qualitative sense .
In this connection arises likewise the problem of occupational ca
pacities and individual differences . A talk with teachers in occupational
technical schools, with methodologists, masters directly occupied in the
training of future staffs of workers, is enough to convince one of the
advisability of a scientific study of individual prerequisites on which
depend the growth and development of occupational skills and proficiency .
Questions of occupational selection acquire great significance in
relation to occupations which are bound up with traumatism and accident
proneness . Among these should be classed in the first instance all dri
ving professions ,
To make a judgment on the advisability of posing the question of
occupational selection , the special statistical materials on individual
differences in occupational suitability must in each concrete case be col
lated and analyzed . The simple fact of the existence of such differences
is not of itself enough to make mandatory occupational selection on the
psychological plane . It must be clearly shown that the differences in
productivity , in turn - out of rejects , in accident- proneness , etc. , are
of a more or less persistent sort, that they depend in the main on cer .
tain individual peculiarities and not on the system of teaching or on
external working conditions . Specially great significance should be ac
corded to the data on traumatism and accident - proneness . I have developed
this point in detail elsewhere [ 11].
In spite of the fact that in the study of the problem of traumatism
and accident- proneness in the psychology of labor there has been in many
instances an overemphasis of the importance of the " personal factor , " it
would nevertheless be entirely wrong to deny its role altogether and re
duce the entire problem of traumatism and accident- proneness to the elim
ination of mechanical and organizational hitches .
Experience has shown that the psychologist can be a useful partner
in the safety campaign in production and in transport . For this he must
have mastered special methods of study of the causes of accidents . Not
a little has been done by Soviet psychologists of labor for the creation

- 499 -
and perfection of such methods. Specifically , in a number of researches
ways were successfully found to make a meticulous analysis of faulty
actions which are bound up in one way or another with traumatism and
accident- proneness. [See Note ] If these faulty actions are of a persist
ent character , if they are bound up with the speeds or other individual
psychological peculiarities of the worker , then there is every reason to
make these individual peculiarities the object of a special research and
to try to find methods of prevention of breakdowns and accidents , One
such method , though by no means the only one , is occupational selection .
( Note ] A profound and circumstantial analysis of traumatism was
made in their day by a group of psychologists in the Urals under the di
rection of I , L. Tsfasman , whose great merit it is to have worked out
detailed and psychologically well thought- out schemata for analysis of
statistical material on traumatism and for psychological study of each
instance of current traumatism ( cf. Psikhotekhnika i fiziologiya truda
na Urale (Psychotechnics and the Physiology of Labor in the Urals)
Materialy k I Ural'skomy clyezdu psikhotekhnikov i fiziologov truda (Pap
ers for the 1st Urals Congress of Psychotechnicians and Physiologists of
Labor ) , No. 1 , Ogiz ( State United Publishing Houses) , 1936 ) .
Without running through in detail all the valuable works which have
yielded positive results in the solution of this question , I refer to one
of the researches, one made by Ye . S. Brailovskiy and his colleagues 5,
6, 7. The authors of this research began by subjecting to critical
analysis all the works of psychologists on the " diagnosis" of suitability
for driving professions and for accident- free driving . An analysis of
these works led the authors to the conviction that by no means all the as .
pects of the question as to the so - called " non - accident- prone qualities"
had received proper elucidation . In this connection a new psychological
description of the chauffeur's profession was compiled and particular
attention was devoted to the psychological study of the accident situations
and those faulty actions which are tied in with accidents of one sort and
another . It came out in the process that one of the most typical faulty
actions (namely the delayed and inaccurate motor reaction of the driver )
comes about in a context in which the driver must make a switchover from
one situation to another . In this connection the researchers' efforts
were concentrated on an analysis of the plasticity of the sensory -motor
actions and on the creation of methods with the help of which an invest
igation could be made of the capacity rapidly to switch over from one
motor set to another at the moment at which an unexpected situation sud
denly crops up . As a result of these researches an apparatus was con
structed which made it possible to reproduce in a laboratory context a
picture of the driving of an automobile in conditions of a frequent change
in the visual situation , a picture having psychological verisimilitude .
In the system of stimuli appearing before the subjects were provided
unexpected stimuli , requiring a capacity to overcome a stereotype reaction
and switch over rapidly to a new type of reaction . Such stimuli caught
the subjects unawares and demanded of them a maximal mobilization of ato
tention and an extremely accurate "reset" reaction . It was successfully

• 500 -
shown experimentally that precisely this type of reaction is the most symp
tomatic in the determination of the suitability of a candidate for
accident- free operation . In this research there was proven not only the
diagnostic value of the method but also the possibility of its utilization
in the system of training of chauffeurs .
Since it is impossible in the bounds of a single article to eluci
date all problems of the psychology of labor , I shall limit myself to a
few observations on the participation of psychologists in the resolution
of questions having a direct bearing on the rationalization of labor ,
specifically on their participation in the substantiation and construc
tion of a work schedule optimal from the point of view of psychophysiol
ogy .
Soviet psychologists of labor have made wide use of special methods
for the research of so - called neuro -psychic fatigue . As a rule, no psy
chologist ever spoke out all by himself in any works along this line;
rather he coordinated his efforts with those of physiologists, hygien
ists , production workers, since the problem of fatigue and work capacity
both in its statement and in the choice of means suitable for its solu
tion is a complex problem .
In specialized literature , mainly periodical , works can be encounter
ed on the fatigue - quotient of students of intermediate and higher educational
institutions, of railway machinists , train dispatchers , station masters,
physicians, teachers of all sorts , telegraph workers, women machinists and
stenographers, tram motormen and conductors , firemen , sales personnel, phar
macy workers , weavers , glass - blowers , tractor drivers and many others .
A great number of original researches on the given question were made by
Ye . I, Ruzerand 2. I. Chuchmarev [ 10], [ 28], [427, [68].
The basic postulate of the psychological researches in this field
was the generally known fact of more or less noticeable disturbances of
the psychic functions in various states of work capacity , especially upon
a clear lowering of that capacity . The psychologist who is trying in each
concrete instance to evaluate the alteration of work capacity , conventional
fatigue , takes as point of departure the presupposition that there exists
a single symptom complex typical for the state of neuro -psychic fatigue .
Into this complex enter disturbance of memory , attention , sensory -motor
activity , of the intellectual functions, etc. , since a weakening pre
cisely of these aspects of psychic activity is most often observed in
various stages of fatigue .
Typical for the first stage of the development of the Soviet psy
chology of labor was the tendency to use such methods of investigation
of fatigue as were widespread in the classic works of Kraepelin , re
ceived further development in the researches of Binet and Henri , and were
supposed to be of universal significance . But very soon the psychologists
began to be perplexed by the too obvious contradictions discovered upon
comparison of the results of the use of the same method by various auth
ors . An analysis of these contradictions led to the conclusion that there
are no exclusive symptoms of psychic fatigue, nor yet any universal all
purpose methods for the determination of the degree of reduction of the

- 501 -
work capacity occasioned by fatigue or by other factors . This conclusion
impelled the psychologists to take the path of searches for differential
methods of research on fatigue , depending on the character of the work
and the symptoms of fluctuations of work capacity typical for each type
of work .
Having gotten on to this more fruitful path , the psychologists con
sidered it mandatory to precede experimental research of psychic fatigue
by special psychological analysis, conducted from a certain definite point
of view , of the concrete form or type of work which was to be studied with
a view to creating a more rational form of work schedule and organization .
In the process of analysis of a concrete profession or occupation , the
psychologist sought out the psychic functions most vulnerable to fatigue
( conventionally termed the occupationally vulnerable functions) and on
this basis selected or constructed methodological techniques for the in
vestigation of fatigue . Such an approach , even if it did not solve all
the difficulties of the problem , did at least noticeably expand the
scope of the psychological resources applied for estimating shifts of work
capacity .
Another effective step on the way to an improvement of the system
of research on work capacity on the psychological plane was the transfer
of the center of gravity from periodic ( 2-3 times a day ) study of the
state of work capacity to an uninterrupted analysis of the dynamic of
work capacity in the course of an entire work day , taking into account
all the factors influencing the fluctuations of work capacity , not only
its periodic fall - off but also its increase . ( The research adduced
above of the dynamic of work capacity of a stamper may serve as an ex
planation of what we mean . )
In numerous works of psychologists who built up their research of
fatigue and work capacity on the basis of a good psychological analysis
of the occupation in question and were guided by the principle of an all
round study of the work " curve " and of all positive and negative factors
determining the course and character of this curve , success was achieved
in resolving concrete questions of work schedule, organizing optimal forms
of alternation of work and rest , choice of time for breaks, setting of
their frequency and length , etc. But despite the success of works along
this line , their significance was limited by the fact that the psychologist
( just like the physiologist ) did not dispose and does not yet dispose of
criteria for the construction of the work day from the point of view of
an optimal distribution of exertions . He can only select from many con
tending variants of work schedule the best one and substantiate this
choice ; but even this is so useful that there is no doubt about the
necessity of developing in the future this research trend .
The description of the basic trends of the psychology of labor
would be incomplete if we did not touch on researches devoted to the
problem of expert investigation by medical men and restoration of work
capacity . These researches were carried on most intensively in the
years preceding the Great Patriotic War and in the war years . At this
time the psychology of labor stopped working on the traditional problems,

502 -
connected with the tasks of occupational selection , production training ,
the campaign against traumatism and accident- proneness , rationalization
of the work schedule, redesigning of tools and instruments , etc. But
some theoretical postulates, which had served as points of departure in
the resolution of these traditional problems, turned out to be useful
in the posing of questions of the restoration of work capacity .
Organizationally , the works in the psychology of labor as applied
to the tasks of expertise and restoration of work capacity are connected
with the creation of a special psychological section in the Scientific
Research Institute of Expertise of Work Capacity in Moscow , under the di
rection of V. M. Kogan ( 1930) and of analogous institutions in Leningrad ,
Rostov -on - the Don , etc. For a systematic solution of the problem of
vocational guidance for persons of limited work capacity what was required
was the elaboration of a special psychological classification of the oc
cupations and professions . The basis of this alassification had to be the
criteria of twork capacity and not the criteria of general and occupational
talents , as is the case in the resolution of the tasks of occupational
selection . The differentiation of work capacity is based on the correla
tion of the level and character of psychic activity , realized in concrete
occupational skills, and the degree of intensity of work activity , the
tension of the work , its tempo etc. Preliminary observations of the work
of persons with limited work capacity showed that the difficulties in
working are most often intensified or relaxed in function of the con
stant or the alternating tempo of the work . Therefore the classifica
tion of the occupations calculated to facilitate the resolution of the
question of vocational guidance and the restoration of the employabil
ity of persons with various defects was constructed as a sui generis lad
der of occupations, providing for a transition from occupations with a
" coercive " tempo to occupations permitting of more or less arbitrary tem
po and allowing of the introduction of pausesat will . As a result of
an analysis of the most typical occupations of manual labor , the instru
ment occupations, the occupations of machine labor and the so - called di
rectorial professions, all the various types of work activity were grouped
in such a way that it proved possible to choose for the persons with lim
ited work capacity such professions as corresponded to the greatest degree
to the psychological peculiarities of the work capacity of the patient,
taking into account the character and pronouncedness of the defect and
the possibilities of compensating for it [ 55; report of R. A. Galiperin .
In the work psychology laboratories which had devoted themselves
to a working out of the problem of expertise and restoration of work ca
pacity , great attention was devoted to the creation of special methods of
experimental psychological investigation of work capacity in the broad
sense of this word . As a result of efforts over many years , there was
achieved a notable expansion of the scope of the methodological tech
niques used in experimental psychology in the examination of patients .
Particularly worthy of note are the experimental methods with the aid of
which a successful estimate was made of the character of the reduction of
psychic work capacity and of the degree of this reduction . A descrip on

- 503 -
and analysis of these methods is beyond the scope of this article , Suffice
it to point out that with their aid it proves possible to determine the
most vital psychic changes that arise in connection with various disturb
ances of work capacity . The results of the application of these methods
permit of making well - founded conclusions on the ways suitably to make
use of the intact aspects of the personality in concrete types of work .
Many of the methods created in the process of the study of persons with
limited work capacity present a fundamental interest, since they reveal
structural and functional peculiarities of the human psychic activity
which are not always accessible to the usual psychological experiment.
Among these methods should be classed the method of study of exertions,
of psychic inertia and how to overcome it, of the capacity for switch
over , of contraction of the field of consciousness , of emotional
volitional stability , etc. Thus, for example , one of the researches
succeeded, by way of a change in the rhythm and tempo of feed - in of
stimuli , in creating complicated situations which permitted of discover
ing the lesions of the emotional - volitional sphere typical of the var
ious forms of limited work capacity .
Particularly fruitful were the researches conducted by psycholo
gists for an analysis of the processes of restorative exercises . The
questions of the restoration of the work capacity of persons with various
defects directed the thinking of the psychologists to the ways to create
special exercises and in this field of the psychology of labor there were,
as we have seen , not a few valuable researches . Without pausing in the
present article to speak of the numerous works which have treated from
the psychological point of view the adaptation to work of the blind , the
deaf - and- dumb and persons suffering from lesions of cerebral functions ( these
works are reflected in special articles of this anthology ), let us speak
only of three researches which were devoted to the problem of the restora
tion of the work capacity in cases of motor lesions of various sorts .
The restoration of motor functions, as numerous clinical observa
tions and experimental facts have shown , is an exceedingly complex pro
cess . The process of restoration is not limited to the gradual revival
of the debilitated motor functions; it is bound up , too , with a quali
tative restructuring of the entire sensory -motor system , with modifica
tions in the correlation between the intact and the injured functions of
the organism . Therefore , the entire process of restoration may be char
acterized as a process of reorganization of the functions so as to adapt
the motor apparatus to the resolution of various motor tasks . In the
process of such a reorganization of functions there occurs a sui generis
interaction of the adaptational and the compensatory mechanisms . The
presence of a motor defect under certain definite circumstances arouses
the latent and reserve properties of the organism . It is particularly in
portant to emphasize that the mobilization of the reserve forces and of
the numerous compensatory techniques depends to a considerable degree
on the character of those special exercises which are created for the res
toration of the motor functions . It has proved possible to throw a bridge
from the special exercises successfully applied in the psychology of labor

- 504 -
for the development and improvement of occupationally important functions
to the restorative exercises having as their purpose the increase of the
work capacity of persons with various motor defects .
Just as in the special exercises of which it was a question in the
first part of our article , so here , too , the final effect depends to a
considerable degree on conditions which stimulate the incentive of the
subjects to the attainment of good results . Such an incentive in cases
of motor lesions was achieved by an arousing of the demand for function
ing in a certain definite direction with mandatory inclusion of the in
jured organ . The first task of special exercises is to tlicit this
demand . These exercises ( or assignments ) were built up with account be
ing taken of the fact that not only the method of adaptation to the new
tasks but also the selection of compensatory techniques in respect of the
defect was stimulated in the first instance by the vital importance of
the tasks set the individual and by the force of the demand for resolu
tion of these tasks . By this principle, too , were guided the Soviet
psychologists who encountered the necessity of constructing special exer
cises for the restoration of the work capacity of persons with various
motor lesions .
In the years of the Great Patriotic War , the main object of all re
searches of this sort were wounded persons suffering from a limitation
of movements or even from a total temporary incapacity to perform various
motor acts . The psychologists had to review and construct anew the sy
stem of work therapy , give this work a new theoretical foundation and
subordinate to this principle the choice , dosage and methods of applica
tion of work skills . The psychology of labor made a changeover to a new
type of researches , whose basic peculiarity was the utilization of a
work assignment as a stimulatory , developmental and restorative factor .
In these researches , exceedingly instructive regularities were
discovered . It has been noted already that the gearing to the execution
of a certain definite vitally important purpose puts a certain definite
stamp on the structure of the motor act and to a considerable extent
determines its psychophysiological character . All other conditions being
equal , the patient who discovers a limitation of the power or amplitude
of certain definite movements , learns to overcome the defect with a greater
or less degree of success , depending on the character of the task and on
those stimuli which impel him to the solution of this task . The mobil
ization of the compensatory faculties of the patient likewise varies in
function of the character of the stimulus and the assignment. Such facts
are described in detail in specialist works of A. N. Leontyev and A. V.
Zaporozhets [35a7, N. A. Bernshteyn 37 , L. G. Chlenov 0972 Yu. V.
Kotelova OT, L. s . Seletskaya [ 97, G. s . Gellershteyn 7137 and others,
devoted to the theory and practice of the restoration of motor functions
in injured persons with various motor disorders .
Let us recall one of the typical facts . A patient suffering from
an injury to the median nerve tries to bend the thumb and index finger
and make their tips meet . This effort proves not to be very successful
if the task is formulated in the following words: " Try to touch the tip
of your index finger with the tip of your thumb . " This same effort
proves to be more successful when the same movement is stimulated by the
necessity of executing a purposive action with an object , for example
picking up a certain definite object or instrument for working purposes .
Researchers who observed such facts could not be content to explain them
- 505 -
by reference simply to the role of the emotional element, although there
is no doubt that this element is not without influence on the effective
ness of the movement . The vital importance of the purpose mobilizes net
motor impulses not only in connection with the emotional influence , but
also creates new interrelations between the sensory and motor components
of the motor act . Here again must be recalled the I. M. Sechenov prin
ciple " concerning the regulation of movements by sensation . " The ob
jective goal , being perceived by various sense organs , occasions a state
of readiness of the motor apparatus for the overcoming of certain definite
obstacles . These obstacles are , as it were , weighed and evaluated in ad
vance , and then in the course of the overcoming of the obstacles the sig
nalling coming from the motor apparatus thanks to the muscular sense"
permits of precisifying the motor intention , of introducing into it the
necessary corrections and of mobilizing supplementary efforts for the
resolution of the task . In the restorative exercises used by psychol
ogists in the system of work therapy based on the principle mentioned , this
idea of " feedback , " of interaction of perception and motion has been fully
realized . That is why the results of restorative work therapy which have
been well thought- out from the psychological point of view have turned
out to be exceptionally effective .
The psychological approach to the problem of the restoration of
the motor functions has been expressed not only in the creation of a sy
stem of special exercises but also in the redesigning of instruments ,
The design of an instrument, as has been explained , determines the condi
tions of the interaction of the sensory and the motor functions in the
process of the execution of a motor assignment . The usual instruments
( jointer , file, etc. ) have been so redesigned as to make it possible to
proportion ( dose) the difficulty of the assignment and the obstacles
therewith connected and consequently also those sensations relying on
which the individual regulates the motor efforts and mobilizes supple
mentary efforts . For example , in the case of the picking up of an instrum
ment when there is possible only partial bending of the fingers, the motor
effort can be regulated by the extent of the portion of the instrument
that can be grasped . Thereby there can be awakened and , as it were,
dosed (proportioned) the sensations relying on which the individual will
mobilize the efforts required for the solution of the task .
Exceptionally instructive is the experience of the restoration of
work capacity and the adaptation to work of amputees who have undergone
the Krukenberg operation . In one of the works devoted to this question
is clearly demonstrated the role of special exercises in which is utilized
the same idea of restructuring and adaptation of instruments in accord
with the character of the defect and with the motor capacities of the in
jured , 97 .
All researches along this line have not only yielded valuable prac
tical results , but have also permitted of analyzing considerably more pro
foundly the mechanism of the restoration of functions and have brought us
closer to an understanding of the many and varied forms of compensation

• 506 -
for a defect. It has emerged that the choice of this or that form of
compensation for a defect depends to a considerable extent on the exper
imentalist and researcher . By the choice of a certain definite work as
signment and by the dosage of exertions , as also by the design of the
special instruments the undesirable form of compensation for the defect
can be suppressed in the one case and the manifestation of the advan
tageous form of compensation can be stimulated in the other case . Most
often the undesirable forms of compensation are , in motor disorders ,
those forms in which the patient entirely spares the injured organ and
its functions, completely transferring the exertions to the intact organs .
In the researches to which we have referred , success was achieved at so
organizing the restoration of the damaged motor functions that those
forms of compensation advantageous from the point of view of the res
toration of the work capacity were reinforced , while the disadvantage
ous ones were eliminated . To this end , at various phases of the
restoration of functions, changes were made both in the work assignments
and in the instruments which coercively determined the work pose and the
enlistment into the work of certain definite muscular groups and exer
tions .
In these works it was brought to light that there is a fundamental
difference between the compensation of a defect as observed in experimen
tal laboratory conditions in animals and the compensation of a defect in
the context of the human adaptation to labor . The spontaneous adapta
tional compensation in animals is converted in man into a conscious choice
of adaptational and compensatory techniques, whereby the crucial role in
this process is played by a conscious aspiration to overcome the defect
and attain a high work capacity despite the defect . The role of the psy
chologist who is participating side by side with other specialists in the
restoration of functions consists in creating a well - thought out system
of special assignments which will stimulate the gradual enlistment of
the injured organ into the work activity and will facilitate the pos
sibility of a successive assimilation of more and more difficult work
motor acts with the most profitable utilization of the plastic per
ties of the organism and of the regulatory role of the sensory functions
in the restoration of movements .
After the Great Patriotic War , interest increased in questions of
the psychology of labor , but the scale of work in this field increased
only gradually . At the Conference on Psychology held 1-6 June , 1955,
there were presented seven lectures on the psychology of labor [36 ], and
in only three reports was it a question of the psychological peculiari
ties of concrete occupations: viz., the distribution of attention in
multi -loom weavers [ 36; 5307 and in radio operators [ 36; 5417, the re
structuring of habits in lathe- workers [ 36; 5657.
In April 1956 the questions of the psychology of labor were dis
cussed side by side with questions of the physiology of labor and of med
ical psychology at an expanded session of the presidium of the Academic
Council of the USSR Health Ministry . The resolution was passed to ap
proach a number of industrial ministries and the All - Union Central Council.

- 507 -
of Trade Unions with the proposal that they should set up in several of
the biggest enterprises scientific- practical laboratories on the physi
ology and psychology of labor .
In the same year there was published in the magazine Kommunist
[ Communist ] an article which substantiated the necessity of a broad en
listment of psychology in the resolution of a number of crucial practical
questions posed by our_industry, transport and by the polytechnicalization
of the school , etc. [337 .
Directly connected with these facts is the inclusion into the plans
of a number of scientific research institutes of special topics related
directly or indirectly to the field of the psychology of labor . The re
sults of the works of these institutions have been reflected in reports
presented at a special conference on questions of the psychology of labor
held in February -March 1957 in Moscow on the initiative of the Institute
of Psychology of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the RSFSR . This
time the psychology of labor was_better represented both quantitatively
and qualitatively than in 1955 [567. Aside from two survey reports in
which was given a description of the contemporary state of the psychol
ogy of labor in the USSR and in the West , reports were heard at the con
ference on questions of the development and formation of occupational
habits , of the psychology of professional work , of polytechnical train
ing , etc. ( a total of 28 reports ) . It was brought out at the confer
ence that a number of the psychological institutions of the country are
working at the psychology of labor .
A typical peculiarity of the psychology of labor of the last five
years is the inclusion into the scope of its urgent problems of several
questions relative to so - called human engineering and likewise of the
search for new , more perfected methods of psychological analysis of a
profession or occupation . The successes of equipment for the recording
of movements could not but exert an influence on these searches, witness
of which can be found in the special reports presented at the conference
by L. S. Radushinskiy and R. S. Person on " The Methodology of the Study
of Work Movements of Man By Way of the Tensometer Recording of the Exer
tions Expended , " by V. I. Levrentiyev on " The Methodology and Technical
Equipment of the Experiment Using the Cinema Film and the Oscillograph in
the Investigation of Work Techniques , " by S. M. Mikhaylov on "The Use
of the Cinema Film and the Oscillograph in the Study and Improvement of
Work Techniques in Metal - Cutting Lathes , " by A. Pospelov on " The Cinema
Method of Determination of the Direction of Gaze in the process of Work
Activity [567 .
It is natural that the psychology of labor occupied a certain de
finite place also at the 1st Congress of the Society of Psychologists held
in Moscow in June July 1959 [527. In the section on the psychology of
labor there were heard 18 lectures , in which were reflected both the
strong and the weak aspects of the psychology of labor elucidated like
wise in the lecture of A. A. Smirnov (517. Of course , the protracted
interruption in the work in the field of the psychology of labor could not
but have a deleterious effect on the development of its theory and

. 508 -
practice . This is why at the present time the divorce between the theory and
the practice oi the psychology of labor is felt so acutely . Whereas the
first and earliest stage of the development of this branch of psychology
was characterized by a lagging of practice behind theory and at that time
the psychologists of labor were reproached not without foundation with
empiricism , with a divorce from general theoretical psychology , in our
days the reproach of a divorcing of theory from practice would be more
deserved . This state of affairs is explained not only by the fact that
the group of questions on which is concentrated the attention of a small
group of psychologists of labor is extremely limited . A more serious
obstacle on the path of an effective solution of the tasks with which the
psychology of labor is faced is rightly considered to be the absence of
a clear plan in the development of scientific research and scientifico
practical work .
At the same time the majority of the published works on the psy
chology of labor deserve the most serious attention . Among theseshould
be listed the orksof V. V. Chebysheva [62], [637 , [ 647, 1657, [667, [627,
devoted to the problems of the tempo and rhythm of work , the combination
of actions, self- checking , individual differences in the mastery of high
speed habits , etc. Valuable researches at an analysis of production_op
erations are being carried out by D. A. Oshanin and his co- workers [417 .
The problem of technical creativity and training in it is being
studied by P. M. Yakobson [747. The creativity of a musical performer has
received a profound and well - rounded elucidation in a monograph of G. P.
Prokofiyev (427. To the psychology of planning are devoted the researches
of S. N. Arkhangel'skiy . And he has published " Essays on the Psychology
of Labor " 1, 27. In 1958 , there came off the press an anthology edited
by Ye . V. Gur'yanov and entirely devoted to questions of the psychology
of labor . It contained ( aside from the works of V. V. Chebysheva and S.
N. Arkhangel'skiy ) articles of younger specialists such as V. V.
Suvorova, T. 1. Borkova, Ye. A. Soloviyeva and N. I. Kuvshinov [ 53], 547,
47, 5527, 1347. These authors posed on the experimental plane a number
of questions connected with the formation of occupational habits , their
restructuring and the role of self - checking in the process of the mastery
of habits . Work at the psychology of labor in rail transport is being car
ried out by V. N. Pushkin , using new methods for the analysis of the psy
chological peculiarities of the occupation of train dispatcher and
machinist (437. In the work of v . Ya. Dymerskiy there is given a psycho
logical analysis of the perception by an aviator of the distance from the
ground on landingof an aircraft[ 567. This same authorhas succeeded in
showing the significance of imagined actions in the process of the restora
tion and retention of habits [197. Nor have the psychologists neglected
or lost sight of the field of so - called human engineering , A. N.
Leontiyevand K. M. Gurevich577 reported to the1st Congress of the So
ciety of Psychologists on the results of an investigation of the appli
cation of the dynamic principle in the psychological study of automatized
mechanisms . Not a few other works can be named as well which have a di
rect bearing on the psychology of labor , for instance the work of V. F.

- 509 -
Rubakhin on the knacks of deciphering aerial photos (457 , the works of
the Kazan ' psychologist, Ye . A. Klimov on the psychological peculiari
ties of multi - loom teavers and on the individual formation of occupational
proficiency [267 , [227 , et al. The question has again been raised of the
psychophysiological analysis of work movements [ 327.
The revival of research work in the field of the psychology of
labor has been reflected in a growth of the number of dissertations re
lating to this section of psychology . Thus , in the period from 1950 to
1959 there were defended no less than twenty dissertations on topics di
rectly or indirectly connected with the psychology of labor . Among these
were two doctoral dissertations: that of S. M. Vasileyskiy on " The Psy
chology of Technical Invention " Fa7_and that of 2. I. Khodzhava on " The
Problem of Habit in Psychology " 159a7. This latter problem served as sub
ject of many candidates ' dissertations: that of B. F. Lomov on " Exper
ience of the Psychological Research on the correlation of Habits of
Drawing and Sketching" [ 3507, that of 2. M. Petrasinskiy on " Questions
of Occupational Proficiency of workers " [4167, that of A. Pakhplush on
"Mastery of Habits in Function of the method of Practicem [41a7, that
of I. V. Tereshkina on " An Investigation of the Process of Automatization
of the Choice Reaction " [572], that of D. Ya . Bogdanova on " The_Percep
tion of Motion in the Process of the Mastery of Motor Habits " [ 3a7, and
that of V. P. Zinchenko on " Some Peculiarities of the Orientational Move
ments of the Hand and Eye and their role in the Formation of Motor Hab
itsa [23a7. A number of dissertations have been devoted to the psycho
logical analysis of concrete types of occupational work : that of A. P.
Gozova on " The Distribution of Attention Among Multi - Loom Weavers "
[ 75a7, that of v. Suvorova on " Psychological Peculiarities of High - Speed
Grinding Activity " [537 , that of L. L. Kondrat'yeva on " Psychological
Analysis of How Weavers Plan Their Work " [31a7 , that of v . F. Rubakhin on
" Psychological Analysis of the Process of Deciphering of Aerial Photo
graphs" (457. The last of the dissertations named presents considerable
interest in a theoretical , methodological and practical sense . In it the
author has succeeded in showing the process of the development of habits
of recognition of objects according to their conventional representation
and in revealing the nature of the typical errors while noting ways to
prevent them . In several dissertations have been treated questions con
nected with the choice of occupation by the students of senior classes
( K , A. Ariskin , V. V. Krevnevich , A. F. Esaulov , M. V. Rukovskaya ) . Ques
tions of the creative thinking and creative initiative of the Soviet work
er in the context of socialist competition have been reflected in two
dissertation works: that of Ye . L. Barnakova on " Creative Thinking in
the Process of Production work of the Soviet Worker " [ 767 and that of L.
V. Privalenko on " Development of the Creative Initiative of the Soviet
Worker in the Process of Socialist Competition " [4107.
The object of the psychology of labor is the work activity of the
human individual . Consequently , the theory of the psychology of labor
can develop only on condition that the object of immediate psychological
research is work itself . But work activity , like psychic activity , cannot

- 510 -
be studied in general . Work can be studied only in a certain definite as
pect which depends on concrete tasks for the sake of a solution of which
a psychological analysis of work activity is undertaken . These tasks are
in the main dictated by the demands of practice , which also determines the
character of those problems whose solution must serve as a scientific foun
dation for certain definite practical conclusions . And theoretical work
must be carried out on each of these problems . One such problem is the
genesis and development of human faculties . Another problem is that of
the principles and methods of recognition of individual differences be
tween human beings in connection with work activity . A third problem is
what of the laws of the mutability of occupationally important qualities
and of the factors influencing that mutability . A fourth problem is
that of the laws governing the process of the mastery of occupational
proficiency . A fifth is that of the laws of the restructuring of work
habits and skills in the context of changing occupational demands . A
sixth is the persistence of occupationally important symptoms in crito
ical circumstances, for example accident or breakdown . A seventh is the
work capacity and its fluctuations under the influence of fatigue . An
eighth is that of the positive emotions and work capacity . ( This is a
list of the cardinal problems .)
However important the laws established in general theoretical psy
chology and in its special sections , however substantial the assistance
afforded by general psychology to the psychology of labor , nonetheless
crucial importance for the scientific foundation of the concrete ques
tions of the psychology of labor accrues to those researches which are
carried out in direct relation to the basic object of the psychology of
labor , viz . labor activity .

The always stringent necessity of the participation of the psychol

ogy of labor in the resolution of a number of important tasks of the nam
tional economy becomes especially insistent at the present time in connec
tion with the broad enlistment of all fields of scientific knowledge in
the overall raising of the productivity of labor by all possible means .
One of the most effective and promising trends in research and prac
tical work of specialists in the psychology of labor must be considered
to be the trend embracing the complex of problems connected with the idea
of the development and improvement of work habits and skills , the mastery
of occupational proficiency , the dissemination of the experience of the
best production workers , and the like . This field of researches may be
considered as the mainstream of projects on the psychology of labor .
closely allied with this trend are the researches devoted to the
problem of the development of technological thinking and of those of its
generalized. forms which serve as the prerequisite for the expansion of
the technological horizon , for the rapid and successful mastery of new ,
constantly improving equipment . Thus should the task of the psychology
of labor be understood in its aspiration to take as big a part as it can
in the laying down of the scientific bases of polytechnical training .
Questions of occupational selection retain their significance first
of all in the cases of occupations bound up with danger and consequently

- 511 -
with breakdowns and accidents . The efforts of the workers in the field
of the psychology of labor should be directed to a deepening of the psy
chological analysis of critical situations typical for this sort of oc
cupation and to the creation of experimental methods of reproducing these
situations with psychological verisimilitude ,
In the program of projects of the psychology of labor a prominent
place should be assigned to research on the design peculiarities of ma
chines, individual aggregates , signalling instruments, lever installa
tions, control panels and the like , from the point of view of their
correspondence to psychophysiological requirements . As the experience
of our own and especially of foreign projects has shown , this line of
research affords the opportunity of really influencing the thought of de
signing engineering , by directing it to the creation or alteration of
work tools in the broad sense of this word, to the creation of otimal con
ditions for the activity of the organs of perception and the human motor
apparatus. For present- day occupations of the high - speed type, the oper
ation of complex mechanisms and the like , this question acquires first
rate significance .
A special place in the program of projects on the psychology of
labor must be occupied by the problem of work capacity and employabil .
ity , mainly from the point of view of an evaluation of the role of psy
chological factors which influence work capacity both in the sense of
increasing it and in the sense of decreasing it . The practical realiza
tion of these researches is bound up with the necessity of a proper or
ganization of the work schedule , on the rational structuring of which
depends to a great extent the productivity of labor . This trend prom
ises to be effective on condition that there is a coordination of the
efforts of psychologists and the efforts of physiologists, hygienists
and technologists .

- 512 -
 LITERATURE

1. S. N. Arkhangel'skiy , " Psychological Peculiarities of the

Work of Progressives and Production Innovators , " Izvestiya APN RSFSR
( News of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences) , No. 91, 1958 .
2. S. N. Arkhangel'skiy , Ocherki po psikhologii truda ( Essays
on the Psychology of Labor ), Trudrezervizdat (Labor Reserve Publishing
House ) , Moscow , 1958 .
3. N. A. Bernshteyn , " Plan for Remodelling of Work Post of Mos
cow Motorman , " Psikhotekhnika i psikhofiziologiya truda ( Psychotechnics
and Psychophysiology of Labor ) , 1929 , No. 1.
3a . D. Ya . Bogdanova , Oso znaniye dvizheniya v protsesse
ovladeniya dvigatel'nymi navykami (Perception of Motion in the Process
of Mastery of Motor Habits) , Candidate's Dissertation , Minsk , 1957 .
4 . T. N. Borkova , " Individual Differences in Speed of Formation
and Reformation of a Habit , " Izvestiya APN RSFSR ( News of RSFSR Academy
of Sciences ), No. 91 , 1958 .
5. Ye . S. Brailovskiy , " The Problem of the Research of the Motor
Reactive Sphere in the Chauffeur Profession , " Sovetskaya Psikhotekhnika
( Soviet Psychotechnics ), 1932 , No. 1-2 .
6. Ye . S. Brailovskiy and G. I. Levigurovich , " Psychotechnical
Study of the Profession of Chauffeur , " Gigiyena i Patologiya avtorabotnikov
( Hygiene and Pathology of Auto Workers ) , Moscow , Gostrudizdat (State Labor
Publishing House ) , 1930 .
7. Ye , S. Brailovskiy and G. N. Skorodinskiy , " Description of the
Set Up for Research on Motor - Reactive Sphere of Drivers , " Sovetskaya
psikhotekhnika ( Soviet Psychotechnics ) , 1932 , No. 1-2 .
7a . S. M. Vasileyskiy , Psikhologiya tekhnicheskogo izobretatel'
stva (Psychology of Technological Invention ) , Doctoral Dissertation ,
Gor'kiy , 1952 .
76. Ye . L. Varnakova , Tvorcheskove myshleniye v protsesse
proizvodstvennogo truda sovetskogo rabo chego (Creative Thinking in the
Proces of Production work of the Soviet Worker ), Candidate's Disserta
tion , Moscow , 1949 .
8. " Questions of the Psychology of Labor , " Trudy Instituta
psikhologii (Works of the Institute of Psychology ) . Izvestiya APN RSFSR
(News of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the RSFSR ) , No. 91, 1958 .
9. Vosstanovlenive trudosposobnosti i prisposobleniye k trudu
invalidov Otechestvennoy voyny (Restoration of Work Capacity and Accomoda
tion to Labor of World War II Invalids) , Anthology I , Tsents, instituta
ekspertiz trudo sposobnosti i organizatsii truda invalidov (Central In
stitute for Expert Investigation of Employability and Organization of
Labor of Invalids) , Moscow , 1946 .
10. S , G. Gellershteyn , " Present State of the Problem of Fatigue
in Psychotechnics , " Yestestvoznaniye i marksizm ( Natural Science and Marx
ism ) , 1930 , No. 1-5.
11. S. G. Gellershteyn , " Problems of Psychotechnics on the Thres
hold of the Second Five- Year Plan , " Sovetskaya Psikhotekhnika ( Soviet
Psychotechnics ) , 1932 , No. 5 .
12. S. G. Gellershteyn , " The Problem of Transfer of Exercise , "
Byulleten ! Vsesoyuznogo instituta eksperimental'noy meditsiny ( Bulletin
of All - Union Institute of Experimental Medicine) , 1936 , No. 6 .
· 513
 13. S. G. Gellershteyn , Vosstanovitel'naya trudovaya terapiya v
sisteme raboty evakogospitaley. (Restorative Occupational Therapy in the
System of Operation of the Evacuee Hospitals ), Moscow, Medgizdat (Medical
State Publishing House ), Moscow, 1943 .
14. S. G. Gellershteyn , "On the Development of the Perception of
Time Under the Influence of Special Exercises , " Materialy soveshchaniya
po psikhologii ( Papers of a Conference on Psychology ) , Publishing House
of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences , Moscow , 1957 .
15 . S. G. Cellershteyn , Chuvstvo vremeni i skorost dvigatel'noy
reaktsii (Sense of time and Speed of Motor Reaction), Medgiz (Medical
State Publishing House ), Moscow, 1958 .
15a . A. P. Gozova, Raspredeleniye vnimaniya u tkachikh
mnogostanochnits (Distribution of Attention Among Multi- Loom Weavers) ,
Candidate's Dissertation , Moscow , 1951 .
16 . L. N. Gorbunova , " Works of American Psychologists At Study
of Control Instruments and Dials , " Voprosy psikhologii ( Questions of
Psychology ), 1959 , No. 1
17. K. Grineva and M. Liberman , " Training of Psychophysiological
Functions in Hosiery Workers , " Anthology , Psikhofiziologiya truda v
promyshlennosti (Psychophysiology of Labor in Industry ) , Leningrad , 1935 .
18 . V. M. Davidovich , K. M. Karaul'nik , Yu . I. Shpigel ' , " Exper
ience of the Study of Stakhanovite Work Methods , " Gigiyena truda i
tekhnika bezopasnosti , 1936 , No. 5 .
19. V. Ya , Dymerskiy , " On the Use of Imaginary Actions in the Pro
cess of the Restoration and Retention of Habits , " Voprosy psikhologii ( Ques
tions of Psychology ) , 1955 , 1!0 , 6 .
20 .
T. G. Yegorov, "Psychology and Pedagogy of Habit-Building in
a Siemens Telegraphist, " Anthology , Voprosy proizvodstvennogo obucheniya
v khozyavstve svyazi (telegraf ) (Questions of Production Training in the
Cormunications Industry ( Telegraphy ), Svyaz' tekhizdat ( Communications Tech
nology Publishing House ) , Moscow , 1933 .
21 . S. A. Zhekulin , " Development of Initial Habits of Automobile
Driving , " Sovetskaya psikho tekhnika ( Soviet Psychotechnology ), 1934 , No.
2.
22 . A. N. Leontiyev and A. V. Zaporozhets , Vosstanovleniye
dvizheniy (Restoration of Movements ) , Moscow , 19444 .
23 . N. V. Zimkin , " Psychophysiological Evaluation of the Scales
on the Dials of Aircraft Instruments, " Trudy Tsentralinoy laboratorii
aviameditsiny GVF (Works of the Central Laboratory of Aerial Medicine of
the Air Force Hospital ) , Vol . II , izd- vo Aeroflota ( Air Fleet Publishing
House ) , 1937 .
23a. V. P. Zinchenko , Nekotoryye osobennosti orientirovo chnykh
dvizheniy ruki i glaza i ikh roli v formirovanii dvigatel'nykh nawykov
(Some Peculiarities of the Orientational Movements of the Hand and Eye
and Their Role in the Formation of Motor Habits ) , Candidate's Disserta
tion , Moscow , 1958 .
24. 0. P. Kaufman , " On the Question of the Rationalization of the
Teaching of Writing , " Sovetskaya psikhotekhnika ( Soviet Psychotechnics ),
1934 , No. 2 .

- 514 -
 25 . 0. P. Kaufman , Metodika proizvodstvennogo obucheniya
obuvshchika- zakroyshchika (Methodology of Production Training of Foot
wear Cutters) , Gos. izd- vo . legkoy promyshlennosti ( State Light Industry
Publishing House ) , Moscow - Leningrad , 1940 .
26. Ye . A. Klimov and S. L. Morzheyedov, Individual'nvy podkhod
pri obuchenii rabochikh na proizvodstve novym prieymam truda The Indi.
vidual Approach in the Teaching of New Work Techniques to Workers on
the Job ) , Kazan ' , 1955 .
27 . Ye . A. Klimov , " Individual Peculiarities of the Work Activity
of Multi - Loom Weavers in Connection with the Mobility of the Neural Pro
cesses ," Voprosy psikhologii , 1959 , No. 2
28 . V. M. Kogan and G. N. Skorodinskiy , " An Investigation of Fa
tigue in the Metal - Working Industry With the Aid of an Improved Thermom
eter , " Psikhotekhnika i psikhofiziologiya truda (psychotechnics and
Psychophysiology of Labor ) , 1931 , No. 2-3 .
29 . V. M. Kogan , " Some Tasks of Psychotechnics in Technical
Standardization , " Sovetskaya psikho tekhnika ( Soviet Psychotechnics ) ,
1932 , No. 56.
30 . V. M. Kogan , " Significance of the Practice Method in the
Formation of Habits and Skills, " Byulleten ' Vsesoyuznogo instituta
eksperimentalinoy meditsiny (Bulletin of the All - Union Institute of Ex
perimental Medicine) , No. 6 , 1936 .
31 .
. A. I. Kolodnaya, " Basic Tasks of Transport Psychotechnics at
the Present Stage , " Sovetskaya Psikho tekhnika ( Soviet Psychotechnics ),
1934 , No. 4.
31a. L. I. Kondrat yeva , Psikhologicheskiy analiz protsessa
planirovaniya svoyey trudovoy deyatel'nosti u tkachikh (Psychological
Analysis of How Weavers Plan Their Work ), Candidate's Dissertation , Mos
cow , 1956 .
32. S. A. Kosilov , " On the Question of the Psychophysiological
Analysis of Work Movements , " Voprosy psikhologii (Questions of Psychol
ogy) , 1959 , No. 5 .
33. " Strengthen Liaison of Psychological Science With Practice , "
Kommunist , 1956 , No. 4.
34. N. I. Kuvshinov , " On the Question of Auto - Checking of Students
in the Initial stage of Production Training , " Voprosy psikhologii , 1958 ,
No. 1 .
35. N. G. Levandovskiy , " Some Problems of Ango - American Engineer
ing Psychology ," Voprosy psikhologii ( Questions of Psychology ), 1958 ,
No. 5 .
35a . A. N. Leontiyev and A. V. Zaporozhets , Vosstanovelniye
dvi zheniy ( Resotration of Movements ), Moscow , 1944 .
356. B. F. Lomov , Opyt psikhologicheskogo issledovaniya
sootno sheniva navykov rosovaniya i chercheniya (Experience of the Psy
chological Research on the correlation of Habits of Drawing and Sketch
ing ) , Candidate's Dissertation , Leningrad , 1954.
36. Papers of a Conference on Psychology , izd - VO APN RSFSR
( Publishing House of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences) , 1957 .

· 515 -
 37. Ye . N. Meller , " Analysis of the Development of Spatial Think
ing , " Sovetskaya psikhotekhnika ( Soviet Psychotechnics ) , 1934 , No. 3.
38 . Ye . N. Meller , " Influence of Practice Methods on Transfer of
Habits , " Bulleten ! Vsesoyuznogo instituta eksperimental'noy meditsiny
( Bulletin of the A71 - Union Institute of Experimental Medicine) , 1936 ,
No. 6 .
39. G. V. Mel'tser , " Experience of Formation of Occupationally
Important Qualities in Flax Spinners , " Sovetskaya psikhotekhnika, 1933 ,
No. 2 .
40. A. A, Neyfakh , Psikhologicheskiye osobennosti professiv
avtomatizirovannogo khimicheskogo proizvodstva (obosnovaniye metodov
otbora i obucheniya v tselyakh borby s avariynost.yu ) ( Psychological
Peculiarities of the Professions of the Automatized Chemical Industry
( A Basis for the Methods of Selection and Training in the Interests of
the Campaign Against Accidents ) , Dissertation , Moscow , 1946 .
41. D. A. Oshanin , " On the Psychological Study of Production Op
erations , " Voprosy psikhologii ( Questions of Psychology ), 1959 , No. 1 .
41a . A. Pakhplush , Usvoyeniye navykov v zavisimosti ot sposoba
uprazhneniya (Mastery of Habits in Function of the Method of Practice ) ,
Candidate's Dissertation , Tartu , 1956 .
41b . 2. M. Petrasinskiy , Voprosy psikhologii professionall - nogo
masterstva rabochikh (Questions of the Psychology of Occupational Mast
ery of Workers) , Candidate's Dissertation , 1955 .
41c . L. V. Privalenko , Razvitiye tvorcheskoy initsiatiw sovetskogo
rabochego v protsesse sotsialisticheskogo corevnovaniya (Development of
the Creative Initiative of the Soviet Worker in the Process of Socialist
Competition ), Candidate's Dissertation , Moscow , 1950 .
42. G. P. Prokofiyev , Formirovaniye muzikantamispolnitelya
(pianista ( Training ofaMusical Performer ( Pianist)), izdvo APN RSFSR
Publishing House of RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences) , 1956 .
43. V. N. Pushkin , " Some Questions of the Psychology of the Di
rection of the Production Process in Rail Transport, " Voprosy psikhologii
( Questions of Psychology ) , No. 3 , 1959 .
44. G. A. Rotshteyn , " Analysis of the Qualitative Steps in the
Process of the Formation of Habits , " Byulleten !_instituta eksperimental !
noy meditsiny ( Bulletin of the Institute of Experimental Medicine) , 1936 ,
No. 6 .
45. V. F. Rubakhin , " Nature and Formation of Skill and Habits of
Deciphering Aerial Photographs , " Voprosy psikhologii ( Questions of Psy
chology ) , 1958, No. 3 .
46. S. Ya. Rubinshteyn , " Experience of Research on the Psychol
ogy of Labor , " Voprosy psikhologii, 1956, No. 4.
47. Ye. I. Ruzer , " Psychological Methods of Investigation of Fam
tigue , " Anthology , Psikhofiziologiya truda ( Psychophysiology of Labor ) ,
No. II , GIZ ( State Publishing House) , Moscow , 1927 .
48. B. N. Severnyy , " Experimental Research on the Visibility of
Road Signs , " Anthology , Psikhotekhnika na avtodorozhnom transporte ( Psych
technics in the Road Transport System ) , Gos. transportnoye izdvo ( State
Transport Publishing House ) , Moscow , 1935 .

- 516 -
 49. L. 0. Seletskaya , " Exercise and Transfer of Exercise of Func
tions of Distinction of Brilliancies, " Byulleten ! Vsesoyuznogo instituta
eksperimental'noy meditsiny (Bulletin of the All - Union Institute of Ex
perimental Medicine ) , 1936 , No. 6 .
50 . G. N. Skorodinskiy and Ye . E. Mendeleva , "On the Question
of the Rationalization of Control and Signalling Levers in Elevating
Transport Mechanisms , " Sovetskaya psikho tekhnika ( Soviet Psychotechnics ),
1933 , No. 3 .
51. A. A. Smirnov, " Tasks of Psychology in the Light of the Deci
sions of the 21st CPSU Congress , " Voprosy psikhologii ( Questions of Psy
chology ), 1959 , No. 5 .
52. Ye . A. Soloviyeva , " The Role of Auditory and Visual Checking
in the Process of the Formation of Radio Broadcasting Habits , " Izvestiya
APN RSFSR (Nets of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences ), No. 91,
1958 .
V. V. Suvorova , " Psychological Peculiarities of High Speed
53 .
Grinding Activity , " Uchenye zapiski MGPI im . V. P. Potemkina (Academic
Reports of the Moscow State Pedagogical Institute imeni V. P. Potemkin ),
Vol . XXVI , No. 2 , 1954.
54. V. V. Suvorova , " Reorganization of a Work Habit by Inclusion
Into and Exclusion From It of a Supplementary Component , " Izvestiya APN
RSFSR (News of RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences ), No. 91, 1958 ,
55. Abstracts of Reports of the Academic Session of the Institute
for Expert Investigation of Employability, 11-15 February , 1936. Profizdat
( Trade Unions Publishing House ), Moscow , 1936 .
56. Abstracts of Reports at a Conference on Questions of the Psy
chology of Labor, izdvo APN RSFSR ( RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences
Publishing House ) , 1957 .
57 . Abstracts of Reports at 1st Congress of Society of Psycholo
gists 29 June - 4 July 1959. Nos . 1 and 3. izd - VO APN RSFSR (RSFSR Aca
demy of Pedagogical Sciences Publishing House) , 1959 .
572. I. V. Tereshkina , Eksperimental'noye issledovaniye protsessa
avtomatizatsii reaktsiy vybora (Experimental Investigation of the Process
of Automatization of the Choice Reaction ), Candidate's Dissertation , Mos
cow , 1955 .
570. Trudovoy metod izucheniya professiy (Occupational Method of
Study of Professions) , Anthology, Editor , I. N. Shpil 'reyn , izdvo NKRKI
(Publishing House of the People's Commissariat of Workers' and Peasants!
Inspection ) , 1925 .
58. A. A. Tolchinskiy , " Experience of Psychological Training of
Producers of Defective Goods, " Sovetskaya psikho tekhnika ( Soviet Psycho
technics ), 1933, No. 1 .
59. " Questions of Restoration of Psychophysiological Functions, "
Uchenye zapiski MGU ( Academic Reports of Moscow State University ) , Vol .
II , No. 3 , Moscow , 1947 .
59a. 2. I. Khodzhava , Problema navyka v psikhologii ( The Problem
of Habit in Psychology ) , Doctoral Dissertation , Tbilisi, 1952 .

. 517 .
 60. M. A. Khomutova , " Peculiarities of the Cognitive Interests of
School - Children Connected with Choice of a Profession , " Voprosy psikhologii
( Questions of Psychology ) , 1958 , No. 1 .
61. V. V. Chebysheva, " Methods of Training Steel Workers in the
Campaign Against Hitches in Operation of Open Hearth Furnaces , " Anthology ,
Voprosy organizatsii i ozdorovleniya truda v martenovskom proizvodstve
TQuestions of Organization and Improvement of Labor in Open Hearth Pro
duction ) , ONT NKTP SSSR (Ob yedineniye nauchno - tekhnicheskikh izdatel'sty,
Narodnyy Komissariat Iyazhyeloy Promyshlennosti SSSR (United Scientific
and Technical Publishing Houses , People's Commissariat of Heavy Industry
USSR ) ) , 1935 .
62. V. V. Chebysheva, " Development of Speed Habits in Production
Activity , " Voprosy psikhologii ( Questions of Psychology ) , 1955 , No. 4,
63. V. V. Chebysheva , " Individual Differences in Work Speed of
the FZO School , " Izvestiya APN RSFSR (News of RSFSR Academy of Pedagog
ical Sciences) , No. 91, 1958 .
64. V. V. Chebysheva, " Psychological Analysis of Explanation and
Demonstration in Teaching How to Perform a Work Activity , " Izvestiya APN
RSFSR (News of RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences ) , No. 91, 1958 .
65. V. V. Chebysheva, " Development of a Habit of Reaction to High
Speed Objects , " Izvestiya APN RSFSR ( News of RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical
Sciences ) , No. 91 , 1958 .
66. V. V. Chebysheva , " Combination of Activities in Teaching of
a Complex Motor Habit, " Izvestiya APN RSFSR (News of the RSFSR Academy of
Pedagogical Sciences) , No. 91, 1958.
67. V. V. Chebysheva , " Some Questions of the Psychology of Produc
tion Training, " Voprosy psikhologii (Questions of Psychology ) , 1959 , No. 2 .
68. 2. I. Chuchmarev , " On the Problem of Fatigue , "
Yestestvo znaniye i marksizm (Natural Science and Marxism ) , 1929 , No. 3 .
69. Yu , I. Shpigel?, " Systematization of Experience of Practical
Open Hearth Furnace Operators in the Interests of Training and Instruct
ing , " ( ibid .)
70. Yu . I. Shpigel ' , " On the Question of the Rationalization of
Instruction in the Furnace Shops of the Ferrous Metallurgy Factory Work
shop University , " Sovetskaya psikho tekhnika ( Soviet Psychotechnics ) , 1933 ,
No. 3 .
71. Yu . I. Shpigel ' , Psikhologicheskoye issledovaniye razvitiva
navykov (na osnove analiza protsessa obucheniya stalevarov (Psychologi
cal Research on the Development of Habits (On the Basis of an Analysis of
the Process of Training Steel Workers ) ) , Dissertation , Moscow, 1947.
71a. I , N. Shpil'reyn , " Method of Artificial Deautomatization in
Psychological Research , " Psikhotekhnika i psikhofiziologiya truda ( Psycho
technics and Psychophysiology of Labor) , 1930, No. 2-3.
72. A. P. Shushakov , " The Trial Run in the Examination of Skill
of Steam Engine Machinists in the Psychotechnical Station of the Perm '
Railway , " Psikhofiziologiya truda i psikho tekhnika ( The Psychophysiology
of Labor and Psychotechnics ) , Vol . I, No. 2 , 1928 .
73. N. A. Eple, " Influence of the Shape of Dials and Needles on

- 518 .
the Perception of Instrument Indices , " Trudy Tsentral'noy laboratorii
aviameditsiny GVF (Works of the Central Laboratory of Aerial Medicine of
the Air Force Hospital ) , Vol . II , izd - vo Aeroflota ( Air Fleet Publishing
House) , 1937 .
74 . P. M. Yakobson , " Training in Technological Creativity , "
Professional'no - tekhicheskoye obrazovaniye ( Occupational - technological
Training ) , 1955 , No. 1 .

• 519 -
 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF FLIGHT OPERATIONS

By K. K. Platonov

The specificity , the responsibility and the massive extent of

flight operations have from the days of the first flights posed and con
tinue to pose today to the science of psychology a great number of ques
tions whose solution is vitally necessary to practice . A number of
various specialists working at æronautics and aviation have attemped to
resolve these questions .
The physicist Ya . D. Zakharov ( 1804 ) studied in flight visibility,
the power of hearing and the psychic state [72; 57. ' D. I. Mendeleyev
(1880 ) spoke of the provision of the necessary comforth in a flying ma
chine available to everyone [72; 11) . The meteorologist M. A. Tykachev
( 1882) described the psychological qualities necessary for a flyer [72;
107. Doctor of medicine N. A. Arendt ( 1874-1888) understood that the
tasks of aviation " are not only the construction of flying machines and
the equipping of them with appropriate motors, but also the providing
for man of the possibility and instructions as to how and by means of what
techniques he is to proceed to the execution of the process of flying "
ſunsyntactical structure as in original ] and called upon the representa
tives of the various specialized disciplines " jointly to think their way
through to the desired goal " [72; 237 .
The physicians C. P. Munt ( 1897 ) and after him I. S. Tsitovich ( 1914)
carried out not only physiological but also psychological researches in
flight in specially outfitted balloons [72; 12; and 527, while V. V. Abra
mov ( 1911) was the first to begin , in the V. M. Rekhterev dinic, to con
duct experimental psychological laboratory researches on aviators [72; 497 .
Flight methodologists at the 3rd All - Russian Aeronautics_Congress
( 1914) began the still unfinished dispute on flight faculties [ 72; 537,
which amounted really to a replay, as applied to aero -navigation , of the
classic dispute of Diderot with Helvetius on the nature of the faculties .
The specialist in aerodynamics N. Ye . Zhukovskiy ( 1910 ) insisted on the
possibility of women working in aviation but proved that not everyone by
a long shot can fly , since flying requires certain definite psychic qual
ities [72; 557. As early as 1909-1914, flight methodologists were making
a study of tension in flight , orientation in complicated flight conditions
and the interaction of flight habits; they were putting the question as
to the " normal" (now called the " standard ) airplane cabin [72; 527. P.
N. Nesterov demolished the methodology of flight instruction which had
been borrowed from abroad and was based on the " instinctive nature " of
flight operations and built up a psychologico - pedagogical system of views
based on conscious awareness in flight instruction [72 ; 587 .
All of this shows that the questions of flight psychology which
have been posed by the practice of aeronautics and aviation have long
since been resolved into two streams, the medical and the pedagogical ,
grouping themselves into four main trends, which are even today char
acteristic for the development of flight psychology . These trends have

• 520 -
been determined not only by the problematic of scientific researches but
also by the ways in which their results have been attained [105].
The first trend is that of medical aerial psychology . It is de
veloped and realized within the system of aerial medical expertise in
its broad sense , including prognostic and retrospective expertise . In
respect of its problematic it is the psychology of aerial incidents and
failures depending on the individual psychological qualities of trainees
and aviators . To this same line belongs the clinical psychology of bord
erline states and the psychopathology of the action on man of height and
speed .
The second trend is that of aerial mental hygiene . It is developed
and realized in the system of organization of flights and of their secur
ity . It is the psychology of fatigue, of operational schedule of work
and rest and , specifically , of active recreation and emotional relaxation ,
the psychology of the organization and standardization of flight opera
tions .
The third trend is that of pedagogical aerial psychology . It is
developed and realized in the system of the methodology of flight in
struction . It is the psychology not so much of the evaluation as of the
formation of flight faculties, the psychology of ground training , the psy
chology of training in flight. The psychology of faulty actions and
failures is common to the third and the first trends ; that of the training
load , the operational schedule and recreation in air training schools is
common to the third and second trends .
The fourth trend is that of engineering aerial psychology . This
newest trend in aerial psychology has already well proved its worth in
the objective evaluation of the indicator portions of instruments and of
the make- up of instrument panels. It is developed and realized in the muto
ual cooperation of psychologists and designers. It is the psychology of
the work post of the aviator, of the cabin, of the control levers, of the
instruments , of the instrument panel , of the rescue equipment.
A trend all of its own is that of the psychology of space flights .
This trend is doubtless fated to burgeon out in future into an independ
ent branch of the science of psychology . But for the moment the solution
of the psychological problems along this line relies on the theoretical
conceptions and results of researches which have been obtained in the
treatment of the problems of the preceding trends [747.
A prerequisite for any research and at the same time the balance .
sheet, the generalization of all researches carried out in all the trends
mentioned is the professiography of flight operations.
Clearly , both in the past and at present, a number of the questions
posed and resolved are common to these trends which define in their total .
ity and interrelation the psychology of flight operations or aerial psy
chology as a branch of psychology which studies the psychological
peculiarities of various types of flight activity in their dependence
on the qualities of aircraft equipment, on the individual psychological
qualities of flight personnel , on the methods of flight training and on
the organization of flights .

- 521 -
 The goal of aerial psychology is the discovery of the laws govern
ing the psychic activity of flight personnel in the process of flight
instruction and of the execution of flights and the utilization of these
laws for the increase of flight efficiency .
Not only has aerial psychology at present accumulated a great num
ber of facts, collected in the main according to a single plan [63], [697 ,
[757; it has also created a number of generalizations and theoretical con
ceptions, some of which are already generally accepted but on many of
which there are divergent opinions. The experimental verification of
these opinions is the earnest of the future development of aerial psy
chology .

M. A. Rykachev , who was the first to pose the question of flight

faculties, considered that " the piloting of a balloon calls for the same
qualities as are mandatory for sailors , namely , speed of calculation , ca
pacity for management, preservation of presence of_mind , alertness and
circumspection, attentiveness and agility [72; 107. This formulation
must be considered correct even today for the aviators of contem rary
jet aviation . Nor have the views of V. V. Abramov become outmuced . By
including experimental psychological researches in the system of clinical
examination of aviators he directed special attention to the study of
the creative side of the individual personality[72; 507.
In 1917 there was founded in Petrograd attached to the Military
Medical Scientific Council a special commission for study of flight
operations . This commission was presided by V. P. Osipov, who himself
said that he functioned in this commission not so much as a psychiatrist
as he did as a psychologist . He put the question of a planned psycholog
ical screening of flight personnel and specifically the young physician
who was heading the psychophysiological laboratory of the chair of psy
chiatry of the Military Medical Academy, N. M. Dobrotvorskiy, was set
the task of reviving the experimental psychological study of aviators ,
which had been interrupted after the departure of V. V. Abramov from
the clinic .
The first researches on the speed of simple reaction in aviators
were conducted by Dobrotvorskiy in the fall of 1921 in the laboratory of
the chair of psychiatry . These researches showed that conclusions con
cerning suitability for flying duty could not validly be drawn from the
speed of simple reaction . Since , however , there was no doubt that the
motor reaction can and does play a certain role in flight activities ,
work was started on an overall research on simple reaction in various
contexts . In consultation with academician I. P. Pavlov , attention was
directed not so much to the speed of the reaction as to its susceptibil
ity to inhibition by various sorts of afferent stimuli . Investigations
showed that the speed of reaction to a visual stimulus is rarely modified
upon addition of an auditory or tactile stimulus and that , upon the first
combinations, there occurs a considerable inhibition . Thereafter in some

· 522 -
subjects the speed of reaction is restored , and pretty rapidly at that ;
in others it does not attain to its previous magnitudes , giving a small
retardation ; in still others there is revealed a drastic inhibition ,
showing no_tendency to disinhibition even after a long training of the
reaction [72; 517. These conclusions of N. M. Dobrotvorskiy are con
firmed by the researches conducted by_our_colleagues Yu , A. Petrov
567, M. F. Ponomarev [727, 1787, [79], [807 , andB. L.Pokrovskiy
1767.
In these same years ( around 1919 ) there began to function as phy
sician of the Moscow Flying School S. Ye . Mints , with whose name are
linked the first works in aerial psychology which has broad application
in practice , Mints united the study of flight faculties with a study of
flight accident- proneness . In 1920 in cooperation with the physician A.
B. Granovskiy and the aviator V. V. Makeyev , he constructed and intro
duced into practice the first " statistical chart on aviator accidents "
[45], [72; 246497.
The whole subsequent system of medical research on the causes of
accidents in aviation even up to the present day is a further develop
ment and refinement of the system worked out by S. Ye . Mints , A. B.
Granovskiy and V. V. Makeyev , This system was based on a revelation of
the character and causes of faulty actions by the pilot . It was pre
cisely along this line that R. I. Pochtareva continued to work in the
system of the Civil Air Fleet . She rightly pointed out that it was es
sential to go more deeply into the causes of accidents which had occur
red through the fault of the pilot , not just saying that the cause of
the accident was " excessive self - confidence " or " Infraction of the rules "
837. This same idea was subsequently developed by S. G. Gellershteyn
( 12), who more clearly defined three ways of psychologically analyzing the
causes of flight incidents from the point of view of the " personal factor " :
the statistical , the analytical and the experimental . The statistical
method notes the questions to which the other methods are to be applied .
The experimental method consists essentially in a conventionalized re
production of an actual situation very close to the one in which are ob
served the faulty actions in accident situations . Such an experiment,
if properly set up , permits of explaining to what extent these faulty ac
tions are typical , how they are overcome in the process of practice and
what are their psychological mechanisms . I have included the faulty ac
tions of the pilot ( together with his personal qualities) in the concept
" the personal factor in accidents" [65;1817 .
The processing , carried out for the first time by S. Ye . Mints , of
the first 40 charts filled out was published by him together with mater
ials of psychotechnical tests and materials of observation on trainees
during the period of their training [457. An amalgamation of these three
materials into a single analysis shows that s . Ye . Mints was on the right
road . He intimately linked prognostic and retrospective expertise , i.e. ,
the choice and screening of flight personnel and the investigation of the
causes of accidents ,

- 523 -
 Without trying to create any sort of theory of flight faculties ,
S. Ye . Mints incorporated in practice the psychological study of
trainees of flight schools both in aerial medical expertise and in the
methodology of flight instruction . Speaking of the role of the study
of a trainee in the process of instruction , he specially underscored :
"Here in practice the instructor can assure himself as to whether the
pupil has the necessary qualities . This way is the most correct and
reliable , but it requires that the instructors possess sufficient pedam
gogical experience and have psychological training ( 45 ; 967 .
In Soviet flight schools it was but natural that there should
arise the need of a more thoroughgoing study than formerly in the con
text of the Tsarist army of the personal qualities of the trainees and
of the causes of flight failures . At the beginning of the 1920's there
was in wide use the personal description chart of the trainee which had
been made up by one of the most talented Soviet flight methodologists,
N. P. Il'zin [457. According to this chart the instructor is supposed
to enter in the description of the trainee : health of the trainee , his
attitude to study and flights , his energy , competitive sense , presence
of mind , resourcefulness, composure, discipline, critical attitude to
his flights , caution and capacities in flight itself . This chart left
it up to each individual instructor , however , to decide for himself
wherein these " capacities in flight itself " consisted . And ideas var
ied on this question . The dispute , begun in 1914 at the 3rd All - Russian
Aeronautics Congress, as to whether flight qualities are innate or can
be instilled by training , continues among flight instructors and phy
sicians even in the 1920's , assuming the form of a dispute between the
protagonists and antagonists of psychotechnics .
The first to begin using psychotechnical_tests in aviation were
A. P. Nechayev [507 , 517 , and S. Ye . Mints [457, [477 , [48] . In " March
of 1922 I suggested pointing out the simplest method of determining the
flight capacity of persons wishing to become aviators , " writes A. P.
Nechayev 1507. The researches carried out by him ( together with S. Ye .
Mints) in 1922 on training flights with the aid of an almost invariable
set of tests which had been used by them previously in teaching prac
tice, showed only a 10% divergence from the practical evaluation . S.
Ye , Mints draws more cautious conclusions on the psychological methods
which he used in 1923-1924 and which he borrowed in the main from
Kronfelld [477 , [487 .
By the works of A. P. Nechayev and S. Ye . Mints there were begun
in the Soviet Union those two trends in the experimental study of flight
capacities which were fairly well in evidence also abroad : the analytical ,
endeavoring to study a number of individual " occupationally important
psychic functions ( " the Nechayev complex " ) and the synthetic, trying to
model as closely as possible actual flight in laboratory experiment ( the
Kronfelld method ) . The first way proceeded to get stuck fast in mathema
tical, formal (" point") analysis and split off from clinical study of
what was being witnessed and turned into the " testological " method typical

- 524 -
for psychotechnics . The second way led to a supplanting of the study of
faculties by an evaluation of already existing habits ( the Novikov ap
paratus, 1934 1935 ) .
Al though psychotechnical screening in aviation began to be used in
1922 , it was 1931 before the first " Instruction on the conduct of Psycho
physiological Tests in the Air Force of the Workers' and Peasants' Army
was published . It was further clarified in 1935. It provided for a re
search of the distribution of attention , of the " tendency to inhibition , "
of space relations ( blank - form type collective tests) , of the scope of
attention on the lamp type tachistoscope , of recall and automatization of
movements on the so -called " bugging -machine" [ tykalka ]. What was wrong
about this method was the " point system " testological analysis of the re
sults attained in the experiments .
These tests elicited justified censure 6. A specially stringent
critic of them was N. A. Molodtsov (427 , the organizer of military medical
expertise . Al though he , like other expertise officials rejected this me
thod and considered it mandatory that it should be abandoned , at least in
draft boards, nevertheless the attraction of this method was pretty strong
for officials of combat training and build up and the tests continued to
be carried out in the draft boards up to 1936 .
N. M. Dobrotvorskiy came out strongly against the psychotechnical
tests; he tried to have his psychological researches based on a physio
logical groundwork but he often assumed erroneous Bekhterev reflexology
positions. Thus, in a work specially devoted to questions of screening ,
[277, he sharply criticizes the positions of psychotechnics, the erron
eousness of the " American way of solving the question " but himself tries
to resolve the question of psychological screening from the reflexologi
cal position . Along the same line , he gave a lecture at the first meeto
ing of the aeronautical physicians on the topic of_the psychophysiological
analysis of the methodology of flight training [ 287. Later , however ,
Dobrotvorskiy managed to revise his reflexological positions and his book
" Flight Operations is of indisputable interest even today [30] .
Typical of the psychotechnical tests of candidates for the air
training schools at that time were mistakes common also to the psycho
technical tests in other fields of labor expertise -- in rail transport
and urban transport and in industry . These defects were : absence of
the integral personality approach ; statistical fetishism ; fortuitousness
of the experimental psychological methods used with almost total absence
of any experience of their psychological treatment . As in other fields ,
where psychotechnics was being applied , these researches and tests were
being carried out, as a rule , by persons very far removed indeed from the
science of psychology .
These shortcomings of the psychotechnical trend and the incorrect
understanding of the decree of the CC of the Party " On Pediological Dis
tortions in the System of the People's Commissariats of Education " dated
4 July 1936 contributed not only to sidetracking both the practical and
the research work at study of flight faculties but also to a dissemina
tion of the view which identified flight faculties with skills and habits .
At the same time , the practice of aerial medical expertise compelled the
seeking of new ways of handling this problem .

- 525 -
 In the second half of the 1930's there was an intensification of
the tendency to a rapprochement of the psychological and the psychoneuro
logical methods in the study of flight faculties and there appeared a
tendency to resolve this question not all at once but by parts, singling
out individual problems, such as emotional symptoms in flight, motor re
actions , orientation , etc.
Thus, the psychiatrist N. V. Kontorovich , on the basis of data in
various writings and his personal experience of aerial medical expertise ,
gave a list of 30 positive and 20 negative qualities of an aviator . The
list was drawn up on the characterological plane and these qualities in
trainees should be studied , Kontorovich felt, mainly by methods of obser
vation and conversations which were to be carried out on the basis of the
scheme given by the author ; laboratory experiments he neither used nor re
commended .
In the second half of the Great Patriotic War , against the background
of the considerable accumulation of experience of the individual approach
to aerial medical expertise and of a heightening of its proficiency , the
need began to make itself felt to construct not simply medical but rather
medico - psychological descriptions of flight personnel . This question even
then and especially in the first post - war years was the subject of discus
sion at a number of conferences and meetings and attracted the attention
of others besides psychologists . Thus, an interesting and exceedingly pro
found psychological research was carried out during the Patriotic War by
the surgeon G. R. Greyfer on the plane of the substantiation of the indi .
vidual approach in expertise . As a result of this research the famous
flyer A. P. Mares'yev returned to the ranks [247.
Realizing the one - sidedness and defects both of laboratory exper
iment ( its artificiality and the possible fortuitousness of the results
obtained ) and of descriptions obtained on the basis of conversations and
observations ( their subjectivism and unreliability) and attempting to
secure mutual verification and mutual supplementation of these methods,
we worked out and verified , together with a team of colleagues ( Yu . I.
Shpigel ' , L. M. Rozet, G. D. Naroditskaya and others), a system of psy
chological study of flight faculties [677, [707 .
The proposed system , called the "method of generalization of in
dependent descriptions contains, besides a number of experimental methods,
also a number of programs addressed to individual persons making a study
of the trainee in various aspects of his activity . The questions of these
programs do not contain any evaluation of the various psychological quali
ties, as in the Kontorovich chart , which the persons being questioned may
each understand in his own way , not being psychologists. The questions
imply an evaluation of the behavior characteristic for the trainee or
pilot under study , which behavior each of those being questioned should
be able to evaluate according to the type of his official activity . The
generalization of the materials collected by these programs requires , of
course , psychological training .
A number of experimental psychological methods entering into this
system were subjected to a special research . The majority of the pro
jects were devoted to methods study of the various species of motor

- 526 -
reactions on a specially elaborated portable apparatus . Yu . I. Shpigel '
made a study of the method of research of attention in " looking for num
bers . " T. I. Tepenitsina studied and established the reliability of the
corrective method of research on attention 1957. K. K. Platonov and L.
M. Rozet elaborated and studied a method of research on emotional - motor
stability [707. F. D. Gorbov and L. D. Chaynova studied the method of
research on the switchover of attention [127 .
It is quite understandable that after the Pavlov session the
elaboration of the problem of flight faculties received for a number of
years a sharp bias in favor of a study of the typological peculiarities
of trainees and pilots . The most original researches along this line
were made by A. S. Vitenzon 7, who established a certain relation of
dependence between the typological peculiarities of aviators which are
revealed in the suggested method of study of the successive image and
the peculiarities of their personality as a whole and the peculiarities
of their flight activity .
In 1940 the psychologists began to occupy themselves with the study
of the types of nervous system of flight personnel . Use began to be made
by us of the biographical method for this purpose in the practice of aer
ial medical expertise from 1940 on [65; 162-1657 and subsequently became
quite widespread among the psychoneurologists of the aerial medical com
missions .

With the study of motor reactions of flight personnel undertaken

in 1914 in France by Camus and Nepper there began a series of succes
sive works directed to the clarification of the occupational importance
of these reactions in aeronautics and aviation .
As early as 1914, I. S. Tsitovich carried out researches on the
speed of reaction in flight in a balloon [72; 597. In 1921, as has al
ready been said, N. M. Dobrotvorskiy was working on this question on
which he spent much time subsequently as well .
At the beginning of the 1930's there was an intensification of the
tendency to study in aviators not simple but rather complex types of motor
reactions . Special attention was devoted to them by V. A. Gorovoy - Shaltan
[217 , [22], [23], Ya. F. Samter and A. A. Yermilina [897. These works
showed that in the context of flight operations individual reactions prove
to be linked up into a single whole by preparatory processes preceding the
terminal stage of the reactions . In the post - war years this work was con
tinued by S. G. Gellershteyn with his pupils in the chair of aeronautical
medicine of the Central Institute for Advanced Training of Physicians.
On the basis of the works of A. M. Pikovskiy and B. M. Gol'dshteyn
in 1947 , S. G. Gellershteyn advanced the hypothesis on the " lightning "
reactions of flight personnel [ 117, based on the processes of anticipa
tion . This subsequently led him to an experimental proof of the possibil
ity of accelerating the motor reactions by way of a training of the
perception of microintervals of time (737 , 1987. Together with Yu. V.
Kotelova, P. Ye . Dernova , G. G. Sysoyev and 0. A. Lazareva , he studied
the possibility of training sensory -motor reactions requiring switch
over [747. The project showed both the high degree to which this type
of reaction could be trained and the presence of a transfer of exer
cises and practice ,
- 527 -
 Then , too , K. K. Platonov and L. M. Nemchikov succeeded ( 1947) in
proving experimentally that the reaction to a moving object is a habit
which develops on the basis of a perception of the speed of movement ( in
cidentally in the event of a rotation of the indicator of angular veloc
ity not of linear) and of a taking into account of possible errors [65;
917 . The work begun together with L. M. Nemchikov was continued in 1954
1956 together with M. F. Ponomarev [77], [787, who linked up the indivi
dual peculiarities of this type of reaction with the typological
peculiarities of the trainees and the number of their aerial sorties .
V. V. Chebysheva [ Too7 that in reaction to a rapidly moving ob
ject a decrease of the field of vision exercises a greater negative in
fluence than does an increase of the speed of motion of the object .
In 1948-1949 K. K. Platonov , Yu . I. Shpigel ' , Ye . A. Karpov and
A. K. Alekseyev made a portable universal ( all -purpose ) apparatus for the
investigation of motor reactions . This apparatus permits of investigat
ing : the simple reaction to a visual and audi tory stimulus , the choice
reaction , the switchover reaction , the reaction to a moving object , the
reaction " at one's own work speed" and at a compulsory speed of work .
Furthermore, the presence of a " start button " and of two second hands
which register the disengagement of the finger from this button and
the pressure on the "executive button " permit of going more deeply into
the correlation of the sensory and the motor components of reactions .
This was done by M. F. Ponomarev [727 , [78] , [797 who made an
overall study on this apparatus of the reactions of pilots and came to
the conclusion that the magnitude of the sensory component is bound up
with the strength of the inhibitory process , while the magnitude of the
motor component is bound up with that of the stimulatory process .
I. v. Tereshkina [93] [ 947, made a study on this apparatus of
the peculiarities of the automatization of the motor habit in function of
how it is formed : whether mainly via the first or via the second signals
system . The considerable superiority in point of accuracy of the motor
habit formed by the second method permitted of relying on this work in
the construction of a theory of flight in difficult meteorological con
ditions . Tereshkina showed that the peculiarities of the formation of
the motor habit depend not only on the method of instruction but also on
the individual psychological peculiarities of the individual personality
and on the previous habits extant .
Yu . I. Shpigel ' , one of the authors of the instrument, made a
study on it ( 1948-1950) of the reaction of switchover as a method of
determining the mobility of the neural processes and showed the prognostic
importance of this method . The same thing was shown by Yu . A. Petrov
( 1951 ) in another variant of research of_the switcho.ver reaction . R. D.
Rabinovich [847 and P. I. Kandidatov [32] studied on this apparatus the me
thod of " auto - speed " using it as a functional test . The investigations
begun by the projects of S. G. Gellershteyn and I. V. Tereshkina mentioned
above on the possibility of training the switchover reaction are presently
being continued on this apparatus by A. I. Kartsev , who has obtained a
reduction of the curve of " trainability of the simple reaction and of the

- 528 .
choice reaction in more than a hundred experiments embracing a period of
more than a year . 3. L. Pokrovskiy [ 767 has investigated on this same ap
paratus a slightly altered switchover reaction and has brought out notable
divergences in the ease of the elaboration of new connections and , what
is the main thing , in the stability of the time of reaction as between
healthy pilots with a good piloting technique and pilots who have a hard
time aloft .
In all the projects mentioned the motor reactions have been studied
in laboratory conditions . The task arose of measuring these same reac
tions in the context of actual flight . The first to succeed in doing this
with the aid of an ordinary aircraft radio set was 0. Ya . Bokser ( 1949 ) .
The speed of the simple reaction recorded for one pilot fluctuated between
0.12 and 0.25 seconds . Further researches of Ye . A. Derevyanko ( 1953) ,
conducted on one and the same instrument and with the same trainees,
showed that the magnitude of the latent period of the simple reaction in
flight, even when the trainee is not piloting an aircraft , is somewhat
higher ( 0.36 seconds) than in ground conditions ( 0.27 seconds) .
On the basis of an analysis of actual flight it had already long
been clear that it is not speed of reaction but rather sensory -motor co
ordination which is of greatest significance in piloting [65; 917. How
ever , the study of this was retarded by the absence of specially equipped
aircraft (laboratory type craft) . When they became available, we succeed
ed together with Yu . A. Petrov ( 1950 ) in recording the time of reaction
to the start signal in instances of correction of deviations from the
flight plan which had arisen in visual flight . This time varied from
0.01 to 0.5 seconds . A further special investigation of this question
by our colleagues Ye. A. Derevyanko , I. A. Kamyshov , N. D. Zavalova and
T. Kh . Gurvich ( 1958) showed that , in the case of correction of devia
tions in instrument flight the time of reaction to the start signal in
a ratio of 1:20 and even 1:80 to the total time for correction of the
deviation . Consequently, the reserves for a reduction of the time def
icit in a pilot in flight should be sought not so much in a reduction of
the reaction time to the start signal as in a reduction of the total time
of the motor action , a reduction attainable by way of increasing the qual
ity of sensory -motor coordination . In 1949, we and Ye. A. Karpov and V.
A. Popov succeeded in showing , in a special laboratory - type aircraft in
which were being recorded the movements of the pilot , the individual di
vergences in complex coordinational acts of the pilot . In 1957 , s . Ya .
Rubinshteyn and L. N. Lavrent'yev worked out in our laboratory a method
of studying the individual peculiarities of the formation of the habit
of motor coordination and showed the typical divergences in the elabora
tion of this habit in pilots whose piloting technique was respectively
good and poor .
Summing up all the works and projects carried out in aeronautical
psychology on the problem of the sensory -motor processes as a component
part of the problem of the flight faculties , it can be considered as es
tablished that the time of a simple motor reaction does not determine
flight capacities, unless its slow - down is a symptom of disease ,

- 529 -
 On the other hand , speed , accuracy and stability of complex motor
reactions and especially of motor coordinations , speed and stability of
formation of motor habits do substantially determine flight capacities.
The second problem from among the broad group of problems of the
flight faculties which has thus far been most studied is the problem of
the emotional peculiarities of Might and , specifically, of flight ten
sion .
The special emotional stuporose state , called by the well - known
pioneer of Russian aviation , s . I. Utochkin , " flight tension " had been
noticed and described as early as the dawn of aviation [72; 567. The
experimental psychological study of this state was begun by us in 1936
in a specially outfitted training -plane cabin [607. Subsequently
(1948-1950 ) we worked out and tested experimentally, together with L. M.
Rozet , a method of modelling tension in the laboratory context .
The emotion in this experiment is elicited by physical exercises :
falling from the kneeling or standing position , without throwing out the
hands , onto a soft mat or pillow , an exercise which has gotten the name
of " the falling test" [65;" 1327; the degree of the influence of emotion
on the motor functions is calculated by recording the light rhythmic
pressures on the Marey capsule . Simultaneously there is made a pulse
recording and data of observation and self - checking are taken into ac
count .
This method , based on the work of A. R. Luriya , A. N. Leont'yev
and M. S. Lebedinskiy on the method of motor tension via combined motor
functions, has permitted of studying in the context of laboratory exper
iment the individual divergences in emotional -motor stability . It has
been shown that there is a very high degree (up to 85%) of coincidence
of the results of laboratory researches of emotional -motor stability with
the degree of manifestation of tension in flight [707 .
This method has been tested and verified by other researchers ( F.
P. Kosmolinskiy, I. T. Boreychuk and others ), who have confirmed its ef
fectiveness .
In a project carried out by us together with A. I. Konovalov and
R. I. 11 ' chenko were shown the individual divergences in the emotional
sensory stability which were discovered in an anologous laboratory exper
iment in which was investigated the influence of the " falling tests" _on
the speed and accuracy of reading the data on the instrument panel [717.
The enlistment in the project of a number of colleagues of other labora
ties ( Ivaníkov , Kosmolinskiy , Pisarenko , Pikovskiy , Zak , Kaplan and
others) made possible a study on the basis of most extensive data not only
of the frequency of the various forms of tension in flight but also its
syndrome and ways of combatting it .
A generalization of the projects on the study of the various emo
tional states in aeronautics ( reactive states , iatrogenia , didactogenia,
tension , emotional overfatigue, etc. ) was at the basis of our research
devoted to the expertise of psychogenic ( emotiogenic) states of flight
personnel ( 1948-1951) .

- 530 -
 The history of aeronautical psychology has known two points of view
on flight in complicated conditions when ground orientors are not visible .
The first point of view in the past coincided with the admission
of innate flight faculties in the form of a " flying sense . " Thus , at
the 3rd All -Russian Aeronautics Congress in 1914, which has already been
mentioned [72; 537 , the flight methodologist A. F. Prussis asserted that
people simply could not fly who did not have a special faculty of orien
tating easily in the air , that the flying style is a gift of the pilot just
like the poet's talent , born with him .
In the recent past the importance of the " flying sense" for flight
in complicated meteorological conditions is defended by the German aero
nautical psychologist Z. Geratewohl, who agrees with a number of German
and American authors who say that in their opinion this innate and in
stinctive sense is important ; Geratewohl says right out that in a num
ber of instances " the flying sense assists the pilot better and faster
than the instrument readings" [15; 1927.
The second point of view goes back to the works of B. M. Bekh
terev on the role of the vestibular apparatus in the perception of posi
tion in space 5 and was introduced into aeronautics in 1910 by V. I.
Voyachek , who was the founder of the so - called " vestibular theory of
blind flight (wi thout ground orientators visible ) . This point of view
was the dominant one until recently in our Russian aeronautical medicine .
In 1951, a third point of view was stated ( K. K. Platonov , G. G.
Golubev [73] , [62 ; 219] , [717 ), according to which orientation in in
strument flight is a second signals system activity : Minstrument read
ing" is not a figurative expression but the psychological essence of the
basic component of the pilot's activity in flight in bad weather , a
component to which is subordinate the technique of piloting . This point
of view radically changed the existing methodology of teaching instru
ment flying . This methodology had been directed to teaching how to re
act successively to each instrument taken separately or to two instru
ments and no more . Now , according to this new point of view , the trainee
must be taught accurately and precisely to represent to himself the spa
tial position of the aircraft and the flight course he is flying and to
react to this spatial position of the aircraft which he has thus pictured
to himself in the imagination . Now to this end the trainee must first
and foremost be taught rapidly and summarily to read the instrument panel .
This point of view initially encountered no little objection . TO
prove it there were set up a number of experiment series conducted by var
ious teams under a single scientific direction . The researches were con
ducted in the shape of experimental teaching of various groups of trainees
and pilots rapid, accurate and summary reading of photographic models of
instrument panels. Subsequently the influence of this training on the
subsequent instrument flight was studied by means of comparison of the in
dices obtained with the indices of a control group who were being in
structed in the ordinary way . In other words , the experimental instruction
was used as a formative experiment.

- 531 -
 In the very first series of experiments ( K. K. Platonov , G. G.
Golubev , V. A. Popov, A. Ya . Afanasiyev ), the experimental instruction
yielded a positive effect. However , as indices of the effectiveness of
the instruction in this series there were taken only the evaluations of
the instructors . In 1953 , the experiments were repeated ( K. K. Platonov ,
G. G. Golubev ) using the method of radio reporting which will be de
scribed below .
In the next experiments ( K. K. Platonov, G. G. Golubev , I. I.
Nikiforov , T. I. Zhukova and others, 1954 ) , recourse was had to a
laboratory - aircraft where a recording was made of the piloting tech
nique and specifically of " knob pressure " ( as index of the tension of the
trainees ) . In the experimental and the control groups there were carried
out a series of " sections with measurements of speed , accuracy and glob
ability of reading of the photographic models . These three series were
conducted on trainees being instructed in Yak - 11 planes . At the same
time analogous researches were carried out on pilots mastering instrument
flying on fighter craft . In 1955 , I. Ye . Shramko , M. Ya. Rozenblit, A.
M. Kuz'min , P. A. Kirillov and others repeated these experiments on three
groups of trainees who were being trained on Yak - 18, Yak - 11 and Il - 28 craft .
In 1956 , I. I. Munerman in collaboration with a number of flight methodo
logists repeated these experiments on a group of trained pilots who were
assimilating instrument flight on a type of twin -motor craft which was
new to them .
There was agreement between the results obtained in all these ser
ies of experiments . The training with the photographic models developed
the habit of rapid , accurate and summary reading of the instrument panel
both in ground conditions and in flight; and this in turn brought about
a reduction of tension ( in the trainees) and an improvement of the motor
habits of the piloting technique [71], [73].
The conception advanced on the psychological essence of instru
ment flight, although it requires further experimental study , may be con
sidered experimentally proven and made the basis of a further treatment
of the problem of the flight faculties .
A number of other authors elucidate in their works other aspects
of the complex and many - sided problem of orientation in flight . F. D.
Gorbov [78], on the basis of clinical observations, accents the role of
the proprioceptive sensations in the occurrence of illusions which inter
fere with orientation in flight. B. S. Alyakrinskiy 2 ascribes great
importance in the mechanism of the occurrence of illusions in flight to
the divergence of the perception of the readings of the instruments from
the notion of what those readings were expected to be . Ye . A.
Derevyanko has advanced the hypothesis that illusions are formed in in
strument flight as a result of the discreteness of the perception of the
readings of the gyro horizon , as opposed to the uninterrupted perception
of the natural horizon in visual flight . All of these hypotheses witness
to the importance of the question and to the active creative collective
thinking which is seeking its solution .

- 532 .
 But bad weather flight is distinguished from visual by the emotional
background of the activity . As has been said already , we have shown , to
gether with A. I. Konovalov and R. I. Ul'chenko that, side by side with
the vestibular - sensory and emotional -motor instability , there exists also
an amotional - sensory instability and that there are flyers in whom certain
emotions considerably worsen the quality of the reading of the instrument
panel ( specifically this may be said of the emotion artificially elicited
by the " falling test" [717) . This must also be taken into account in the
construction of a system of methods of study of flight faculties .
The Soviet psychologist cannot work at the problem of the flight
faculties only on the level of their evaluation without putting the more
complex and yet more rewarding question of attempting their formation ,
It was precisely from this position that the above - described works of S.
G. Gellershteyn_were written on the possibility of training motor reac
tions [13] [147. In special works of Yu . I. Shpigel' ( 1950) there were
uncovered the differences between " schoolroom attention " instilled in the
context of the classroom and " flight attention " ; but there was also
shown the possibility of forming the qualities of attention essential to
a pilot . L. M, Rozet was showing at the same time in an analogous ex
perimental work the opportunities and ways of forming emotional -motor
stability . These works proved experimentally that the qualities under
study may to a considerable extent be formed in the process of a number
of prupo sive exercises and , specifically , in the process of a specialized
physical training [707. However, it cannot be said that anything more
than a start has been made at coping with the problem both of the forma
tion of the flight faculties and of the role of the methods of physical
training in the evaluation and the formation of these faculties .
Let us sum up the ground covered by aeronautical psychology in the
study of the problem of the flight faculties . The history of aeronautical
psychology is familiar with three views on fight faculties: that which
alaims there are such things as immutable and innate flight qualities ;
that which denies that there is any such thing as flight faculties and
identifies flight qualities with skills and habits; that which conceives
flight faculties as a totality , a structure, mutable but still suffi
ciently persistent individual psychological peculiarities of the indi .
vidual personality , determining the quality of flight instruction and
flight activity .
The last view is empirically supported by the most progressive
practicians ; its theoretical and experimental substantiation have been
the subject of our team of colleagues .
The study of the peculiarities of flight activity ( specifically,
in laboratory - aircraft for the study of flight habits ) , the study of the
causes of flight incidents , the generalization of the experience of flight
personnel ( specifically, by way of a mass filling in of special question
naires), the experimental study of the psychological peculiarities of ex
cellent and poor trainees and pilots -- all of this has permitted of

- 533 -
clarifying the individual psychological peculiarities of the individual
personality , the totality of which are the flight faculties . The most
essential are :
temperamental peculiarities, in which are manifested traits of
strength , mobility , equilibrium of neural processes ;
interest in flying , the desire to become a pilot and to improve
flight proficiency as a basic personality bias ;
perseverance, steadfastness, courage ;
the capacity , even though for a short period of time , deliberately
to improve considerably the productivity of activity ;
emotional stability, specifically emotional -motor and emotional
sensory stability ;
broad distribution , rapid switchover and stability of attention ;
initiative , imagination , self - criticism ;
speed and accuracy of complex types of motor reactions , and most
important, of sensory -motor coordination , good coordination of movements ,
ease in forming and restructuring motor stereotypes .
The study of the individual psychological peculiarities of excel
lently performing and poorly performing trainees and pilots showed that,
thanks to the high compensatory capacities they possess , the good trainees
and pilots are very different one from another in respect of their individ
ual psychological peculiarities and may have a number of individual qual
ities deleterious for actual flight.
Those trainees and pilots whose failure is due to incapacity on
their own part have, usually, a number of interconnected qualities dele
terious for actual flight . Clearly the time is no longer far off when
it will be possible to define exactly the basic " syndromes of flight in
capacity " already noted .
Therefore we consider that one must speak not of the profile but
of the structure of a personality as determining better or worse flight
faculties .
In laboratory psychological experimentation , the psychotechnicians
saw the formal balance - sheet of the solution of their task as allegedly
directly estimating the flight faculties and therefore the main efforts
were directed to the search for " adequate methods . "
Presently the aeronautical psychologists make use of laboratory
psychological experimentation for the revelation of the psychological pe
culiarities of the activity of the experimental subject during the exper
iment and for the discovery of the natural connections of these peculiar
ities with the psychological peculiarities of actual flight. Not a
single laboratory experiment has directly provided us with an opportunity
of uncovering flight faculties as such . It has only more or less assist
ed in understanding the structure of the individual personality , an
understanding of which in turn has influenced the estimate and evaluation
of the flight faculties .
The confrontation of the personality structure with the demands
made by actual flight activity has enabled us with encouraging , although

• 534 -
not as yet sufficient, accuracy ( 70-80%) of coincidence to make a prog
nosis of the peculiarities of flight instruction . Right now the thing
that is made most accurately of all is the prognosis of the so - called
" flight tension " on the basis of a study of the manifestation of
emotional -motor instability in various types of conditions, including
alsolaboratory experiment[ 707.
It is now entirely clear that the making and verification of a
prognosis of flight instruction on the basis of a sufficiently exhaus
tive study of the personality traits is the best way to elaborate further
the question of the estimate and evaluation of the flight faculties .
The experience of the work of Soviet psychologists at the study
of flight capacities which we have expounded is being made use of to a
certain extent already in a practical sense in the study of trainees in
the process of flight instruction [102] and in the expertise of pilots.
Experimental psychological examinations have been accepted since 1958 in
the expertise of flight personnel . This experiment requires , of course ,
a very great checking and deepening of our knowledge mainly in the area
of the treatment of the results obtained in experimental psychological
researches on trainees and pilots , a refinement of the " express -methods "
geared to the tasks of rapid , mass screening and the subordination of
the entire system of medical and pedagogical screening to the task of
estimate and evaluation of the flight faculties .

The problem of the flight faculties , being elaborated mainly in

the area of aerial medical expertise is the chief , but by no means the
only problem of the medical area of aerial psychology . Directly adjoin
ing it and intimately dovetailing with it is the problem of the psycho
pathology of the states bordering on the diseased which are occasioned by
the specific conditions of flight ,
The emotional saturation of actual flight creates conditions pre
disposing to the formation of psychogenia . Special clinico - psychological
researches [66 ] have shown the natural dependence of the symptoms upon
combination of traumata of the brain with accompanying emotions . Asthenic
emotion makes the post - traumatic symptoms more severe , while cerebral
trauma has a tendency to fix the accompanying experiences. Sthenic emo
tions connected with the active activity of the aviator do not render
trauma more severe .
Researches on the emotional aspect of the activity of the flyer
attracted the attention of a number of authors, beginning with V. A.
Gorovoy - Shaltan , who in 1934 made a study of the emotions elicited by
parachute jumps [207
L. P. Grimak [25 ] used the method of hypnotic reproduction for
the study of the emotional states .
We were able to note that every new mass retraining of flight per
sonnel always occurred against a background of vivid emotional content,
which subsequently speedily faded out. This ought to be taken into ac
count in the expertise of flight personnel beginning retraining [647.

- 535 -
 Experimental psychological researches and examinations in the sy
stem of aeronautical medical expertise aid not only in evaluating flight
faculties and understanding so - called " non - diagnostic unsuitability " but
also often in darifying the clinical diagnosis of the neuro -psychical
state .
The most important problems of medical aeronautical psychology are
the problems of the influence on the psychic life of hypoxemia and accel
eration .
In their study of the modification of the speed of the motor re
action in the context of_reduced barometric pressure , s . G. Gellershteyn
and V. V. Strel'tsov ( 907 considered the speed of normalization of the
reaction time in the case of repeated " ascents as an individual index of
adaptation to height. A comparison of the class standing of each subject
of a given group in the process of training " on the ground " and in the
case of subsequent repeated " ascents " in the pressure chamber witnesses ,
according to the data of these authors, to a considerably constancy of
individual indices in many individuals : those showing the greatest con
stancy in standing are characterized at the one pole by the best adapt
ability and at the other display a marked intolerance to the altitude
factor .
Ye . S. Zavi yalov [ 35], in his study of the action of hypoxemia on
the mental work capacity , showed the dependence of this action on the
state of the subject and the functional disease of the nervous system ob
taining in him . This work has confirmed the diagnostic and expertise
significance of an experimental psychological examination .
A study which we conducted of the speed and accuracy of motor re
actions in the context of "ascent" in the pressure chamber and of breath
ing gaseous mixtures with a reduced oxygen content has shown an increase
in the latent period not only of complex but even of simple reactions .
Especially is there an increase in the time of exact complex reactions
and characteristic is the appearance of very swift but inexact reactions .
In the complex motor habits, among which belong the habits of piloting an
aircraft , there appears a tendency to the restoration of formerly extant
and subsequently shaken faulty actions and to a negative transfer of hab
its extant prior to the retraining [65; 1897.
In 1948–1950 , in a project inwhich we collaborated with G. D.
Naroditskaya, we devoted our chief attention to the compensation of le
sions of the psychic functions . We showed that a modification of the
motivation of activity in the context of hypoxemia alters not only the
psychic but also the biochemical reactions . In individual cases , even
profound lesions and distrubances of the cortical activity occasioned by
hypoxemia may still leave open the possibility of verbal contact ( by
radio ) via the " sentry point" mechanism . The verbal stimulus may , by
raising the tone of the cortex, contribute to a compensation of the
hypoxemic_lesions and distrubances. [ See Note7
( [Note7 Report given on 12 June 1949 at the joint session of the
Psychiatry Institute of the RSFSR Health Ministry and the Ukrainian Psy
choneurological Institute, Kharikov ) .

- 536 -
 Many facts of importance for aeronautical psychology have been ob
tained by representatives of various branches of aeronautical medicine
[547, 1927. We cite as an instance the fact that, as early as 1935 , the
oculists N. A. Vishnevskiy and B. A. Tsyrlin established that a reduction
of the barometric pressure corresponding to an altitude of 2000 meters al
ready exerts an influence on color discrimination 8.
At the present time G. V. Altukhov and V. B. Malkin have shown the
possibility of using a recording of the biocurrents of the brain as one
of the indices of hypoxemia 1. Encephalography has been carriedout
parallel with the examination of handwriting and of the motor reflexes
upon spoken reinforcement . It has been established that the manifestam
tion of individual slow fluctuations on the encephalogram coincides in
time with the first handwriting disturbances ( " bold script" ) . The ap
pearance of slow encephalographic fluctuations, of a frequency of 2-3
microoscillations per second , witnesses to profound distrubances of the
functioning of the cerebrum and coincides with a drastic derangement of
script ( " scrawl " ) and with the development of an epileptic attack . It
is of interest that the changes on the encephalogram do not occur simul
taneously in various regions of the cortex . These changes appear in
the first instance in the frontal sections , i.e. , in the youngest phylo
genetic formations of the cerebral cortex .
For a long time it was held in aeronautical medicine that speed
did not have any effect on a man in flight but only acceleration . Hov
ever the coercive work tempo , connected at great speeds with a time
deficit , is a substantial factor influencing the psychic functions of the
pilot[62;1287.
The physiologist P. K. Isakov has shown experimentally that those
changes in the organism on being catapulted , which used to be considered
as direct consequences of impact overload , are actually conditioned re
flex and emotiogenic changes. M. F. Ponomarev ( 1954) came to analogous
conclusions in his research . These conclusions are of great importance
for aeronautical psychology , not only on the theoretical plane but also
on the plane of pedagogical psychology .
Medical and pedagogical aeronautical psychology is involved like.
wise in the work on the problem of the influence of accelerations on
the psychic functions invostigated in a project of our colleague A. A.
Makagonova , together with the physiologist V. V. Usachev, a collaborator
of P. K. Isakov , This work is a continuation of the serious of projects
described above on study of the habit of reading instrument panels in
aircraft , but it was carried out on a specially outfitted centrifuge .
It was experimentally shown that with an increase in the overload there
is a deterioration of the productivity of reading the photographic model
of the aircraft instrument panel and that the wearing of an anti - overload
suit improved the productivity of the reading .

The roots of pedagogical aeronautical psychology go back to the al

ready adduced views of the physician N. A. Arendt and the first flight
methodologists , P. N. Nesterov, Ye . V. Rudnev , N. A. Yatsuk and A. F.
Prussis and others .

- 537 -
 At the end of the 1920's and beginning of the 1930's , pedagogical
aeronautical psychology was developing under the direct influence of the
ideas of the Central Institute of Labor , which had put its mark on the
entire development of the psychology of labor and of the methodology of
productiontraining. These ideas were known as the " TsIT [Central Insti
tute of Labor ] method ."
The TSIT method began to be introduced into aeronautics in 1930 .
It attracted to itself the attention not only of flight methodologists
but also of physicians working at psychophysiology , among whom must be
namedin the first instanceA. D. Arkhangel'skiy 17, 47.
The TsIT period in aeronautics led to the appearance of a great
number of training apparatuses , the majority of which were constructed
on the wrong principle , namely training by elements superficially similar
to actual flight .
In 1932-1934 attempts were made to understand the problem of ground
trainers in aeronautics from the positions of psychology ( I. N. Shpil'reyn ,
S. G. Gellershteyn , V. I. Kogan , V. V. Chebysheva ) . However experience
siiowed that this question could not be resolved without setting up an ex
periment . Then ( 1936-1937) there was specially sent to the Kacha air
training school a group of psychologists: K. K. Platonov , L. M.
Shvarts , L. M. Rozet , Ye . L. Lapan . This team collaborated with a number
of flight methodologists in conducting a series of experimental instruc
tions on various ground trainers and showing experimentally that these
were not very effective [65; 117-121], [ 101], which contributed to their
exclusion from the methodology of flight instruction .
When the Kacha branch of the Institute of Aeronautical Medicine
was closed in 1937 , the researches which had been started were continued
in the Might Habits Laboratory of the Institute of Psychology (L. M.
Shvarts , V. V. Chebysheva , Ye . V. Ger'yanov , A. I. Bogoslovskiy , K. K.
Platonov ) . The organization of this laboratory completed the transition ,
begun in 1936 , of aeronautical psychology from the psychotechnical trend
into the single stream of development of Soviet psychology . It was admit
ted that psychological screening could not be introduced into aeronautics
until there had been conducted a sufficient psychological study of actual
flight .
1. M. Shvarts ( 101) and V. V. Chebysheva [99], [ 1007 made an exper
imental study of the laws governing the tranfer and generalization of
habits of the piloting technique in the process of training . A. I.
Bogoslovskiy proved the very great degree to which recognition of the sil .
houettes of aircraft could be improved by training [43; 267. K. K.
Platonov gave a psychological analysis of so - called flight tension " [607,
[ 65; 134w 1387. Ye . V. Gur'yanov made, together with the pilot, M. F.
Peshkovskiy , a study of a number of the psychological questions of the
methodology of flight instruction , which found expression subsequently in
a book by the latter [587.
The Kacha branch of the Institute of Aeronautical Medicine began
in 1936 to give a course in aeronautical psychology to flight personnel
[52] and atthe same time the first text- book waswritten [ 5 .

- 538 -
 The flight methodologist, G. G. Golubev, who had taken a direct
part in the work of the Kacha branch of the Institute of Aeronautical
Medicine, subsequently conducted a number of researches related to aer
onautical pedagogical psychology .
The researches of most interest for aeronautical pedagogical psy
chology conducted by G. G. Golubev and his team (G. D. Nilov, A. F.
Katayev and others) were devotedto flight tension[ 167,courage [ 12],
the influence of interruptions on flight habits, the landing habit and
knack , flight attention107 ,117 , visual aids in Might instruction
[527 , faulty actions [42], etc. These researches considerably enriched
the scope of the knowledge of aeronautical psychology .
The above - described series of researches on the psychological es
sence of bad weather flying had issue in pedagogical aeronautical psychol
ogy , by substantiating experimentally the importance of instrument panel
reading and pointing to the methodological ways of its formation ( photo
graphic models, films, slides, training cabins ). On the basis of this
series of researches there was turned out a special training film , des
tined not only for collective training but also for checking ( and self
checking ) the speed and accuracy of aircraft instrument panel reading .
It is well -known that the most difficult of the elements of flight
to teach is that of landing operations. The methodology of flight in
struction not infrequently got on the wrong road in this area, since very
little study was made of the psychological structure of the landing habits
and knacks [65; 19-22]. _V , Ya. Dymerskiy , who is making a systematic
studyof this question( 327, 1337, considers that the associationsbe
tween the magnitude of the distance from the ground and the visible speed
of approach of the ground surface are of chief and primary importance in
the perception by the pilot of the distance to the ground in landing an
aircraft . The most favorable direction of gaze of the pilot in landing
is the one in which the visible speed of motion of the earth alters to the
greatest degree .
Special note should be taken of a series of projects of V. F.
Rubakhin [87], [88], on the psychology of the reading of aerial photo
graphs . These projects have begun a new and very promising section of
aeronautical pedagogical psychology . The author singles out certain me
thods of deciphering of the aerial photograph which represent certain
definite stages of skill in the context of a given , spontaneously dem
veloped methodology of instruction . The material of the research affords
the opportunity of noting the following psychological tasks in the field
of the methodology of instruction in deciphering aerial photographs:
a) formation in the trainee of the necessary qualities of visual
perception ;
b) formation in the trainee of a sufficient reserve of represen
tations of vertical images of various objects ;
c) formation in the trainee of the capacity to analyze the con
tent of an aerial photograph on the basis of a broad utilization of the
system of conventional signs .

• 539 -
 A cardinal problem of pedagogical aeronautical psychology , in the
solution of which medical aeronautical psychology also has an interest,
is the problem of the psychological essence of faulty actions committed
by trainees and pilots .
It was from a study of the faulty performances that the special
ist physician , s . Ye . Mints, began the study of flight faculties (467.
The study of faulty performances was [83] [ 12], [65; 181-185 ] the basis
of the prophylaxis of flight incidents and of the securing of flight
safety . Finally , it must not be forgotten that, being not only an ob
ject but also a method of aeronautical psychology , the study of faulty
actions permits of getting a deeper understanding of the psychological
essence of flight activity . At the same time , the method of observations
and conversations, just as the method of statistical analysis of record
ings in aerial documentation , is not by any means sufficient for a pro
found treatment of the problem of faulty actions.
The first efforts at a graphic registration of the movements of a
pilot were made in 1924 by the flight methodologist, V. N. Filippov [ 967 .
In the Kacha branch of the Institute of Aerial Medicine , efforts were
made to use the records of the movements of the pilot for an evaluation
of his faulty actions and the record of his pulse for the evaluation of
the degree of difficulty of an action being performed [65; 1317. The sy
stematic elaboration of the equipment of flying laboratories for the
study of flight activity and , specifically , for the study of faulty ac
tions was begun only in 1947 by the experimental psychology department
of the Scientific Research Experimental Test Institute of Aeronautical
Medicine .
In 1949, the personnel of this department ( K. K. Platonov , Ye . A.
Karpov , V. A. Popov , succeeded , working together with the personnel of the
Air Force Academy imeni N. Ye . Zhukovskiy, in outfitting the first flying
laboratory ( Yak - 11) and in making a study , on the basis of flight record
ings , of how to decipher the activity of the pilot in flight and to compare
flight with flight. Aside from its methodological significance , this
project made it possible to refute the patternedness of movements in
identical flight conditions which had been expected by the specialists in
aerodynamics ( together with whom this project was being carried out ) .
Once again was confirmed the thesis that an action is realized by a move
ment but is not identical with that movement .
In 1950 , a Yak - 11 flying laboratory was successfully outfitted
with a specially constructed apparatus and a number of experiments and
investigations were carried out on it ( K. K. Platonov , v. A. Popov, G.
G. Golubev, Yu , A. Petrov, I. I. Nikiforov , R. I. Ul'chenko , et al . ) .
A. M. Pospelov worked out, together with A. A. Abramov , a method
for cinema filming of the direction of gaze of a pilot in flight [82].
At the present time there are available for further projects
pretty well equipped flying laboratories ( trainer fighter aircraft
MIG - 15 and Il'yushin type trainer -28 ), which make it possible to re
cord the peculiarities of the piloting technique, the direction of gaze

- 540 -
on reading of the instrument panel and on landing, the movement of the
head during circumspection , the pulse, the respiration and stick - pressure
( as indices of emotional reactions) . The methodology of deciphering re
cordings of cinema films is already sufficiently developed for practical
application .
The idea of flying laboratories for the study of flight habits , an
idea based on the_I..M._Sechenov theory on the realization of an action
by a movement 187, [69], [62; 1377 , did not meet with immediate accep
tance (447 , 577. And it is only recently, as a result of projects car
ried out , that the discussion on the possibility and advisability of out
fitting flying laboratories for the study of flight_activity can be
considered to have been terminated in their favor (817 .
But laboratory -aircraft are not the only means of studying flight
activity and faulty actions. Ye . A. Derevyanko elaborated ( 1949) and sub
sequently used in a number of researches a method of objective evaluation
of the landing glide path with the aid of a theodolite - profilograph . Yu .
A. Petrov proposed the widely - adopted use of methods of radio reporting
and radio questioning, the essence of which lies in the transmission by
the pilot by radio ( and recording of his broadcast on tape for subse
quent deciphering) of his readings from the instruments [567. V. A.
Popov ( 1950-1952) continued the work of L. M. Shvarts and made a study of
negative transfer of flight habits , analyzing his own flights, the re
cordings of faulty performances in flight documentation and conversation
with flight personnel .
Ye. A. Derevyanko (1949) studied the influence of interruptions on
flight habits mainly by special reports - resumes of faulty performances and
partly with the aid of a profilograph . This project permitted of estab
lishing the fact that the main disturbances of piloting habits occur most
often in the course of the first year of the break . A subsequent further
lull ( up to three years) reduces the level of piloting knacks only very
insignificantly .
V. Ya , Dymerskiy [31 ] likewise worked on the problem of the in
fluence of interruptions on flight habits . He conducted experiments on
himself, using compulsory lulls in flying and exactly documenting the
content of " imaginary flights and the quality of execution of the subo
sequent real flights . This project confirmed the effectiveness of the
use of imaginary flights and made possible a deeper understanding of
the role of interior speech in the formation of flight habits .
Flying laboratories afforded us the opportunity experimentally to
prove a number of theoretical propositions, some of which have already been
expounded above . Thus , the proposition expounded above concerning the psy
chological differences between visual flight and instrument flying was con
firmed by the researches of A. I. Konovalov and A. I. Serikov, in which
there was recorded on an aircraft- laboratory the quality of the piloting
technique, the pulse , respiration and stick - pressure in a number of
flights : visual flight, flight with a curtain which the pilot could open
at any moment, and fight through clouds [71] . In this project was con
firmed the conclusion (reached formerly by K. K. Platonov , I. I.

- 541 -
Nikoforov , G. G. Golubev et al ., in a project conducted on a Yak - 11 fly
ing laboratory) to the effect that the evaluation of someone making a
visual check on the piloting technique of an experimental subject is
exceedingly inaccurate .
Flying laboratories permitted of taking a new approach to the
resolution of the question of the standards of the daily flight load
( Ye . A. Derevyanko , 1955) . Furthermore , they permit of calculating the
minimum and average reaction times upon execution of the various elements
of flight (Yu. A. Petrov , 1951 ; Ye . A. Derevyanko , 1957 ) , the time and
sequence and the consistency of the reading of various instruments ( K. K ,
Platonov and G. G. Golubev , Yu . A. Petrov , 1953) . The experience accum
ulated in these areas permitted of beginning the study of man in flight
from the position of cybernetics , i.e. , as a link in a closed , auto
regulating system ( external conditions of flight- aircraft-man ) and
faulty performances as disturbances and lesions of this auto - regulation .
In the 1930's, specialist physicians and particularly specialist
psychoneurologists , in their fight against the psychotechnical trend ,
intensified in every way the role of psychology in aeronautical mental
hygiene (427, 1917, 1927, 1557 .
A central problem of aeronautical mental hygiene is the problem
of flight fatigue . To it have been devoted the works of many authors,
among whom D. S. Ozeretskovskiy , D. M. Pisarev , K. A. Tereshkovich
[55], s . I. Subbotnik [91], 1927, L. G. Ratgaus and B. S. Bandas [85]
have most dearly substantiated the psychological ideas ,
What interests both the practical flyer and the research psy
chologist most of all in the problem of fatigue is the alteration in
the competence of the individual in the process of his work . This had
been well understood even by N. M. Dobrotvorskiy , the first to begin a
study of the question of the standards of flight load [ 29] . Therefore
on the basis of the study of flight fatigue in the period of the Great
Patriotic War we were provided with a classification of the degrees of
flightoverfatigue, based on the alteration in competence [61] , [65;
99 ] . Ye . A. Derevyanko [ 26 ] used the flying laboratory to develop the
idea of flight fatigue as an alteration in competence of performance
( 1955 ) . He established that the work capacity curve of a pilot during
the course of a day in which he makes a number of flights is an exceed
ingly complicated affair . Emosta
tionaln tension masks both a feeling of
tio ence
tiredness and also the manife e
of fatigu in compet , Fatigue ,
when it does arise , may not have any effect on competence because an ef
fort of will is made to prevent it from having this effect . This form of
fatigue Ye . A. Derevyanko calls " compensated fatigue , " noting that in the
period of compensation of fatigue competence is very unreliable and un
stable .
The role of the emotions in flight fatigue is very complex and
its study cannot be said to be further advanced than the initial stages.
It must not be forgotten that the main type of flight fatigue is emo
tional fatigue .

- 542 -
 The emotional specificity of flight activity, which is bound up
with constant training and retraining , leads to every word of the senior
pilot often being for the younger a very powerful stimulus. It has been
noted that an incautious word may elicit not only in young trainees but
even in pilots psychogenic conditions of varying seriousness, from
slight reactions to serious neuroses . These states , whose prophylaxis
is an important task of mental hygiene, we have suggested_calling, on
analogy with iatrogenic states, didactogenic ones [ 3], [65; 1487 .
The idea of the adaptation of aeronautical equipment to the psy
chological potentials of the human individual is one which has for a
long time been occupying the minds of the researchers of aeronautical
operations. As is well known , this aspiration lies at the root of the
so - called " engineering psychology . "
P. N. Nesterov , as early as his day , had already pointed out that
the instinctive movements of the pilot did not coincide with the struc
ture of the control levers of some of the aircraft of those days [72; 587.
The author of one of the first ( 1915) text- books on the methodology of
flight instruction , Ye . V. Rudnev , wrote that it would be a good thing to
accept one sort of steering -piloting gear as " normal " and require its in
stallation on all types of craft presently operational and capable of be
ing constructed in the future , for it is easier to teach a new pilot than
toretrain one who has already been trained in flight [72; 527. General
animadversions on the psychological requirements in respect of instrument
panels were made by s . P. Rozenberg [867 and N. M. Dobrotsorskiy [ 307.
Experimental researches on engineering aeronautical psychology
were begun (1935) by the works of N. V. Zimkin [ 36], [327 and N. A.
Eple [103], [1047, on the experimental study of the legibility of the
readings sections of aeronautical instruments . Unfortunately , their
works remained unknown to designers and did not find application in the
practice of instrument designing .
Having run into the necessity of giving an evaluation of the var
ious proposed variants of instrument panels and having become convinced
of the fortuitousness of empirical methods of solving this question , we
began from 1952 on working out methods of objective comparative evalua
tion of the shape and structure of the readings portions of the instrum
ments and of a rational location of the instruments on the panels . As
the result of the joint efforts of psychologists ( K. K. Platonov , Yu . A.
Petrov , T. I , Zhukova) and engineers ( Ye . P. Novodvorskiy , M. I.
Yurovitskiy ) there was worked out a system of methods of research of the
legibility of instruments , signalling equipment and instrument panels
in laboratory conditions and in conditions of flight [53] accuracy
[ 567 , [ and
347.
The evaluation was based on the indices of speed ,
( for the combined instruments and groups of instruments ) generality of
the spoken reaction in the reading off of the readings of the instrum
ments or groups of instruments . Laboratory researches were conducted
with photographic models and natural models of the individual instrum
ments , groups of instruments and instrument panels , all of which were

. 543 -
exposed for various lengths of time . For research of the legibility in
the context of a time deficit , there were used modernized Nechayev tach
istoscopes and special " falling curtains" which made it possible to use
the tachistoscope not only on groups of instruments but even on entire
instrument panels. These instruments were constructed according to our
specifications by the engineer V. F. Shurlapov .
In flight experiments, the legibility of instruments and the at
tractive effect of signalling equipment was investigated by the method
of radio reporting, proposed by Yu . A. Petrov [567. The researches were
conducted on the comparative plane with special variational statistical
comparison of the indices obtained . Experiments carried out in collabor
ation between psychologists and engineers permitted of elaborating spe
cial alignment charts , which specified more exactly the requirements for
construction of the readings portions of instruments [537.
Practical experimental work at objective evaluation of the legi
bility of instruments and instrument panels of aircraft have posed a
number of theoretical questions, a portion of which have already been
successfully resolved . The question of the role of practice in test ex
periments required special researches . It was solved by T. I. Zhukova
1347, who proved that the influence of practice could be eliminated by
alternation of the expositions of the variants of instruments being com
pared . The crucial theoretical and practical question of the smoothing
out of the differences in legibility of instruments under comparison in
the process of practice was researched by our colleagues , A. Ye .
ol'shannikova (1957) and T. I. Zhukova ( 1958) . After all, if the dif
forences in legibility of instruments are consistently smoothed out as a
result of practice, then the very idea of an objective comparison of
legibility of instruments requires revision .
Researches on this question were essential because we did not suc
ceed in finding any projects devoted to the habit of reading off the read
ings of instruments , either in our own or in foreign literature . The
researches conducted showed that, under the influence of practice there
occurred a smoothing out of the initially sharp differences in legibility
of two instruments, but that the factors tending to deautomatize a habit
( such as fatigue , interruption, increase of the time deficit) have a
tendency to restore these differences .
In the very first stages of the project the question became acute
as to the role of peripheral vision for the perception of an instrument
panel ; this was investigated by Yu . A. Petrov ( 1954 ), who demonstrated
the possibility of reading instruments with peripheral vision even at an
angle of 250 , by means of perception of the direction of the arrow when
one has a good knowledge of the scales of the instruments . At the same
time it was demonstrated that differences in illumination within the lim
its of from 20 to 700 luxes, illumination by ultra - violet or red colors
( K. K. Platonov, Yu , A. Petrov and T. I. Zhukova, 1954) , as also even
reading through a space suit helmet ( P. Ya . Nurdygin , 1957) , have no sub
stantial influence on the quality of the reading off of the readings of
instruments and do not mask the differences in their legibility .

- 544 -
 In these researches we attempted to apply the ideas of T. G.
Yegorovis study of the habits of reading audio code to the habits of read
ing ideographic and pictographic codes , among which habits belong the
habits of reading instrument readings. The researches showed the existence
of common laws governing all these types of reading . Specifically , the
researches showed that a well - developed mental component of reading , i.e. ,
understanding , is able to compensate for a deterioration of the sensory
component in conditions which complicate the technique of reading .
Theoretical premises permitted of assuming that the standard diam
eters of instruments ( 70 millimeters ) are not well - founded and that more
compactly placed groups of_instruments of a diameter [here a measurement
seems to have been omitted], and which can be accomodated within the field
This
of vision , will be able to be read better or , at least , no less well .
was also experimentally proven by Yu . A. Petrov and T. I. Zhukova ( 1953) .
The problem of the rational combination of various instruments, tra
di tionally isolated one from another , into a single instrument has been
the subject of a number of series of experiments . These researches ( Yu .
A. Petrov, T. I. Zhukova) have shown that, although not every combination
of instruments is a good idea, nevertheless the idea is in general indis .
putably psychologically well - founded ( 1956) .
In all the researches described , indices of the visual - speech reac
tion were taken , as has been said , as an indicator of the legibility of
the objects under study . Despite the indisputable theoretical rightness
of this indicator , it was essential experimentally to resolve the question
of the correlation of the visual - speech and the visual - motor reaction in
the reading of instruments , I. I. Lependinaya, a student of the Moscow
State University succeeded in 1958 in showing the superiority of the for
mation of the habit of reading an instrument by the spoken method and the
facility of recoding a visual - spoken habit into a visual - motor one .
All researches to date on the legibility of instruments have re
ferred to a study of the legibility of the static indications of the in
struments . These indices were dynamic only in the case of flight tests,
which , however , in view of their complexity and limitations, could not
secure a sufficiently well - rounded and profound study of the laws govern
ing legibility of dynamic objects . Our colleague , P. Ya . Nurdygin par
tially resolved this question by making -an optical tachistoscope which
permits of exposing for a strictly determined length of time on the vis
ible scale of an instrument an arrow moving at a given speed . He demon
strated ( 1958) that , with an exposure of 0.3 seconds , the accuracy of
reading off the reading corresponding to the moment of opening of the
window of the tachistoscope deteriorates with an increase in the ang
ular velocity of the arrow , while the latent period of spoken reaction
is somewhat diminished . But this question is most fully resolved on
test- stands with instruments animated with the aid of computer installa
tions and with appropriate recording apparatus.
Already the following technique is being incorporated pretty
solidly into the practice of work at the problem of rationalization of
instruments and instrumentpanels: broadquestioning of flightpersonnel,
analysis of collated opinions and experimental verification of the most
interesting suggestions ,

- 545 -
 Scarcely any of the problems elaborated have been resolved univocally
and in the case of the majority of them there has arisen a conflict of opin
ions , which has even at times slowed down temporarily the development not
only of the problem itself but even of the whole of aeronautical psychol
ogy For a long time , even the right of aeronautical psychology to exist
ence was a moot point. The articles of M. A. Kudryavtsev (447 , F. K.
Petunin and Sh . K. Gvasaliya [577 , which took partly the stand in favor
of a replacement of psychology by physiology and partly that of denying
any sort of specificity to aeronautical psychology , reflected pretty
widely held views.
Even the psychologists themselves formulated the tasks of aero
nautical psychology in different fashions . Thus, S. G. Gellershteyn
considered 9, [ 107, that the basic problems in aeronautical psychol
ogy were :
1 ) the diagnosis and prognosis of success in flying in the process
of instruction and prior to instruction ;
2) exercises and practice in connection with the training of oc
cupationally important qualities;
3) accident prevention from the point of view of the role of the
" personal factor " in accidents ;
4) the stability ( or lability ) of the psychic functions in con
nection with the action of specific factors : altitude , accelerations,
etc. , i.e. , the problem of work capacity broadly speaking;
5) the adaptation of equipment to the human individual ( securing
such types of instrument panels , location of control levers , etc. , as
are rational from the point of view of psychophysiology ).
The four basic trends in aeronautical psychology formulated by us
at the beginning of the article are determined by the combination of the
practical tasks, the theoretical problems and the ways of realization of
the conclusions of the projects . Besides , each of these trends lies at
the " junction " of the psychology of labor with the other sciences which
are studying labor and the " points of growth " of the psychology of labor ,
just as of the other sciences, lie precisely at such " junctions, " as they
have been figuratively called by A. N. Nesmeyanov.
However for the development of a psychology of labor it is un
usually important that the problems located at various points of growth
should be linked up by a single set of concepts and that researches con
ducted on one of the problems should permit of better understanding other
problems. To a certain extent success is already being attained at this .
Thus , researches on illusions and faulty actions in bad weather
flights, the study of the capacities for this cardinal type of flight
activity , the formation of the habits and knacks of orientation in
flight , the comparative evaluation of aircraft instrument panels and the
substantiation of demands made on them , the study of fatigue and the
standardization of flight operations in bad weather flying all of these
so divergent problems are united by a single conception and the solution
of any one of them aids in the solution of a number of others.

- 546 -
 The idea of the objective study of the activity of the aviator in
laboratory -aircraft has likewise proved to tie in together the solutions
of various problems which seem to be very different : the study of faulty
actions , the study of flight faculties and of the " syndromes of failure , "
the standardization of flight operations, the study of flight fatigue
and of the comparative evaluation of various variants of instrument
panels ,
The idea of the specificity of the emotional tinge of actual flight
embraces the problems of tension in flight, of bad weather flying , of
flight emotional fatigue and has permitted of discovering instances of
didactogenia and of getting a new understanding of the symptomatic in
cases of cranial traumata in flight personnel in connection with the pe
culiarities of combination of cranial traumata with various emotions,
[667 .
Aeronautical psychology is faced with the task of linking up still
more closely various researches by a single set of conceptions.
All the problems of aeronautical psychology discussed were posed
by aeronautical practice ; the conclusions from the projects carried out
in the way of research were referred again to practice , which evaluated
their correctness and accepted them or rejected them as erroneous .
Herein , too , lies the guarantee of a further development of this
branch of the science of psychology .

- 547 -
 LITERATURE

1. G. V. Altukhov , I. S. Balakhovskiy , V. B. Malkin , " Bio

electrical Activity of the Brain and Saturation of the Blood With Oxy
gen in Cases of Acute Hypoxy , " Voyenno -meditsinskiy_zhurnal (Military
Medical Journal ) , No. 11 , Moscow , 1954 .
2. B. S. Alyakrinskiy , " On the Problem of Spatial Orientation
of the Pilot in Difficult Meteorological conditions," Tezisy dokladov na
soveshchanii po voprosam psikhologii truda, (Abstracts of Reports at a
Conference on Questions of the Psychology of Labor ) , Moscow , 1957 .
3. A. D. Arkhangel'skiy , " Flight Coordinatiometry , " Voyenno
sanitarnoye delo (Military Health Matters ) , 1934 , No. 5 .
4. A. D. Arkhangel'skiy, " Psychophysiology and Ground [Link ]
Training , " Voyenno - sanitarnove delo (Military Health Matters) , 1935 ,
No. 7 .
5. V, M. Bekhterev , Teoriva obrazovaniya nashikh predstavleniy
o prostranstve , ( Theory of the Formation of Our Representations of Space),
St. Petersburg , 1884 .
6. V. Bogdanov, " The State of Psychotechnics in the Air Force , "
Vestnik vozdushnogo flota ( Air Fleet Herald ) , 1923 , No. 4.
7. A. S. Vitenzon , Izucheniye osobemostey i dinamiki nervnykh
protsessov v norme i patologii po techeniyu sledovykh reaktsiy v
zritel'nom analizatore ( A Study of the Peculiarities and Dynamic of the
Neural Processes in Normal and Pathological Cases During the course of
Vestigial Reactions in the Visual Analyzer ), Candidate's Dissertation ,
Leningrad , 1955 .
8. N. A. Vishnevskiy, B. A. Tsyrlin , " Influence of Decreased
Barometric Pressure on the Darkness Adaptation , Color Vision and Electri
cal Excitability of the Eye , " Fiziologicheskiy zhurnal SSSR (USSR Physio
logical Journal ) , Vol . XVIII, 1935 , page 257 .
9. S. G. Gellershteyn, " Psychology As Applied to Aviation , "
Informatsionny byulleten !. Aviatsionnava meditsina ( Information Bul .
letin . Aerial Medicine) , 1946 , No. 1 .
10. S. G. Gellershteyn , "Basic Stages of the Development of Psy
chology as Applied to Aviation in the USA in the Period from 1930 to 1945, "
Informatsionnyy bulleten ' . Aviatsionnaya meditsina ( Information Bulletin .
Aerial Medicine ) , MOSCOW , 1947 , No. 2 (5 ) .
11. S. G. Gellershteyn , " On the so - called ' Lightning' Motor Reac
tions of the Flyer , " Tezisy dokladov nauchnoy konferentsii TSIUV ( Abstracts
of Reports of an Academic Conference of the Central Institute for Advanced
Training of Physicians) , Moscow , 1947 .
12. S. G. Gellershteyn , " The Significance of the ' Personal Factor '
in Air Incidents and Methods of Its Study , " ibid . , 1948 .
13 . S. G. Gellershteyn , 'Chuvstvo vremeni ' i skorost '
dvigatel'nykh reaktsiy ( The Time Sense" and Speed of Motor Reactions) ,
Moscow , 1958 .
14. S. G. Gellershteyn , Yu . V. Kotelova , P. Ye . Dernova , G. G.
Sysoyev , 0. A. Lazareva, " Possibility of Practice of Sensory -Motor

• 548
Processes Requiring Switchover , " Tezisy dokladov nauchnoy konferentsii
TSIUV ( Abstracts of Reports of an Academic Conference of the Central In
stitute for Advanced Training of Physicians ) , Moscow , 1949 .
15. 2. Geratevol' , Psikhologiya cheloveka v samolete ( Psychology
of the Human Individual in Flight) , Translation no indication here of
original language but from text it emerges that it was Germany, izd - vo
IL ( Publishing House of Foreign Literature ) , Moscow , 1956 .
16. G. G , Golubev, " On the Question of ' Flight Tension ' , "
Vestnik vozdushnogo flota ( Air Fleet Herald ) , 1948 , No. 8 .
17. G. G. Golubev, Smelosti letchika ( The Courage of the Flyer ),
Groznyy , 1958 .
18 . F. D. Gorbov , " On the Question of Spatial Orientation , "
Vestnik vozdushnogo flota (Air Fleet Herald ) , 1955 , No. 3 .
19 . F. D. Gorbov, L. D. Chaynova , " A Study of the Peculiarities
of Switchover of Attention in the context of Hypoxy and in that of Nor
mal Atmospheric Pressure , Using the Encephalograph , " Tezisy dokladov na
I słyezde Obshchestva psikhologov ( Abstracts of Reports at the 1st con
gress of the Society of Psychologists) , Moscow , 1959 .
20. V. A. Gorovoy - Shaltan , " On Emotions Connected With Parachute
Jumping , " Voyenno - sanitarnove delo (Military Health Matters ) , 1954 , No.
12 .
21. v. A. Gorovoy - Shaltan , " Determination of the Speed of Motor
Reaction to a Moving Stimulus , " Trudy Nauchno - issledovatel'skogo aero
instituta (Works of the Air Scientific Research Institute ) , Article 217 ,
K Metodike opredeleniya letnykh kachestv ( Toward a Methodology of Deter
mination of Flight Qualities) , Leningrad, 1932 .
22. V. A. Gorovoy - Shaltan , " Determination of the Speed of Psycho
motor Reactions , " Irudy Voyenno -meditsinskogo akademii ( Works of the
Military Medical Academy ) , Vol . IV, Leningrad , 1936 .
23. V. A. Gorovoy - Shaltan , " Psychomotor coordination in Percep
tion of the Speed of Movement in Various Psychic States, " Nevropatolo
giva i psikhiatriya ( Neuropathology and Psychiatry ) , 1938 , No. 2 .
24. G. R. Grayfer , " On the Use of the Individual Evaluation in
the Practice of Aerial -Medical Expertise , " Voyenno-meditsinskiy zhurnal
(Military Medical Journal ) , 1948 , No. 12 .
25. L. M. Grimak , " Reproduction in Hypnosis of the Emotional
States of a Parachutist ," Voprosy psikhologii ( Questions of Psychology ) ,
1939 , No. 3.
26 . Ye . A. Derevyanko , " Interrelations Between Certain Physio
logical and Psychological Factors in the Development of Fatigue in the
Process of Work Activity , " Tezisy dokladov na I svezde Obshchestva
psikhologov ( Abstracts of Reports at the 1st Congress of the Society of
Psychologists ), Moscow , 1959 .
27. N. M. Dobrotvorskiy , " Psychophysiological Methods of Choice
in Respect of Types of Weapon , " Voyenno - sanitarny sbornik (Military
Medical Anthology ), No. 2 , Moscow , 1925 .
28. N. M. Dobrotvorskiy , " Methodology of Flight Training From
the Point of View of Psychophysiology , " Vestnik vozdushnogo flota ( Air
Fleet Herald ) , 1925 , No. 7 .

• 549 -
 29 . N. M. Dobrotvorskiy , " On the Question of the Standards of Fly
ing Work , " Vestnik vozdushnogo flota ( Air Fleet Herald ), 1926 , No. 10-11 .
30 . N. M. Dobrotvorskiy , Letny trud ( Flight Operations), izd - vo
WA ( Air Force Publishing House) , Moscow , 1930 .
31. V. Ya, Dymerskiy , " On the Use of Imagined Actions in the Pro
cess of Restoration and Retention of Habits , " Voprosy psikhologii ( Ques
tions of Psychology ) , 1956 , No. 6 .
32 . V. Ya . Dymerskiy , " On the Question of the Visual Perception
of Movement and of Absolute Distance , " Doklady na soveshchanii psikholo
gov v 1955 .. (Papers at a Conference of Psychologists in 1955 , Moscow ,
1957 .
33. V. Ya. Dymerskiy , " On the Question of the Perception of Dis
tance from the Earth on Landing of an Aeroplane, " Tezisy dokladov na
soveshchanii po vopro sam psikhologii truda (Abstracts of Reports at a
Conference on Questions of the Psychology of Labor ) , Moscow , 1957 .
34. T. I. Zhukova , " On the question of Training in the Habit
of Reading the Dials of Control Instruments , " Ibid .
35. Ye . S. Zavlyalov , O deystvii gipoksii na umstvennuyu
rabo to sposobnost! letnogo sostava (On the Action of Hypoxy on the Mental
Al ertness and Capacity of Flying Personnel) , Candidate's Dissertation ,
TSIUV ( Central Institute for the Advanced Training of Physicians), 1951 .
36. N. v . Zimkin , " On the Question of the Visibility of the
Dials of Aircraft Instruments , " Sb . trudov VMA posvashchennyy prof. V.
N. Dolganovu ( Anthology of Works of the Military Medical Academy dedicated
to Prof. V. N. Dolganov ) , izd - vo VMA (Military Medical Academy Publishing
House ) , Leningrad , 1935 .
37. N. V. Zimkin , " Psychophysiological Evaluation of the Scales
on the Dials of Aircraft Instruments , " Trudy Tsentral'noy laboratorii
aviameditsiny GVF ( Works of the Central Laboratory of Aerial Medicine of
the Civil Air Fleet) , Vol . II , Moscow , 1937 .
38. N. P. Ilizin, "Air Disasters ," Vestnik vozdushnogo flota ( Air
Fleet Herald ) , 1920 , No. 3-4 .
39 . P. I. Kandidatov , " On the Question of the Study of Fatigue of
Flight Personnel After Execution of Protracted High Flights , " Anthology ,
Voprosy aviatsionnoy meditsiny ( Questions of Aerial Medicine ) , izd- vo GVF
(Civil Air Fleet Publishing House ) , Moscow , 1958 .
40 . A. F. Katayev , " Development of Observation Talent in the
Young Aviator , " Vestnik vozdushnogo flota (Air Fleet Herald ) , 1949, No. 8 .
41 . A. F. Katayev , " On the Training of Attention in the Young
Aviator , " Vestnik vozdushnogo flota ( Air Fleet Herlad ) , 1949, No. 11 .
42. A. F. Katayev , “ On the Formation of Flight Habits , " Vestnik
vozdushnogo flota (Air Fleet Herald ) 1949, No. 6 .
43. K. Kh . Kekcheyev , Nochnoye zreniye ( Night Vision ) Biomedgiz
( State Biological Medical Publishing House) , Moscow , 1942 .
44. M. A. Kudryavtsev , " On the Reorganization of Psychology in
Aviation , ' " Vovenno -meditsinskiy zhurnal (Military Medical Journal ) , 1951 ,
No. 9 .

- 550 -
 45. S. Ye , Mints , "On Occupational Suitability for Service as an
Aviator on the Basis of Statistical Data and Psychotechnical Tests , "
Vestnik vozdushnogo flota ( Air Fleet Herald ) , 1920 , No. 3-4 .
46. S. Ye . Mints, " Significance of the Individual Qualities of
Aviators and Fighter - Pilots in cases of Disasters, " Vestnik vozdushnogo
flota ( Air Fleet Herald ) , 1923 , No. 2.
47. S. Ye . Mints, "Psychological Testing for Determination of
Suitability for Flying Duty According to the Dr. A. Kornfeld Method , "
Vestnik vozdushnogo flota ( Air Fleet Herald ) , 1924, No. 1-2 .
48. S. Ye. Mints , " Psychotechnical Testing of Aviators in the
Laboratory Attached to the 1st University of Military Aviators , " Ap
pendix to the journal Vestnik vozdushnogo flota (Air Fleet Herald ),
1925 , No. 1-2 .
49. N. A. Molodtsov , " On the Question of the Medical Selection
of Entrants into the Schools of the Air Force of the Workers ' and Pea
sants . Red Army, " Voyenno - sanitarnoye delo (Military Health Matters),
1935 , No. 3.
50. A. P. Nechayev , " On the Question of the Use of Experimental
Psychological Methods in the clarification of Problems Connected With
the Technique of Military Affairs , " Voyennw vestnik (Military Herald ) ,
1922 , No. 17 .
51. A. P. Nechayev , " On the Question of the Experimental -Psycho
logical Examination of Aviators, " Zhurnal psikhologii , nevrologii i
psikhiatrii ( Journal of Psychology , Neurology and Psychiatry ) , 1923,
No. 2 , Anthology , Um i trud (Mind and Work ), Giz (State Publishing House ) ,
Moscow - Leningrad , 1925 .
52. G. D. Nilov , " Visual Training in the Teaching of an Aviator , "
Vestnik vozdushnogo flota (Air Fleet Herald ) , 1950 , No. 2 .
53. Ye . P. Novodvorskiy, A. I. Vikent'yeva , K. K. Platonov , Yu .
A. Petrov, Issledovaniye pogreshnostey otcheta pokazaniy po shkalam
odnostrelochnykh priborov (An Investigation of Errors in Reporting the
Readings on Dials of Instruments With Only One Needle ) , Oborongiz ( State
Publishing House of the Defense Industry ), Moscow , 1958 .
54. D. S. Ozeretskovskiy , K. A. Tereshkovich , " The Problem of
Oxygen Starvation and Neuro -Psychic Activity , " Voprosy aviatsionnoy
meditsiny ( Questions of Aerial Medicine) , izd- vo GVF (Civil Air Fleet
Publishing House ) , Moscow , 1938 .
55. D. S. Ozeretskovskiy , D. N. Pisarev , K. A. Tereshkovich ,
" On the Question of the so - called ' Moment of fall , ' Trudy
Tsentral'noy laboratorii aviatsionnoy meditsiny Grazhdanskogo
vozdushnogo flota ( Works of the Central Laboratory of Aerial Medicine
of the Civil Air Fleet) , Vol . II , Moscow , 1937 .
56. Yu . A. Petrov , " Pilot's Estimate of the Spatial Position of
the Aircraft, " Vestnik vozdushnogo flota ( Air Fleet Herald ), 1956 , No. 2 .
57. F. K. Petunin , Sh . K. Gvassiliya, "On Several Questions of
Psychology in Aviation , " Voyenno -meditsinskiy zhurnal (Military Medical
Journal ) , Moscow , 1951 , No. 9 .
58. M. F. Peshkovskiy, Osnovy metodiki letnogo obucheniya ( Fun
damentals of a Methodology of Flight Training) , Moscow , 1945 .

• 551 -
 59. K , K. Platonov, Konspekt kursa psikhologii ( Synopsis of a
Course in Psychology ), izd-vo Kachinskoy aviashkoly (Kacha Flying School
Publishing House) , 1936 .
60. K. K. Platonov , " On So - Called Flight Tension , " Grazhdanskaya
aviatsiya ( Civil Aviation ), 1939 , No. 11 .
via 61. K. K. Platonov , " classification of Degrees of Over - fatigue
in Flight Personnel , " Vovenno-meditsinskiy zhurnal (Military Medical
Journal ) , 1944 , No. 7-8 .
62. K. K. Platonov , Chelovek v polete (Man in Flight), Moscow ,
1946 ; 2nd Edition , Moscow , 1957 .
63. K. K. Platonov , " On an Improper Pedagogical Approach as a
Factor in Psychogenic Reactive States , " Informatsionnyy byulleten !.
Aviatsionnaya meditsina ( Information Bulletin . Aerial Medicine) , Mos
cow , 1946 , No. 2 .
64. K. K. Platonov, " Questions of Medical Security of Flights in
Jet Planes , " Informationnw biuleten ' . Aviatsionnava meditsina ( Informam
tion Bulletin . Aerial Medicine ) , No. 1 ( 4 ) , Moscow , 1947.
65. K. K. Platonov , L. M. Shvarts , Ocherki psikhologii dlya
letchikov (Outlines of Psychology for Aviators) , Moscow, 1948.
66. K , K , Platonov , mon the Role of Experiences Upon Cranial
Traumata , " Voyenno-meditsinskiy zhurnal (Military Medical Journal ) ,
1949, No. 1.
67. K. K. Platonov , " Basic Principles and Methods of Study of
the Personal qualities of Cadets , " Anthology , Meditsina na vozdushnom
transporte ( Medicine in Air Transport ) , No. 2, izdvo GVF (Civil Air
Fleet Publishing House ) , Moscow , 1949 .
68. K. K. Platonov , Tasks of Soviet Military Psychology in
Aviation , " Anthology , Materialy pervoy nauchnoy konferentsii po sovetskoy
voyennoy psikhologii (Papers of the 1st Academic Conference on Soviet
Military Psychology ) , Leningrad , 1951 .
69. K. K. Platonov , " The Task of a Creative Reorganization of
Psychology in Aviation , " Vovenno-meditsinskiy zhurnal (Military Medical
Journal ) , 1951 , No. 3 .
70. K. K. Platonov, " Experience of a Study of Flight Aptitudes , "
Doklady na soveshchanii po voprosam psikhologii lichnosti (Reports at a
Conference on Questions of the Psychology of Personality) , izd- vo APN
RSFSR (RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences Publishing House ) , Moscow ,
1956 .
71. K. K. Platonov , A. I. Konovalov , " Theory and Practice of Med
ical Security of Flight in Difficult Weather Conditions , " Voyenno
meditsinskiy zhurnal ( Military Medical Journal ) , Moscow , 1955, No. 7 .
72. K. K. Platonov , A. A. Lavnikov , Materialy iz proshlogo
otechestvennoy aviatsionnoy meditsiny (Materials out of the Past of Our
Own Soviet Aerial Medicine) , izd- VO WIA ( Publishing House of the Air
Force Engineering Academy ) , Moscow , 1957 .
73. K. K. Platonov , G. G. Golubev , " Toward a Theory of the Teach
ing of Orientation in Instrument Flying, " Anthology , Voprosy aviatsionnoy
meditsiny ( Questions of Aerial Medicine ), izdvo GVF (Publishing House of
the Civil Air Fleet ) , Moscow , 1958 .

- 552 -
 74. K. K. Platonov , " Psychological Problems of Space Flight , "
Voprosy psikhologii (Questions of Psychology ), 1959 , No. 3 .
75. K. K. Platonov , " The Psychology of Flight Operations , " Tezisy
dokladov na I sivezde Obshchestva psikhologov (Abstracts of Reports at
the 1st Congress of the Society of Psychologists) , Moscow , 1939 .
76. B. L. Pokrovskiy, " Experimental Research on the Sensory -Motor
Reactions in the Process of Medical Examination of Flight Personnel ,
Voyenno -meditsinskiy zhurnal (Military Medical Journal ), 1959 , No. 10 .
77. M. F. Ponomarev , Eksperimental'nyye issledovaniya
neko torykh vidov dvigatel'nykh reaktsiy i ikh znacheniye dlya profes
sional'noy deyatelnosti (Experimental Investigation of Certain Types
of Motor Reactions and Their Significance for Occupational Activity ),
Candidate's Dissertation , LGU ( Leningrad State University ), 1958 .
78. M. F. Ponomarev , " Reaction to a Moving Object and Distance
for Opening Fire in Aerial Firing on a Ground Target , " Voyenno
meditsinskiy zhurnal (Military Medical Journal ) , Moscow , 1951, No. 11 .
79. M. F. Ponomarev , "On the Time of a Simple Motor Reaction in
Aviators , " Voyenno-meditsinskiy zhurnal (Military Medical Journal ) , Mos
cow , 1955 , No. 3 .
80. M. F. Ponomarev , " Certain Peculiarities of Motor Reactions
and their Significance in the Operational Activity of an Aviator , "
Tezisy dokladov na soveshchanii po voprosam psikhologii truda (Ab
stracts of Reports at a Conference on Questions of the Psychology of
Labor ) , Moscow, 1957 .
81. A. P. Popov , " Avenues and Tasks of Aerial Medicine , II
Voyenno-meditsinskiy zhurnal (Military Medical Journal ) , 1956 , No. 5 .
A. I. Poslepov , " Cinema Method of Determination of the Di
82 .
rection of Gaze in the Process of Operational Activity , " Tezisy dokladov
na soveshchanii po vopro sam psikhologii truda (Abstracts of Reports at a
Conference on Questions of the Psychology of Labor ) , Moscow , 1957 .
83. R. N. Pochtareva , " Toward an Analysis of Erroneous Actions
of Pilots , " Sovetskaya psikhotekhnika ( Soviet Psychotechnics ) , 1934 ,
No. 2 .
84. R. D. Rabinovich , " The Influence of Matutinal Physical Gym
nastics on the Functional Mobility of the Central Nervous System , ” Vov
enno-meditsinskiy zhurnal (Military Medical Journal ) , 1953, No. 11.
85. L. G. Ratgaus, B. S. Bandas, "On the Reactions of the Pilot
to Combat Flight, " Voyenno -meditsinskiy zhurnal (Military Medical Jour
nal ) , 1946 , No. 1-2 .
86. S. P. Rozenberg , " On the Standardization of the Instrument
Panel of Training Planes, " Vestnik vozdushnogo_flota ( Air Fleet Herald )
1928 , No. 7 .
87 . V. F. Rubakhin , " Nature and Formation of Skills and Habits of
Deciphering Aerial Photos," Voprosy psikhologii (Questions of Psychology ),
1958 , No. 3.
88 . V. F. Rubakhin , Psikhologicheskiye osobennosti protsessa
spetsial'nogo deshifrirovaniya aerosnimkov (Psychological Peculiarities
of the Process of Specialized Deciphering of Aerial Photos ) , Candidate's
Dissertation No Place of Publication Given ], 1957.
- 553 -
 89. Ya . F. Samter , A. A. Yermilina , " Significance of a Complex
Motor Reaction for Pilots , " Trudy Severo- Kazakhskogo s'yezda fiziologov
( Works of the North Kazakhstan Congress of Physiologists) , Rostov -on
the - Don , 1933 .
90. V. V. Strelltsov, S. G. Gellershteyn , " Toward a Description
of the Physiological and Psychophysiological Reactions in the context of
Reduced Barometric Pressure , " Tezisy dokladov nauchnoy konferentsii TSIUV
( Abstracts of Reports of an Academic Conference of the Central Institute
for Advanced Training of Physicians ), Moscow , 1947 .
91. S. I. Subbotnik , " Aerial Psychotechnics , " in F. G. Krotkov
and N. F. Galanin , Vovennava gigiyena (Military Hygiene ), Leningrad ,
1936 , page 190 .
92. S. I. Subbotnik , "On Selection for Air Training Schools and
the Individual Approach in Flight Training , " Trudy Instituta
aviatsionnoy meditsiny ( Works of the Institute of Aerial Medicine ) ,
Vol. II , Moscow , 1939.
93. I. V. Tereshkina , Eksperimental'noye issledovaniye protsessa
avtomatizatsii reaktsii wybora (An Experimental Investigation of the Pro
cess of Automation of Choice Reactions) , Candidate's Dissertation , MGU
(Moscow State University ) , 1955 .
94. I. v . Tereshkina , " On the Process of Automation of the Motor
Habit , " Materialy soveshchaniya po psikhologii truda ( Papers of a Confer
ence on the Psychology of Labor ) , Moscow , 1957 .
95. T. I. Tepenitsina , " Analysis of Errors in Examination of At
tention by the corrective Test Method , " Voprosy psikhologii ( Questions of
Psychology ) , 1959 , No. 5 .
96. V. N. Filippov , " Instruments for Recording Banking Curves ,
Vestnik vozdushnogo flota ( Air Fleet Herald ) , 1924, No. 9 .
97 . A. V. Chapek , " Influence of Reduced Barometric Pressure on
Perception of Radio Signals, " Anthology , Voprosy aviatsionnoy meditsiny
( Questions of Aerial Medicine ), izdvo GVF (Civil Air Fleet Publishing
House ) , :Ioscow , 1948 .
98. A. V. Chapek , " Experience of Pilot Training in Estimation of
Time Intervals , " Voyenno-meditsinskiy zhurnal (Military Medical Journal ) ,
Moscow , 1956 , No. 12 .
99. V. V. Chebysheva , Sovmeshcheniye deystviy pri usvoyenii
slozhnogo dvigatel'nogo navyka (Combination of Actions in the Assimi.
lation of a complex Motor Habit) , Candidate's Dissertation , Moscow ,
1946 .
100. V. V. Chebysheva , " Elaboration of the Habit of Reacting to
Swiftly Moving Objects , " Izvestiva APN RSFSR (News of the RSFSR Academy
of Pedagogical Sciences) , No. 91, Moscow , 1958 .
101. L. M. Shvarts, "On the Question of Habits and Their Interfer
ence , " Uchenye zapiski Instituta psikhologii ( Academic Reports of the
Institute of Psychology ) , Vol . II , Moscow , 1941.
102. G. M. Entin , "On the Experimental Psychological Evaluation of
the Flight Aptitudes of Cadets, " Voyenno-meditsinskiy zhurnal (Military
Medical Journal ) , Moscow , 1959 , No. 7 .

- 554
 103. N. A. Eple , " Experience of Rationalization of Needles and Dials
of Aircraft Instruments , " Grazhdanskaya aviatsiya ( Civilian Aviation ) , 1935 ,
No. 8 .
104. N. A. Eple , " Influence of Shape of Dials and Needles on Percep
tion of Instrument Readings , " Trudy Tsentral'noy laboratorii aviameditsiny
GVF ( Works of the Central Laboratory of Aerial Medicine of the civilian
Air Fleet ) , Vol . II , 1937 .
105. K. K. Platonov , Vojenske zdravotnicke listy (Military Health
Gazette) , Prague , 1957 , No. 11 .

• 555 -
 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF SPORT

By P. A. Rudik

Psychological researches in the field of sport have received a

considerable development in the USSR in connection with the great atten
tion which is being given to the physical training of youth here . In the
USSR , the matter of physical culture and sport is one of enormous national
importance . Physical training is an obligatory subject in the school cur
riculum . And , over and above these curriculum classes , extra- curricular
sport work has become widespread in the general public school . Hundreds
of special sports schools for youth have been organized and in these
schools the students can be trained in their chosen form of sport in the
time not occupied with classes in the general public school . Many mil
lions of the worker youth of the country are being enlisted in systematic
sports activities via numerous voluntary sports societies . Every year
sees tens of thousands of competitions in various forms of sport . In
many forms of sport Soviet sportsmen have attained a high degree of pro
ficiency .
The successes attained in Soviet sport depend in large measure on
the broad development of scientific research work in the field of physical
culture and sport . This work is being pursued in three special scientific
research institutes of physical culture ( in Moscow , Leningrad and Tbilisi)
and in 15 institutions of higher learning ( Vuzy ) , Institutes of Physical
Culture, founded during the years of the Soviet regime in almost all the
Republics of the Union . Side by side with physiological and medical re
searches, psychological researches occupy a great place in this scientific
work . They are directed in the main to an analysis and scientific sub
stantiation of the teaching and training methods in various types of
sport .
Attention was drawn to the great significance of psychological re
searches in the physical training field as early as 1909 by P. F.
Lesgaft (49; 110-1147 . Speaking of the influence of physical exercises
on the development of the child, he found it necessary to emphasize that
a great role should be played in the clarification of this question by a
psychological movement, one of whose tasks must be the carification of
the question of the significance of physical exercises in the development
of representations of space and time in the child . P. F. Lesgaft gave an
analysis of the structural peculiarities of representations of one's own
movements , which was in accord with the level of development of the
science of psychology of that day . These representations are made up of
representations of the part of the body being moved and of representations
of the force , scope , direction and speed of the movement. We find in his
work a detailed analysis of the role played here by the visual , muscular
motor and tactile sensations, and likewise an analysis of how they create
and perfect, in their totality side by side with representation of the
movement, the representations of space and time .

- 556 -
 No special psychological investigations were carried out, however ,
in the prerevolutionary period in Russia in the field of sport.
The beginning of such investigations goes back to the first years
of the Soviet regime and is connected with the foundation of special in
stitutions of higher learning for the training of physical culture and
sports staffs. The first psychological investigations in sport were or
ganized in the 1920 - founded State Central Institute of Physical Culture
( G TSIFK ) , in Moscow . It is significant that these investigations were
carried out from the very beginning in organic tie- in with physiological
investigations, although even then they had a clearly expressed psycho
logical trend . In this first period , the psychological investigations in
the area of physical culture and sport were directed in the main toward
an analysis of the structural peculiarities of the process of the forma
tion of motor habits and knacks in their generic form , and likewise toward
a study of the peculiarities of the process of reactions during classes
in physical exercises .
In an experimental research [847, carried out in laboratory condi
tions , P. A. Rudik gave a psychological analysis of the curve of an exer
cise , explained the role of repetitions and their distribution in the
long - range process of an exercise , and gave a description of the psycho
logical structure of the so - called "plateaus" which arise in the process
of the formation of a habit or knack . This research , though not as yet
being carried out on sport material , nonetheless revealed the generic
psychological laws governing the process of the formation of habits and
knacks, which were subsequently transferred to the field of the motor
habits in sport .
Special attention of the psychologists in this period of the de
velopment of the psychology of sport was directed to the study of the
psychological laws connected with the latent period of motor reactions
in cases of classes of physical exercises . In the work of P. A. Rudik
[85 ], devoted to the investigation of the reactions in the basic types of
physical culture, an analysis was given of the motor reaction typical for
start movements , and likewise of the complex reaction of choice, an exam
ple of which would be the actions of a boxer or a number of complex ac
tions in various games; here there was given a quantitative and qualita
tive description of the reaction process its speed and structural
peculiarities in various types of sports .
These researches showed that the speed of reaction in the taking
of the start by skilled runners often amounts to .80 or even .70 of a
second . This striking brevity of the latent period of the reaction is
explained by its motor character : in the preliminary period ( from the
"Get Set ! " signal to the "Go ! " signal ), the sportsman's consciousness
is entirely concentrated on the movement in preparation ; inasmuch as
both the response movement and the signal for it are well -known to the
sportsman , the emission of the necessary motor impulses is accomplished
almost momentarily . Simultaneously it was observed that a delay in
starting is almost always explained by a sensory type reaction , in which

- 557 -
the sportsman is concentrating in the preliminary period on awaiting the
signal and is not preparing the response movement in advance . The in
vestigation of the dynamic aspect of the reaction showed that in this
case the response movement not only lags in comparison with instances of
a motor reaction , but also requires a considerably greater expenditure
of energy for the overcoming of the debility of the corresponding cen
ters of the motor section of the cerebral cortex.
An investigation of the complex types of reaction common in
games, boxing and wrestling , revealed the special importance of the
associative processes which enable the person involved ( on the basis
of previous knowledge and experience) to evaluate in a timely and correct
manner the situation which is rapidly changing in the course of the compe
tition itself . There were uncovered the typical peculiarities of the re
organization of the processes of reacting and of the modification of the
motor components of the process of a complex reaction , in which connec
tion the latter acquired a multi - stage character . At the same time was
noted the deleterious influence of a preliminary preparation of the
motor element of the reaction : the fastest and most accurate response
reactions in the types of sport mentioned were observed in those in
stances in which the sportsman was ready generically ( increase of the in
tensity of attention , optimum generic stimulation of the motor sphere )
but had not prepared any concrete motor impulses, which were formed eas
ily and quickly in the course of and after completion of the correspond
ing associative elements of the reaction .
These investigations were used as a basis for several methodologi
cal instructions concerning the teaching and training in the given types
of sport . Specifically processed was the question of the length of the
preliminary period before the start . It was shown that both a very short
and an excessively long preliminary period ( from "Get Set ! " to " Go !" ) are
not good for the sportsman : in the first instance he does not manage to
get ready his motor apparatus for the taking of the start, while in the
second instance the motor readiness is destroyed as a result of the pro
tracted non - occurrence of the " go ! " signal . There was also processed the
question of the " comfort zone , " i.e , of the boundaries of permissible fluc
tations of time between the " GO " and the executive signals which create
for the sportsman the most favorable conditions for a speedy and proper
taking of the start .
Likewise studied was the influence of systematic training in cer
tain definite types of physical exercises upon the speed of the reaction
process ( P. A. Rudik ( 867 ) . A considerable abbreviation of the reaction
period in runners during the course of training was established .
These researches showed that the speed of reaction is a typical
element for the analysis of the condition of the sportsman during com
petition . When " in training" ( a condition of good training ), the reac
tions of the sportsman are not only fast and sure , but also not very
variable . On the contrary , in a state of exhaustion , fatigue or over
training , the skittishness of the reactions grows and the mean variation
in a series of successive measurements reached 24 and even 3 sigm . (meas
tion )) .. At the same time it was noted that a protracted
ure of speed of reaction

- 558 -
specialized training in individual types of sport contributes to the elab
oration in sportsmen of the faculty of reacting in the manner best suited
to the given type of sport . Thus , in boxers there is elaborated a habit
of reacting not only quickly but also with an exceedingly small expendi .
ture of energy (which however is an optimum for boxing) , whereas in ski
ers there was observed a tendency to very powerful reactions .
These researches were still only initial and pretty feeble steps
in the field of the psychology of sport , inasmuch as there was as yet no
clarity either concerning the special problematic of this field of psy
chology or concerning the peculiarities of the methodology of research .
The defects mentioned were typical likewise for a number of other psy
chological works in the field of physical training and sport in this
initial period of the development of the psychology of sport. Among
these are the 1926-1930 published works : of A. I. Chuchmarev [T407 ,
[ 1417, on the influence of physical culture classes in school on the
intellectual and volitional processes in students of the seven - grade
school; of A.P. Nechayev 1557 , on the influence of physical culture
classes on the development of the processes of perception , memory , at
tention and imagination and on the significance of physical culture_in
the formation of the character of the individual; of T. D. Kudish [46] ,
on the activizing influence of physical exercises on the psyche of the
individual ; of A. Ts . Puni and N. F. Kostrov (817 , on the influence of
skiing competitions on the psyche of skiers . All of these works were
as a whole still fragmentary in character and to a considerable degree
fortuitous in their theme . However , their appearance witnessed to the
fact that research work in the field of physical culture and sport was
starting in various institutions and was beginning to attract the atten
tion of psychologists in ever greater degree .
A good influence on the further development of the psychology of
sport was exercised by the organization in the State Central Institute
of Physical Culture in Moscow in 1925 of a scientific section headed by
Prof. V. V. Gornievskiy . Among the tasks of this section was included a
working over of the methods of complex research of physical culturists
and sportsmen and of the influence which systematic practice of physical
exercises exerts on the sportsman . A large place was accorded in this
complex methodology ( side by side with physiological , morphological ,
hematological and medical - examination investigations) to the methodology
of a psychological study of physical culturists . The methodology elab
orated by the section was tried out and found good in numerous investi
gations of sportsmen during training and competitions and it became
widespread .
The psychological section of this complex method consisted of
methods of researching the processes of perception , attention , memory ,
(P. A. Rudik [87] , [88 ],[89], [ 07. The examinations
of many contingents of sportsmen and beginner physical culturists car
ried out according to this method made it possible to correlate the re
sults of psychological examinations with the data of simultaneously con
ducted physiological measurements and thus to determine the influence of

- 559 -
physical exercises on the course of the psychic functions and on the
mental alertness, confirming the results obtained by data of the cor
responding physiological and medical - examination researches .
There began a period of broad - based psychological researches
of the influence of physical culture and sport on the work capacity of
the individual in various types of work . A meticulous investigation was
made of the influence on work capacity and on the enhancement of the pro
ductivity of labor exerted by so - called industrial gymnastics, sets of
which were specially worked out for various working conditions in various
types of production (P. A. Rudik [91], 0. A. Chernikova (1227) .
As indices of the influence of physical exercises on work capacity
in the context of various types of production work were selected measure
ments of the scope and distribution of attention , its perseverance , the
speed and accuracy of the processes of perception , the accuracy of move
ments , the speed and correctness of the thinking processes , and likewise
the peculiarities of the emotional processes and their alterations in con
nection with fatigue . Here individual tests were chosen in forms close
in character to that type of activity which was typical for the type of
production work in question . Calisthenics breaks were fitted in in the
middle of the work day , lasting 3-5 minutes and involving movements cor
responding to the peculiarities of the production work . Thus , in the
candy -wrapping shops of a confectionery factory (where the women workers
are for a protracted period in a sitting position and carrying out small
scope hand motions), the physical exercises included in the P.T. break
were slow unforced bends and straightenings, balling of the fists of up
raised hands, and the like , whereas in the smelting shop of a metallurgy
factory the P. T. break was held outdoors and consisted of exercises of
the active recreational type bringing into play groups of muscles not
exercises in the production work .
Psychological researches showed the enormous influence for good
of properly organized P.T. breaks: they increased the productivity of
labor of the workers of the production sections investigated . There was
observed a drastic reduction in fatigue , a brisking of the emotional tone ,
a sharpening of the processes of perception and attention , an increase of
physical endurance , of the speed and accuracy of the production movements
and the like . All of these good influences made themselves felt in posi
tive fashion upon the increase of the productivity of labor as determined
in function of the quantity and quality of produce . This increase was
persistent (was observed over a protracted period of time) and amounted
to from 2 % to 32 % in various shops and factories.
Special psychological researches were carried out at study of the
influence of physical exercises on the development of the vestibular
sensitivity and on the bracing and toning up of the equilibrium organs in
connection with the tasks of teaching flying and parachute jumping .
The investigations of vestibular sensitivity were of special import
ance here , inasmuch as the keenness of the equilibrium sense plays a very
great role in the execution of many physical exercises . Such types of
sport as acrobatics , gliding , parachuting , ski - jumping and skiing in

• 560 .
general , diving , apparatus gymnastic, and many other types require a
proper estimate by the physical culturist of the position of his body
in space and likewise in respect of the support point or of some other
orientor . In usual circumstances ( for instance , when a person loses his
balance by slipping) , the motor reactions which arise in connection with
the irritation and stimulation of the vestibular apparatus are of an un
conscious reflex type . In sport, vestibular sensitivity has a different
significance: here the appropriate stimulations are perceived consciously
and help the sportsman properly to evaluate the movements being executed
and consciously to correct them , specifically to resist the motor illu
sions by counter - turns and the like . The faculty of psychology in the
Moscow Institute of Physical Culture elaborated a special method of in
vestigating the sense of equilibrium inconnection with the practice of
various types of sport ( P. A. Rudik (937 ) .
The investigations made showed that vestibular sensitivity is to
a very great degree subject to training as a result of which there is a
drastic lowering of the unfortunate disturbances of the visual and
motor -muscular perceptions accompanying a stimulation of the vestibular
apparatus, as also of the emotional processes (G. M. Gagayeva [267 , 0 .
A. Chernikova [1307, G. M.Gageyeva and V. V. Strel'tsov ( 347 ) . These
researches were of substantial significance likewise for the elabora
tion and substantiation of the special method of training the vestib
ular apparatus (G. M. Gagayeva [21], [22 ], [227 ).
All of these works, setting themselves as they did practical tasks
of determination of the influence of physical exercises on the character
and course of psychic functions, were at the same time of great signifi .
cance for the emergence and development of a psychology of sport as a
special branch of the science of psychology , since they required a
deepened study of such questions as the psychological peculiarities of
sport activity in various forms of sport, a psychological analysis of the
processes of teaching and sport training, a psychological analysis of com
petition , etc. In the process of these researches carried out by the In
stitutes of Physical culture, there was accumulated a great amount of
material of a general psychological character , making it possible to pin
point the structure and problematic of the psychology of sport and to get
under way in the sequel a broad research work now relative to the sphere
of sport psychology as such . In the process of this work were likewise
pinpointed the ideological bases of Soviet psychology of sport and there
was carried on a campaign against the penetration into this field of for
eign influences 1927, 1947 .
The generic structure of the psychology of sport as a special branch
of the science of psychology which had been elaborated by the combined

- 561 -
efforts of Soviet psychologists_was schematized at that time in the fol
lowing fashion (P. A. Rudik [99], [1047 ).
PSYCHOLOGY OF SPORT

Psychology of Psychology of
Sport Activity the Sportsman

Generic Psychological Specific General

Psychological Analysis of Qualities Traits of
Analysis Individual of the the Person
of Sport Types of Sportsman ality of the
Activity Sport Sportsman

Psychological Psychological Bases

Bases of Teaching of Training of the
and Training Sportsman

Psychological Bases
of Sports Proficiency

Subsequently, in the post-war period ( 1945-1957) , the psycholog

ical researches in the field of the psychology of sport proceeded in the
main in accord with the problems mentioned . A great role in the activiza
tion of scientific research work in the field of sport psychology was
played by the All-Union Conferences on the Psychology of Sport [ 100],
[ 102 ], which contributed to an amalgamation of the efforts of the psychol
ogists who had been working in the various Institutes of Physical Culture .
The I. P. Pavlov theory on higher neural activity exerted an enor
mous influence on the deepening of the psychological researches on the
psychology of sport during this period . The psychological researches in
the field of sport began to be based broadly on a study of the generic
psychological laws governing the processes of perception , thought and
emotion in organic tie - in with a study of the laws of higher neural ac
tivity . At the same time , by its elaboration of special questions, the
psychology of sport helped in the scientific groundwork of generic psy
chological problems as well . Among such questions should be included :
the problem of habit which was precisified on the basis of investigations
in the field of the psychology of sport; the problem of thinking which is

- 562 -
of an immediately practical nature in sport; and finally the problem of
the personality , inasmuch as psychological researches in the field of
sport have made it possible to elaborate such sections of this problem
as the formation of the volitional qualities of personality , the role of
emotional factors in over coming of difficulties in the process of activ
ity , and others .
Among the questions relative to the generic psychological descrip
tion of sport activity the attention of psychologists of sport has been
attracted by the problem of the motives of sport activity . A. Ts . Puni
17 17 and A. G. Rafalovich [827 investigate the problem of the emergence
and development of an interest in sport. In these and other researches
there was established the presence and significance of both immediate
( satisfaction from muscular activity , aesthetic enjoyment, aspiration to
competition , etc. ) and mediate motives of sport activity ( aspiration to
become strong and healthy , to train for work , recognition of the social
importance of sport activity, etc. ) . There was likewise discovered a sui
generis dynamic of the development of motives inducing to sport activity
at its various stages (A. Ts. Puni 1727 ). Thus, in the initial stage of
sports exercises, when the individual is making his first efforts to get
into the practice of sports , the motives impelling him hereto are of an
immediate sort ( tied in to a great extent with the satisfaction from the
muscular activity itself ) ; they are diffuse (not tied in with any narrow
specialist interest in a specific type of sport ), sometimes they are sub
ordinated to the idea of fulfilling of duty (they arise in the process of
compulsory activities in physical culture classes ) . However , subsequently
the nature of the motives changes. When the stage of specialization in
a chosen type of sport arrives , then the motives impelling to continue
sports activity are the awakening and development of a special interest
in the given type of sport, an expansion and deepening of specialized
skills , success in the perfecting of sports technique , etc. Finally in
the stage of sports proficiency the strongest motives are : desire to
keep up to level of sports proficiency already attained , to contribute
to the development of the given type of sport, to back up the sports
reputation of his country . In other words, at this highest stage of
sport activity , its motives are characterized by a clearly expressed so
cial tendency and by pedagogical aspirations. This general line of de
velopment of sports interests from the personal to the social and
communal , which has been discovered in the psychological researches , is
not only of theoretical but also of practical significance, since it
helps to organize in proper fashion training_work among sportsmen ,
In a number of works of A. Ts. Puni 1727, P. A. Rudik [ 1047, 0 .
A. Chernikova [132 ] there were precisified the generic psychological
peculiarities of sport activity: 1 ) a tie - in with manifestations of mus
cular activity in the most varied forms; 2) an aspiration to perfection
which does not permit the sportsman to rest on his laurels; 3) a syste
matic and persistent sports training , without which it is impossible to
make any significant advance in the acquisition of sports proficiency ;

• 563 -
4) the presence of strong emotional experiences connected with the pro
cess of the sports fight and the necessity of expending in the process
unusually great, sometimes even maximal physical and moral efforts. The
discovery of these peculiarities, backed up by an analysis of the various
sorts of sport, has made it possible to pinpoint the question of the edu
cative influence of sports activity , of its influence on the development
of the individual personality .
Numerous researches of Soviet psychologists have been devoted to
an analysis of the peculiarities and significance in sports activity of
individual psychic functions sensations, perceptions, thinking , emo
tion , etc. Thus , to questions of the peculiarities and significance of
various sensations in sport activity have been devoted works of: M. G.
Amilakhvari 6 , on the peculiarities of successive optical images in
skilled sportsmen ; N. P. Bogush [12] [13], on the phenomena of after
effect in the visual and motor analyzers and on the interaction of these
analyzers in the perceptions of motions; M. L. Ukran [ 147, on the role
of sensation in the execution of apparatus gymnastics ; G. M. Gagayeva
[ 237, on the role ofproprioceptive sensitivity in the teaching of phy
sical exercises . A number of researches have dealt with the question of
the role of motor representations in sports activity : A. A. Berzin 8,
has devoted his work to an analysis of the structure of representations
of motions in the execution of gymnastic exercises; N. R. Bogush and L.
I. Valigura [75 ] have made a study of the influence of an imagined situa
tion of sports competition on the effectiveness of actions of the sports
man .
There are a great group of works of research on the reaction pro
cesses , which are one of the important elements of activity in any form
of sport whatever . Ye . Genova ( 357, revealed the peculiarities of the
process of the latent period of verbal reactions in wrestlers; E. E.
Liyepin' sh 5507 gave a detailed description of the motor reactions of
volleyball players; s . M. Oplavin (637 , researched_the development of
the speed of reaction in games; A. L. Fruktov [ T167 researched the speed
of simple reaction in runners at start; A. s. Shatalina (T217 researched
the alteration of motor reactions in light athletes in connection with
climatic conditions . A special work of G. M. Gagayeva [20 ] is devoted
to an investigation of the mechanism of distrubance of the reaction pro
cesses in connection with irritation of the vestibular apparatus; the
influence of training on motor reactions of sportsmen has been studied
by Ye . Genova and B. pirvanov [ 36 ]; the alteration of the length of the
latent period of motor reaction under the influence of suppling up_has
been shown in a work by S. P. Narikashvili and A. I. Tsereteli [547 .
In a number of researches there have been uncovered both the
generic psychological laws governing the corresponding processes and
the peculiarities of their course in connection with various types of
sports activity . Thus, in the work of K. A. Skobennikov (1067, devoted
to analysis of the process of recall of movements in the memorization of
gymnastic exercises, there is noted the role of both the sensory and the
logical components of motion and there is revealed the intellectualized
character of the recall of movements in sport.

• 564 .
 In a work of A. G. Rafalovich [83], which had as its goal the study
of the activity of the motor , audi tory and visual analyzers in the percep
tion of time in runners , it was established that : 1 ) an accurate percep .
tion of time in runners is based on the interconnection of various
analyzers executing an analysis and synthesis of the immediate stimuli
in the presence of the regulative activity of the second signals sy
stem ; 2 ) in the perception of time by runners, the motor analyzer ac
complishes the analysis of the force & the thrust, the length and fre
quency of the pace , while the auditory analyzer accomplishes the
analysis of the frequency and rhythmicality of the paces and the visual
the straightness and evenness of the course; 3) a lesion of the normal
activity of the analyzers mentioned and of their interrelation with the
second signals system leads to a considerable reduction of the accuracy
of the perception of time_by a runner .
B. N. Smirnov ( Toy made a study of the significance of the vis
ual and motor sensations in gymnasts in the mastery of apparatus exer
cises, and showed that in the execution of swinging exercises the visual
control of the gymnast over the movements being executed is limited . The
students check on their movements mainly on the basis of motor -muscular
sensations and representations, while the criterion of the correctness of
the execution of the movement is for the gymnast the verbal instructions
of the trainer .
In the works of I. M. Onishchenko [59] , [60], [61] , [62 ], on the
influence of sports gymnastics on the development of the psychic proces
ses , it is shown that gymnastic practices contribute to a development
mainly of accuracy of motor -muscular sensations . At the same time these
exercises contribute to the development of the capacity for exact percep
tion and recall of a physical exercise as a whole . Here the successful
execution of the exercise in its complete_form_is of_great significance .
In the works of D. Ya .Bogdanova 297, 1107, [11], devoted toan
analysis of the question of the awareness of movements in mastery of
physical exercises , it is shown that in the teaching of movements there
is always had in mind the assimilation of their various qualities or as
pects . Investigation of this question has shown that : 1 ) it is not ad
visable to direct the attention of the learners only to one of the
qualities of a movement, since in this way the remaining qualities will
be stabilized in proportion to the formation of the habit and will come
into a certain definite , often erroneous system ; 2) in those instances in
which the attention of the learners is directed simultaneously to two
qualities of the movement ( for instance , to its amplitude and its speed ),
both of these qualities are recognized even in the first phase of the for
mation of the habit and , thus, there becomes possible a more accurate eval
uation by the practiser of the movements he is executing .
R. S. Abel'skaya 5 did research on the interconnection of the
word and the demonstration in the process of the teaching of physical
exercises . Here there were established various forms of interrelation of

- 565 -
the verbal signals and the visual images in the perception of movements :
1 ) the verbal signals precisify the perception of the concrete peculiari.
ties of the movement; 2) they contribute to a purposiveness and organiza
tion of the perception ; 3) of special significance are concrete verbal
signals directly linked with visual images adequate to them ; on the con
trary , generic verbal designations, even though correct , are often ac
companied by mistakes in the perception of a physical exercise ; 4) the
grasping of an exercise ( for example, of a situation which has developed
in a game) is aided in the first instance by a verbal designation of the
central , main links .
Ye. N. Surkov [108], [ 109], in a special research gave an analysis
of the process of formation of motor representations in the teaching of
acrobatic exercises . Here there were established the following phases of
the formation of perceptions of the movement being studied : a) formation
of a primitive visual schematic image; b ) decomposition of this visual
image into the component parts of the movement; c) the supplementation of
the visual image by motor components ; and d) the creation of an integral ,
generalized , predominantly motor image of the movement being studied [48] .
Special works of A. A. Lalayan et al . [427 have been devoted to a
research of the question of the psychological peculiarities of sports com
petitions , These and other researches have shown that, side by side with
the physical , technical and tactical training and in organic connection
with them , there should be carried on likewise a special psychological
training of the sportsman for competition . This training should be
mainly directed to the development of the volitional qualities of the
sportsman . At the same time it should include a familiarization of the
sportsman with the character and standards of the forthcoming competi
tion , the peculiarities of his opponents , etc.
In the works of G. M. Gagayeva [28], [29], [ 307, devoted to an
investigation of the thinking activity of the sportsman as directed to
the solution of tactical tasks during competition , the following char
acteristics of this activity are noted : 1 ) practical nature of the
thought processes ( not only are already taken decisions realized with
out delay in appropriate actions; they are formed as well in the pro
cess of the action itself) ; 2) speed of thinking operations dictated by
the very fast pace of sports competition ; 3) most intimate link with
emotional - volitional processes , inasmuch as the thinking of the sports
man is occurring against a background of a tense struggle requiring not
infrequently very great efforts of will . This investigation , which un
covers the specific traits of thinking in sport , where it has not an
abstract- logical character but rather is immediately connected with a
concrete activity , has made it possible to resolve a number of pedagog
ical tasks connected with the problems of teaching and training in
the field of sports tactics .
The investigation of the peculiarities of the process of thinking
in sports activity , and precisely the role of the second signals system
in the perception and grasping of the situation in a game, was the object
of a number of works of R. S. Abel'skaya 27, 37, 57, while L. I.

- 566 -
Valigura [127 investigated the dependence of the effectiveness of the ac
tions of sportsmen on the various forms of checking exercised in the pro
cess . In a work of Ye . N. Surkova [ 1087 there was shown the role of the
second signals system and the concepts therewith connected in recall of
gymnastic exercises .
Usually in the process of teaching and training , the analysis of
tactical techniques and errors committed is given either at the termina
tion of the competition or by stopping the game and using the break for
a discussion of the situation which has developed . All of this is very
far removed from the conditions in which the thinking of a sportsman oc
curs in a real - life sports contest . A psychological analysis of the
peculiarities of the tactical thinking in sport has led to the elabora
tion of a method making possible direct instructions by the trainer to
each sportsman in the process of the game itself. To this end special
installations have been created to secure radio liaison of the trainees
with the trainer .
In the works of 0. A. Chernikova [ 125], [132] [138], [139], de
voted to an investigation of the emotional - volitional processes in sports
activity , there is revealed the uniqueness and wealth of emotional exper
iences which an individual has in the process of sports activity . Here
there occur not only various sthenic and asthenic emotions connected with
alteration of the vital activity of the organism in the process of tense
physical exercises or with the various issues of the sports contest, but
also lofty moral sentiments elicited by the awareness of the social signi .
ficance of sport, an awareness of one's personal dignity , of one's tie - in
with the team , a feeling of pride at the sports successes of the team , A.
V. Il'in (457 has made an investigation of the law governing the modifica
tion of the coordination of movements under the influence of various emo
tional states .
These and other works describing the psychological peculiarities
of sports activity show the variety and peculiarities of the psychic pro
cesses in sport and made it possible more properly to evaluate the sig
nificance of systematic practice of sport for the formation and
development of the personality of the sportsman .
Special significance accrues hereby to the training of the voli .
tional qualities of the personality . Numerous works (s . P. Belits
Geyman 17 , G. M. Gagayeva [33], A. s . Yegorov (397, K. P. Zharov_/427,
[807 , P. A. Rudik [957, 1967,
G. B , Meykson 51 , [52], A. Ts. Puni (78) , _/80
[ 1021, 0.M.Tutund zhyan [ 111],[ 112] [113], 7.A. Chernikova [1297 ,
[131] [ 133], [1367) have been devoted both to the general questions of
the nature of the volitional qualities in sport and to questions of the
training of the will , as also to an analysis of the specific difficulties,
the overcoming of which in individual types of sport forms the volitional
qualities of the sportsman . These researches have permitted on the one
hand of discovering the psychological peculiarities of the volitional ac
tions performed in the context of the overcoming of great difficulties
and on the other hand of putting together a detailed psychological

- 567 -
description of such volitional qualities as boldness , decisiveness , tough
ness in the fight with obstacles, discipline , etc. The fact that these
personality qualities were studied in the specific context of sports ac
tivity permitted of uncovering their substantial traits, which not infre
quently retreat into the background in other types of activity , and of
laying a firm basis for ways and means of inculcating them . Thereby So
viet psychology of sport has afforded considerable assistance in the
elaboration of methods of personality training in the process of the
teaching and training in sports .
Problems of the teaching of physical exercises and of sports train
ing have formed a special and important section of the scientific research
work in the field of the psychology of sport. Side by side with a psy
chological analysis of the problem of sports training ( V. G. Norakidze
[ 567 ), the most important works here have been those devoted to the
psychological study of the process of the formation and perfection of
motor habits (R. S. Abel'skaya_ 4. G. M. Gagayeva (247 , 317 , F. A.
Grebaus (327 , N. G. Ozolin (5771 6587, A. Ts. Puni 173] [74] [75] ,
[767 , 0. A. Chernikova [7237, 71267) . According to these researches,
the sensory basis of motor activity of a sportsman is represented by
the complex impressions arising when movements occur and having as their
source processes occurring in the sportsman's body . At the same time
the motor activity of the sportsman is a conscious activity : the many
and varied movements of the sportsman are always intelligized . All of
this leads to there being accomplished in the process of sports activity
an uninterrupted transition from sensation to thought and from thought to
action . In the motor activity of the sportsman there is a sui generis
unity of its sensory and logical components . In the process of sports ac
tivity there is perfected the operation of the motor analyzer , which leads
to a precision and clarity of the motor sensations and representations .
A. Ts. Puni [697 notes the sui generis training action of motor repre
sentations in sport, basing himself herein on the analysis of the ideo
motor acts given by I. P. Pavlov . The motor representations are
interpolated into the practical activity of the sportsman and have not
only a sensory - cognitive but also a training significance in the process
of the mastery of various sports exercises . of no less significance are
the logical components of sports activity closely allied with speech .
The word plays an exceptionally important role in the motor activity of
the sportsman , inasmuch as the mastery of the technique of the exercises
and of the corresponding tactical knacks requires a systematized theo
retical knowledge . The word plays a substantial role in the formation of
motor representations and likewise in the " self- commands with the aid
of which the sportsman rouses himself to action .
The new point that was introduced by these researches into the prob
lem of habit has to do first of all with a precisification of the very
concept of habit as a certain definite type of human action . The invest
igation of habits in the field of sport has shown that the traditional
concept of a habit as an automatized method of action or as automatized
components of conscious activity cannot be accepted . A study of habits

568 -
in sport ( P. A. Rudik [ 1017) has shown : 1 ) the high level of perfection
to which they are brought in the process of sports training and without
which a successful execution of physical exercises is inconceivable; and
2 ) the high level of awareness of the action being executed ( this latter
is explained by the fact that the sports actions always require an un
usually great expenditure of energy and are always connected with a feel
ing of great responsibility . Motor habits in sport have been shown to be
not just mechanically executed components of conscious activity but rather
integral actions consciously executed . This conscious execution relates
not only to the physical exercise itself as an integral action directed
to the attainment of a definite, clearly recognized result, but also to
the individual details of the movements hereby executed . These details
are clearly recognized not only in the process of the mastery of the hab
it but also in the situation in which the habit has been perfectly
mastered : sportsmen who are quite masters of a given species of physical
exercises are able to take conscious note of the tiniest deviation com
mitted by them in the technique of execution of an exercise and to intro
duce the appropriate rectifications into their movements. This has made
it necessary to define motor habits in sports as conscious actions
brought, in the process of practice , to the required level of perfection ,
i.e. , executed accurately, quickly and with a minimal expenditure of en
ergy This theoretical conclusion has been exceedingly substantial for
a proper development of the methodology of teaching and forming motor
habits in sport, inasmuch as it has led to an abandonment of the mechan
ical approach to the organization of training practice sessions . Enor
mous significance has accrued in the formation of motor habits in sport
to the formation in the trainees of proper visual - motor -muscular repre
sentations of the physical exercises under study , especially in those
types of sport whose technical knacks ( as for example in synchronized
swimming) are considerably different from the usual methods of the cor
responding movements .
The special importance of the second signal system in the forma
tion of motor habits in sport was revealed . The researches of G. M.
Gagayeva [29] , [ 307 , and M. L. Urkan .[115] showed that an accurate mas
tery of gymnastic terminology is an essential condition of the formation
of proper representations concerning the physical exercise being studied
and therefore of an elaboration of accurate and really perfected motor
habits relative to this exercise . These researches have destroyed the
erstwhile opinion that the most essential element of the process of
teaching physical exercises was the proper demonstration of movements ;
they have shown that the first signal images of movements , formed by way
of their demonstration , can be made to be correct and complete only by
way of their organic combination with second signal stimuli . Moreover
it has been shown that the articulation " of technical knacks of an
exercise is an important factor contributing to their proper execution .
Likewise precisified were the peculiarities of the dynamic
stereotypes at the basis of motor habits in various types of activity ,

- 569 -
including sport (P. A. Rudik [1057). Sport activity is varied and this
finds its reflection in the structural peculiarities of the dynamic
stereotypes at the basis of the technique of individual sorts of sport.
The greatest stereotypedness and a corresponding very meager dynamism
( variation in connection with changing environmental conditions) are
the distinguishing features of sport gymnastics, where the perfecting
and extreme stabilizing of the proper form of movement is of the uto
most importance . On the contrary , in such types of sport as boxing , and
such games as football and basketball , a wide variation ( dynamism ) of the
corresponding dynamic stereotypes comes to the fore, inasmuch as the tech
nical knacks which have been learned and brought to the level of perfected
habits are as a rule being executed in the most varied conditions ( from
various positions, in various directions, with various degrees of effort,
for the resolution of various tactical tasks, in contest with various op
ponents, etc. ) , while remaining at the same time the same sort of actions ,
namely stereotyped ones . These researches have permitted of pinpointing
methods of training and teaching in various types of sport and of deviat
ing from the standard teaching techniques .
The tasks of sports training consist not only in communicating to
the trainees the most perfected habits of sports technique in the given
type of sport but also in getting the organism of the sportsman into
such shape that he can be described as " in training . " A number of re
searches (0. A. Chernikova [1327) reveal the psychological peculiarities
of this " in training " state : the processes of perception connected with
the given type of sport activity run off clearly and quickly ; the scope
of perception is increased ; there is an improvement of the faculty of dis
tribution and concentration of attention ; the reaction processes are
speeded up ; the activity of the mind is sharpened ; there is a complete
conscious control of one's own actions and a most perfect direction of
them . typical peculiarity of the " in training " state is the emo
tional elan , expressed in the presence in the sportsman of vivid
sthenic emotions, of a healthy and happy disposition . Pyschological re
searches on the " in training" state are of great practical significance ,
helping to concretize and pinpoint the methods of self - checking on the
physical state of the sportsman and of the campaign against phenomena
of overtraining .
A number of investigations have had as their object the study of
the psychological peculiarities of sports competitions as one of the
main types of sports activity . In this group of questions of the psy
chology of sport, special attention has been devoted to the study of the
emotional states of sportsmen before the beginning of a contest or
match , to questions of the psychological preparation for matches, to the
psychological analysis of victory_and defeat in matches , etc. ( 0. A.
Chernikova (1247, A. Ts . Puni (727 ). A characteristic peculiarity of
sports matches is the sharp contest for the best sports achievements ,
which calls for the exertion of all the psychic and physical forces and
talents of the sportsman . During the match , sports activity is char
acterized by a great emotional repletion , connected not only with the

• 570 -
process of the contest but also with its outcome : victory or defeat in
a sports match is always very deeply felt by those participating and in
fluences the conduct and actions of a sportsman , The character and course
of the emotional experiences of a sportsman during a match depend greatly
on the scale and importance of the match , on the makeup of the contestants ,
on the concrete tasks facing the sportsman in the given match , on his dem
gree of readiness for the match , on the individual peculiarities of his
personality and temperament .
A study of the emotional - volitional processes which develop in the
sportsman in the pre - start state has permitted of establishing the existo
ence of three species of this state : 1) start- fever , expressed in a
strong excitement which depresses and disorganizes the activity of the
player , in skittishness , contradictoriness and a rapid replacement of one
sort of emotional state by another , in a dislocation of the processes of
attention and memory ; 2) start- apathy, characterized by lowered excita
tion , limpness of all psychic processes, fall - off of energies , consider
able debilitation of processes of perception , memory and attention ;
3) battle - readiness , expressed in concentration of attention, increase
of its scope , sharpening of processes of perception and thinking , pres
ence of strong sthenic emotions favoring a successful participation in
the forthcoming match . These researches, carried out on various age
group teams of sportsmen have permitted of working out likewise measures
against unfavorable pre-start states (A. Ts . Puni [727) .
Of great interest. are the psychological researches into such
states as the so - called " dead point " and " second wind " which occur at
definite points in strenuous cyclic exercises -- during long - distance
running , cycling and skiing contests , rowing , etc. There was revealed
a drastic reduction at the " dead point " moment of the intensity of the
psychic processes a loss of clarity of perception , the appearance of
visual and motor illusions, a debilitation of memory and thinking, a
contraction of the scope of attention , a sharp fall -off in its persever
ance , oppressive emotional states . At the same time these researches
showed that the unfavorable psychic states characteristic of the dead
point" are overcome as a result of an intense effort of will directed
to the continuance of the sports contest , i.e. , as a result of a con
scious regulation of one's own movements ( specifically , their tempo )
in accord with the sports tasks, with which one is faced . It was brought
out that the basic mechanism of such an effort of will are the conditioned
reflex connections of the second signals system which exert a regulative
influence on the processes of the first signals system connected with
them and lead to the overcoming of the " dead points state and the effect
ing of relief ( " second wind " ) during which time the normal activity of
all the psychic processes is restored , and there appear sthenic emo
tions , confidence in one's forces and the desire intensively to continue
the contest . These researches confirm that the " dead point" state , char
acteristic of several sorts of sports contests , has as its basis a

• 571 -
dislocation ( as a result of excessive intensity and speed of sports ac
tions and of the physiological processes therewith connected ) of the
coordinational mechanisms of the cerebral cortex . It cannot be related
to processes of exhaustion and fatiguing of the organism , inasmuch as
the restoration of the coordinational mechanisms via an effort of will
( on a new , higher functional level) has as its result the continuation
of the sports activity .
A special group of researches are those which have set themselves
the task of making a psychological analysis of various forms of sport .
Thus, G. M. Gagayeva [257 has made a study of the modifications in the
degree of activity of a boxer in connection with the number of rounds
fought; S. A. Zhekulin [437 of the psychological peculiarities of hab
its of synchronized swimming; L. F. Yegorov [40] , [41 ] of the peculiar
ity of the memory and thinking of obstacle- skiers;A. Ts . Puni" [67 ,
[677 , [687 of the role of_kinesthetic sensations in fencers , skiers and
swimmers ; P. A. Rudik 1927 of the psychological peculiarities of games;
A. N. Khudakov of the speed and accuracy of blows in boxing , etc.
Systematic observarions and investigations in this field have
permitted of giving a more or less complete psychological picture of
the various types of sport: football (G. M. Gagayeva (327, tennis (0 .
A. Chernikova [7357 ) , classical wrestling ( v. A. Gavrilenko (187),
running (0. A. Chernikova [7347), chess (I. N. Dlyakov , N. v . Petrovskiy ,
R. A. Rudik ( 387 ).
This still small group of researches which do not embrace all types
of sport have permitted of uncovering the most typical peculiarities of
the psychic processes connected with the given type of activity and thus
to reveal and pinpoint their educative and training significance . In the
process of these researches there have been revealed the typical peculiar
ities of perception , attention , memory , thinking , emotional states , etc.
Of special interest is the psychological analysis of the specialized
perceptions characteristic for various individual types of sport : SO.
called " ball sensel in football , " track sense " in skiing , " time sensen in
running , " water sense " in swimming , etc. Psychological researches on
these perceptions have shown their complex character and their condition
ing by specific peculiarities of the environment in which the given
sports activity is taking place . For instance, it is established ( s .
A. Zhekulin [43]) that a "water sense" in swimmers is an indispensible
condition of the attainment of good sports results in swimming . In
the absence of a flwater sense the sensation of its resistance is lost
and the swimmer's arms seem to be sinking right through the water . In
this perception there are reflected the peculiarities of an external ob
ject ( the water ) , but together with this there is an influence exerted
by the intensity and character of the muscular exertions expended in the
execution of the stroke . Thanks to this , there is established a very
delicate correspondence between the kinesthetic perceptions of the
water and the swimming strokes : on the force and speed of the move
ments depends the change in the perception of the resistance of the
water and at the same time a slight differentiation of this perception

- 572 -
elicits corresponding changes in the character of the strokes . In a well
developed " water sense , " the correlation between the sensation of the in
tensity of muscular effort expended and the sensation of the resistance
of the water acquires the character of a sort of norm , any deviation from
which is forthwi th perceived by the swimmer : a small deviation from this
norm will elicit changes in the movements of the swimmer until such time
as the distrubed equilibrium is again restored and the resistance of the
water is again kinesthetically evaluated as normal . A detailed analysis
of such specialized perceptions characteristic for individual types of
sport aids in pinpointing the uniqueness of the psychic processes having
relation to the given exercise . It aids too in better understanding the
technical peculiarities of the exercise and correspondingly constructing
a method of teaching and training .
In a discussion of the experimental psychological researches in
the field of sport there can be no passing over in silence that consider
able work which has been done by the officials of the Institutes of Phy
sical Culture in the matter of the invention of special apparatus and in
the perfecting of methods of teaching calisthenics in school . The great
merit of N. R. Bogush [ 147 is the invention of a number of instruments for
the exact graphic recording of movements in the execution of physical exer
cises . N. R. Bogush and I. M. Onishchenko [16 ] elaborated a detailed me
thod of laboratory exercises in problems of the psychology of sport . A
valuable instrument for the complex investigation and examination of psy
chic functions in connection with sport activity was invented and tested
in a numberof researches by Ya. I. Tsurkovskiy [119] [120] .
The great significance of the visual method in the teaching of
calisthenics is well- known . A work of P. A. Rudik 1987 has been de
voted to the investigation of the general psychological bases of the
principle of visual training , including its application in the teaching
of calisthenics. Ye. I. Izhervoskaya [44 ] has worked at the psychological
analysis of the use of visual aids in physical culture classes at school .
Peculiarities of the scope and distribution of attention in the case of
junior school - children in physical culture classes (which peculiarities
are interesting and important for the proper set - up of the pedagogical
process) have beeninvestigatedby V. A. Gavrilenko [127.
A considerable place in the psychology of sport is occupied by
researches having to do with an analysis of the problem of the educative
significance of sports activity . In the works of P. A. Rudik[1037 ,
[ 1047, and 0. A. Chernikova (1277 are characterized the immediate and
mediate influence of the sports activities on the development of the psy
chological traits of the human individual personality . Among the immed
iate influences are those which are connected with the permanent specific
traits innate in the given activity : its competitive character , the pres
ence of a vividly expressed and perfected muscular activity , etc. Inves
tigations have shown that a characteristic peculiarity of sports activity
is a well - rounded mastery of the movements of one's own body , executed as
a rule in conditions requiring a maximum of energy , speed and accuracy .

- 573 -
 This distinguishes sports activity from labor activity . The major
ity of work processes are built up on movements which are distinguished
by an exertion of an average intensity or of an intensity optimal for the
given task , whereas participation in sports activity requires an exertion
of very great, sometimes of maximal intensity . Depending on the type of
sport, these exertions are either extremely ephemeral ( a quick , strong
and sharp blow, jerk or throw ) , or , on the contrary , very protracted ( long
distance running over dozens of kilometers ), but always they require an
enormous expenditure of neuro -muscular energies without which sports ac
tions cannot be successfully executed . Whereas in work processes the
intensity of the neuro - muscular exertions is to some extent stabilized
and automatized at a certain definite level in the process of the ac
cumulation of work experience (which level secures the required quality
and quantity of work ) , in sports activity this is not the case : the
sportsman who stops at a certain level of motor habits and intensity of
exertion which he has attained will end up having to abandon further
participation in sports . For such participation will require of him a
constant perfecting of motor habits and an increase of the capacity for
an ever greater exertion : every new record sets him the task of setting
an ever better record .
Therein lies the special role of sport in the formation of indi
vidual human personality : sport affords the individual the opportunity
of manifesting those of his basic powers which are connected with an ex
cellent mastery of the movements of his own body ; in the present- day con
text the individual who does not practice sport is often deprived of the
opportunity of showing himself in activity requiring outstanding force,
agility and speed of motion . Only sport affords him this opportunity .
In this connection there emerges clearly the enormous significance
of sport in the formation of human individual personality . For the
generic process of the formation of the personality it is of enormous
significance at what age various influences are brought to bear on the
individual . Many types of activity and the manifestations of personal
ity connected with them are typical for a certain definite age : they
exert their positive influence on the development of the personality only
at a certain definite age and lose it if that time passes unexploited .
The adolescent and young adult ages are most intimately connected with
physical manifestations of personality . Precisely at these ages these
physical manifestations are very important for a proper formation of the
psychological traits of personality , for the development of motor capa
city of the individual and for training of his volitional qualities in
connection with this .
The researches mentioned have noted that sport contributes to the
training of the individual's capacity for efforts of will , because of the
fact that in practicing sport the individual masters the necessary motor
habits, has the opportunity of manifesting efforts of will with great mus
cular exertions in speedy and strenuous exercises , of consciously overcom
ing the feeling of tiredness in physical endurance exercises, and likewise

- 574 -
of fighting against negative emotional states of fear , lack of self
confidence , etc. All of this underscores the specificity and unique
ness of the immediate influence of sports activity upon the formation of
the psychic traits of human personality .
But sports activity always occurs in the context of a certain dem
finite social environment and thanks to this exerts likewise a mediate
influence on the formation of the psychic traits of personality . Not
only does success in a sports contest elicit a consciousness of personal
excellence , backed up by the results of the sports contest itself . It
is tied in with the social recognition of this success . It is precisely
in the social recognition of his achievements that the sportsman is inter
ested most of all : were it not for this social recognition he would
hardly be able to make himself take part in the difficult sports con
test . Sports activity is always linked up with the ideological train
ing of sportsmen , with the training up in them of a profound
understanding of the social significance of their participation in
sport . In the Soviet context sport is interpolated into the general sy
stem of communist training of the workers and therefore develops in those
who participate in it such positive personality traits as Soviet patriot
ism , collectivism , discipline, a sense of duty and responsibility to the
team and other positive character traits of the Soviet man . Psychological
investigations make it possible to study the conditions favoring this
mediate influence of sport on the development of the personality of the
sportsman . In these researches, the psychology of sport latches di
rectly on to pedagogical psychology which is researching the psycholog
ical laws governing the educational work of pedagogy .
Such is the group of questions embraced in the research work in
the field of the psychology of sport . It shows that the psychology of
sport in the USSR has been converted into an important branch of the
science of psychology , having its own varied problems and methods of
psychological research . The psychology of sport aids in laying the
scientific groundwork of many and varied questions connected with the de
velopment of sport in the USSR , with the increase of proficiency of So
viet sportsmen and with the perfecting of the methods of physical
training in school .

• 575 -
 LITERATURE

1 . R. S. Abel'skaya, " On the Getting of a Feel for Movements in

the Process of Mastering the Running High Jump , " Anthology , Voprosy
psikhologii sporta ( Questions of the Psychology of Sport) , Fis (Phy
sical Culture and Sport) , Moscow , 1955 .
2. R. S. Abel'skaya, " Thinking Process of a Tennis Player in the
Process of the Solution of Tactical Tasks , " ibid .
3. R. S. Abel'skaya, " On the Role of the Word and the Image in
the Perception of the Situation in a Game, " Voprosy psikhologii (Questions
of Psychology ), 1957 , No. 4.
4. R. S. Abel'skaya , " Interior Speech in the Formation of Volun
tary Actions in Sportsmen , " Anthology , Problemy psikhologii sporta ( Proba
lems of the Psychology of Sport ), Fis (Physical Culture and Sport) , No. 1 ,
Moscow , 1960 .
5. R. S. Abel'skaya and Ye . N. Surkov , "On the Question of the
Formation of Gymnastic Concepts and Their Influence on the Recall of Gym
nastic Exercises and on the Mastery of Them , " Anthology , Voprosy psikhologii
sporta (Questions of the Psychology of Sport), Fis (Physical Culture and
Sport ) , Moscow , 1955 .
6. M , G. Amilakhvari , " Peculiarities of the Optical After - Image
in Skilled Sportsmen , " Anthology , Problemy psikhologii sporta ( Problems
of the Psychology of Sport ), No. 1 , Fis (Physical Culture and Sport ) ,
Moscow , 1960 .
7. S. P. Belits -Geyman , " Volitional Preparation and Training of
the Tennis Player , " Uchenwe zapiski GTSOLIFK im . I. V. Stalina ( Academic
Reports of the imeni I. V. Stalin Order of Lenin Physical Culture Insti
tute ), No. 5 , Fis ( Physical Culture and Sport ) , Moscow , 1949 .
8. A. A. Berzin , " On the Question of the Structure of Representa
tions of Motion and Its Verbal Expression in Gymnastics , " Anthology ,
Problemy psikhologii sporta ( Problems of the Psychology of Sport ) , No. 1 ,
Fis (Physical Culture and Sport), Moscow , 1960 .
9. D. Ya , Bogdanova , " Becoming Aware of Motions in the Process of
Mastery of the Motor Habit , " Materialy soveshchaniya po psikhologii 1-6
Iyulya 1955 .. (Papers of a Conference on Psychology 1-6 July 1955) , izd
VO APN RSFSR (RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences Publishing House ) ,
Moscow , 1957 .
10. D. Ya , Bogdanova, " Emergence and Awareness of Certain Properties
of Motion in the Process of the Mastery of te Habit, " Uchenye zapiski
Belorusskogo instituta fizicheskoy kulitury ( Academic Reports of the White
Russian Institute of Physical Culture) , No. 1 , izd- vo Belgosuniversiteta
im . V. I. Lenina ( Publishing House of the White Russian State University
imeni V. I. Lenin ) , Minsk , 1957 .
11 . D. Ya . Bogdanova , Oroznavaniye dvizheniy po fazam obrasovaniya
dvigatel'nogo navyka (Awareness of Motions By the Phases of the Formation
of the Motor Habit) , izd - vo Belgosuniversiteta im . V. I. Lenina ( Publish
ing House of the White Russian State University imeni V. I. Lenin ), Minsk ,
1957 .

- 576 -
 12. N. R. Bogush , " On the Influence of the Interaction of the Vis
ual and Motor Analyzers in the Perception and Representation of Movements , "
Voprosy psikhologii (Questions of Psychology) , 1956 , No. 3 .
13. N. R. Bogush , " On Phenomena of After Effect in the Visual and
Motor Analyzers , " Materialy soveshchaniva po psikhologii 1-6 Iyulya 1955
( Papers of a Conference on_Psychology 1-6 July 1955) , izd- vo RSFSR
(sic, but obviously APN RSFSRT (RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences
Publishing House ), Moscow , 1957 .
14. N. R. Bogush , " New Apparatuses for Graphic Recording of Motions
in the Execution of Physical Exercises , " Anthology , Problemy psikhologii
sporta ( Problems of the Psychology of Sport ), No. 1, Fis (Physical culture
and Sport ) , Moscow , 1960 .
15 . N. R. Bogush and L. I. Valigura, " Influence of an Imagined Com
petitive Situation on the Effectiveness of Actions and the Pulse Frequency
of Sportsmen , " Anthology, Problemy psikhologii sporta ( Problems of the
Psychology of Sport ), No. 1, Fis (Physical Culture and Sport) , Moscow ,
1960 .
16. N. R. Bogush and I. M. Onishchenko , " Psychological Experiments
in Laboratory Exercises on the Psychology of Sport, " Anthology , Problemy
psikhologii sporta ( Problems of the Psychology of Sport ) , No. 1 , Fis
(Physical Culture and Sport ) , Moscow , 1960 .
17 . L. I. Valigura , " Influence of Various Forms of Checking on
the Effectiveness of Throws in Basketball , " Anthology, Problemy psikhologii
sporta ( Problems of the Psychology of Sport ), No. 1 , Fis (Physical Culture
and Sport) , Moscow , 1960 .
18. V. A. Gavrilenko , " Psychological Description of classical
Wrestling, " Anthology , Psikhologiya sporta ( Psychology of Sport ) , Fis
( Physical Culture and Sport) , Moscow , 1959 .
19. V. A. Gavrilenko , " Peculiarities of the Scope and Distribution
of Attention in Junior Grade Pupils in Physical Culture Classes , " Anthol
ogy , Problemy psikhologii sporta ( Problems of the Psychology of Sport ) ,
No. 1, Fis (Physical Culture and Sport) , Moscow , 1960 .
20 . G. M. Gagayeva , " An Investigation of the Mechanism of the Dis
turbance of the Speed of the Reaction Process , " Anthology , Psikhomotorika
i fizicheskaya kul'tura ( The Psycho -motor Functions and Physical Culture) ,
Moscow , 1935 .
21. G. M. Gagayeva, " On the Training of the Vestibular Apparatus
in Various Specialized Sportsmen , " Teoriva i praktika fizicheskoy kul'tury
( Theory and Practice of Physical Culture) , 1938 , No. 3 .
22. G. M. Gagayeva , " Psychological Peculiarities of the Training
of the Vestibular Apparatus , " Teoriya i praktika fizicheskoy kul'tury
( Theory and Practice of Physical Culture ) , 1939 , No. 2 .
23 . G. M. Gagayeva , " The Significance of Proprioceptive Sensitiv
ity in the Teaching of Physical Exercises ," Uchenwe zapiski GTSOLIKF im .
I. V. Stalina (Academic Reports of the imeni I. V. Stalin Order of Lenin
Institute of Physical Culture ), No. 4, 1949 .

- 577
 24. G. M. Gagayeva, " Importance of the set to Accuracy and of the
Set to Distance in the Elaboration of the Knack of Grenade Throwing , "
ibid .
25. G. M. Gagayeva , " Modification of the Boxer's Blow in Connec
tion with the Number of Rounds Fought , " ibid .
26. G. M. Gagayeva, " Disturbance of Movements in Cases of Irrita
tion of the Vestibular Apparatus , " ibid .
27. G. M. Gagayeva, " Principles of Construction of a Methodology
for Training of the Vestibular Apparatus on the Basis of a Study of the
Reaction Processes , " ibid .
28. G. M. Gagayeva , " Tactical Thinking in Sport, " Teoriya i prak
tika fizicheskoy kul'tury ( Theory and Practice of Physical Culture ) ,
1951 , No. 6 ,
29 . G. M. Gagayeva , " The Role of the Word in the Process of the
Formation of the Motor Habits in Sport , " Materialy soveshchaniya po
psikhologii 1-6 Iyulya 1955.( Papers of a Conference in Psychology 1-6
July 1955 ) , izd - VO APN RSFSR (RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences Pub
lishing House ) , 1957 .
30 . G. M. Gagayeva , " On the Question of the Role of the Word in
the Process of the Formation of the Motor Habits in Sport, " Anthology ,
Psikhologiya sporta ( The Psychology of Sport ), Fis ( Physical Culture and
Sport) , Moscow , 1959.
31. G. M. Gagayeva , " Motor Perceptions and Their Significance in
the Teaching of Physical Exercises, " Anthology , Psikhologiya sporta ( The
Psychology of Sport) , Fis ( Physical Culture and Sport) , Moscow , 1959 .
32. G. M. Gagayeva, "A Psychological Description of Football , "
Anthology , Psikhologiya sporta ( The Psychology of Sport), Fis ( Physical
Culture and Sport ) , Moscow , 1959 .
33. G. M. Gagayeva , " Formation of Volitional Qualities of the Foot
ball Player , " Anthology, problemy psikhologii sporta ( Problems of the
Psychology of Sport), No. 1 , Fis (Physical Culture and Sport ) , Moscow ,
1960 .
34. G. M. Gagayeva and V. V. Strel'tsov , " Influence of the Train
ing of the Vestibular Apparatus on Certain Functions of the Central Ner
vous System , " Voprosy aviatsionnoy meditsiny ( Questions of Aerial Medi
cine) , Vol . V - VI , 1938 .
35. Ye . Genova, " Some Changes in the Latent Period of Verbal Re
actions in Wrestlers , " Anthology , Problemy psikhologii sporta (Problems
of the Psychology of Sport) , No. 1 , Fis ( Physical Culture and Sport ),
Moscow , 1960 .
36. Ye . Genova and B. Pirvanov , " Influence of Training on the Mot
or Reaction in Sportsmen , " Teoriva i praktika fizicheskoy kul'tury ( Theory
and Practice of Physical Culture) , 1954 , No. 5 .
37. F. A. Grebaus, " On the Question of the Influence of the Custom
ary Speed of Movements on the Quality of the Learning of a Timed Movement, "
Anthology, Problemy psikhologii sporta ( Problems of the Psychology of
Sport ), No. 1 , Fis (Physical Culture and Sport ), Moscow , 1960 .

. 578
 38. N. I. Dlyakov, N. V. Petrovskiy , P. A. Rudik , Psikhologiya
shakhmatnoy igry ( The Psychology of Chess), Moscow , 1926 .
39. A. S. Yegorov , "On the Question of the Training of the Voli .
tional qualities in Physical Culture Classes in Senior classes , "
Uchenye zapiski LGU im . A. A. Zndanova ( Academic Reports of the Lenin
grad State University imeni A. A. Zhdanov) , Psikhologiya i pedagogika
( Psychology and Pedagogy) , 1956 , No. 214.
40. L. F. Yegupov, " Recall of the Slalom Skiing Track , " Anthology ,
Voprosy psikhologii sporta (Questions of the Psychology of Sport ), Fis
( Physical Culture and Sport) , Moscow , 1955 .
41. L. F. Yegupov , " Tactical Set of the Slalom Skier , " ibid .
42. K. P. Zharov , " Training of the Skier's Will Via Trampoline
Jumps , " Teoriya i praktika fizicheskoy kul'tury ( Theory and Practice
of Physical Culture) , 1953, No. 10 .
43. S. A. Zhekulin , " Experience of a Psychological Study of Habits
of Synchronized Swimming , " Anthology , Psikhomotorika i fizicheskaya kull
tura ( The Psycho -Motor Functions and Physical Culture) , Moscow , 1935.
44. Ye. I. Izherovskaya , "On the Question of the Use of Visual Aids
in the Teaching of Calisthenics in School , " Anthology , Pskhiologiya
sporta ( Psychology of Sport ), Fis (Physical Culture and Sport) , Moscow ,
1959 .
45. A. V. Il'in , " Alteration of the Coordination of Movements
Under the Influence of Various Emotional States , " Anthology , Problemy
psikhologii sporta ( Problems of the Psychology of Sport), No. 1 , Eis
(Physical Culture and Sport), Moscow , 1960 .
46. T. D. Kudish , " Physical Culture and Its Influence on the Psy
chological Side of Education ," izd- vo " Rabotnik prosveshcheniya" ( " The
Educator " Publishing House ), Moscow , 1928 .
47. A. A. Lalayan , G. G. Gasparyan , E. 0. Avakyan , " Determination
of the Degree of Objectivity of Their Estimates of Their Personal Results
by Participants in the Process of a contest , " Anthology , Problemy
psikhologii sporta ( Problems of the Psychology of Sport) , No. 1 , FiS
( Physical Culture and Sport ), Moscow , 1960 .
48. A. A. Lalayan , G. G. Gasparyan , E. 0. Avakyan , " Dependence of
the Accuracy of Fencing Refereeing on the Length of Time the Referees
Have Been Refereeing, " Anthology , Problemy psikhologii sporta (Problems
of the Psychology of Sport, No. 1, Fis ( Physical Culture and Sport), Mos
cow , 1960,
49. P. F. Lesgaft, "Guide - Lines for the Physical Training of School
Age Children , " ( 1909) , Sobraniye pedagogicheskikh sochineniy (Anthology
of Pedagogical Works), Vols. 1 and 2 , Fis (Physical Culture and Sport ) ,
Moscow , 1951 , 1952 .
50. E. E. Liyepin'sh , " Investigation of the Motor Reactions of
Volleyball Players, No. 1 , Fis (Physical Culture and Sport ), Moscow ,
1960 .
G. B. Meykson , " A Psychological Investigation of the Effort
51 .
of Will in Overcoming Difficulties in Running and Skiing Races , " Teoriya
i praktika fizicheskoy kul'tury ( Theory and Practice of Physical Culture ),
1949 , No. 2 .

• 579 -
 52. G. B. Meykson , " On the Question of Difficulties in Fulfilling
the class Requirements of the Calisthenics Program for 10th Grades of
Secondary School , " Anthology , Psikhologiya sporta (Psychology of Sport ) ,
FiS ( Physical Culture and Sport) , Moscow , 1959 .
53. A. S. Muratova , " A Psychological Research Into the Influence
of Marching Training on the Psycho -Motor Functions, " Anthology,
Psikhomo torika i fizicheskava kul'tura ( The Psycho -Motor Functions and
Physical Culture ) , Moscow , 1935 .
54. S. P. Narikashvili and A. I. Tsereteli , " Alteration of the
Covert Period of Motor Reaction Under the Influence of Suppling Up , "
Teoriya i praktika fizicheskoy kul'tury ( Theory and Practice of Physi
cal Culture) , 1954 , No. 2 .
55. A. P. Nechayev , Psikhologiya fizicheskoy kul'tury ( The Psy
chology of Physical Culture) , Moscow , 1926 .
56. B. G. Norakidze, "On the Psychological Bases of Sports Train
ing , " Anthology , Problemy psikhologii sporta ( Problems of the Psychology
of Sport), No. 1, Fis (Physical Culture and Sport) , Moscow, 1960 .
57. N. G. Ozolin , " Speed and the Methodology of Its Development,
Teoriya i praktika fizicheskoy kul'tury ( Theory and Practice of Physical
Culture ) , 1949 , No. 7 .
58. N. G. Ozolin , " Training in Accuracy in Grenade Throwing ,
Teoriya i praktika fizicheskoy kul'tury ( Theory and Practice of Physical
Culture) , 1946 , No. 1-2 .
59. I. M. Onishchenko , " Peculiarities of the Formation of Motor
Representations and Some Questions of the Teaching of Acrobatics , "
Teoriya i praktika fizi cheskoy kul'tury ( Theory and Practice of Physical
Culture , 1955 , No. 10 .
60. I. M. Onishchenko , " Peculiarities of the Development of Motor
Sensations in Participants of Sport Gymnastics , " Teoriya i praktika
fizicheskoy kul'tury ( Theory and Practice of Physical Culture) , 1957 ,
No. 8 .
61. I. M. Onishchenko , " Some Psychological Peculiarities of the
Mastery of Exercises on Gymnastic Equipment , " Anthology , Problemy psikhol
ogii sporta (Problems of the Psychology of Sport ) , No. 1 , Fis (Physical
Culture and Sport) , Moscow , 1960 .
62. I. M. Onishchenko, " Peculiarities of the Assimilation of the
Simplest Acrobatic Leaps by Pupils of Senior School - Age , " Teoriva i
praktika fizicheskoy kul'tury ( Theory and Practice of Physical Culture ) ,
1957 , No. 5 .
63. S. M. Oplavin , " Training in Speed of Reaction in the Process
of Games , " Teoriva i praktika fizicheskoy kul'tury ( Theory and Practice
of Physical Culture) , 1953 , No. 5 .
64 , A. Ts . Puni, " On the Tempo Sense of Stayers (Iong-distance
athletes ] , " Teoriva i praktika fizicheskoy kul'tury ( Theory and
Practice of Physical Culture ) , 1937 , No. 2 .
65. A. Ts . Puni , " One of the Moot Points in the Training of a
Swimmer , " Teoriya i praktika fizicheskoy kul'tury ( Theory and Practice
of Physical culture) , 1937 , No. 7 .

- 580 -
 66 . A. Ts . Puni , " Kinesthetic Sensations in Fencers , " Teoriya i
praktika fizicheskoy kul'tury ( Theory and Practice of Physical Culture ) ,
1940 , No. 9 .
67. A. Ts . Puni , " Influence of Swimming on the Psycho -Motor Func
tions of Swimmers , " Sbornik trudov LNIIFK ( Anthology of Works of the
Leningrad Scientific Research Institute of Physical Culture ) , Vol . III ,
FiS ( Physical Culture and Sport), Moscow , 1940 .
68 . A. Ts . Puni, " Correlation Between the Frequency of Strokes
and the Speed of Forward Movement in Swimming , " ibid .
69 . A. Ts . Puni , " On the Active Role of the Representations in the
Process of the Mastery of Motor Habits , " Teoriya i praktika fizicheskoy
kul'tury ( Theory and Practice of Physical culture ) , 1947 , No. 9 .
70. A. Ts . Puni , " Kinesthetic Sensations and Representations in
Skiers , " Trudy LNIIFK . Lyzhnyy sport , ( Works of the Leningrad Scientific
Research Institute of Physical Culture . The Sport of Skiing ), Fis ( Phy
sical Culture and Sport ) , Moscow , 1942 .
71. A. Ts . Puni, "On the Formation of Interest in the Sport of
Skiing , " Trudy LNIIFK . Lyzhny sport, ( Works of the Leningrad Scientific
Research Institute of Physical Culture) , Moscow , 1948 .
72 . A. Ts . Puni, " Toward a Psychological Description of the Pre
Start State of Sportsmen , " Teoriya i praktika fizicheskoy kul'tury ( The
ory and Practice of Physical Culture ) , 1949, No. 7 .
73. A. Ts . Puni , " Psychological Analysis of the Process of Forman
tion of Motor Habits , " Trudy LNIIFK (Works of the Leningrad Scientific
Research Institute of Physical Culture) , Vol . IV, Fis ( Physical Culture
and Sport ) , Moscow , 1949 .
74. A. Ts . Puni , " Psychological Description of the Motor Habits
on the basis of the Theory of I. P. Pavlov on the Signal Activity of the
Cortex of the Great Hemispheres , " Teoriva i praktika i zicheskoy kul'tury
( Theory and Practice of Physical Culture ) , 1953 , No. 1 .
75. A. Ts . Puni , " On the Sensory and the Logical . Components of the
Motor Activity of Sportsmen , " Materialy soveshchaniya po psikhologii sporta
1-6 Iyulya 1955 9. (Papers of a Conference on the Psychology of Sport, 1-6
July 1955) , izd - VO APN RSFSR (RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences Pub
lishing House) , Moscow , 1957 .
76. A. Ts . Puni, "On the Perceptibility and Imperceptibility of
Movements in Memorized Actions , " Anthology, Voprosy psikhologii sporta
( Questions of the Psychology of Sport ) , Fis (Physical Culture and Sport) ,
Moscow , 1955 .
77. A. Ts . Puni, " On the Psychological Investigations of the Con
di tions Contributing to a Successful Mastery of the Technique of Gymnastic
and Sports Exercises , " Teoriva i praktika fizicheskoy kul'tury ( Theory and
Practice of Physical Culture ) , 1957 , No. 8 .
78. A. Ts . Puni , "On the Volitional Training of the Light Athlete , "
Legkaya atletika (Light Athletics ) , 1957 , No. 2 .
79. A. Ts . Puni, Ocherki psikhologii sporta (Outlines of the Psy
chology of Sport ), Fis ( Physical Culture and Sport) , Moscow , 1959 .

- 581 -
 80 . A. Ts . Puni, " On the Volitional Training of the Sportsman , "
Anthology , Problemy psikhologii sporta, No. 1 , Fis ( Physical Culture
and Sport) , Moscow , 1960 .
81. A. Ts . Puni and N. F. Kostrov, " Experience of the Study of
the Influence of Skiing Meets on the Psychology of Skiers , " Teoriya i
praktika fizicheskoy kul'tury ( Theory and Practice of Physical Culture)
1930 , No. 12 .
A. G. Rafalovich , " On the Emergence and Development of Inter
82 .
est in Sport , " Trudy LNIIFK (Works of the Leningrad Scientific Research
Institute of Physical Culture) , Vol . V. , 1950 .
83. A. G. Rafalovich , " The Significance of an Independent Deter
mination and Comparative Estimate of Time in the Development of a ' Time
Senset in Runners , " Anthology, Voprosy psikhologii sporta (Questions of
the Psychology of Sport ), Fis (Physical Culture and Sport) , Moscow , 1955 .
84. P. A. Rudik , " Analysis of the Process of Practice , " Trudy
GTSIFK . Fizicheskaya kul'tura v nauchnom osveshchenii (Works of the
State Central Institute of Physical Culture . Physical Culture and
Scientifically Elucidated ) , Moscow , 1924 .
85 . P. A. Rudik , " Investigation of Reactions as Applied to the
Basic Questions of Physical Culture , " ibid .
86 . R. A. Rudik , " Influence of Muscular Work on the Reaction Pro
cess , " Trudy GTSIFK . Fizicheskaya kul'tury v nauchno - prakticheskom
osveshchenii (Works of the State Central Institute of Physical Culture .
Physical Culture Scientifically - Practically Elucidated ) , No. 2 , Prak
ticheskaya meditsina ( Practical Medicine ) , Leningrad , 1925 .
87 . P. A. Rudik , " Standards of Psycho - Technical Tests , " Trudy
GTSIFK (Works of the State Central Institute of Physical Culture ) ,
No. 3 , Prakticheskaya meditsina ( Practical Medicine) , Leningrad , 1926 .
88 . P. A. Rudik , "Psycho - Technical Tests of Sports Referees , "
Trudy GTSIFK ( Works of the State Central Institute of Physical Culture ) ,
No. 5 , Prakticheskaya meditsina ( Practical Medicine ), Leningrad , 1928.
89 . R. A. Rudik , "Methodology of Psychological Testing of Physi
cal Culturists , " Anthology , Metodika issledovaniy i printsipy otsenki
vlyaniya fizicheskikh uprazhneniy (Methodology of Researches and Princi
ples of Evaluation of the Influence of Physical Exercises ), Medgiz ( State
Medical Publishing House) , Moscow, 1930 .
90. P. A. Rudik , " Methods of Comparative Evaluation of the Results
of Complex Examination of Physical Culturists , " ibid .
91 . P. A. Rudik , " Experience of Experimental Set- Up for Studying
the Influence of the P.T. Break in the Electrical Factory of the All
Union Electrotechnical Association in Moscow , " Teoriya i praktika
fizicheskoy kul'tury ( Theory and Practice of Physical Culture) , 1931,
No. 1.
92 . P. A. Rudik , " Bourgeois Influence on Psychotechnics , "
Psikhologiya (Psychology ), 1933 , No. 3 .
93. P. A. Rudik , " Experience of the Method of Research of the
Sense of Equilibrium ," Anthology , Psikhomotorika i fizicheskaya kul ' tura
( The Psycho - Motor Functions and Physical Culture ) , Moscow , 1935 .

- 582 -
 94. P. A. Rudik , " Pediological Distortions and Physical Culture , "
Teoriay i praktika fizicheskoy kul'tury ( Theory and Practice of Physical
Culture) , 1937, No. 4 .
95. P. A. Rudik , " Training of the Will ," Sovetskaya pedagogika
(Soviet Pedagogy ) , 1944 , No. 10 .
96 . P. A. Rudik , " The Will and Its Training , " Uchenye zapiski
G TSOLIFK im . I. V. Stalina (Academic Reports of the imeni . I. V. Stalin
State Central Institute of Physical Culture ), No. 1 , 1945 .
97. P. A. Rudik , Igry detey i ikh pedagogicheskoye znacheniye
(Children's Games and Their Pedagogical Significance) , izd- vo APN RSFSR
( RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences Publishing House) , 1948 .
98. P. A. Rudik , " Pedagogical and Psychological Bases of Visual
Training , " Sbornik trudov MGPIIYa ( Anthology of Works of the Moscow
State Pedagogical Institute of Foreign Languages ), Uchpedgiz (State
Teacher Training Publishing House ) , Moscow , 1947 .
99. P. A. Rudik , Psikhologiya ( Psychology ) , Uchpedgiz ( State
Teacher Training Publishing House ) , Moscow , 1955 .
100. P. A. Rudik , " All - Union Conference on the Psychology of
Sport ," Voprosy psikhologii (Questions of Psychology ) , 1956 , No. 3 .
101. P. A. Rudik , " Motor Habits in Sport, " Materialy soveshchaniya
po psikhologii 1-6 Iyulya 1955 8. ( Papers of a conference on Psychology
1-6 July 1955) , izd- VO APN RSFSR (RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences
Publishing House) , Moscow , 1957 .
102. P. A. Rudik , " Second All - Union Conference on the Psychology of
Sport , " Voprosy psikhologii ( Questions of Psychology ), 1958 , No. 5 .
103. P. A. Rudik , " On Educative and Training Work Among Sportsmen , "
Teoriya i praktika fizicheskoy kul'tury ( Theory and Practice of Physical
Culture ) , 1958 , No. 11 .
104. P. A. Rudik , Psikhologiya . Uchebnik dlya institutov fizicheskoy
kul'tury ( Psychology . Text- Book for Institutes of Physical Culture) , Fis
( Physical Culture and Sport ), Moscow , 1958 .
105. P. A. Rudik , " Psychological Peculiarities of the Motor Habits
and Their Significance in the Teaching of and Training in Sport, " Anthol
ogy , Problemy psikhologii sporta ( Problems of the Psychology of Sport ) ,
No. 1, Fis (Physical culture and Sport), Moscow , 1960 .
106. K. A. Skobennikov, " Recall of Movements in the Memorization of
Voluntary Exercises in Gymnastics , " Anthology, Voprosy psikhologii sporta
( Questions of the Psychology of Sport ), Fis (Physical Culture and Sport) ,
Moscow , 1955 .
107. B. N. Smirnov , "On the Question of the Significance of Visual
and Motor Sensations in the Mastery of Swinging Exercises on Apparatus , "
Uchenwe zapiski Smolenskogo instituta fizicheskoy kul'tury ( Academic Re
ports of the Smolensk Institute of Physical Culture ) , No. 1 , 1957 .
108 . Ye . N. Surkov , " The Role of the Word and of Demonstration in the
Recall of Gymnastic Exercises, " Teoriya i praktika fizicheskoy kul'tury
( Theory and Practice of Physical Culture), 1952, No. 7 .
109. Ye . N. Surkov , "On Some Techniques of Formation of Representa
tions of Movements in the Mastery of Acrobatic Exercises , " Anthology ,
Problemy psikhologii sporta (Problems of the Psychology of Sport ) , No. 1 ,
Fis ( Physical Culture and Sport), Moscow , 1960 .

- 583 -
 110. R. I. Tamuridi , " Development of Movements in 47 Year -old
Children , " Teoriya i praktika fizicheskoy kul'tury ( Theory and Prac
tice of Physical Culture ) , 1947 , No. 4 .
111. 0. M. Tutundzhyan , " Formation of Confidence in Their Own
Strength in School - Children in Sport , " Voprosy psikhologii ( Questions
of Psychology ), No. 4 , 1958 .
112. 0. M. Tutundzhyan , " On the Interrelation of the Development of
the Motor Habit and Volitional qualities , " Teoriya i praktika
fizicheskoy kul'tury ( Theory and Practice of Physical Culture) , 1959 ,
No. 4 .
113 . 0. M. Tutundzhyan , " Formation of Perseverance and Endurance
in the Process of classes in Light Athletics Exercises , " Anthology ,
Problemy psikhologii sporta ( Problems of the Psychology of Sport ) , No. 1 ,
Fis (Physical Culture and Sport) , Moscow , 1960 .
114. M. L. Ukran , " Sensation of Movements in the Execution of Exer
cises on Gymnastic Apparatus , " Uchenye zapiski GTSOLIFK im . V. I. Stalina
( Academic Reports of the imeni V. I. Stalin Order of Lenin State Central
Institute of Physical Culture ) , No. 5 , 1949 .
115. M. L. Ukran , " The Role of Representations of Movement in the
Mastery of Physical Exercises , " Teoriya i praktika fizicheskoy kul ' tury
( Theory and Practice of Physical Culture ) , No. 5 , 1945 .
116. A. L. Fruktov , " On the Time of Reaction to the ' gol Signal , "
Teoriya i praktika fizicheskoy kul'tury ( Theory and Practice of Physical
Culture) , No. 4 , 1953 .
117. N. A. Khudadov , " Speed of Reaction in Boxers and Methodology
of Its Development , " Anthology, Psikhologiya sporta ( Psychology of Sport),
FiS (Physical culture and Sport) , Moscow , 1959 .
118 , N. A. Khudadov, " The Psychological Aspect of the Tactics of
Boxing , " Sbornik trudov TSNIIFK . Taktika boksa ( Anthology of Works of
the Central Scientific Research Institute of Physical Culture . The Tac
tics of Boxing ), Fis (Physical Culture and Sport ), Moscow , 1952 .
119. Ya . I. Tsurkovskiy , " Experience of the Methodology of the Edu
cational Psychological Experiment in Sport , " Anthology , Problemy
psikhologii sporta (Problems of the Psychology of Sport) , No. 1 , Fis
(Physical Culture and Sport ) , Moscow , 1960 .
120. Ya . I. Tsurkovskiy , " Experience of a Psychological Investiga
tion With the Aid of a Controlograph of Highly skilled Sportsmen , " ibid.
121. A. S. Shatalina and M. N. Gabaydulina, " Investigation of the
Time of Motor Reactions in the climatic Conditions of Uzbekistan , "
Anthology , Problemy psikhologii sporta ( Problems of the Psychology of
Sport), No. 1, Fis (Physical Culture and Sport ) , Moscow , 1960 .
122. 0. A. Chernikova, " Methodology and Results of an Accounting of
the Influence of the P.T. Break on Work Capacity , " Anthology , Fizkul'
tura na proizvodstve ( P.T. in Industry ), Fis ( Physical Culture and
Sport) , Moscow , 1934 .
123. 0. A. Chernikova, " An Experimental - Psychological Investigation
of the Formation of the Motor Habit , " Anthology , Psikhomo torika i
fizicheskaya kul ' tura ( The Psycho - Motor Functions and Physical Culture) ,
Moscow , 1935 .

- 584 -
 124. 0. A. Chemnikova , " Start Fever ," Teoriya i praktika fizicheskoy
kul'tury ( Theory and Practice of Physical Culture) , No. 3, 1937 .
125. 0. A. Chernikova, " Emotional - Volitional Peculiarities in Run
ning for Various Distances , " Teoriya i praktika fizicheskoy kul'tury
( Theory and Practice of Physical Culture) , No. 3, 1938.
126. 0. A. Chernikova, " Psychological Peculiarities of Training in
Discus Throwing and High Jumping , " Teoriya i praktika fizicheskoy kul'tury
( Theory and Practice of Physical Culture) , No. 3, 1939 .
127. 0. A. Chernikova, "On the Significance of Physical Exercises and
Sport in Character Training , " Teoriva i praktika fizicheskoy kul'tury ( Theory
and Practice of Physical Culture) , No. 9 , 1948 ,
128. 0. A. Chernikova , " On the Question of the Significance of Physi
cal Exercises and Sport in Character Training , " Uchenyye zapiski GTSOLIFK
im . V. I. Stalina ( Academic Reports of the imeni V. I. Stalin Order of
Lenin State Central Institute of Physical Culture ) , No. 4, Fis ( Physical
Culture and Sport ), Moscow , 1949 .
129. 0. A. Chernikova, " Sports Training and Its Significance in the
Development of courage and Steadfastness , " ibid .
130. 0. A. Chernikova, " Stimulation of the Vestibular Apparatus and
Visual Perception , " ibid .
131. 0. A. Chernikova, " A Psychological Analysis of the Overcoming
of Difficulties in Volitional Actions in Sport , " Teoriya i praktika
fizicheskoy kul'tury ( Theory and Practice of Physical Culture) , No. 8 ,
1954 .
132. 0. A. Chernikova, Voprosy psikhologii v sporte ( Questions of
Psychology in Sport ), ris ( Physical Culture and Sport) , Moscow , 1955.
133. 0. A. Chernikova, " Volitional Acts in Sport , " Materialy
soveshchaniya po psikhologii 1-6 Iyulya 1955 .. ( Papers of a Conference
on Psychology 1-6 July 1955 ) , izd- VO APN RSFSR ( RSFSR Academy of Pedagog
ical Sciences Publishing House ), Moscow , 1957 .
134. 0. A. Chernikova , " Psychological Description of the Sport of
Running, " Anthology , Psikhologiya sporta ( Psychology of Sport) , Fis ( Phy
sical Culture and Sport) , Moscow , 1959 ..
135. 0. A. Chernikova, " Psychological Description of Tennis , " Anthol
ogy , Psikhologiya sporta ( Psychology of Sport), Fis ( Physical Culture and
Sport) , Moscow , 1959 .
136. 0. A. Chernikova, " An Investigation of the Process of Voluntary
Overcoming of Difficulties in the context of Protracted Muscular Work , "
ibid .
137. 0. A. Chernikova, " Emotional Memory and Its Influence on the
Execution of Physical Exercises , " ibid .
138 , 0. A. Chernikova , " Conditions of the Fixation of Deleterious
Emotional Reactions During Execution of Physical Exercises and Ways to
Overcome Them , " ibid .
139. 0. A. Chernikova , " An Investigation of the Influence of the
Emotions on the Activity of the Sportsman , " Anthology , Problemy psikhologii
sporta ( Problems of the Psychology of Sport ), No. 1 , Fis (Physical Culture
and Sport) , Moscow , 1960 .

• 585 -
 140. Z. I. Chuchmarev , Vliyaniye urokov fizkul'tury na produktsiyu
neko torykh intellektual'nykh funktsiy u uchashchikhsya semiletki ( Influ
ence of P.T. Classes on the Operation of Some of the Intellectual Func
tions of Pupils in the Seven -Grade School) , Kharikov, 1928 .
141. 2. I. Chuchmarev , K voprosu o vliyanii urokov fizkul'tury v
shkole na upravleniye soboy (On the Question of the Influence of the P.
T. Classes in School on Self- Direction ) , Kharkov , 1928 .

586 .
 SOME PROBLEMS OF THE PSYCHOLOGY
OF SPORTS COMPETITON

By A. Ts . Puni

The psychology of sport is a special field of the Soviet science

of psychology . It studies the psychic phenomena in the context of sports
activity . The cardinal and specific peculiarity of this activity is com
petition .
Competition in sport is always connected with the aspiration to
attain the best result possible. In contests in which there participate
top flight sportsmen this is often tied in with the deliberate intention
to set a new record or to win the title of champion of the city , the Re
public, the country , Europe or even the world .
Thus , participation in competition is a matter of personal importo
ance for the sportsman or the team . But the participation in a contest
has a still greater social significance , such the sportsman or the team
are the representatives of a certain definite sporting collective and
their success or failure in the context gets a social and communal eval
uation corresponding to the results of their effort . All of this shows
that participation in a contest is for sportsmen or team a matter of
great responsibility and the bigger the scale of the contest, the greater
is its importance .
In sports contests there take part, as a rule, well trained and
evenly matched opponents . This gives a special acuteness to the competo
itive contest for the best result, for a win , and demands of the sportsman
or the team the exertion of all their physical and intellectual forces .
It must be said that in sport the exertion is always intensive and
not infrequently even maximal . ( This does not mean absolutely maximal ,
but only what is possible for the sportsman at the level of training for
competition which he has reached . )
The conditions of sporting competition which we have described ex
ert a substantial influence on the personality of the sportsman . This
influence makes itself felt even in the period preceding the contest . It
exerts a definite action on the sportsman in the course of the contest
itself and it leaves various after - effects even after the conclusion of
the contest .
In connection with this sort of influences which reflect likewise
substantially on the achievements of one or another result by sportsmen
in contests and on the continuation by them of sports activity after the
contest , there arise numerous psychological problems, a portion of which
has served as the subject of special researches in the psychology of
sport . In the present article are presented certain results of a study
of the following problems: 1 ) the stimulatory influence of competitions
and contests ; 2) the pre- start state of the sportsman ; 3) the influence
of the competitive exertions in sport on the course of the psychic pro
cesses ; and 4 ) the psychology of victory and defeat in sport. These
problems have been advanced by real life , by the practice of sport

• 587 -
activity in connection with the mass development of sport in the USSR
in connection with the tasks of increasing the proficiency of Soviet
sportsmen and their fight for world championship and records .

The stimulatory influence of competition in sports activity has

long been well - known .As a rule it is precisely in the process of com
petitive contest that sportsmen set outstanding records . For example
it was precisely in the context of a contest that the Soviet sportsman ,
V. Kuts , clocked the phenomenal time of 28 minutes , 30.4 seconds for the
10,000 meter run , that the Polish sportswoman , E. Kshesinskaya - Dun ' ska
set the world record for the running broad jump ( 6 meters 35 centimeters)
and repeated it in Melbourne at the 16th Olympic Games, that the American
mediumweight weightlifter , T. Kono , set the new world and Olympic records
at the 16th Olympic Games in Melbourne ( 175 kg for the military press and
447.5 kg for the clean and jerk ) . These examples could be multiplied in
definitely .
A special experimental research in natural conditions of sports
activity yielded analogous facts . In the experiments of G. M. Dvali ,
the subjects ( students of the Georgian State Institute of Physical Cul
ture ) skied 5 kilometers , swam 25 meters in the pool , rope- pulled , rope
climbed , cycled a short distance . All these exercises were performed
bo th non - competitively with the object simply of showing the best one
could do , and in the context of a contest between two or more sportsmen .
It turned out that 82.8% of the sportsmen improved their records in the
context of a contest .
In recent years the influence of competition has served as sub
ject of a research likewise by the members of the faculty of psychology
of the imeni P. F. Lesgaft State Institute of Physical Culture . Thus ,
P. V. Yur'yev made a study of the question of the faculty of proportion
ing muscular efforts among gymnasts of various categories ( the experiment
was carried out on the Leman dynamograph ) . He established that in the
context of a contest of the gymnasts with one another the accuracy of the
dosage of muscular efforts was increased among them by 30-50 % and in some
cases was more than doubled .
A. S. Yegorov, in his work on the problem of the development of
steadfastness, persistence and effort of the will among students in the
process of physical training , likewise got quite dear data indicating
that in the context of a contest the capacity to develop volitional ef
fort in the execution of static muscular work grows considerably . He
proposed to his subjects to hold an 8 - kilogram weight for as long as poso
sible in their hand , bent at right angles at the elbow . A record was
made of the length of time the weight was held and the action currents
in the biciptal flexor of the shoulder were registered . It turned out
that in the context of a contest the length of time the weight was held
increased from 15 seconds to 2 minutes . There was also a clear alter
ation in the frequency and amplitude of the bioelectrical phenomena in
the bicipital flexor of the shoulder . Instances of the increase of pro
ductivity of activity in the context of a contest had been noted earlier

- 588 -
by several researchers . Thus, 2. A. Parshina observed it in respect of
the execution of static muscular work , in respect of speed of movements
and in respect of energy , etc.
Worthy of attention likewise are the new facts on the psychologi
cal peculiarities of the stimulatory action of the context obtained in
the researches of A. S. Yegorov , which are still in progress .
Using the same method , he established that there arises , at a cer
tain moment a conflict state in subjects who have been assigned the task
of holding a weight for as long as possible . It is characterized by a
clash between the subjective desire to put the weight down ( a desire which
arises in the subjects in connection with developing fatigue) and the
awareness of the objective necessity of fulfilling the task set by the
director of the experiment . In a non - competitive situation this conflict
is resolved , in the majority of cases , in favor of the subjective desire.
But in context of contests, under the influence of the action of motives
of attaining superiority over the wopponent simultaneously participating
in the experiment , the conflict tends, as a rule , to be resolved in favor
of the awareness of the objective necessity of attaining a victory even
in the face of a sometimes intolerable desire to lower the hand .
These facts are all the more remarkable because anaologous and
quite frequent instances have been recorded by A. S. Yegorov likewise in
the natural conditions of sports contests in various types of sport .
The stimulatory effect of competition is usually explained as the
result of the manifestation of sthenic emotions .
Of course , the process of activity in the context of a contest is
always embellished with a multiplicity of emotions, often vividly expres
sed . But they are obviously not the primary factor determing the stimul
tory action of competition . The primary factor must here be considered
to be the objective conditions of the activity , demanding from the indi .
vidual the execution of certain definite actions , also objective . The
emotions are only a secondary factor .
The researches of P. V. Yuriyev [21 ] in the field of the study of
the stimulatory influence of competition have brought to light several
interesting details which are of substantial importance . These relate
in the first instance to the clarification of the significance of the
preliminary knowledge of the result attained by the " opponent. " Such
a situation obtains, for example, in contests in gymnastics , diving and
in other types of sport in which the participants execute the exercises
one after another .
In the above -mentioned work of P. V. Yuriyev there was presented
a research directed to the clarification of the significance of a pre
liminary knowledge of the " opponent's" results for the accuracy of the
proportioning of muscular exertion in execution of " an exercise " on the
dynamograph .
A consideration of the magnitude of the errors committed by the
same subjects in execution of the squeeze of the dynamograph at a given
pressure showed that in almost 100% of the cases a preliminary knowledge
of the result (i.e. the magnitude of the error committed ) of the

. 589 -
" opponenth leads to a clear improvement of the accuracy of the dosage
of muscular exertion . In some instances the accuracy of the dosage is
doubled and more . By observing the behavior of the subjects after they
had been told of the results achieved by their hopponent , " it was pos
sible to note an increased concentration in their approach to the execu
tion of the exercise on the dynamograph . With special meticulousness did
they perform the trial efforts, with special attention did they " sound
out , " figuratively speaking , the exertion of the muscles of the forearm
corresponding to the assigned intensity of pressure on the dynamograph .
All of this permits us to assume that the news of the result attained by
the " opponent" acts as a second signal stimulus, occasioning a condition
of optimal excitation in certain definite sections of the cerebral cortex
and eo ipso creating favorable conditions for the distinguishing activity
of the motor analyzer .
Improvement of the accuracy of the dosage of muscular exertion oc
curs , as a rule, when the result attained by the " opponent" is not high ,
i.e. , when he has committed a pretty big error . The communication of
such results to the competitors creates in them a sense of confidence in
the possibility of excelling the " opponent . " One of the subjects , when
he heard that an opponent had made an error of 4.3 kilograms in the
fourth test , declared : "Well , now it's not so hard to win , " and win he
did , making an error of 2.6 kilograms in the execution of the assign
ment .
It is a different state of affairs when the " opponent" shows
extremely high results , i.e. commits only a minimal error . Thus, for
example , when an "opponents had made an error of only 0.3 kilogram , a
competitor on hearing of the result threw up his hands and said : " Hope
In executing the exercise " he made an error of 2.3 kilograms
less ! " .
and lost the contest . When , however , the " opponents in squeezing the
dynamograph with the left hand made an error of 2.0 kilograms, this same
competitor confidently executed the assignment ( error of 0.6 kilograms)
and emerged the victor . The impression is created that a very high re
sult attained by an opponent gives rise to doubt about the possibility of
excelling him and therefore lowers the capacity for proportioning cor
rectly the muscular efforts . It may be thought that this is the result
of a certain worsening of the distinguishing activity of the motor analy
zer under the influence of a negative induction of the second signals sy
stem .
However here the individual peculiarities of the gymnasts must not
be neglected for it is not everyone who is depressed by the attainment of
a high result on the part of an " opponent . " Thus, the opponent of sub
ject L. committed a very small error , equal to 0.6 kilograms . Hearing
of this L. did not despair . Turning to his " opponent" he said : " Never
mind , I'll catch up with you yet! At the end of the exercise it
emerged that L. was victor , his error being equal to 0.3 kilograms.
Thus, for L. , his " opponent's " attainment of a high result was a
stimulatory factor which led to the attainment of a still higher result
by him ,

- 590 -
 In the aforementioned research of G. M. Dvali, the following ex
periments were made : He proposed to cyclists that they travel a part of
the distance in such a way as to show the best speed they could attain ,
but non - competitively . Then , he created a situation of competition and
suggested to the cyclists that they travel the same part of the distance
in pairs, whereby one of them went ahead ( trying to draw out from his op
ponent) . Next trip they changed places . Dvali got the following re
sults : non - competitive average time for travelling the part of the dis
tance involved was equal to 14.4 seconds; in the context of a contest the
subjects brought this time down to 14.0 seconds when they went ahead and
to 13.6 seconds when they went behind . Thus , the desire to overtake the
opponent turned out to be a most effective influence on the attainment of
a good result .
The experiments conducted permit of drawing the conclusion that
even in the normal conditions of sports activity it is important to take
into account, first , the stimulatory influence of the factor of competi
tion and to use it in the training process; and secondly , to train sports
men for competitive contests with equally matched opponents or even
opponents a little better than they themselves, taking into account in the
process the individual peculiarities of the competitors and training in
them a will to win .
The problem of the stimulatory influence of competition requires,
of course , further and broader - based researches both in the context of
normal sports activity and in laboratory experiments modelled on the con
di tions of sports contests .
The pre - start state comes about in sportsmen in connection with the
imminent appearance in contests . It is an emotional state and is connected
with the peculiarities of what the sportsman experiences of his coming par
ticipation in the contests . An imminent contest may have various expres
sions in the sportsman's mind on the basis of past experience . In some
cases he may be anxious of the outcome of his appearance , in others he may
await it with joy. In these various instances the experience of the sports
man will be different .
The pre - start state has been the subject of many physiological
researches (by A. N. Krestovnikov , Ya . B. Lekhtman , K. M. Smirnov and
F. V. Spiridonova, I. P. Baychenko and G. S. Gan , et al . ) . In these
researches were established numerous and varied pre - start shifts mainly
in the vegetative and animal functions of the organism ( increase of pulse ,
of breathing , heightening of metabolism and of pulmonary ventilation , in
crease in oxygen consumption , modification of the activity of the excre
tory system , modification of the threshold of sensitivity of the
analyzers, etc. ) . And these same researches served as basis for conclu
sions on the conditioned reflex mechanism of the pre - start state , permita
ting of treating it as a complex reaction to the action of numerous
extero- and intero ceptive stimuli, which are signals of the imminent activ
ity , and , and of considering that the pre- start state represents in the

- 591 -
final analysis an adaptational reaction to the imminent work .
Not without foundation is the assumption ( of K. M. Smirnov)
that the emotional state before the start is , like every emotional
state, intimately linked up not only ontogenetically but also
phylogenetically with the muscular activity . It is bound up with the
reinforcement of the functional modifications in the organism which arise
on the occasion of sports exercises , i.e. , of muscular work . And these
modifications are constantly reinforced likewise by the complex to tality
of signals from the external , predominantly the social , environment, by
an interaction of the first and second signals of reality ( A. N.
Krestovnikov , K. M. Smirnov, Ya . B. Lekh tman ) .
In the psychology of sport, the pre - start state has attracted the
attention of researchers mainly in connection with its practical signi
ficance . Study of it has permitted of establishing the fact that the
pre - start state is not homogeneous. 0. A. Chernikova [ 12] , for instance,
has distinguished two variants of_it .
Researches of the author [127, [137 , and his colleagues (performed
upon more than 400 sportsmen of various categories ) have made it possible
to differentiate the pre - start state even more . It has been established
and is at the present time an admitted fact that this state may manifest
itself in three basic forms, each of which is characterized by certain de
finite peculiarities of the course of the cortical processes, of the
vegative functions and by well expressed psychological symptoms .
The first form is characterized by an optimal level of all the
physiological processes . Its psychological symptoms are : a tense ex
pectation , growing impatience ( "Let's get running, swimming , fighting " ) ,
slight excitation , thoughts about distance to be covered or fight to be
fought ( tempo tactics ) , concern to economize forces and be as ready as
possible for the start .
The second form is characterized by a wide irradiation and a
high degree of intensity of the process of excitation in the cerebral
cortex, by sharply expressed vegetative shifts ( increase of pulse , breath
ing , sweating, trembling of the extremities , sometimes trembling all over
the body , sharp intensification of diuresis, etc. ) . The psychological
symptoms are : agitation , skittish frame of mind ( from jubilation to
tears) , forgetfulness, distraction , groundless anxiety , etc.
The third form is characterized by a predominance of the inhib
itory process in the cerebral cortex , by the emergence of an excessive
protective inhibition ( V. V. Vasil'yeva) . Typical external reactions
are not very great mobility and yawning . The psychological symptoms
are : limpness, inertia, apathy , unwillingness to participate in the
contests, poor frame of mind , sleepiness .
Taking as point of departure the peculiarities of the manifesta
tion of each of the forms of pre- start state mentioned , the author cal
led the first of these states that of battle- readiness , the second the
state of " start fever" and the third the state of " start apathy . "

- 592 -
 As has already been said above, the imminent contest is variously
reflected in the mind of the sportsman . The peculiarities of this reflec
tion are also manifested in the various forms of the pre - start state . In
them too is expressed the attitude of the sportsman to his appearance in
the contest .
The various pre - start states exercise a certain definite influence
on the course of the activity of the sportsman in the course of the con
test and on the results he will achieve .
The state of battle - readiness is the most favorable in this re
spect, while the state of " start fever " and especially the state of
" start apathy " not infrequently exercise an unfavorable influence and
do not permit the sportsman to make a success of the contest .
The generic excessive excitation , typical for the state of " start
fever " as such , di sorganizes the activity of the sportsman . This is ex
pressed most frequently in the sportsman's getting off to too violent a
start and , as the sports jargon has it , " scragging" himself: he does
not have the forces to maintain the tempo to the end . Thus , what happens
here is that the sportsman is losing the possibility of control over the
proper distribution of his energies long - range .
Now in the state of " start apathy " the opposite trend is in evi
dence : a lowering of volitional activity is noted in the sportsman ; he
is able to control and regulate the tempo of his actions, but his whole
activity is running in low gear . As sportsmen say themselves who are in
this state , they can't " really give . " So the state of battle - readiness
is the best one for a sportsman to be in before the start, all other things
being equal .
The emergence of one or ano ther pre- start state is always a deter
mined phenomenon . The number of factors determining it is legion . But
among these factors the greatest significance accrues , from the point of
view of guaranteeing a favorable pre - start state and preventing unfavor
able forms, to the sportsman being in a good state of training , being in
excellent, " playing form . "
Aside from good training , the factors which have greatest signi
ficance are the exceptional organizational idea by which Soviet sportsmen
are guided who take part in important contests the vitalizing Soviet
patriotism , the sense of collectivism the sense of duty and responsibil
ity for their actions . For the sportsmen such an organizational idea is
the defense of the honor of the red sport banner , of his team or sports
group , of his town , Republic , the maintenance of the sport prestige of
the USSR in the international arena . It is precisely this idea which in
spires Soviet sportsmen in their fight for world championship , for vic
tory in international meets . Witness to this fact is the victory of the
Soviet sportsmen at the Olympic Games in Melbourne in 1956 and in Squaw
Valley in 1960 .
Other factors too may exert an influence on the state of the sports
man before the start : the character , scale and importance of the contests;
the list of the participants and the strength of the opponents; organization ,

- 593 -
solidarity , team spirit and discipline in the sport group or team , the
outcome of past contests , the make- up and behavior of the spectators ;
and a number of other factors .
A further research on the problem of the pre - start state has per
mitted of establishing that, on the one hand , it depends likewise on the
individual peculiarities of the sportsmen , especially on the typological
peculiarities of his higher neural activity . Researches have established
the possibility of great fluctuations in the pre- start state . Observa
tions of sportsmen at the moment they get the news of their forthcoming
participation in a contest ( sometimes more than a month before it is to
occur) , on the morning of the day of the contests, 1-2 hours before the
contest and immediately before the start, have yielded many instances of
this changeability . It has the most varying combinations . Several exam
ples may be cited to show this . These examples cover swimmers whom the
author had the opportunity of observing during an entire season .
Swimmer U. was in a state of " start fever the entire time; he
fought it but could do nothing against it . On the morning of the contest
his agitation was overwhelming . Two hours before the contest he fell
into a state of " start apathy . " He did not want to do anything, not even
ride out to the contest . At the bell , he was in a state of battle
readiness .
Swimmer K. was initially in an efficient state of battle - readiness ,
then in a tranquil state , but at the bell he "lost his head from agita
tion .
Swimmer M , was tranquil the whole time . Two hours before the
start there appeared the state of battle - readiness which was maintained
to the beginning of the contests .
Finally , the researches also permitted of establishing ways to
fight the deleterious forms of pre - start state . Here they may simply be
listed : relaxation , auto - suggestion , massage and setting - up exercises
performed by the sportsman before the start of the contest .
Of course , the problem of the pre - start state requires further
working over , but the facts already accumulated have , first of all ,
made it possible to give certain definite recommendations for the prac
tical training of sportsmen in the process of the training season , and,
secondly , put up for solution a number of vital questions. The main
ones of these may be formulated as follows : can the pre- start state be
considered only as a favorable pre - work reaction of the organism ; the
significa nce of the typologic al peculiari ties of the higher neural ac
tivity of sportsmen ( and on the psychological plane the significance
of the individual psychological differences) in the emergence and dy
namic of the pre - start states ; ways of preventing unfavorable and
deleterious forms of the pre- start state .
Several authors have recently made the attempt to draw a distinc
tion between the pre- start and the start state of sportsmen ( A. N.
Krestovnikov ) . Ya . B. Lekhtman distinguishes a start state , arising di
rectly before the start ; a pre - start state, arising from the moment of ar
rival at the site of the contest ( " a getting into the sport seth as Ya .

- 594 -
B. Lekhtman writes the word " set" here being used in its psychological
not its social sense ); and an earlier pre - start (or pre - competition)
state , arising long before the contest . Such a gradation of the states
of the sportsman before contests is devoid of any basis whatever , since
there are no scientific facts at all witnessing to the presence of any
substantial , fundamental differences either in the mechanism or in the
outward manifestations of this state and dependent only on the greater
or lesser temporal and spatial proximity of the sportsman to the time
and place of the beginning of the contests .

The intensive and maximal exertions connected with the aspiration

to achieve a good sports result in the course of a competition far trans
cend the bounds of the exertions which the individual encounters in every
day life . But in sport such exertions are absolutely unavoidable . They
are one of the distinguishing features of sports activity . Hence one
of the tasks of sports training consists in preparing the sportsman for
the endurance of such exertions , of training him in such a way that they
are converted from unusual into customary for him .
The process of the conversion of unusual exertions into customary
ones may be considered as a gradual acquisition by the sportsman of an
ever increasing measure of training , the acquisition of " in training "
form , and this in its turn is bound up with the ever greater enhancement
of the work capacity of the sportsman's organism .
Physiological researchers ( A. N. Krestovnikov, V. S. Farfel ' ,
S. V. Shestakov et al .) have established that a trained organism is
characterized by the phenomena of economization and mobilization of func
tions . The basis of these phenomena is the improvement of the course
of the cortical neural processes , and the improvement of the motor and
vegetative functions therewith connected . Economization of activity of
the organism permits of executing sports exercises with greater inten
sity , for a longer period of time and with less fatigue , while mobilizam
tion is characterized , on the one hand , by the capacity of the organism
quickly to acquire a state of unusual activity for the execution of an
exercise and , on the other hand, the capacity for a maximal expansion of
the functions of all the organs and systems to the limits attainable by
the organism at a given level of its training .
It is well -known , for instance , that the pulse rate in sportsmen
who are " in training " may go as high as 276 beats a minute , the heart
pump 40 liters of blood per minute , the arterial pressure reach 240 mm ,
the pulmonary ventilation 140 liters, the consumption of oxygen 5-5.5
liters per minute , etc.
These sorts of displacements witness not only to the intensity of
the load being carried , but ( and this is specially important) also to the
considerable expansion of the functional powers of the organism which
guarantee its high work capacity .
How do the unusual exertions in sports contests influence the
psychic activity of the sportsman ? How does this influence alter in con
nection with the conversion of unusual exertions into customary ones , i.e.
in connection with the enhancement of the degree of training of the sports
man .

• 595
 The author and his co - workers tried to get answers to these ques
tions in special researches, directed to the study of the influence of
sports competitions on the course of the psychic processes in sportsmen .
The perception of time ( "time sense " ) , the memory and attention
of representatives of various types of sport were investigated at various
times . With the object in view of taking into account the immediate in
fluence of exercises, the investigations were conducted before and after
contests . In a number of cases they were conducted 18-20 hours after the
contests . The idea here was to clarify the alteration in the psychic pro
cesses under study during the restorative period after the exertions had
been sustained .
The " time sense " was tested by way of the following technique:
the sportsmen were invited to run on the spot for a period of 20 seconds
at the rate customary for each one of them , The first few " runs " were
interrupted after 20 seconds had passed , by the sportsmen being told :
" Twenty seconds are up !" Then these same sorts of runs were repeated
from 5 to 10 times, but now the sportsman was supposed to discontinue
the running each time at the point at which it seemed to him that 20
seconds had elapsed . The accuracy of the perception of time, or , in
other words, the keenness of the time sense was characterized by the mag
nitude of the deviation ( error) from the assigned 20 seconds .
Memory was tested by the method of recall of members of a series .
Presented for recall were two -digit numbers dictated by the director of
the experiment during the course of 1 minute . Each series consisted of
12 numbers .
Attention was tested by tachistoscope . For perception were pre
sented likerise two - digit numbers .
The scope of memory and the scope of attention were characterized
by the number of numbers which registered in either case . The indices
of " time sense , " memory and attention obtained prior to the contest were
taken as 100 and the modifications after the contests and after a fur
ther 18.20 hours, expressed in percentages, made it possible to judge
the influence of the exertions sustained . A total of 1,500 sportsmen
were examined in this way . Each of them was subjected to examination
more than once and the judgments on the influence of the contest on
the course of the psychic processes were made on the basis of more than
9,000 experiments ,
Numbers are recalled by three methods: logical , mechanical and
mixed .
Typical of mechanical recall is a fixation in the mind of the
numbers in the order in which they were dictated by the director of the
experiment. Typical of logical recall is an effort to systematize the
numbers dictated, without paying attention to the order in which they
were dictated .
In the mixed recall method there are encountered symptoms of the
first two methods . Hence there is a difference too in the way in which
the numbers are reproduced : in the case of mechanical recall , they are
reproduced in the order of their dictation with no efforts to order or

- 596 .
systematize them in the process of recall ; in the case of logical recall ,
they are reproduced in an arbitrary order on the basis of the systemati
zation of the numbers in the course of recall .
In this case , the numbers may be systematized in the process of
recall according to 10's in ascending and descending order . The syste
matization of numbers may take place also in far more complicated fashion .
A few examples: V. I .: " I tried to recall by taking the numbers of one
decade (56,53) and comparing them with the numbers of streetcars, with
the number of the house ( 79) where I live " ; S. V. " NI recalled the num
ber 96 because 24 x 4 = 96 ; the numbers 43 and 67 I recalled because
they add up to 110" ; P.: " My method of recall was an arrangement of the
numbers from the least to the greatest by 10's . The numbers 46 and 73
I recalled because the sum of the digits in each is equal to 10 , " etc.
So as to see what was the influence of contests on the qualita
tive aspect of the process of recall prior to , after and 18-20 hours
subsequent to the termination of the competition , a calculation and
comparison was made of the number of sportsmen who recalled numbers
by the logical and the mixed method and the percentage of sportsmen
who recalled them mechanically .
The investigations conducted permitted in the first instance of
establishing the facts characteristic of the overall picture of the
influence of exertions sustained in sports contests . They are pre
sented in Tables 1 and 2 .

Table 1

AL TERATION OF CERTAIN PSYCHIC PROCESSES UNDER THE INFLUENCE OF CONTESTS

Type of Sense of Time Scope of Memory Scope of Attention

Contest After After After After After After
Contest 18-20 Contest 18-20 Contest 18-20
hrs hrs . hrs .

Inter - City
Marathon ( in %)
( Pushkin to
Leningrad ) -5 -15 -11 -29.1 -18.5

Skiing 30 km -19.6 -12.3 -20.0 -18.2 -37.7 -16.4

50 km -28 - 21.2. - 32 -24.8 -47.3 - 20.0

Cross- Country
5 km - 18.0 -4.1 -10.8 +1.5 -9.6 +0.3

- 597 -
 Table 2

QUALITATIVE MODIFICATION OF RECALL OF NUMBERS UNDER THE INFLUENCE

OF CONTESIS

Percentage of Persons Making Use of Logical

Type of Contest and Mixed Methods of Recall

Prior to After After 18-20

Contest Contest hrs

Inter - City Marathon

( Pushkin to Leningrad ) 76 34 51

Skiing 30 km 78 36 56
50 lom 74 32 47

Cross Country
5 kom 81 59 79

An analysis of the tables permits of drawing the following conclu

sions :
Protracted ( 30 km race , ski race of 30 and 50 km ) or compar
atively brief ( cross- country of 5 km ) intensive exertions during the
contest elicit a considerable reduction both of the keenness of the
" time sense" and of the scope of memory and of the scope of attention .
2. Exertions make themselves felt likewise in substantial fa
shion on the qualitative aspect of the process of recall : this comes
out in the fact that after contests there is a sharp fall - off in the
number of participants who make use of the logical recall of numbers
and an equally sharp increase in the number of participants who recall
numbers mechanically .
3 . An 18 or 20 - hour rest after the protracted exertions sus
tained turns out not to suffice for the restoration either of the keen
ness of the " time sense ," scope of memory and scope of attention , nor
yet for the restoration of the qualitative aspect of the process of
recall . But this period can be considered to suffice after compara
tively brief, even though intensive exertion ( cross- country of 5 km ) .
The facts obtained should be considered to be the result of
fatigue arising as a result of the exertions sustained .
Such , we repeat , is the overall picture of the influence of
exertions sustained in sports contests . A substantial supplementa
tion to this picture is afforded by data on the effects of the same
exertions on better trained and less well trained sportsmen .
These data are presented in Tables 3 and 4 .

O
598 -
 Table 3

ALTERATION OF CERTAIN PSYCHIC PROCESSES UNDER THE INFLUENCE

OF CONTESTS INVOLVING IN TRAINING SPORTSMEN

Better Trained Sportsmen

Type of Sense of Time Scope of Memory Scope of Attention
Contest After After After After After After
Contest 18-20 Contest 18-20 Contest 18-20
hrs . hrs . hrs .
Inter - City
Marathon -6.3 +3.0% -12.1 % 1-5.1 % -21.3 -10.47
( Pushkin to
Leningrad)
Skiing 30 lom -26.6 % ! -9.3 % -20.0% +0.5% -40.83 -14.3 ,
50 km -25.09 -11.0% -30.5% -12.6% -42.13 -13.03
Cross - Country
5 lom -9.0% +6.1 % -3.5 % +8.4 -7.8 % +7.8%

Less Well - Trained Sportsmen

Type of Sense of Time Scope of Memory Scope of Attention
Contest After After After After After After
Contest | 18-20 Contest 18-20 Contest 18-20
hrs . hrs . hrs .
Inter - City
Marathon -17.9 % -10.2 % -21.3% -16.0 % -34.2 % -27.8 %
( Pushkin to
Leningrad )
Skiing 30 km -20.3% -18.0 % -18,1 % -10.9% -38.7% -29.2 %
50 km -34.2 % -31.2 % -41.1 % -33.3 -55.0% -39.9 %

Cross- Country
5 lom -20.1 % -8.8 % -16.6 % 1-7.5% -15.0 % -6.3 %

- 599 -
 Table 4

QUALITAT VE MODIFICATION OF RECALL UNDER THE INFLUENCE OF

CONTESTS INVOLVING IN TRAINING SPORTSMEN

Better Trained Sportsmen Less Well Trained

Type of Logical and Mixed Recall Logical and Mixed Recall
Contest Prior to After After Prior to After After
Contest Contest 18-20 Contest Contest 18-20
hrs . hrs .
Inter - City
Marathon
(Pushkin to
Leningrad ) 75 54 70 77 43 60

Skiing 30 lom 30 32 69 76 37 52
50 lom 77 30 60 72 39 39

Cross- Country
5_lom 72 75 į 81 83 53 76

An analysis of the tables given reveals considerable differences

in the modifications of the keenness of the " time sense , " scope of mem
ory , attention and in the qualitative peculiarities of the recall of
numbers as between better trained and less well - trained sportsmen under
the influence of contest exertions endured by them :
1. In the majority of cases the reduction of the keenness of the
" time sense , " of the scope of memory and attention and of the percentage
of persons recalling a number by a logical means, is considerably less
among the better trained sportsmen than among the less well - trained ones .
But after a skiing race involving a specially keen and strenuous contest
between the best skiers, the reverse tendency can be noted .
2. The restoration of the previous level of the psychic proces
ses being investigated occurs considerably more rapidly in better trained
sportsmen . This occurs even after a 30 kilometer ski race , despite the
more drastic reaction immediately after the contests to the exertion
sustained . In the less well trained persons , especially after the 30
and 50 -kilometer ski races , this restoration is comparatively very much
slowed down .
3. In some cases , and specifically after the 5 - kilometer cross
country , the restoration of the keenness of the " time sense , " of the
scope of memory and of the scope of attention as also of the more per
fect methods of recall of numbers in the cases of better trained sports
men not only attains the initial magnitudes ( prior to the contests ) , but
even slightly exceeds them .
The differences established in the influence of sports competi
tions on the psychic processes investigated as between better and less
well trained sportsmen are facts of great fundamental importance, These

• 600 -
facts permit of the assertion that as a result of a systematic train
ing there is developed in sportsmen not only a physical but also a
psychic preparedness for the sustaining of unusual exertions connected
with intensive muscular activity , and this sort of exertion is converted
from an unusual one into an ordinary one .
These facts show that phenomena of economizing and mobilizing ,
typical of the trained organism , are revealed likewise in the modifica
tions of the psychic processes arising as a result of the exertions
sustained in the contests . A leading role is here obviously played by
the cortex of the great hemispheres and the system in its operation ,
which is reorganized to a certain definite pitch during the process of
training in accord with the requirements of sports activity .
On the basis of I. P. Pavlov's physiological theory it may be
thought that the basic thing in this training is the gearing , so to
speak , to a higher level of the normal balance of the excitatory and
inhibitory processes in the cortex of the great hemispheres, as a re
suit of which there is an increase in the perseverance of the nerve
cells in respect of exhaustion and a greater perfection of the course of
the process of restoration . This hypothesisis based on the researches
of I. P. Pavlovis disciple, G. V. Fol'bort [ 17 ], [ 13], who made a
study of the interrelation of the processes of exhaustion and restoran
tion , of excitation and inhibition , and , on the basis of a great
amount of experimental data , came to the following conclusions :
1 . The functional alterations occasioned by protracted and in
tensive activity of the organs and expressed in a reduction of the pro
ficiency of their functions are simultaneously the basic stimulus of
the process of the restoration of the competence of the organs .
2. The process of restoration runs unevenly : at times the func
tional potentials of the operating organ are considerably exceeded and
at times they drop below the normal level and subsequently are restored
at the normal pitch .
3. The return to normal competence of an operating organ is
characterized , on the one hand , by a growth of the functional potentials
and , on the other hand , by a consolidation of the state attained , which
makes the restored functions of the organs perseverant, solid . At the
same time the level of the state of restoredness considerably surpasses
the norm for a certain period of time .
G. V. Fol'bort likewise showed that the process of inhibition
has an enormous significance in the interaction of the processes of
exhaustion and restoration . He confirmed and developed the postulate
of Pavlov to the effect that inhibition not only discontinues activity
but is also a factor stimulating restoration .
These briefly expounded hypotheses flowing from the works of G.
V. Fol'bort and his colleagues , reveal the physiological mechanisms of
the above -mentioned alterations and modifications of the psychic proces
ses under the influence of physical exertions and in connection with
the varying degrees of training of the participants in the contests .

. 601 -
 The results of the researches carried out have not only permitted
of establishing certain laws governing the influence of sports contests
on the psychic activity of sportsmen ; they have also put up for solution
yet another complex but at the same time important problem , the problem
connected with the clarification of the psychological indices of the
" in training " -ness of sportsmen .

The problem of the psychology of victory and defeat in sports is

as yet entirely untouched , but at the same time it is an exceedingly im
portant one .
The outcome of a sports contest or of its stages ( as for instance
in sprinting , boxing , fencing , wrestling, etc. ) is not a matter of indif
ference for a sportsman . Victory and defeat are variously reflected in
his mind and not infrequently exert a crucial influence likewise on the
results of subsequent contests , and on the attitude of the sportsman to
further training .
An investigation of the kinesthetic sensations in fencers in con
nection with various outcomes of the match shows that the state of the
sportsman after victory and after defeat are really not identical , a
fact which can be proven by the modifications in the accuracy of the
kinesthetic sensations .
Naturally after strenuous matches there develops fatigue in the
fencers . A result of this is the reduction of the accuracy of kines
thetic sensations .
However , the reduction of the accuracy of these sensations is
greater after a defeat than after a victory ( Cf. Table 5) .
Table 5 *

MODIFICATIONS IN THE ACCURACY OF KINESTHETIC SENSATIONS

IN CONNECTION WITH THE OUTCOME OF A COMBAT

Indices of Accuracy of Kinesthetic Sensations

Swordsmen Initial Data Prior Outcome of Combat
to Combat ( in Degrees )
( in Degrees ) Victory Defeat
B ... 0.16 1.10 2.10
K ... 0.36 0.87 1.50
L ... 0.60 1.12 1.99
V ... 0.86 1.10 2.14
M ... 1.00 2.85 4.29
Average . 0.58 1.41 2.40

* In the table are adduced the magnitudes of errors in determina

tion of the amplitude of movements on an instrument for study of motor
muscular sense of the arms upon rotational movements in bent- elbow
articulation . The less the error the higher the accuracy of kinesthetic
sensations .

- 602 ..
 The concepts " victory " and "defeath on the psychological plane
should be taken in the broad sense . To win a victory does not mean sim
ply to take first place in some contest , just as to suffer a defeat does
not mean simply not to win a championship . In the psychological sense ,
victory means success of the sportsman in the contest and defeat means
his failure there . After all , first place in any contest is in the
majority of instances taken by only a single participant or a single
team , whereas success may come to many who have succeeded in improving
their showing in the given competition . Exactly similarly , defeat is
suffered de facto only by the main challengers but many may perform in
the contests in a way that can be called a failure , i.e. making a poorer
showing than is their wont .
Victory and defeat ( i.e. success and failure) may occasion both
a positive and a negative psychological state in the sportsman and a cor
responding attitude to the activity , expressed in objective actions.
The influence of victories and defeats in sport were studied by
the author from the psychological point of view by means of chats and
observations covering over 300 sportsmen ( swimmers, skiers, fencers,
runners and representatives of other types of sport).
Victories . Usually victory in a contest occasions in the sports
man a favorable psychological state . Typical of this state is a feeling
of satisfaction , of confidence in his own powers . The sportsman is sat
isfied with his success and is in a healthy and happy frame of mind ; he
has a terrific desire to continue training, to get into a contest again
and again to win .
" After each successful appearance in contests I feel that I can
improve my showing , that I can swim still faster . A win brings satis
faction and the desire to appear again and again to win ...After a lito
tle rest I go into training with real zest , " says swimmer I.
Such a state after victory is typical for sportsmen and is en
tirely normal : the sportsman has done a lot of training , he has been
meticulous in his preparations for the contest and now he feels tangible
results of his labors , The enormous positive psychological significance
of a sports victory lies precisely in the fact that the success creates
an emotionally favorable state in sportsmen for a continuation of work
on himself . The sportsman clearly realizes that it was precisely the
preceding training that secured him success in the contest; he sets
himself definite goals for future contests and persistently works on
himself in the process of subsequent training . Therein lies the posi
tive aspect of a sports success .
However , victory may occasion in individual sportsmen and even in
entire teams an entirely undesirable psychological state . As a result
of successes , especially such as are gained without any special effort ,
a sportsman may acquire excessive self- confidence , carelessness and
sometimes even downright conceit; he may turn into a Pooh - Bah of
sport .
Excessive self - confidence and conceit lead to an overestimate of
one's own powers and an underestimation of the powers of the opponents .

• 603
Such a sportsman or such a team will approach any and especially a weak
opponent with a feeling of their own superiority ; there will develop in
them what one football player called " an extremely deleterious attitude
of demagnetization " [ " a real bad case of unwinding" was what the Rus
sian football player probably conveyed ). They do not compete all out ,
but as it were condescendingly, and often they pay cruelly for this .
In one of the Leningrad fencing championships there appeared in
the finals one of the best swordswomen , V. , and another swordswoman ,
P. , the weakest fencer in that league . V. came out the winner in all
the combats and was faced with a final bout with P. who likewise fenced
with all the opponents and been beaten every time .
The outcome of the P.-V. bout was entirely unexpected : V. Lost
" brilliantly with a score of 5 : 1 . True, V. ended up rapier chempioness
of Leningrad but her defeat by P. was humiliating unto tears to her .
And she explained herself: " Everybody was beating her ( P. ) and I was
hoping for an easy victory , considering myself strong and P. weak ; I
just did not pay enough attention to this opponent. " Elements of con
ceit , self - satisfaction came out too in some of the all - star football
team of the USSR in the period of their training for participation in
the 16th Olympic Games in 1956 .
Excessive self - confidence and conceit may cause the sportsmen to
form. an erroneous idea of themselves , of their exceptional talents which
they expect always to secure them success in sport .
As a result they may develop a careless attitude to training , to
working on themselves; they may get into a state of "resting on their
laurels . " But the victor's laurels in such circumstances may turn into
thorns : the sportsman will not succeed in winning any more . That was
what happened , for instance , to the well - known gymnast , N. The same
thing happened to one of the USSR's outstanding rowers , T.
Even if the sportsman is outstanding by his own inborn talents;
these natural gifts still have to be cultivated carefully and constantly ;
they have to be polished like a precious diamond so that they will glow
with all the colors of the rainbow . Talent flowers only on condition of
unlimited capacity for work .
A high capacity for work , regularity and system in training are
typical of star sportsmen .
It is a well -known fact how persistently and systematically all
the best sportsmen train the year round . For example, the brilliant
wins in the 5,000 and 10,000 -meter dash at the 16th Olympic Games by
Vladimir Kuts ; the equally outstanding success of Emil ' Zatopek who
won first place in the 5,000 , the 10,000-meter and the marathon races
at the 15th Olympic Games ; the winning by Victor Chukarin of the title
of supreme champion in gymnastics at the 15th and 16th Olympic Games --
all of these were the result of prolonged and persistent work , a lengthy
and very stiff training .
The psychological causes of excessive self - confidence and conceit
lurk in the protracted appearance in contests without any defeats , in
the excessive praise of the victors, not infrequently even out of

604 .
proportion to the actual successes of the sportsmen , in a condescending
attitude toward manifestations of conceit . Overpraising of sportsmen
is a fault of some trainers too , and comrades of the sportsman and di
rectorial officials, who have no idea of the psychological significance
of such an evaluation , which was well brought out in a special research
of B. G. Anan'yev, " The Psychology of Pedagogical Evaluation " 1. Of
course , all of them praise the sportsman from good motives , wanting to
stimulate him to further training , to further successes . But their good
intentions often have the opposite effect , unless there is attention to
training in the sportsman of a sense of responsibility to his business ,
of modesty , a proper self - estimate, a critical approach to himself and
to his attainments , a capacity to see his defects and to cultivate a
proper attitude to both achievements and defects , and persistence in
the correction of shortcomings, etc.
Nor must it be forgotten that the press too ( especially the
sensation -mongering foreign press) may be guilty of over - praising .
Such is the other side of the coin of success in sports , from
the psychological point of view . It must always be borne in mind and
if it shows up in any sportsman or any team , then all measures of edu
cational influence must be taken to prevent those most deleterious
qualities of conceit and success - dizziness from developing , to force the
sportsman to feel dissatisified even with his successes , to compel him
" to give himself hell " [ſiterally, " to become furious with himself") ,
as P. F. Lesgaft has said in respect of work capacity .
Defeat . Defeat , just like victory, elicits heterogeneous psy
chological states in sportsmen .
This state which characterizes the attitude of a sportsman to de
feat is expressed in the following forms: efficient , depressed , indif .
ferent, dubious .
The indifferent and the dubious states were observed in only 4.6%
of the cases investigated . As for the depressed ( 32.6 % ) and the effi
cient ( 55.6 % ) states, they are , though opposite, nonetheless the most
typical states of sportsmen after a defeat .
The efficient state , which occurs in sportsmen after a defeat ,
is characterized by an aspiration to a continuation of training, a flow
of energy directed mainly to an analysis of the reasons for the defeat
and to the finding of ways to eliminate them in the process of further
training so as to have greater chances of success in the next contest .
Çoncerning this sort of attitude to a defeat and to further
training , skilled sportsmen have this sort of thing to say :
G. ( swimmer ); " I hurt when I lose . It makes me mad and forces
me really to buckle down to training . "
z . ( skier ): " After a defeat you want to train really well so
as to win next time no matter what . "
K. ( fencer ) : " If I am beaten by any fighter once , then I will
not lose to him again . Even if it is in one of the voluntary fights
during training that one of my buddies trims the stuffing out of me
then on the next day he will pay in the same coin . I always feel hot
on this point. I think over every stroke I took and find a riposte . "

- 605 -
 The efficient state is , of course , most suitable for the Soviet
sportsman , since the entire system of communist training , the whole
practice of socialist construction of the USSR teaches not to be
afraid of difficulties but to overcome them , not to fear temporary fail
ures but to take a critical and auto - critical approach to them and dis
cover their causes and , by eliminating obstacles, to head for victory .
A properly organized process of sports training trains up such qualities
in our sportsmen .
The depressed state is characterized by a bad frame of mind, a
fall -off of forces , dejection , a feeling of humiliation , of disappoint
ment and in some cases even a loss of faith in one's own powers, in the
possibility of winning in the future . This state exerts a very strong
influence on the actions of the sportsman both during a contest and in
the process of continuing training after said contest . Sometimes it is
so strong that the sportsman cannot get over it during a whole series of
subsequent contests .
In swimming and light athletics, a sportsman often has to partici
pate on one and the same day in several races , swim meets , etc. ' in fenc
ing , wrestling , boxing and games , he must compete with several opponents
or else carry on the contest in various ways ( for instance , 3 rounds of
3 minutes in boxing , or 2 matches in sports ) . Not so infrequently an un
successful first appearance or failure in the course of a game elicits
in sportsmen a depressed state , which may result in losing the whole con
test . But in the course of one and the same contest sometimes even a
fortuitous success or a success achieved as a result of the presence on
a team of better - lasting players may overcome the depressed state which
has appeared with the first failure , whereas a second botch may again
elicit a depressed frame of mind , etc.
A defeat may create in the sportsman an w.favorable psychologi
cal set to the process of training following the contest . Here the
danger is a cessation of systematic training and even an abandonment
of this form of sport entirely . The author observed a number of such
cases among swimmers, light athletes , skiers and fencers .
Defeat may have still another sort of effect . There may be formed
in the sportsman who has suffered a defeat and even sometimes in an entire
team which has once lost to a certain opponent a preconceived idea that
this opponent cannot be beaten , and in subsequent encounters with him
they go out onto the field , into the ring or onto the track with a clear
set to defeat , which may develop into that most awful thing for a sports
man , the "losing habit" as one fencer, a famous one at that, put it (he
was under observation by the author ) .
One of the best swordswomen of the USSR , Ch . , was once in this
state , when she had to fight with another swordswoman , G. who was act
ually somewhat weaker than she, And all simply because Ch . in one of
her encounters with G. had lost to her .
This is what Ch , said after one of her subsequent encounters with
G .: " I was in a hurry to finish the bout because I was scared of her .
I had lost to her before and I started off wanting in confidence and con
fidence decides a lot : after all, with R. , the score was 3-0 in her fav
or and I still won . "
. 606 -
 The psychological reasons for this influence of defeats are
legion . The first big cause is an insufficient development in the sports
men of volitional qualities: of steadfastness , persistence , critical at
titude and moral training of the will ; then , too , an insufficient
attention to training in stubbornness in the attaining of a goal and in
firmness of character .
One of the chief causes is likewise a distorted idea to the ef
fect that success should come speedily , as soon as the sportsman masters
the technique and has trained himself physically .
Doubtless a great role is played too by premature participation
in contests , i.e. at a point at which the person is not yet in playing
form .
Finally , the following circumstance must also be borne in mind :
sometimes a sportsman is not acquainted with his adversaries, with their
strong and weak aspects, with the peculiarities of their tactics, etc.
As a result, he may suffer an unexpected defeat , on the basis of which
there is formed in him a preconceived idea of the impossibility of win
ning against the opponent in question .
Thus, a defeat which elicits a depressed state in the sportsman
may have the most unfavorable effect possible on the further activity
of that sportsman . Foreign specialists , writing books and articles on
the psychology of sport , likewise call attention to this , for instance ,
D. Lowther ( USA ) and L. Percival ( Canada ), et al . They call upon
trainers to give special attention to sportsmen who have suffered a de
feat, since after a defeat the sportsmen feel profoundly unhappy .
Only a persistent and properly organized training work by the
trainer and the entire sports collective and a working by each individ
ual sportsman on himself can bring about " insensitivity to defeats , dem
velop the will to win and get rid of all manner of false, preconceived
notions of ways to attain success in sports contests .
Work and only persistent work on oneself, in the sense of moral
and volitional training , in the sense of physical perfecting and per
fecting of sports technique and tactics, will yield positive results in
this respect .
Very indicative in this sense is the position of one of the cham
pion fencers , K. , who says this : " I used to be affected in such a way
that if I was defeated this was often the cause of subsequent defeats .
But now, not only a defeat in the bout as a whole but even a single
stroke impels me to hit for better results . If am beaten in the first
bout, then I set myself the task of winning in the subsequent ones .
" My bout with M. was typical . I got three strokes in a row .
The score was 4o in favor of M. The situation seemed patently hope
less . But I stubbornly kept up the fight and paid back four strokes
( score got to be 44) and then I won the last . " And in fact , while
watching K. in many contests , the author had the opportunity to convince
himself that neither did defeat make him despondent nor his many victor
ies turn his head .

• 607 -
 A wonderful piece of advice was given in his day to sportsmen
by the French world tennis champion , Cochet 8. He wrote : " If you
have lost , don't grieve , don't despair ; if you have won , don't rejoice
overmuch ; after all , you will still have many more chances to win again
and to lose still more . "

The working over of the problems mentioned in the psychology of

sport is of substantial practical and general theoretical significance .
In the practical respect , the results of the study of the problems
mentioned put into the hands of physical training teachers and trainers
material which will enable them , on the one hand better to resolve ques
tions of the training of the Soviet man , of the Soviet sportsman in the
process of actual sports events ; on the other hand , these materials will
aid in the solution of pedagogical questions connected with the physical ,
and especially the psychological preparation of sportsmen for sports
contests . The latter is vitally important, if one bears in mind the
ever sharpening contest for the best results , for victory in the sports
contest in which the powers of the top flight sportsmen are equally
matched , a contest demanding from its participants the maximum exertion
of all their physical and intellectual powers .
On the theoretical plane, the results of a study of the problems
mentioned are directly tied in with such cardinal general psychological
problems as the problem of attitudes and the problem of importance and
meaningfulness. They are tied in too with more restricted but likewise
important problems of general psychology , such as the problem of the mo
tives of activity, of the emotions and of the will. Nor can we fail to
mention , in conclusion that the results of a study of the problems men
tioned in the psychology of sport, especially of the questions of the
influence of sports contests on the psychic activity in connection with
the " in training " state of sportsmen , are directly related to the probe
lem of increasing the work capacity of the individual -- a problem which
is not only of substantial general theoretical significance but is also
one of the central problems in the psychology of labor .

· 608 -
 LITERATURE

1. B. G. Anan'yev , " Psychology of Pedagogical Evaluation , "

Trudy Instituta po izucheniyu mozga im . Bekhtereva (Works of the imeni
Bekhterev Institute for Study of the Brain ) , Vol . IV , 1935 .
2. I. P. Baychenko and G. S. Gan , " Energy Evaluation of the
Basic Gymnastic of Nil's Buk , " Trudy LNIIFK ( Works of the Leningrad
Scientific Research Institute of Physical Culture ), Vol . II , 1936 .
3. L. S. Bogachenko , " On the Influence of the School Day on
the conditioned Connections of the First and Second Signal Systems
and on the Interconnection of These Systems, " Zhurnal wysshey nervnoy
devatel'nosti im . akademika I. P. Pavlova ( Journal of Higher Neural
Activity imeni Academician I. P. Pavlov ) , Vol . III , No. 2 , 1953 .
4.V. V. Vasil'yeva , " On the Pre - Start Condition , " Teoriva i
praktika fizicheskoy kul'tury , Vol . XVI , No. 8 , 1953 .
5 . N. V. Zimkin , A. V. Korotkov, Ya . B. Lekhtman et al . ,
Fiziologicheskiye osnovy fizicheskoy kul'tury i sporta ( Physiological
Bases of Physical Culture and Sport) , Fis (Physical Culture and Sport),
1955 .
6 S. D. Kachalin , Ob itogakh podgotovki i uchastiya
futbolistov v XVI Olimpiyskikh igrakh (On the Results of the Training
of Football Players for the 16th Olympic Games and Their Participation
in Them ), Moscow , 1957 .
7. Yan Amos Komenskiy , Izbr. ped . soch . ( Selected Pedagogical
Works), Vol . II , Pedagogical Publishing House, 1939 .
8. Henri Cochet , Tennis ( Tennis ) , Fis ( Physical Culture and
Sport) , 1935 .
9. A. N. Krestovnikov , Ocherki po fiziologii fizicheskikh
uprazhneniy ( Essays in the Physiology of Physical Exercises ) , Fis
TPhysical Culture and Sport) , 1951 .
10. Ya . B. Lekhtman , Analiz startovogo sostoyaniya ( Analysis
of the Start Condition ) , Dissertation , 1945 .
11. Z. A. Parshina, Psikhologiya sorevnovaniva ( Pyschology of
Competition ), Dissertation , 1941 .
12 . A. Ts . Puni , " Toward a Psychological Description of the Pre
Start Condition of Sportsmen , " Teoriya i praktika fizicheskoy kul'tury
( Theory and Practice of Physical Culture) , Vol . XII, No. 7. 1949 .
13 . A. Ts . Puni , Psikhologiya sporta (Psychology of Sport ),
Doctoral Dissertation , Leningrad , 1952 .
14. K. M. Smirnov , " Experience of Physiological Research on
the Pre - Start Condition , " Anthology , Opyt izucheniya regulyatsii
fiziologicheskikh funktsiy v yestestvennykh usloviyakh
sushchestvovaniya organizmov (Experience of the Study of the Regulam
tion of Physical Functions in the Natural Conditions of Existence of
Organisms ), Vol . III , izd- VO AN SSSR ( Publishing House of the USSR
Academy of Sciences ) , 1954 .
15 . K. M. Smirnov and F. V. Spiridonova , " Physiological Descrip
tion of the Pre - Start Condition , First Report , " Byulleten !
eksperimental'noy biologii i meditsiny , Vol . XXIV, No. 6 , 1947 .

609 -
 16. " Sport Abroad , " Informatsionny byulleten ' TSNIISK ( Informa
tion Bulletin of the Central Scientific Research Institute of Physical
Culture ) , No. 6 , 1956 .
17. G. V. Fol'bort , " Processes of Exhaustion and Renovation as
the Basis of a Fhysiological Understanding of Fatigue and Recreation , "
Trudy VII Vsesoyuznogo slezda fiziologov , biokhimikov i farmakologov
(Works of the 7th All-Union Congress of Physiologists, Biochemists and
Pharmacologists ) , Book 1 , 1949 .
18. G. V. Fol'bort, " New Facts and Animadversions on the Theory
of I. P. Pavlov on the Higher Neural Activity , " Zhurnal wsshev nervnoy
deyatel'nosti im . akademika I. P. Pavlova (Journal of Higher Neural Ac
tivity imeni Academician I. P. Pavlov ) , Vol . I , No. 3 , 1951 .
19. 0. A. Chernikova , " Bell Fever , " Teoriva i praktika
fizicheskoy kul'tury ( Theory and Practice of Physical Culture), No. 3 ,
1937 .
20 . R. Shul'tse, " Practice of Experimental Psychology , Pedagogy
and Psychotechnics , " Voprosy truda (Labor Questions), 1926 .
21. P. V. Yuriyev, " Research on the Capacity for Dosage of Mus
cular Strain on the part of Various Categories of Gymnasts , " Tezisy
dokladov nauchnoy konferentsii studentov institutov fizicheskoy kul'tury
(Abstracts of Reports of an Academic Conference of Students of Institutes
of Physical Culture) , Moscow , 1956 .

- 610 -
 STUDY OF BRAIN AFFECTIONS AND THE RESTORATION OF DAMAGED FUNCTIONS

By A. R. Luriya
At the time of the Great October Revolution , Russian medical psy
chology already had scientific traditions which were solid and of long
standing . As early as the 1860's , the founder of Russian physiology and
materialist psychology , I. M. Sechenov had begun his work on reflex - type
interpretation of psychic phenomena . He saw a great opportunity in the
possibility of founding a medical psychology , which would assist in a
scientific approach to the analysis of the mechanisms of the intellect
ual life , to the recognition and therapy of psychic ailments . He saw
in the creation of "medical psychology " his_basic task and , while work
ing at it, irrote of it as his iiswan song" [T547.
Whereas in the works of Sechenov , the materialist principle of
analysis of the cardinal facts of pathological modifications of the
psychic life was manifested only in the general approach to their an
alysis, in physiological experiments set up on animal subjects , and
only partially in individual observations of pathological states in
man , it was no later than the 1890's when in various psychiatric and
neurological institutions of Russia there began to appear psychological
laboratories which set themselves the task of introducing into the clin
ical handling of nervous and mental diseases experimental psychological
methods of research and examination . The first such laboratories were
founded by V. M. Bekhterev in the Kazan ' Psychiatric Clinic and by s .
s . Korsakov in the Moscow Psychiatric Clinic ( the A. A. Tokarskiy lab
oratory ) . Some time later , more of these laboratories appear and psy
chological work begins in the clinic of Nervous Ailments of the Moscow
University ( the G. I. Rossolimo laboratory ). The application of objec
tive experimental psychological methods to psychiatry is transferred by
V. M. Bekhterev to Peterburg and becomes especially extensive in its
scope . There begins to be published a journal called Obozreniye
psikhiatrii, kriminal'noy antropologii i eksperimental'noy psikhologii
Survey of Psychiatry, Criminal Antropology and Experimental Psychology ,
later converted into Vestnik psikhiatrii, nevrologii i kriminal'noy
psikhologii (Herald of Psychiatry, Neurology and Criminal Psychology .
A considerable quantity of the experimental psychological researches
published in these journals elucidates the questions of the modifica
tion of reaction speed , associative processes , attention , memory and
emotional states in the case of individual psychic ailments , reflecting
thereby the great work in which collaborating physicians and psycholo
gists are working out new ways to an objective approach to pathological
modifications of the mind .
In the first period ( prior to 1910 ) , works at the application of
the psychological experiment to clinical practice did not go beyond the
bounds of individual experimental researches , some of which led to the
establishment of new and vital facts of psychophysiological significance;

• 611 -
but even in the first years of the 20th century these experimental re
searches were beginning to develop into certain definite systems whose
significance far transcended the bounds of the individual portions of
experimental psychology .
In the works of G. I. Rossolimo [46 ] and later of A. N.
Bernshteyn [ 127, the first attempts were made systematically to intro
duce the psychological experiment into the practice of clinical diagnosis.
Rossolimo worked out a system of psychological experiments which he cal
culated would permit of establishing objectively the level of the various
individual psychic functions which are modified in various pathological
states of the brain , and eo ipso of expressing the generic functional dis
turbances characterizing the different affections of the brain in a sui
generis " profile of the modification of the dynamic of the psychic
life. " Rossolimo's effort to create " psychological profiles" character
izing the various pathological states encountered great difficulties con
nected with the fact that the scientific theory of the structure of the
psychic processes was not yet at that time properly developed and the
author had to base his conclusions on the then extant idealist theories
of " empirical psychology " to which he added a number of supplementary
considerations . A successful solution of the task he had set himself
was inhibited by the oversimplified quantitative approach to the an
alysis of the phenomena under study and by those oversimplified tech
niques of test researches which were introduced by the author .
There is , however , no doubt about the fact that the very attempt
to bring psychology into more intimate connection with the resolution
of clinical problems and the broad introduction of experimental tech
niques into neurological clinical work were a progressive phenomenon for
those days; and it should also be noted that the very idea of aiding in
the recognition of individual pathological states by comparing the " pro
files " of the relative disturbance of the various psychic functions in
cases of different lesions of cerebral activity was of considerable in
terest in those days .
Whereas the Rossolimo system matured in the confines of neurologi
cal clinical work , the " clinical techniques of the psychological examina
tion of the mentally ill " of A. N. Bernshteyn [17] grew up out of the
practice of psychiatric examination . Being himself one of the leading
psychiatrists , A. N. Bernshteyn felt acutely the necessity of introduc
ing into the clinical examination of mental illnesses the exact methods
of experimental psychological examinations . To this end he worked out
an entire system of such techniques of examination , permitting of estab
lishing the character of the lesion of perception , assimilation , compre
hension , attention , memory and associative processes in conditions of
examination which were comparatively accurate and accessible to compar
ative analysis . Renouncing the formal and pseudo - accurate quantitative
approach to the facts being observed , Bernshteyn concentrated all his
attention on a qualitative analysis of those disturbances of cognitive
activity which are encountered in the various psychic ailments and
introduced many new and important postulates into clinical psychology .

- 612 -
There is no doubt that a number of the techniques of experimental psycho
logical investigation introduced by this authority in psychiatry, as well
as a number of psychological facts established by him , have not lost
their interest right up to the present time .
Whereas the works of Rossolimo and Bernshteyn constituted the
first efforts to make use of the methods of the psychological exper
iment for a more accurate and meticulous description of those forms of
disturbance of psychic activity which were encountered in pathological
states , the use of the experimental psychological techniques took a dif
ferent course in the V. M. Bekhterev school .
Beginning in the first stages of its development with individual
experimental investigations on the speed of reaction , scope of attention
and of the associative processes , this series of projects went on in the
sequel to an extensive and widely ramifying application of objective ex
perimental techniques of research on those alterations which individual
aspects of psychic activity suffer in pathological conditions , Precisely
in the school of V. M. Bekhterev were carried out the first systematic
researches of the " conjugate reflexes " in a patient; here too were de
scribed the basic facts about the disturbance of the associative proces
ses , of the "mimico - somatich reflexes and of the mnestic activity of the
mental patient. And it was precisely in this school that the first at
tempts were made to apply the techniques of study of the " psychogalvanic "
reflexes in pathological states . The wide- scale introduction of exper
imental psychological methods of research into clinical practice is con
nected not only with the name of V. M. Bekhterev himself but likewise
with_a number of his pupils and followers: V. N. Myasishchev_[7267
[122 ] [128], [ 129], K.I. Povarnin [145], v. N. Osipova[135]. [1367 ,
R. Ya. Golant 7517 and others. This made this school one of the import
ant channels of genuine rapprochement of experimental psychology and
clinical medicine and one which , despite a number of mechanical over
simplifications innate to " reflexology , " played an important part in
the development of the experimental techniques of objective clinical psy
chology on the eve of the Great October Revolution .
A decisive role in the further development of the study of the
pathologically modified psychic activity of the human individual was
played , however , by the researches of I. P. Pavlov, which in the pre
revolutionary period were devoted entirely to the study of the higher
neural activity of animals but which in the sequel developed broadly
into a series of experimental investigations of the higher neural ac
tivity of the healthy and the morbid human individual . It is well
known that these projects developed specially widely after the triumph
of the revolution . It was precisely this understanding of psychic ac
tivity in terms of reflexes , an understanding which had been originated
by I. M. Sechenov and converted into an exact scientific branch of phy
siology by I. P. Pavlov, which was to become the basis on which would
develop in the sequel Soviet medical psychology .

• 613 -
 2

The first stages of the application of experimental psychology to

the objective study of pathological states after the October Revolution
were the logical continuation of that progressive line of researches,
whose basis was laid by the works just mentioned .
Almost the first group of such projects, carried out and pub
lished in the post - October period , were the projects of A. G. Ivanov
Smolenskiy . They derived from the school of V. M. Bekhterev and were
devoted to the objective research of the associative processes and a
utilization of this research for the analysis of pathological states
[657. Calling his research " the biogenesis of spoken reflexes, " A. G.
Ivanov - Smolenskiy quite rightly concluded that in the assiduous study
of the peculiarities of spoken associations ( and especially of spoken
answers to verbal stimuli ) there can be found objective indicators which
clearly alter in the case of pathological states of cerebral activity .
An attentive study of spoken reactions enabled him to approach the phy
siological mechanisms of those associative processes which formerly had
been studied only psychologically , and to give an objective interpreta
tion of the character of the associative processes and of the disturb
ance of the flow of the associations in affective states .
To this same author belong also the attempts to use other tech
niques of experimental psychological research ( for instance, the well
known " corrective method" of examination of attention ) in order to
arrive at objective data permitting of forming a judgment on the dynamic
of the higher neural activity and on its alterations in pathological
states of the brain . Tinally, to this period belongs also the sugges
tion of A. G. Ivanov- Smolenskiy that there be utilized , for the pur
pose of physiological and physiopathological research , the already
11
long since elaborated method of research of " psychic reaction , chang
ing the technique of its application and replacing the usual study of
" psychic reaction " using preliminary spoken instruction by another me
thod , the elaboration of_a_motor_reaction with the aid of the method of
" spoken reinforcement" [66], [67], [68],[69] . There is no doubt that
( despite a number of misunderstandings connected with oversimplified
mechanistic application of the latter method ) the systematic use of
methods of experimental psychological research not only for purposes
of medical psychology but also for the obtaining of a number of facts af
fording the opportunity to study the dynamic of the higher neural proces
ses in man belongs among the considerable achievements of Soviet science
and lays the basis for an intimate collaboration of the physiologist
of the higher neural activity in man and the psychologist .
A second group of researches which made an attempt to bring psy
chological experiment into closer liaison with a number of questions of
clinical medicine was connected with the projects carried out in 1923
1927 in the Moscow Institute of Psychology , then headed by K. N.
Kornilov . The contribution of these projects to clinical psychology
was connected with the " combined motor method " introduced by A. R.
Luriya and his colleagues and its application to the objective re
search of pathologically modified human activity .

- 614 -
 In their study of the functional disturbances of conduct and be
havior with the aid of an analysis of the associative processes , the au
thors of this method noted that a far closer approach can be made to an
analysis of the mechanisms of these disturbances if the associative re
sponses under study be linked up with a simultaneous recording of the
motor reactions of the hand . In these instances the motor responses
permit of an objective revelation of those disturbances in the proces
ses of excitation and inhibition which are characteristic for the le
sion of the associative processes in those pathological states which
lead to a disturbance of the organized balanced forms of activity .
The_use_of_this sort of " combined motor method" (A. R. Luriya [ 987,
[997, [ T007, A. R. Luriya and A. N. Leontiyev [96a7, A. R. Luriya and
M. S. Lebedinskiy 1927, and others) permitted of pursuing the dynamic
of the affective processes, of getting next to the objective mechanisms
of the affective complexes, of describing the consequences of acute con
flicts and of giving an experimental analysis of neurotic states . Like
wise it later permitted of approaching a study of certain important
mechanisms of the regulation of human conduct and of describing the role
of those techniques with the aid of which it has proved possible to re
store the disturbed organization of the conduct of the human individual .
The introduction of this method , which arose in the process of psycho
physiological researches and was successfully applied to the tasks of
clinical medicine , was in its day a vital step forward in the rapproche
ment of psychological and clinicophysiological researches .
Whereas the group of researches just described introduced into
clinical work techniques of study of the dynamic of the motor reactions
and permitted of getting closer to an analysis of the pathologically mod
ified affective processes, a third group of projects , connected with the
names of S. V. Kravkov [ 5] and K. Kh . Kekcheyev [757, made it possible
to introduce into clinical work an exact analysis of sensory processes .
Having arisen as an exact psychophysiological research of sensa
tions , this group of projects not only created a new Soviet school of
the psychophysiology of sensory processes but also enabled the clini .
cian to approach the alterations in sensations in the case of the var
ious forms of the pathology of neural activity with considerably more
accurate methods than had been the case previously . It is therefore
entirely natural that these researches should have been incorporated
in depth into the practice of nerve and ophthalmological clinics and
that the development which they received in the works of a whole series
of physiologists of the sense organs should have shown how productive
can be the introduction of techniques of experimental psychophysiological
research for the tasks of clinical medicine .

Whereas the groups of researches just noted only introduced into

clinical practice those techniques which had previously been elaborated

- 615 -
in general psychology and psychophysiology , the subsequent big period
was already linked up with the elaboration of a special group of psy
chopathological researches which grew out of clinical work itself and
were based on the new conceptions which had developed during that time
in the Soviet science of psychology . Precisely these researches com
prise the true face of Soviet clinical psychology ; their ramified sy
stem , based on the works of a considerable number of participants, has
entered solidly into the practice of neurological and psychiatric clin
ical work and become the starting point for a great number of projects
devoted to the introduction of the psychological method into diagnosis
and therapy of disturbances of the complex forms of activity in cases
of pathological states of the brain .
There is no doubt that this period of work is intimately linked
with the labors of L. S. Vygotskiy , who was the initiator of a number
of researches , the broad - scale development of which occupied a further
considerable period after his death .
L. S. Vygotskiy was a researcher who introduced vital changes
into the most basic paths of Soviet psychology . Whereas up to that
period of which we are speaking psychology had to a considerable extent
continued to remain a science which studied isolated psychic functions,
making a successful approach to explanatory analysis of elementary psy
chic processes and limiting itself only to a description of the complex
forms of cognitive activity , with the appearance of the works of L. S.
Vygotskiy ( only a portion of which were published during his lifetime ),
the situation changed substantially. By showing via a cycle of exper
imental psychological researches that the higher psychic processes ( such
as active attention , voluntary recall and abstract thinking ) arise as a
result of the commerce of the child with adults and are based on the
formative role of activity with objects and of speech , Vygotskiy brought
into the foreground of psychological research the problem of instruments
which organize psychic processes and in the first instance the problem
of the role played by speech in the organization of the whole of activity .
Proposing a special method for the study of the higher psychic
processes , a method which he called the " method of dual stimulation , " and
carrying out with the aid of this method a series of researches of the
basic psychic processes ( active attention , voluntary recall , etc. ) ,
he showed at the same time that the meaning of the word which is the
basic instrument of abstraction and generalization alters in the process
of the development of the child and plays a different role at various
stages not only in the reflection of reality but also in the mediation
of psychic activity . It was precisely this which enabled him to ap
proach the experimental research of the basic processes of thought and
the objective study of how the higher psychic functions are formed in
ontogenesis and how they disintegrate in instances of pathological
states of the brain . Thanks to these works , carried out both by L. S.
Vygotskiy and by A. N. Leont’yev and their collaborators, processes
which formerly had been only to a small extent the object of a special
experimental psychological research and had been in the best case nerely

- 616 -
described began to be understood as the product of a complex dévelopment,
in the process of which the forms of commerce of the child with those
about him are gradually converted into the forms of his own psychic ac
tivity . This also led to such higher psychological functions as active
attention , voluntary memory and volitional behavior beginning gradually
to receive their scientific explanation . Precisely as a result of these
works the study of the structuring of psychic activity in the human in
dividual in its development and its disintegration the genesis and
pathology of the higher psychological functions -- began to be made the
subject of psychological research . There arose the opportunity of tak
ing an experimental approach to the analysis of what forms are assumed
by the complex reflection of reality in the successive stages of develop
ment , how they are disturbed in pathological states of the brain and how
the relationships of the basic psychic processes ( of direct perception ,
recall and abstractive, generalizing speech ) alter at the various stages
of ontogenesis and in the various forms of pathological alterations of
psychic activity . In other words, there arose that opportunity of a
study of the semantic and systemic structuring of themind which has
often been a key to the understanding of each stage of the psychic de
velopment of the child and of the various forms of the pathology of
psychic activity .
The theoretical postulates of L. S. Vygotskiy, which pointed
out the whole uniqueness of the psychic life of the human individual and
were close to the basic ideas of I. P. Pavlov concerning the interaction
of the two signals systems, raised the problem of the experimental psy
chological study of consciousness as the top priority practical problem
and placed it in the center of researches which thereafter were carried
out also in Soviet clinical psychology .
L. S. Vygotskiy attributed fundamental importance to the investi
gation of the development and pathology of speech and thought . He proposed
a method of experimental psychological investigation of the development
of concepts ( the so- called Vygotskiy -Sakharov method [See Note7) [ 36] ,
and , applying it to the research of the alteration of thought in schizo
phrenia , was the first to show what structure thought assumes in this
disease . These researches, which later became famous , permitted of ap
proaching a scientific analysis of the basic symptom of schizophrenia.
They showed that that special ( according to all data , inhibited ) state
of the cerebral cortex which is proper to this disease inevitably leads
to a lesion of the system of connections behind words and thereby brings
about a disintegration of the system of concepts , replacing them by con
nections of syncretic or complex thought. In this unique alteration of
the semantic structuring of the word Vygotskiy saw the basic symptom of
schizophrenia , affording the opportunity not only of applying to its
study objective experimental psychological techniques ( this had been
done by B. V. Zeygarnik [577 , F. v. Bassin 27, and others ), but also
of approaching an analysis of those affective alterations which char
acterize the mind of the schizophrenic . The main postulates obtained
in psychological research of schizophrenia were reported more than once

- 617 -
by Vygotskiy at psychiatric congresses and in the psychiatric press ( 327
and had a wide echo among psychoneurological specialists .
( Līlote ] It was taken to the USA by Ya . I. Kazanin , became wide
spread there under the name " the Vygotskiy method " or the " Ganfman
Kazanin nethod , " and served as basis for a great number of researches,
especially actively pursued by the famous neuropathologist , K. Gold
stein . )
L. S. Vygotskiy made by his researches a vital contribution to
the theory of schizophrenia and showed the possibility of an experimen
tal psychological approach to the basic problems of the pathological
alteration of the mind . By so doing , he laid the basis for a number of
researches of vital importance for neurological clinical work .
Precisely to him should be credited the efforts at a meticulous
analysis of those alterations of speech and categorical thinking which
occur in cases of aphasia; researches undertaken by him or on his init
iative made it possible to show that lesions of speech occurring in
cases of focal affections of the brain lead not only to substantial al
terations of the processes of abstraction and generalization but also
change the correlation of the basic psychic processes , imparting to
the reflection of reality a considerably more concrete character . These
researches, carried out almost simultaneously with the famous researches
of K. Goldstein , shoved convincingly how thinking in concepts is deranged
in cases of aphasia , how the forms of communication acquire here a more
palpable , situational character and how in connection with this the think
ing of the aphasiac , which before had relied on the mediating role of the
word , acquires a more immediate form .
of special importance are the researches, begun on the initiative
of L. S. Vygotskiy , of the lesion of phonic hearing in aphasia; these
researches, to the basic results of which we shall return again below ,
represented a vital contribution to the theory of aphasia .
of great interest likewise are the researches on the peculiarities
of the structuring of conduct and behavior in cases of parkinsonism , be
gun by L. S. Vyogtskiy and, at his initiative, pursued further .
These researches , often mentioned in individual talks of Vygotskiy
and published by A. R. Luriya [ 1097, made it possible to show that there
exist forms of derangement, in many respects the opposite of aphasia and
distinguished by the fact that in them the speech processes -- the most
complex forms of mediated organization of behavior -- not only do not
suffer but , on the contrary , become the basic instrument of compensation
for the damaged behavior . Experiments in which the defective behavior
of the sufferer from parkinsonism acquires its organization with the aid
of an interpolation of speech were the first in which was successfully
shown experimentally that entirely special species of derangements of
the psychic activity characterized by the retention of the higher psychic
functions which emerge as the instrument of compensation of primary de
fects . Precisely in these experiments it was shown that voluntary move
ments deranged in parkinsonism as a result of the pathologically altered
tone can to a certain extent be compensated by bringing them into the

- 618 -
system of cortical afferentations and imparting to them a special meaning
with the aid of spoken connections. Experiments at the restoration of
voluntary movements in sufferers from parkinsonism , experiments carried
out on the initiative of L. S. Vygotskiy as early as 1926 , were the means
of getting closer to the psychological structure of the volitional act
as a complex mediated activity . A number of experiments of L. S.
Vygotskiy , devoted to the problem of hysteria and the deciphering of
"hypoboulic ( sub -volitional ] mechanisms" (research on which he began to
gether with P. A. Averbukh and M. B. Eydinova) have not been published
either in his works or in those of his students . In this series of re
searches , Vygotskiy tried to approach the important problems of medical
psychology and to show that in the normal mind the crucial role is played
not by depth and unconscious ( "hypoboulic" ) mechanisms but rather by so
cially conditioned , " superficial " conscious mechanisms, which should be
the basis of a genuine , scientifically grounded psychotherapy .
The treatment of the question of the systemic structure of the
psychic functions, and likewise the attentive study of those consequences
to which focal affections of the brain will lead made it possible to ap
proach the solution of questions connected with an analysis of the
structure of the psychic processes and of that significance which accrues
to the various regions of the brain in the execution of the complex forms
of psychic activity . Vygotskiy himself showed that certain definite re
gions of the cerebral cortex , especially those connected with speech , are
of importance not only for the individual partial forms of psychic activ
ity ( auditory , visual, tactile analysis and synthesis) but also for the
structuring of the complex forms of the higher psychic processes as a
whole . However and herein lies the central postulate which Vygotskiy
contributed to the solution of the given problem -- the functional import
ance and significance of a given region of the cerebral cortex for the
entire system of the psychic processes proves not to be the same at var
ious stages of development . In the adult individual with functional sy
stems already developed in which the leading mediating and regulatory
role is always played by complex forms of activity , especially those con
nected with speech , an affection of a given center always has an influ
ence on the normal operation of a lower center dependent on it ; the
situation is different in the early stages of development and an affec
tion of a certain definite cerebral center which serves as a base for
the further development of the more complex formations has an influence
on the systemic underdevelopment of higher centers which are only genet
ically dependent on the affected region .
This reverse direction of systemic influence of a focus in devel
opment and disintegration was shown by Vygotskiy in a number of concrete
instances .
There is no doubt that the introduction of a genuinely scientific
genetic conception into the theory of the localization of the psychic
functions, an introduction achieved by L. S. Vygotskiy on the basis of
an analysis of the structuring of the psychic activity of the human indi
vidual and of its alterations in the succeeding stages of development,
belongs to the important contributions made by Soviet scholars to this
area of science .

- 619 -
 All the above - listed researches relate to the contribution made
by L. S. Vygotskiy to the general theory of nervous and psychic ailments
by applying to them the techniques of psychological researches .
Equally great importance , however, accrues to the contribution
inade by Vygotskiy to the theory concerning the psychic development of
the abnormal child and thereby to Soviet defectology .
In the analysis of the abnormal child ( the mentally retarded ,
the deaf -mute , the blind , the child with speech defects ) there pre
vailed for a long time an oversimplified symptomatological approach .
Starting from such a position , foreign and domestic researchers con
sidered that the defects of mental development and behavior in ab
normal children are the direct result of various cerebral defects;
therefore the defects in mental activity encountered in deaf -mutes or
children hard of hearing afforded a basis for supposing that they had
some supplenentary cerebral lesion directly leading to this defect .
L. S. Vygotskiy expressed the idea that a considerable number
of the defects observed in these cases are not the simple result of
cerebral lesions but rather must be considered as a secondary result
of the abnormal development of the child . If one or another pre
requisite of this development is damaged , then the entire development
of the child acquires an abnormal character ; therefore comparatively
small defects ( for instance, a slight impairment of hearing) can entail
considerable consequences . This point of view , based on a great amount
of observations and developed later by a number of Vygotskiy's pupils
( R. M. Boskis , R. Ye . Levina, M. S. Pevzner and others) brought about
a new dynamic approach to the abnormal development of the child and be
came in the sequel the theoretical basis of Soviet defectology .
All these facts compel a placing of a very high value on the
works of L. S. Vygotskiy and show how important was the contribution of
this researcher to Soviet medical psychology .
14

The works of L. S. Vygotskiy on which we have just been writing

gave a substantial impulse to the development of Soviet psychology and
brought into being a broad chain of researches in which psychology was
used for the solution of urgent problems of neurological and psychi
atric clinical work , The distinguishing feature of these researches
was that all of them far transcended the bounds of individual isolated
projects which had studied this or that separate process ( association ,
memory, etc. ) in pathological states of the brain , and at the same
time made a decisive break with the efforts to limit psychological ex
periment in clinical work by the formal application of a number of
tests with quantitative expression of the results obtained . The basic
task of all these projects was , on the basis of a meticulous psycho
logical research , to approach a description of the entire pathological
syndrome, in other words , the structural analysis of those integral

- 620
alterations which occurred in the patient as a result of the pathological
state of his cerebral activity . To put it even more accurately , this
branch of psychology was faced with the task of utilizing the techniques
of experimental psychological research so as to qualify the syndrome,
in other words, to reveal behind the superficial clinical picture of
the ailment that primary lesion which is directly connected with the
basic defect , and those secondary , systemic disorders, which are the
result of this primary lesion . If , for example , the directly patent
symptom of an ailment were a disorder of writing, it would be entirely
unscientific to presuppose that the patient's " writing center " is dam
aged and completely insufficient simply to note this fact clinically .
A skillfully conducted psychological experiment has permitted of reveal .
ing behind this superficial phenomenon in various cases entirely differ
ent basic defects and made it possible to come to the conclusion that
in some cases behind the lesion of script lies a lesion of phonic hear
ing , in others, a disintegration of the articulative analysis of sounds ,
in still others , a lesion of spatial analysis and synthesis of written
letters , in still others again , inertia of motor acts and the like . It
is completely understandable that only such preliminary work at making
more precise and giving a better qualitative description of the defect
has permitted of approaching its real explanation and in the final an
alysis opened up the way to a physiopathological analysis of this de
fect .
In the first decade following the death of L. S. Vygotskiy ,
this work at psychological analysis and qualification of defects which
arise in pathological states of the brain occupied the main attention
of Soviet psychopathologists; in the second decade, their work was sup
plemented by a second extremely vital task , that of making the transi
tion from a psychological clarification and pinpointing of the syndrome
to its physiopathological explanation . The roads of research marked
out in the previous stage were complicated by that task of rapproche
ment of the psychological and the physiological analysis, based on the
I. P. Pavlov theory of higher neural activity , without which this field
would never have come to its logical goal nor ever have acquired that
explanatory power which is afforded it by a scientific physiopathology
of the higher neural activity .
The projects in respect of the psychological analysis of patho
logical states of the brain , begun at the initiative of L. S. Vygotskiy,
acquired a widely ramified character in the following decades .
In the works of A. R. Luriya , as also in the works of a number
of neuropathologists ( s . M. Blinkov, G. Kh . Bykhovskaya, N. I. Fili
monov , M. B. Eydinova and others) and psychologists ( V. M. Kogan , M.
S. Lebedinskiy and others ) , the basic syndromes of aphasia were sub
jected to psychological study [ 147, [797, (877, [108]. In the ab
normal child clinic , these researches were conducted in detail by R.
Ye. Levina and R. M. Boskis [ 28 ], [297. 1917, 1927. A number of re
searchers devoted_themselves to a study of agnostic disorders [23],
[247, [ 171] , [7767, [1787. Big advances were made in the analysis of

- 621 -
the lesion of the motor sphere and descriptions were made of the basic
syndromes of the lesion of movements in cases of affection of various
sections_of_the cerebral cortex [13] [ 19] [ 20], [21], [ 103], [102],
[ 7087, [109]; finally, the alterations of the psychic processes which
occur in cases of affections of_the frontal portions of the brain were
subjected to careful analysis [597 , [60] [61], 37. [43] [71] [102] ,
[1127, [12 ], [ 162 ] [ 1647. All these researches enabled the Soviet
psychopathologists substantially to advance the study of those differen
tiated alterations in the psychic activity which occur in cases of local
affections of the brain and to make a substantial contribution to the
question of the localization of functions in the cerebral cortex .
A considerable space in the projects of Soviet medical psycho
logists has been devoted to the psychological analysis of speech dis
orders and of the various syndromes of aphasia .
In the very rich literature on aphasia extant here and abroad ,
the basic clinical forms of these disorders have been described ; but
Soviet researchers have succeeded in approaching closer to their quali
fication . Soviet researchers abandoned the naive symptomatological ap
proach which considered such phenomena as lesion of memory for the spoken
word , paraphasia , agranmatism , etc. , as a direct manifestation of focal
disorders which had allegedly damaged specialized " centers " of various
complex psychic processes . They began to consider these symptoms as
secondary results of special lesions , directly connected with the func
tions of various sections of the cerebral cortex . Following the prin
ciple already described above , they considered it possible to presuppose
that as a result of the lesion of a partial individual physiological pre
requisite essential for the execution of the speech act ( for instance ,
auditory analysis and synthesis, synthetic unification of the stimulations
into one simultaneous whole and the like ) , there arise complex and varied
disorders of speech activity . Therefore a considerable portion of Soviet
psychologists tried to subject speech disorders to a meticulous struc
tural analysis, so that this analysis would permit them to understand
the varied and complex symptoms of speech disorders as the systemic re
sult of partial individual lesions in the operations of the cerebral
cortex and thereby to link up these lesions with a close analysis of
the alterations themselves in the operation and functioning of the af
fected sections of the cerebral cortex and more accurately to under
stand the whole wealth of the syndromes observed in various forms of
aphasia .
Thus , in the works of R. Ye . Levina and R. M. Boskis (297, 1917,
was shown the fact of the lesion of phonic hearing which lies at the
root of underdevelopment of speech and writing_in_child alalics ; in
the researches of A. R. Luriya [105], [108] , [111] ,thisfact was sub
jected to a detailed study and on the basis of an analysis of verified
neurosurgical data there were described those consequences to which
leads a lesion of phonic hearing arising as a result of an affection
of the systems of the left lateral region of the great hemispheres . The
analysis of the syndromes of lesion of the left lateral region , given in

• 622 -
these researches and likewise in the monograph of E. S. Beyn / 767, permit
ted of finding the real place occupied in them by lesions of the audi tory
structure of the word , alienation of the meaning of words, lesion of writ
ing and reading, defects of the lexical and grammatical aspect of speech
and peculiarities of the lesion of thought. All these materials made it
possible substantially to advance the study of the sensory disorders of
speech and to overcome those difficulties which had been encountered by
the researchers who had attempted to explain the phenomena of sensory
aphasia either as partial individual auditory disorders or as generic
alterations of thought not connected with speech . Investigations car
ried out in recent years in Soviet science as to how auditory analysis
and_synthesis is damaged in affections of the left lateral region ( 8 ),
1727, et al .) have made it possible to tie in these researches with a
physiological analysis of the function of the audi tory analyzer and
have brought the theory of these disorders closer to an exact physio
logical knowledge .
To a no less meticulous analysis have been subjected other forms
of aphasia as well ; and this has permitted of uncovering other aspects
of speech activity. In special researches [ 307 , [101] [108], an anal
ysis was given of how the semantic, logico -grammatical aspect of speech
are damaged and what physiological mechanisms ( in the shape of lesions
of simultaneous syntheses) may lie at the root of these lesions ; a de
scription of the syndrome of parietal - occipital affections, which in
variably occasion a disorder of spatial syntheses , of the understanding
of complex speech structures and a lesion of counting [ B07 ,[81] ,[ 749],
was devoted to efforts to incorporate a psychological examination into
the analysis of one of the most complex syndromes arising upon affection
of the great hemispheres . Finally , some new facts were introduced like
wise into the analysis of motor aphasias, among which were distinguished
two divergent forms, connected with a lesion of the articulative analy
sis and synthesis of the word on the one hand and with a lesion of the
successive system of audi tory syntheses on the other [ 108 ].
In all of the researches just described efforts were made to sub
ject the speech disorders to a psychophysiological analysis so as to
clarify to what lesions of the complex speech process a disease of the
cortical terminals of the various analyzers may lead . To this basic
task likewise was devoted the monograph of A. R. Luriya " Traumatic
Aphasia , " in which the author approaches the various forms of speech
disorders as the result of local lesions of the operations of the
various analyzers .
of no less interest , however , is another way of analysis of
speech disorders which has come out in the works of V. M. Kogan , L , G.
Chlenov and others, some of which have not yet been published ( [78 ],
[79], et al .) ; in them was subjected to a psychological analysis that
system of connections which lies behind the word and in whose lesion
may be seen the basic sign proper to every central disorder of the
speech function . In contradistinction to the former series, this im
portant series of projects busied itself not with a differential study

· 623 -
of the various forms of aphasia but rather subjected to a psychological
analysis that which is common to any sort of aphasia. The authors of
these works note that the various connections stimulated by the word in
aphasia are oversimplified , the meaning of the word acquires a narrow
character , tied in only with a certain definite habitual context and as
a result of this both the understanding of words and their use suffer
substantially. There is no doubt that the meticulous analysis of the
pathology of verbal connections arising in cases of aphasia , the analy
sis which has been carried out by V. M. Kogan and his colleagues, rep
resents an indisputable contribution to the pathological psychology of
speech and brings us closer to an understanding of that lesion of the
interaction of the two signals systems which occurs in these cases .
The researches devoted to the lesion of the dynamic of speech disorders,
published byM. S. Lebedinskiy (877 , considerablysupplements this psy
chological approach to the pathological alterations of speech and ties
it in with a broad group of problems arising in the analysis of speech
disorders in psychiatric clinical work .
A number of researches of psychopathologists has been devoted
to the analysis of lesions of cognitive activity , specifically the
problems of agnosia . To the problem of the lesion of visual gnosis
were devoted the projects_of_I . M. Solov'yev, conducted in collabora
tion with L. G. Chlenov [1607 , 71617. In these projects, as also in the
researches of zn . I. Shif ( 177. [ 172], was shown how the processes of
comparison and recognition of figures and letters are disturbed in path
ological cases and what alterations are suffered in pathological states
by the process of the singling out of the similar and the divergent upon
comparison of visually perceived objects . A research of G. V. Birenbaum
[237, 247, small in its scope but of fundamental significance, was de
voted to the analysis of the psychological peculiarities of the lesion
of visual perception in optical agnosia . It showed that the essence
of these peculiarities lay in the lesion of simultaneous syntheses of
the visually perceived marks of the objects or their representations,
thanks to which an optical agnosia patient begins to perceive with
equal facility both integral and fragmentarily presented objects and
interpret the images perceived by him in the same way in_both cases .
Finally, in a number of researches of A. Ya . Kolodnaya [81], [82], ef
forts were made to trace the disintegration of spatial syntheses ob
served in affection of the occipital -parietal region and their compen
sation with the aid of the intact cutaneous analyzer . If to this be
added the psychological research of the famous Soviet psychiatrist , R.
Ya. Golant " On the Disorder of Memory " [51], in which problems of amnesia
are aligned with the disorder of perception and in which are shown the
generic mechanisms lying at the root both of the lesion of perception and
of the lesion of memory , it can be seen what a considerable contribution
Soviet researchers have made to the complex questions of the pathology
of the human cognitive activity ..
No less a number of the researches of Soviet psychopathology have
been devoted to a study of the lesions of the motor processes in cases

- 624 -
of focal affections of the brain . The successes of neural surgery have
made it possible entirely to subject to a special analysis the motor dis
orders and to describe their integral components . An attentive analysis
of these alterations in the motor processes, which arise in cases of af
fections of the parietal and pre -motor sections of the brain in man , have
permitted of concluding that , among all the lesions of the complex motor
processes , there can indeed be singled out two entirely different syn
dromes, which have been described by a number of foreign authors and
which have received in the analysis of Soviet researchers both a more
accurate description and their physiological characterization . Obser
vations on patients and a number of special researches have shown that ,
wereas in the case of an affection of the parietal sections of the
cerebral cortex , as is well known , there occurs a lesion of the innerva
tional pattern of the motor act and as a result of lesions of spatial
analysis and synthesis of a lesion of kinesthetic analysis there is dam
age to the correctness and accuracy of movement, the lesion of movements
acquires an entirely different character in cases of affection of the
pre -motor sections of the cerebral cortex . In these instances, the ac
curacy of individual movements remains intact , but there is a drastic
lesion of the process of the changeover from one movement to another ;
the denervation of the previous motor act which is essential thereto is
rendered difficult, the smoothness and automatization of movements is
disturbed , and the " kinetic melody " is caused to disintegrate which char
acterizes every motor habit .
This sort of description of the syndromes of the motor disorders
in cases of affections of the post - central and pre -motor sections of the
cerebral cortex , as also the_descriptions of the early symptoms of these
disorders [103] [102] [109] [1197 , have permitted of rendering sub
stantially more precise the theory of the lesion of movements in man and,
by aligning the clinical analysis of the motor disorders with those forms
of lesion of the motor processes which have been obtained in physio
logical experiments with the deafferentation of the extremities in ani
mals (L. A. Orbeli , P , K , Anokhin et al . ) , have substantially enriched
the semeiotics of the motor disorders , which is so essential for the
clinical treatment of brain affections .
Whereas the researches just described were devoted to a differen
tial consideration of the motor lesions arising in cases of organic focal
affections, another , far more important series of researches connected
with the projects of N. A. Bernshteyn[ 18], [19] [20] [21], A. N.
Leontiyev and A. V. Zaporozhets [55] 193], was devoted to a detailed
analysis of the levels of structuredness of movements and their le
sions in instances of various forms of alteration of the afferent im
pulses . These researches , which have entered solidly into literature,
have shown that only a meticulous psychophysiological analysis of the
structure of the motor act and of the system of those afferent impulses
by which it is regulated can serve as a source for a reliable qualifica
tion of motor disorders, their qualitative analysis, and likewise as a

· 625 -
scientific basis for the restoration of movements in instances of their
pathological alterations accompanying various lesions of the peripheral
motor apparatus and of the central regulation of the motor acts . As we
shall see below , it was precisely these researches which enabled Soviet
psychophysiologists to carry out a number of important projects devoted
to the restoration of the motor functions after war - time traumata .
A number of researches of Soviet psychologists were directed to
approaching the description of the more complex lesions of the purposive
activity and of thought arising in cases of focal affections of the
brain . of interest in this respect are the researches which attempted
to study more closely those lesions in the psychic activity which arise
in man upon affection of the frontal sections of the brain .
A lesion of the complex forms of purposive activity has long been
connected with the affection of the frontal portions of the brain , which
a man as early as V. M. Bekhterev considered one of the cardinal "psycho
regulatory ” apparatuses. I. P. Pavlov pointed out that even in an animal
an affection of the frontal portions of the brain does not lead to a
disappearance of various partial sorts of analysis and synthesis but
rather entails a profound alteration of the entire active activity of
the animal , makes it a " hopeless invalid . " This fact he ascribes to
the frontal portions of the brain being in direct relation to the cen .
tral apparatus of motor analysis and synthesis and , thanks to this,
playing a substantial and vital role in the regulation of conduct and
behavior . To almost the same conclusions came likewise P. K. Anokhin ,
whose colleagues contributed particularly much to the experimental
study of the behavior of animals deprived of the frontal portions of
the great hemispheres (4), (317, et al . ).
If there be here added the foreign literature devoted to the
psychopathology of the frontal portions , especially the works of Bianchi ,
Franz, Jacobson , Brincker and many others, then the importance of the
problem of the frontal portions and their role in the organization of
behavior becomes quite clear .
To these physiological data and clinical descriptions of the
lesion of the psychic activity upon affection of the frontal portion
of the brain Soviet psychologists have added a great amount of concrete
material . A very great number of new and important facts were provided
by observations conducted on verified material concerning tumors of the
frontal portions of the brain and the extirpation of the frontal por
tions elicited by operations to remove these tumors . No less material
was obtained in observations of injuries under fire to these portions of
the brain , meticulous observations on which were conducted during the
war years .
All these materials, obtained with the aid of clinical observa
tions and systematically applied psychological experiments, showed that ,
despite the intactness of isolated processes of visual and auditory per
ception , of speech and of the structure of elementary motor acts , the
behavior of sufferers from affection of the frontal sections proves to be
really profoundly disturbed . As was shown by the researches of A. R.

626 -
Luriya and his colleagues 3, [43], [71], [ 102], [ Tog], [ 723], [ 7427 ,
[1497. [162] [ 1647, these lesions may be seen both in the behavior of
a frontal patient in normal circumstances and in the behavior of the
same patient in the special circumstances of the psychological exper
iment in which the basic defects came out in a specially neat form .
By observing patients as the tumor develops [1637, during the post
operative period [ 1617, in the normal circumstances of the workshops
[one
7477fundamental
, and by following his catamnesis, it was possible to discover
fact : whereas in the normal state the concrete acts of
behavior are determined by complex systems of motives and by the well
known "pre-go syntheses " which arise on the basis of a preparatory
orientation in the situation and of a solid influence of plans and pur
poses formulated by speech , this system of " pre - go afferentations" is
noticeably distrubed in the case of any sort of clear affection of the
frontal portions of the brain and disintegrates entirely in pronounced
instances of such affection . As was shown by these researches , in the
latter instances the behavior has entirely lost its purposive character
and been replaced either by immediate impulsive reactions to any frag
ment of the situation or by inert perseveration of an action once be
gun . A like fate was the lot of the thinking of patients with frontal
affections; it wasshown by the projects of B.v . Zeygarnik 587 ,1597,
[60] [61] [62] [637 , ard a number of other researches (Ye, K.
Andreyeva 37 Z. Ya. Rudenko [ 7497, s . G. Gadzhiyev [43], and others)
to acquire a dynamic, fragmentary character or to be replaced by the
perseveration of inert connections .
It is easy to see that, in the meticulous tracing of this sort
of lesions of psychic activity , the researchers were approaching a
description of those peculiarities of the complex structure of volun
tary activity which is specific to man and which is formed in the pro
cess of a protracted development and developed with the most intimate
interaction of the two signal systems.

Soviet clinical psychology has conducted not a few projects de

voted to the meticulous study of the picture of those alterations in the
psychic activity which occur as a result of cerebral affections and has
made a substantial contribution to making more precise the diagnosis of
these affections and to making possible a more accurate recognition of
the mechanisms which are at the root of them . However , our exposition
of what has been done by Soviet psychology in application to the ques
tions of clinical practice would be far from complete if we did not
consider the elaboration by Soviet psychologists of a scientific basis
for the restoration of functions damaged as a result of a brain lesion
or a lesion of the peripheral nervous system and in the first instance
as a result of war injuries .
Very important contributions have been made to the theory and
practice of the restoration of functions by those Soviet psychologists

.627
( B. G. Anan'yev , S. M. Blinkov , s . C. Gellershteyn , L. V. Zankov , A. V.
Zaporozhets , A. R. Luriya , A. N. Leont'yev , and also E. S. Beyn , V. N.
Bubnova , V. 4. Kogan , A. Ya . Kolodnaya, Zh . I. Shif and many others) who
joined forces during the period of the Great Patriotic War and constructed
a widely ramified netivork of researches .
The restoration of functions damaged by injury , tumor or haemorrhage
is one of the cardinal tasks of practical medicine . It would be wrong
however to conceive this task narrowly and not take into account the role
played in the restoration of functions by a system of psychologically
based exercises and periods of active restructuring of the functional sy
stems, side by side with preservative and medicational measures .
The restoration of the damaged functions is at one and the same
time a matter of medication and a matter of psychologically based pedan
gogy That is why the creation of a scientifically grounded theory of
the restoration of functions has proven an important concern both of
medicine and of psychology .
l'edicine well knew that the functions of the directly damaged
sections of the brain cannot be restored and that the functions of the
damaged peripheral nervous system can be restored only exceptionally
slowly as a result of the germination of the central segments of the
nerve which only gradually attain to the periphery . Therefore it always
paid special attention to restoration of functions by the vicarious meth
od ( transferring them to other organs , most often symmetrical ones ) and
by way of disinhibition of functions where the damage to segments of the
nerve fiber had led to their temporary inhibition .
Soviet psychologists who during the Great Patriotic War enlisted
in the business of the restoration of functions not only took into ac
count and made use of these two ways, which were widely known in phys
iology . They also devoted a considerable number of researches to the
elaboration of a third way , almost the most important of all , of res
toration of damaged functions by way of their functional restructuring .
Almost the most important cycle of projects conducted in these
years by Soviet psychologists was devoted to the question of the mech
anisms of restoration of functions in cases of affection of the peripheral
nerves and of the support-motor apparatus. foundation
There is every
for the assertion that these projects , conductedunder the directionof
A. N. Leontiyev and A. V.Zaporozhets [45]. 55], [937, 1947, /522) , and
likewise with the participation of S. G. Gellershteyn 1467, 247 ,2487 ,
substantially advanced the question of the mechanisms of the restoration
of the motor functions . There is no doubt that this success was pre
pared by the previous works of Soviet physiologists .
As early as in the researches of L. A. Orbeli, P. K. Anokhin and
above all N. A. Bernshteyn , it had been shown that a decisive role in
the structuring of movements is played by the system of afferent im
pulses, on the proper arrival of which depends the regular flow of the
motor act . Taking as point of departure this postulate , Soviet psy
chologists tried to apply this sort of restructuring of afferentations

- 628
for the compensation of those defects in the motor processes which arose
as a result of injury to the peripheral nerves or the support-motor ap
paratus . Having established that these injuries are accompanied by a
profound disturbance of the proprioceptive afferentation and that in
this way the lesion of the movement is to a greater extent the result of
the lesion of sensitivity than it is the result of an immediate paresis,
A. N. Leont'yev and his colleagues set themselves the goal of altering
the system of those afferentations by putting in the place of the dam
aged proprioceptive afferentations intact exteroceptive ones and there
by securing a successful compensation of motor defects. The results
of these projects, described in a whole series of publications ( [437 et
al . ) , showed that a patient with plexitis of the arm may be able to
raise the arm only to a negligible height upon direct instruction or
command , but that by changing the conditions of the experiment and in
terpolating the system of visual afferentations ( for example, suggest
ing to him that he raise the arm to a certain definite point ) or by
making the transition to object activity ( for example , suggesting to
the patient that he reach up to an object hung at a great height or
catch a ball or the like ) , the limits of the movements of the damaged
extremity can be considerably expanded . The enlistment of a movement
into a system of new afferentations and the restructuring of movements
with conversion of them into object actions has proved an important
principle of restorative therapy of the support- motor apparatus and
they have been put at the basis of the construction of the systems of
those measures which were widely implemented in war - time hospitals. А
rational system of work therapy , founded on these principles and having
recourse to a rational alteration of the afferentations of the damaged
movements and to a well - thought out organization of the motives of the
actions to be performed, played a vital role in the remedial measures
carried out during the Great Patriotic War . Special descriptions_of
this system as practiced during the war and post-war years ( cf. [46] ,
( 427) show what a scope this work attained and what important achieve
ments of theoretical analysis of the process of the restoration of
functions were at the basis of it.
The work done by Soviet clinicians and psychologists at the res
toration of damaged functions was not limited to instances of affection
of the peripheral nerves and of the support- motor apparatus . of almost
greater scope were researches devoted to the restoration of functions
damaged as a result of injuries to the cerebrum .
It is well -known that brain cells damaged by injury or other
pathological process can not be restored at all . Only in those cases
in which , thanks to excessive inhibition occasioned by a trauma or to
diaschisis , they have been temporarily put out of operation , can there
be expected a restoration of their original function and can active meas
ures be undertaken toward a removal of this inhibitive state . In other
cases there remains only the method of restructuring of the functional
systems as a possibility which might lead to the restoration of the dam
aged function on new bases .

. 629 -
 Along these two lines proceeded the investigations and researches
of the Soviet psychologists and clinicians, researches which were broadly
developed during World War II .
Experience has shown that every injury to the brain is accompanied
by an effect far wider than that which is occasioned by the immediate
lesion of one or another group of cells; this wider effect of the lesion
is explained in the first instance by the fact that a certain definite
zone of the cerebral cortex located near or sometimes even far from the
damaged one goes into a state of excessive inhibition and temporarily
goes out of active operation . The researches of Soviet pharmacologists ,
physiologists and clinicians showed that a vital link in such affections
is the lesion of functional conductivity in the synaptic apparatus and
that this damaged conductivity may be restored with the help of special
mediatory substances, in the first instance of the anti - cholinesterase
group ( eserine, prostigmine or proserine, galantamine ) . The use of
these substances for the purpose of restoration of functions damaged as
a result of the functional lesion of conductivity accompanying a brain
injury occasioned a series of projects devoted to the restoration of
functions after a war injury to the brain . As researches conducted by
a number of Soviet authors ( Ya , A. Ratner , N. I. Grashchenkov , L. B.
Perel'man and others) showed , the efforts to restore damaged functions
with the aid of this sort of pharmacological intervention proved excep
tionally productive and a number of published works showed convincingly
the important successes which could be achieved by bringing about in
this way a disinhibition of temporarily inhibited functions .
However the restoration of damaged functions of the brain by way
of their disinhibition was only one portion ( and a comparatively small
one , at that ) of the work carried out by Soviet psychologists during
World War II and in the post- war years , A considerably greater place
was occupied by work devoted to the restoration of damaged functions
of the brain by way of their functional restructuring ; precisely , these
researches specially advanced the theory of the lesion and restoration
of the psychic processes in cases of local affections of the brain .
Soviet psychology disposed of important and detailed experience
from special pedagogy : teaching of the deaf -mutes, of blind children ,
of children with hearing and speech defects ( for the theoretical founda
tion of which much was done by L. S. Vygotskiy ) served as a model which
could be successfully utilized for the restoration of speech , writing
and reading , damaged as a result of focal affections of the brain . These
tasks of the restoration of damaged functions by way of their restructur
ing were discharged in a number of projects of whole teams of Soviet psy
chologists , collected around a number of special rehabilitation
hospitals . The results of these projects were published in a book of A ,
R. Luriya , " Restoration of the Functions of the Brain After War Injury , "
and in two research anthologies published under the editorship of L , V.
Zankov and reflecting the work of the team which he had led [53], 1547.
They were reflected likewise in the works of a special conference con
voked by the chair of psychology of Moscow University in 1945.

- 630 -
 The basic principle which guaranteed the success of this cycle
of projects was the principle of restructuring of the functional sys
tems on the basis of a preliminary meticulous qualification of the defect
as a result of which had been revealed both primary ( and most often ir
revocable ) lesions occasioned directly by the influence of the injury
and those systemic secondary alterations which could be overcome by
utilizing the functional restructuring of the system based on the use of
the intact links . Were those complex processes ( speech , writing , read
ing , counting ), which are damaged in cases of lesion of one or another
section of the brain , homogeneous functions, localized in certain dei
inite narrowly limited sections of the cerebral cortex (known in the
old neurological literature as " centers of speech , " "centers of irito
ing" , " centers of counting " and the like ) , then no sort of restoration
of such damaged functions would, of course , be possible .
However , researches showed that each and every "function" which
is damaged in cases of cerebral affections is in actual fact a complex
functional system , based on the joint operation of many sections of the
cerebral cortex , each of which is a part of the cortical representation
of one or another analyzer and plays its own special role in the execu
tion of a given activity . Therefore, in case of affection of this sec
tion inevitably there begin to suffer all the processes which rely on
the participation of the given cortical zone ; thus, in cases of affec
tion of the cortical sections of the audi tory analyzer , there is a
lesion both of understanding of speech and of writing which requires a
special analysis of the audio composition of the words to be written ,
and of the denomination of objects based on the reproduction of sound
complexes comprising words, etc. On the other hand , in virtue of the
systemic structure of the functions, the lesion of the most varied sec
tions of the cerebral cortex entering into the composition of the aud
itory, visual and motor analyzers, may lead to the lesion of one and the
same functional system ( voluntary action , speech , writing ), but this
lesion will also be distinguished every time by unique peculiarities,
and ( which is specially important) can be compensated by way of an
interpolation into the execution of this damaged activity of new intact
sections of the cerebral cortex . The basic techniques of such a res
toration of functional systems were worked out by Soviet psychologists
during the Great Patriotic War . In no sense were they a direct trans
fer into the clinic of those techniques which had been worked out in
the rehabilitation instruction of deaf -mutes and the hard of hearing .
Naturally, the concrete forms of such a restoration of the damaged
functions by way of a restructuring of the functional systems were pro
foundly divergent in instances in which speech , writing or reading had
been damaged as a result of primary damage to the auditory analysis and
synthesis and in instances in which there lay at the root of these le
sions a damage to the kinesthetic base of articulation or lesions of
the visual - spatial synthesis . However , the basic principle of the res
toration of the functions by way of a restructuring of the functional
system and especially by way of an enlistment of the system of semantic

- 631 -
connections which are connections formed on the basis of the second
signals system , remained identical for all these lesions , so varied
in their concrete forms .
Precisely because of the equal usefulness of this principle in
the most varied lesions , the scope of the work at restoration of damaged
brain functions proved to be very broad . Soviet psychologists published
a number of special works on the restoration of speech , writing and read
ing , on the restoration of the processes of counting and of spatial oper
ations , on the compensation of defects of praxis and gnosis and went at
the solution of a number of questions connected with the restoration of
the dynamic of thought operations damaged in various affections of the
cerebral cortex ( [17, 1537, 1347, [1027, etc. ) . There is no doubt that
all these projocts contributed much that was new both to the theory of
the structuring of psychic activity of man and to the practice of its
restoration , providing at the same time vital material for the descrip
tion of a number of facts of importance for the physiology of the higher
neural activity of man .

The projects conducted by Soviet psychologists made a considerable

contribution to making more precise those alterations which are introduced
by pathological states of the brain into the flow of the psychic proces
ses , and made it possible substantially to enrich several theoretical
notions of the structure of the psychic activity of man : after all , as
I. P. Pavlov asserted " the pathological often reveals to us , by decompos
ing and simplifying , what is hidden from us under the accretions and
complications in the physiological norm " ( I. P. Pavlov , " Lectures on the
Operation of the Great Hemispheres of the Cerebrum , " Sobr. soch . ( Collect
ed Works), Vol . IV , izd - VOAN SSSR ( USSR Academy of Sciences Press) ,
Moscovi-Leningrad , 1951, page 317.)
For all this, however , it should be noted that the psychological
researches in the clinic described in the preceding pages had one sub
stantial defect : in describing those alterations which occurred in the
structure of the psychic activity as a result of brain affections , they
did not devote sufficient attention to those physiopathological altera
tions of the higher neural processes which were always at their root .
Therefore, not infrequently the meticulous investigation of the disin
tegration of the structure of human activity in cases of brain affec
tions, while it was an exceptionally necessary and indeed essential
stage, nevertheless often assumed a descriptive character and the re
searchers, not having been afforded the opportunity to explain the
manifestation of various symptoms by the pathological alteration of the
higher neural processes, were compelled to remain within the limits of
guesswork , often of a most hypothetical sort .
Only in individual researches ( and very few they were) conducted
in the main in a comparatively early period , such as the works of I. D.
Sapir[ 7517 and the projects ofP.Ya. Galiperin and R. A. Golubeva(447,

- 632 -
devoted to individual symptoms of aphasia , or the work of A. Ye . Petrova
[ 142] [143], [ 744 ], directed to the research of the associative proces
sesin epilepsy , were efforts made to interpret the data obtained in the
light of the basic mechanisms of a pathologically altered higher neural
activity . Only at the end of the 1940's and the beginning of the 1950's
did the situation change substantially .
A broad revival of interest in works devoted to the analysis of
the higher neural activity of man in its normal and pathological state ;
the appearance of a great number of researches which , side by side with
the works of A. G. Ivanov - Smolenskiy and his colleagues, set the basic
task of studying the pathologically altered mechanisms of higher neural
activity and of the damaged interaction of the two signals systems in
cases of morbid states of the brain ; and finally , the introduction of
new and exact methods of research of the higher neural processes ( an in
tensification of projects utilizing electroencephalographic and electro
miographic, cutaneousgalvanic and plethysmographic methods) all of
this led to psychology being faced in no uncertain terms with the task
of getting aloser to the Pavlovian physiology of higher neural activity
without losing sight of the whole complexity of the phenomena it was
studying but at the same time reorganizing and basing its work on the
theory of I. P. Pavlov .
And this task is characteristic for the last period of the de
velopment of Soviet psychopathology ; and in the last decade scarcely
any researches of Soviet psychopathologists can be named which have
stood aside from work connected with the discharge of this task .
A focul or diffuse affection leads first of all to an alteration
of the normal flow of the higher neural processes ; the strength of the
neural processes is decreased , the equilibrium of the excitatory and in
hibitory processes is disturbed , the mobility of the processes suffers .
These manifestations of the pathology of the higher neural activity some
times are of a local character ( limited to the immediately affected sys.
tems), sometimes they manifest themselves diffusely in the most varied
analyzers; sometimes they are limited to the lower levels of neural ac
tivity , sometimes ( and far more frequently, they hit predominantly the
most complex functional systems . Only an attentive study of these phys
iopathological alterations of the higher neural processes permits of
avoiding false psychomorphological patterns and of explaining the mech
anisms of these alterations in the flow of the psychic processes which
can be observed in cases of pathological states of the brain . That is
why the attention of Soviet psychopathologists has been directed to
bringing the psychological experiment more into alignment with the phys
iopathological analysis and to finding in it ways toward a physiological
explanation of the symptoms observed .
Ttvo paths opened up before Soviet psychopathologists and both
were utilized by them in their work , On the one hand there opened up
the possibility of continuing logically along the experimental line ,
specially altering the experiment and setting it up in such a way that
it would yield the opportunity of drawing , in the most direct forms, con
clusions on the peculiarities of the flow of the basic neural processes

633
and their alteration in pathological contexts . On the other hand, there
remained the path of meticulous collection of clinical and experimental
psychological facts with a further analysis of them in the line of the
basic laws of the higher neural activity . Incidentally , a model of the
latter path was shown by I. P. Pavlov himself in his last articles and
his " Clinical Wednesdays. "
The first path , that of the continuation of experimental re
searches permitting of tracing with all possible clarity the alteration
of the processes of switch - in activity , was utilized by a number of
psychologists and clinicians who set themselves the task of studying in
their simplest forms those alterations of switch - in activity , of analy
sis and synthesis of neural processes , which manifest themselves in
pathological states of the brain . As an example of this path may be
taken the researches of A. G. Ivanov - Smolenskiy and his numerous fellow
workers who , despite very considerable oversimplifications connected
with their unwillingness to take into account the complexity of the
structure of human psychic activity , made a substantial contribution to
the physiopathological analysis of the peculiarities of morbidly al
tered higher neural activity .
A number of experimental researches of Soviet psychologists have
taken this path . These psychologists have tried to bring their projects
into closer alignment with physiological experiment, without at the
same time oversimplifying the phenomena . They have retained as their
task the investigation of the whole complexity of the psychic activity
of man . It was quite natural that these psychologists should feel it
advisable to subject to a special investigation those alterations in
the structure of the simple psychic reaction which occur in pathological
states of the brain , by meticulously comparing the peculiarities of
switch - in activity and interaction of the signals systems occurring in
pathological states with research of the formation of "the psychic re
action " by preliminary spoken instruction and its elaboration by the
method of "spoken reinforcement . " This path seemed to them the simplest
one by which , avoiding unjustified oversimplifications, to approach the
analysis of the neurodymanic of the " cells " of the psychic activity of
man which are most accessible for research .
Researches carried on by a number of Soviet psychologists on
normal and abnormal children , as also on cases of local_affections of
the brain ([717, 1967 , [113] [11 ] , [118], [123] [140], [7657, et al .),
made it possible to establish a number of facts which permitted of
taking a new approach to some basic phenomena of the switch - in activity
in the normal and in the pathological state .
It emerged that the method of the formation of motor reactions by
preliminary instruction and the method of their elaboration with the aid
of continuous spoken reinforcement in the norm differed from one another
only superficially . In actual fact their results turn out to be very
close and the difference consists only in the fact that in the first
case the subject receives a generalized verbal instruction from outside ,
whereas in the second he very quickly begins to mediate the signals

- 634 -
perceived by him by his own speech which has aided him to orientate him
self in these signals, to abstract the necessary signs and formulate
generalized rules of activity . In this mediation of the switched - in
system by the generalized connections of past experience, formed with
the most intimate participation of speech , consists the vital trait of
that interaction of the two signal systems by which is distinguished
the activity of every normal experimental subject . It is precisely by
this participation of the connections of the second signals system in
the formation of new experience that there are explained those peculi
arities in the dynamic of the emergence of new connections ( the speed
of their switch - in , their stability and mobility , their independence of
external reinforcement, their broad capacity for transfer ) by which are
characterized the processes of higher neural activity in the normal hum
an individual . However , it is just these peculiarities of the dynamic
of the neural processes which may substantially suffer in pathological
states of the brain .
As was shown by researches conducted on oligophrenic children
( 1967 , [1247 et al . ), in these cases the connections of the second sig
nals system are drastically oversimplified , become inert in their dynamic
and continue to mediate the process of the formation of new experience
only in the simplest forms of analytico - synthetic activity , ceasing to
mediate it as soon as the task with which the subjects are faced becomes
more complicated . A drastic oversimplification of the elaboration of
new connections with a loss of the mediating and regulatory role of speech
in the elaboration of connections in slightly complicated situations rep
rosent the basic traits for a whole series of forms of pathological states
of the brain . These traits are manifested specially clearly in instances
of a drastic lesion of the mental development of the child . Precisely
in virtue of this the very dynamic of the elaboration of the connections
is substantially altered . The elaboration assumes a gradual character
and to a great extent depends on continuous reinforcement . It loses
its plasticity , a fact which points to profound lesions of that inter
action of the two signals systems which is typical of normal behavior .
All these peculiarities of the formation of new temporary connections ,
which so profoundly distinguish oligophrenia from other forms of path
ology , for instance from the state of children with cerebroasthenic
syndrome ( when the comparatively more intact system of verbal connec
tions may emerge in the quality of_a factor compensating for the gen
eric defects of the neurodynamic[7207,[ T657,[ 1667,[ 1627 have
permitted of taking a new approach to a number of the peculiarities of
the psychic activity in these forms of pathology and of making more pre
cise the analysis of the lesion of the cognitive processes and behavior
of these children by including in it those physiopathological facts
which have been obtained in special experiments . Of great importance
here likewise are those works in which alterations of the neurodynamic
observed in pathological states are analyzed with the aid of exact meth
ods of electromiography , of cutaneousgalvanic reactions , which make it
possible considerably more profoundly to trace those mechanisms which

• 635 -
lie at the basis of the lesion of the psychic processes . Projects car
ried out along this line by V. N. l'yasishchev, T. V. Bassin and others ,
have contributed much that is vital to this complex and important field .
These researches have shown that the use of electrophysiological meth
ods can yield vital indices of alteration in the emotional states [T267 ,
[1227, [ 123 ] [1297, and make it possible to penetrate into the altera
tions of the correlations of exterior and interior speech which change
in pathological states [11] , into an analysis of the mechanisms of
ideomotor acts [327 ,[ 1557, 11567, and (which is especially interesting )
into an analysis of that role which is played by the orientational re
flex in the structuring of conditioned reflex activity and its altera
tions in pathological states both of the peripheral portion of the
analyzers and of the cerebral cortex . Interesting prospects in this re
spect_are revealed by the works of Ye . N. Sokolov and his co - workers
(77577, [1537, 1337 , 1347, et al .),which have shown that a stable or
ientational reflex is one of the vital conditions for the formation of
a conditioned connection and that in pathological states of the brain
( for instance , in the case of oligophrenia ) the stable and directed or
ientational reaction inevitably entering into the composition of every
complex psychic activity may very speedily be extinguished , which will
lead also to a substantial lesion of the normal flow of proper psychic
activity .
It is easy to see what importance will continue to attach to the
possibility of studying that background of active orientational reaction
against which occurs the cut- in of new connections and which alters sub
stantially in pathological states of the brain .
Our survey would be incomplete if we did not speak of yet another
series of experiments conducted not long ago which is opening up very im
portant prospects for further researches .
It is well - known what place is occupied in research both of nor
mal and of pathological states of the cortex by the analysis of those
connections which arise on the basis of the word and of those changes in
the process of the formation of concepts which occur both at the various
stages of the psychic development of the child and in cases of patholog
ical alterations of its psychic activity . These researches, begun in
his day by L. S. Vygotskiy [ 367 , have become widespread and taken a
solid place in the practice of psychopathological researches .
Though they provided considerable material for the description
of the peculiarities of thinking activity , these researches still could
not bring us to grips with the study of the physiological mechanisms at
the root of these processes; there is no doubt that the question of the
neurodynamic peculiarities of the formation and pathology of concepts
remained and continues to remain one of the most difficult for exper
imental research . Projects conducted in recent years in the laboratory
of N. I. Krasnogorskiy by L. Ya. Fedorov [86 ] and v. D. Volkova [35] ,
as also projects conducted in the laboratory of A. G. Ivanov-Smolenskiy
[667, 1677. [68], [69], are only initial steps, which note the fact
that a number of verbal equivalents can elicit homogeneous reactions
but which are still on the mere threshold of research on this import
ant process .

- 636 -
 However , experimental research using plethysmographic, adapto
metric and to some extent cutaneous - galvanic methods has shown what
important prospects are opening up before efforts to approach by an
objective - physiological path to the dynamic of the neural connections
lying at the root of verbal generalizations .
As L. A. Shvarts [ 1747, [1757 has shown, there are no great dif
ficulties in elaborating a vascular ( or other vegitative ) conditioned
reflex to a verbal stimulus and obtaining on the spot the same reflex to
its semantic equivalent: after elaborating a bascular reaction to the
word " doctor , " she obtained the same reaction to the word " physician "
and " surgeon " but did not get it to the word " dictor " which sounds very
much like " doctor ." However , she had merely to work on the subject
with chloral hydrate and bring his cortex into an inhibited state and
the situation changed substantially : now the semantic equivalents did
not elicit an identical reaction but such a reaction did begin to be
elicited by words sounding like the key word and the subject who had
given a vascular reaction to the word " doctor " began to give the
same reaction to the consonant word " dictor . " The inhibited state of
the cortex consequently was leading to the clear elective irradiation
which had used to spread via a system of category -organized connections
now considerably altering and beginning to embrace predominantly ele
ments whose similarity lies in their superficial sound . ( An interest
ing series of researches, recently conducted by A. A. Markosyan [7227,
showed that, for the study of the connections of the second signals sys
tem there can likewise be used such elementary reactions as the altera
tion of the coagulative power of the blood . )
These researches opened up new paths for the objective neuro
dynamic analysis of the elective connections of the second signals sys
tem and of their alterations in pathological states of the brain , and
0. S. Vinogradova [33], by using the still more complex technique of the
simultaneous recording of voluntary motor and involuntary vascular reac
tions , obtained still more expressive materials . As these experiments
showed , when a stable vascular reflex to the signal word " cat" ( on which
the subject was supposed to give simultaneously the voluntary motor re
action of pressure on a balloon ) had been formed and the vascular reac
tions to all remaining neutral words had been extinguished , it was
easily possible to obtain from a normal school - child subject this same
vascular and motor reaction upon presentation of words relating to the
same category . However , upon closer analysis it emerged that all the
words presented to the subject fell into three groups: the presenta
tion of the signal words elicited in the subject both the voluntary
motor and the involuntary vascular reaction ; the presentation of others,
relative to this same category or somehow connected with it , did not
elicit voluntary motor reactions and yet continued to elicit in the sub
ject involuntary vascular reactions; finally, the presentation of third
type words, either entirely unconnected with the signal word or having
only a similarity with it in sound, did not elicit any motor or vascular
reactions. In pathological states of the brain ( for example, in cases

- 637 -
of oligophrenia ), such a state of affairs changed substantially : the
clear elective irradiation of the neural processes was here disturbed
and words having a category community with the signal ones ceased to
elicit a corresponding vascular reaction , whereas consonant words , while
not eliciting any voluntary motor reaction , did begin to elicit a clear
vascular reaction . In the most severe cases , the lesion of the type of
verbal connections proved to be so considerable that words having a
superificial similarity in sound began to elicit in the subject similar
voluntary motor reactions .
It is easy to see that all these facts point to the possibility
of establishing objectively certain spheres of verbal generalizations,
uncovering those potential forms of verbal generalizations which do not
always penetrate to consciousness , and eo ipso getting to closer grips
with one of the most complex problems of normal and pathological psy
chology with new instruments .
Only in their first beginnings are researches on how the proces
ses of elective generalization alter in a pathological state of the
brain ; there is , however , no doubt that the possibility of studying ob
jectively the limits, profundity and dynamic of these lesions of verbal
connections, which arise in cases of various pathological states of the
brain , does present great interest and will undoubtedly open up new
prospects for the research of this complex field .
If the series of experiments just described uncover new possibil
ities for the study of the generic alterations of psychic activity and
of the neurodynamic processes which are at their root , then those re
searches which approach the study of local affections of the brain with
the aid of objective physiological methods are of vital significance for
the development of the field in which we are here interested ; the func
tional alterations arising in cases of such affections have been care
fully described in psychological writings, but research of their phys
iological mechanisms has until recently been almost entirely marking
time .
However , precisely in recent years researches on the alterations
of the neurodynamic processes arising in cases of limited focal affec
tions of the human cerebral cortex have made substantial advances ; and
it may be presumed that these researches, which are continuing on man
those observations which I. P. Pavlov carried out in his experiments
with extirpation of limited sections of the brain of animals, will
not only occupy their proper place in the future but will permit of
getting closer to the solution of such problems connected with the
functional organization of the human cerebral cortex as have for long re
mained unresolved .
Projects devoted to an analysis of the neurodynamic alterations
arising in cases of focal affections of the brain and dealing with the
physiological mechanisms of such basic clinical symptoms as aphasia ,
agnosia and apraxia, are still few in number , but the united efforts
of physiologists , psychologists and clinicians have already yielded some
results in recent years .

· 638 -
 The first group of such researches are projects devoted to the
physiological mechanisms at the root of aphasia . As we have already
pointed out above , psychological researches have shown that at the root
of sensory aphasia lies a lesion of the complex phonic hearing which is
specially linked with speech , which lesion is clearly manifest in cer
tain forms of speech disorders arising in cases of affections of the
cortex of the lateral region of the left hemisphere . Careful researches
conducted in the recent past under the direction of Ye . V. Shmidt by S.
V. Babenkova 8 and L. G. Kabelyanskaya [72] have shown that an affec
tion of the lateral region of the left hemisphere leads in a number of
cases to clear lesions of the neurodynamic of audio reactions , especially
clearly manifest in experiments with the elaboration of differentiations
on complex audio complexes . Researches of N. A. Filippycheva, conducted
on patients suffering from tumors of the lateral region likewise tell
of phenomena of inertia in the pathologically altered auditory analyzer
in man . Analogous efforts to give a neurodynamic analysis of the func
tional disorders have been made in respect of the phenomena of visual
agnosia. N. M. Kostomarova (847, who has made a study of the complex
systems of reactions to visual stimulations, has shown that in cases
of affections of the occipital region in man there is a considerable
lesion of the process of analysis and synthesis of complexes of suc
cessive visual signals, which process forms the basis for synthetic
visual perception , n . N. Zislina [647 has shown that in cases of affec
tion of the occipital region there may be substantial lesion of the
vestigial processes manifested in visual after - images and that the re
inforcement of the processes of stimulation in the cortex with the aid
of caffeine can lead to a substantial increase of their perduration .
Finally , in the observations of A. R. Luriya, it has been shown that a
bilateral affection of the occipital region can lead to such a debilita
tion of the dynamic of the neural processes in the cerebral sections of
the visual analyzer that, in the words of I. P. Pavlov, " the patient
will be in a condition in which he can attend only to one stimulation
at a time, ” which inevitably leads to the phenomena of so - called simul
taneous agnosia . It is typical that in these cases , too , the use of
caffeine has been able to lead to a reduction of the force of external
inhibition , which has made it possible to remove for a certain period of
time the negative induction which is inhibiting all the other points of
the visual cortex adjacent to the focus of excitation and is for a cer
tain limited period of time widening substantially the visual potential
of the subject .
All of these researches permit of a better understanding of the
mechanisms of the so - called gnostic zones of the cerebral cortex , the
physiological analysis of which has for many years remained difficult
of access .
The most promising prospect is , however , we feel , that of an ap
proach with a physiological analysis to the mechanisms of the operation
of the frontal portions of the brain , which were considered for a long
time as the cerebral apparatus for integration of the higher forms of

• 639 -
purposive activity and the physiological mechanisms of whose operation
remained undiscovered for a long time and were indeed considered by sev
eral foreign authors to be even inaccessible for exact physiological an
alysis . The theory of I. P. Pavlov on the forward sections of the brain
as motor analyzer made possible a new approach to the question of the
functions of the frontal portions of the brain and to the physiological
analysis of those lesions which arise in cases of their affections .
As early as in the projects of A. I. Shumilina [7827 andN. A.
Shustin [1837 , it was shown that the extirpation of the frontal region
of the great hemispheres leads in animals to a lesion of the capacity
to create systems of pre - start afferentations, to inhibit impulsive
movements and to switch over at the proper time from inert motor
stereotypes to mobile motor reactions properly corresponding to the
changing conditions . These researches , conducted on animals, yielded
complete substantiation for the desirability of pursuing attentively
those lesions in the structure of voluntary centralized behavior which
arise in cases of affection of the frontal sections of the brain in
man .
As is well -known , human purposive voluntary behavior presupposes
a comparatively complex analysis and synthesis of the situation which
had elicited this purposive act , and often also an inhibition of the im
mediate impulsive reactions which arise in response to the perception
of individual partial fragments of this situation . Both these proces
ses ( the formation of complex " pre - go " afferent syntheses and the inhibi
tion of the impulsive, fragmentary reactions) are effected in man with
the most immediate participation of the connections of the second signals
system .
Researches conducted over a number of years by a group of collab
orators working under the immediate direction of A. R. Luriya_ (N , A.
Filippycheva [1647, B. G. Spirin [ 1627, A. N. Meshcheryakov [7237, M.
P. Ivanova [ 71] et al .) showed that affections of the frontal portions
of the brain , by occasioning clear lesions in the cortical sections of
the motor analyzer , often accompanied by the manifestation in them of
stagnant foci , inevitably lead to a lesion of the capacity to effect
such a pre - start afferentational synthesis and such an inhibition of
the immediate fragmentary motor reactions . As these researches showed ,
it often proves impossible to elicit in patients with severe affection
of the frontal sections of the cerebrum a stable system of motor acts
with the aid of preliminary spoken instruction . Spoken instruction
does not create the necessary system of pre - start afferentations which
would acquire a dominant character and which would be sufficiently per
sistent both to resist the immediate influence of the extraneous stim
uli and to inhibit the inert reactions of the patient himself once
they have arisen . Precisely in virtue of this does it prove impossible
to elicit in the patient a sufficiently clear simple or complex ( dif
ferentiated ) motor reaction to conditioned stimuli by preliminary spoken
instruction , although it does prove entirely possible to obtain such a
system of motor reactions by the method of continuous spoken reinforcement

• 640 -
or by the method of immediate kinesthetic signals . Precisely in virtue
of these defects , the motor reactions elaborated in such a patient are
not reflected sufficiently clearly in his verbal system and do not lead
either to a clear consciousness of these reactions nor to the necessary
correction of mistakes which arise .
Precisely in connection with the lesion of the interaction of the
two signals systems in the regulation of motor reactions and with the
phenomena of pathological inertia in the motor analyzer , there arise in
these cases those clinical pictures of impulsive actions not subordinate
to the generic purposive plan and of inert stereotype acts , a picture
which is well -known to experienced clinicians and which radically dam
ages conscious and voluntary behavior in pathological states of the
frontal sections of the cerebrum .
There is no doubt that further continuation of these researches
will permit of approaching a description of the physiological mechanisms
lying at the root of the lesions of behavior in cases of affections of
the frontal portions of the brain and eo ipso will bring us closer to a
solution of one of the most difficult questions in the psychology and
physiology of the higher neural activity of man .

. 641 -
 LITERATURE

1. B. G. Anan'yev, " Restoration of the Functions of Reading and

Writing in Cases of Agraphia and Alexia of Traumatic Origin" Uchenne
zapiski MGU ( Academic Reports of the Moscow State University ) , No. 111,
1947 .
2. B. G. Anan'yev et al . , "On the Use of Post - Commotional Contu
sion States in complex Diagnosis , " Anthology , Voprosy psikhofiziologii
i kliniki chuvstvitel'nosti ( Questions of the Psychophysiology and Clin
ical Picture of Sensitivity ) , Leningrad , 1947 .
3 . Ye . K. Andreyev , Narusheniye obrazovaniya sistemy_smyslovykh
swazey pri porazhenii lobnykh doley mozga (Lesion of the Formation of
Semantic Connections in cases of Damage to the Frontal Portions of the
Brain ) , Candidate's Dissertation , Institute of Psychology , Moscow , 1950 .
4 . P. K. Anokhin , Problemy wysshey nervnoy deyatel'nosti ( Prob
lems of Higher Neural Activity ) , Moscow , 1949 .
P. K. Anokhin , " Theory of the Functional System as Basis for
5.
an Understanding of the Compensatory Processes of the Organism ,
Uchenye zapiski MGU (Academic Reports of the Moscow State University ),
Vol . III , 1947 .
6. P. K. Anokhin , " Peculiarities of the Afferent Apparatus of
the conditioned Reflex and Their Significance for Psychology , " Voprosy
psikhologii ( Questions of Psychology ), 1955 , No. 6 .
7. P. K. Anokhin , "General Principles of Compensation of Damaged
Functions and Their Physiological Basis , " Doklad na konferentsii po
vopro sam defektologii ( Report at a Conference of Defectology ) , izd - vo
APN RSFSR (Publishing House of RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences ) ,
1956 .
8. S. V. Babenkova , " On the Question of the Peculiarities of the
Interaction of the Signal Systems in the Process of the Restoration of
Speech in the Case of Various Forms of Aphasia ( According to Results of
a Study of the Function of the Audi tory Analyzer ) , " Tezisy dokladov VII
sessii Instituta nevrologii ( Abstracts of Reports of the 7th Session of
the Institute of Neurology ) , 1954 .
9. F. V. Bassin , Narusheniye znacheniya slov pri shizofrenii
(Lesion of the Meaning of Words in cases of Schizophrenia ) , Kand . diss .
Ukr. psikhonevrologicheskiy in - t . ( Candidate's Dissertation of the
Ukrainian Psychoneurological Institute) , Kharikov , 1938 .
10 . F. V. Bassin and M. P. Serova , " Alteration of the Muscle Tone
in the Phase Preceding Voluntary Movement , " Nevropatologiya i psikhiatriya
( Neuropathology and Psychiatry ), No. 6 , 1956 .
11. F. V. Bassin and E. S. Beyn , " On the Use of the Electromiographic
Method in Speech Research , " Materialy soveshchaniya po psikhologii ( Papers
of a Conference on Psychology ) , izdvo APN RSFSR (Publishing House of the
RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences) , 1957 .
E. S. Beyn , " Restoration of the Speech Processes in Sensory
12 .
Aphasia ," Uchenye zapiski MGU ( Academic Reports of Moscow State Univer
sity , No. 3 , 1947 .

- 642 -
 13. E. S. Beyn , " Agraphia in cases of Traumatic Aphasia ," Anthol
ogy , Teoriya i praktika nevrologii voyennogo vremeni ( Theory and Practice
of Wartime Neurology ) , Moscow , 1949 .
14. E. S. Beyn , Psikhologicheskiy_analiz sensornoy afasii (Psycho
logical Analysis of Sensory Aphasia) Doctoral Dissertation AMN SSSR
( Academy of Medical Sciences of the USSR ), Moscow , 1950 .
15. E. S. Beyn , " On the Dissocation of Script in cases of Aphasia ,"
Nevropatologiya
1954 .
i psikhiatriya (Neuropathology and Psychiatry ), No. 12,
16. E. S. Beyn , " On Restorative Therapy of Aphasia of Vascular
Origin , " Nevropatologiya i psikhiatriya ( Neuropathology and Psychiatry ),
No. 12 , 1955 .
17. A. N. Bernshteyn , Klinicheskiye priyemy psikhologicheskogo
issledovaniya dushevnobolnykh (Clinical Techniques of Psychological
Examination of the Mentally Ili), Gosizdat (State Publishing House ),
Moscow , 1922 .
18. A. N. Bernshteyn , " On the Problem of Coordination and Local
ization , " Arkhiv biologicheskikh nauk ( Archive of Biological Sciences) ,
Vol . 38 , 1934 .
19. A. N. Bernshteyn , 0 postroyenii dvizheniy (On the Structure
of Movements) , Medgiz ( State Medical Publishing House ) , Moscow , 1947 .
20 . A. N. Bernshteyn , " On the Question of the Nature and Dynamic
of the Coordination Function , " Uchenye zapiski MGU (Academic Reports
of the Moscow State University ) , No. 90 , Moscow , 1945 .
21. A. N. Bernshteyn , "On the Structure of Movements, Their Res
toration and Compensation , " Uchenye zapiski MGU (Academic Reports of
the Moscow State University) , No. 111, Moscow , 1947 .
22. I. T. Bzhalava and A. R. Luriya, " Lesion of the Fixed Set in
Cases of Local Affections of the Brain , " Anthology , Nevrologiya voyennogo
vremeni (Wartime Neurology ) , Moscow , 1949 .
23. G. V. Birenbaum , " On the Question of the correlation of Seman
tic and Structural components of Perception ," Anthology , Issledovaniya
po psikhologii vospriyatiya ( Researches on the Psychology of Perception ) ,
izd - VO AN SSSR (Publishing House of the USSR Academy of Sciences) , 1948.
24. G. V. Birenbaum , " On the Question of the Formation of Figura
tive and Conventional Meanings of Words in cases of Pathological Altera
tions of Thinking Activity , " Anthology , Novoye v uchenii ob agnozii,
apraksii i afazii ( New Points in the Theory of Agnosia , Apraxia and
Afasia ) , Moscow , 1934 .
25. S. M. Blinkov , " On the Lesion of Script in cases of Damage
of the Parietal Region , " Izvestiya APN RSFSR (News of the RSFSR Academy
of Pedagogical Sciences ) , No. 15, 1948 .
26. S. M. Blinkov et al , " Papers on Questions of Curative Pedagog
ical Work at Restoration of Oral Speech and Writing in cases of Motor
Aphasia , " Izvestiya APN RSFSR ( News of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical
Sciences) , No. 2 , 1945 .
27 .. S. M. Blinkov et al . , " Restoration of Speech in Case of Aphasia
with Mirror Reading and Writing , " Izvestiya APN RSFSR (News of the RSFSR
Academy of Pedagogical Sciences ) , No. 2 , 1945 .

. 643
 28. R. M. Boskis , " Questions of Teaching and Training of Deaf Chil .
dren and Children llard of Hearing , " Izvestiya APN RSFSR (News of the RSFSR
Academy of Pedagogical Sciences ) , No. 48, 1953 .
29 . R. M. Boskis and R. Ye . Levina , " Lesion of Script in Certain
Dislocations of Articulation in Children , " Izvestiya APN RSFSR (News of
the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences) , No. 15 , 1943 .
30. V. N. Bubnova , Narusheniye i vosstanovleniye ponimaniya
grammaticheskikh struktur pri semanticheskov afazii (Lesion and Restora
tion of Understanding of Grammatical Structure in cases of Semantic
Aphasia) , Candidate's Dissertation , In - t psikhologii ( Psychology Insti
tute ) , Moscov, 1946 .
31. G. Kh . Bykhovskaya , " On the Chronic Form of Aphasia , " Anthol
ogy , Novove v uchenii ob apraksii, agnozii, afazii ( New Points in the
Theory of Apraxia, Agnosia and Aphasia), Moscow, Ogiz ( State United
Publishing Houses ) , 1934.
32. M. S. Bychkov , Opyt elektrofiziologicheskogo issledovaniya
v svete ucheniya I. P. Pavlova (Experience of Electrophysiological In
vestigation of Representations in the Light of the Theory of I. P.
Pavlov ) , Candidate's Dissertation , LGU (Leningrad State University ) ,
1951 .
33. 0. S. Vinogradova, " On Certain Peculiarities of the Orienta
tional Reactions to Stimuli of the Second Signal System in Normal and
Mentally Retarded School - Children ," Voprosy Psikhologii ( Questions of
Psychology ), No. 2 , 1956 .
34 . 0. S. Vinogradova , " Investigation of the Peculiarities of Or
ienta tiona l Reactions in Oligophrenic Children by the Method of Pletis
mography , " Anthology, Orientirovo chnyy refleks i wsshaya nervnaya
deyatel'nost' (Orientational Reflex and Higher Neural Activity) , izd
VO APN RSFSR ( RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences Press ) , 1957 .
35. V. D. Volkova , " On Certain Peculiarities of the Formation
of Conditioned Reflexes to Speech Stimuli in Children , " Fiziologicheskiy
zhurnal SSSR ( USSR Physiological Journal ) , Vol . XXXIX, No. 5 , 1953 .
36. L. S. Vygotskiy , Myshleniye i rech ! ( Thought and Speech ), Mos
cow, 1934 ; also Izbrannve psikhologicheskiye issledovaniya ( Selected
Psychological Researches), izd- VO APN RSFSR (RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical
Sciences Press) , 1956 .
37. L. S. Vygotskiy , " Defect and Overcompensations , " Anthology ,
Umstvennaya otstalosti slepota i glukhonemota ( Mental Retardation , Blind
ness and Deafness- and- Dumbness ) , Moscow , 1928 .
38. L. S. Vygotskiy , " On the Problem of the Psychology of Schizo
phrenia ), Anthology , Sovremennyve problemy shizofrenii (Contemporary Prob
lems of Schizophrenia ) , Medgiz ( State Medical Press ), Moscow , 1933 .
39. L. S. Vygotskiy, " On the Question of Dementia in Pick's Di
sease , " (with I. V. Samukhin and G. V. Birenbaum ) , Sovetskaya
nevropatologiya , psikhiatriya i psikhogigiyena (Soviet Neuropathology ,
Psychiatry and Mental Hygiene ) , No. 6 , 1934 .
40. L. S. Vygotskiy, " Psychology and the Problem of Localization , "
Tezisy I Vseukrainskogo psikhonevrologicheskogo siyezda ( Abstracts of
Papers at 1st All- Ukrainian Psychoneurological Congress), Khar'kov , 1934 .

- 644 -
 41 . L. S. Vygotskiy , " The Problem of Mental Retardation , " Izbr .
psikhologicheskiye issledovaniya ( Selected Psychological Researches ) ,
Moscow , 1956 .
42. L. S. Vygotskiy , “Lesion of Concepts in Schizophrenia , " Izbr .
psikhologicheskiye issl. ( Selected Psychological Researches ), izd- VO APN
RSFSR (RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences Press ) , 1956 ,
43. S. G. Gadzhiyev , K analizu narusheniya intellektual'noy
devatel'nosti pri porazhenii lobnykh otdelov golovnogo mozga ( Toward an
Analysis of the Disturbance of Intellectual Activity in cases of Affec
tion of the Frontal Portions of the Cerebrum ) , Candidate's Dissertation ,
In - t psikhologii (Psychology Institute), Moscow , 1947 .
67. P. Ya . Gal'perin and R. A. Golubeva , " Mechanisms of Complex
Type Paraphasia , " Sovetskaya psikhonevrologiya (Soviet Psychoneurology ),
No. 6 , 1933 .
45. P. Ya . Gal'perin and T. 0. Ginevskaya, " Dependence of the
Scope of Movements on the Psychological character of the Task Assigned , "
Uchenwe zapiski MGU (Academic Reports of the Moscow State University ) ,
No. 3, 1947 .
46. S. G. Gellershteyn , Vosstanovitel'naya trudovaya terapiya
( Restorative Work Therapy ), Medgiz (State Medical Publishing House ) ,
Moscow , 1943 .
47. S. G. Gellershteyn , " Restoration of Functions as a Psycho
physiological Problem , " Trudy Tsentral'nogo instituta ekspertizy
trudospo sobnosti (Works of Central Institute for Expert Investigations
on Employability ) , Moscow , 1946 .
48. S. G. Gellershteyn , " Compensation of Motor Lesions in the
Context of Work Therapy , " Uchenye zapiski MGU ( Academic Notes of MOSCOW
State University ), No. 3 , 1947 .
49. G. V. Gershuni , " Study of Subsensory Reactions in Activity of
the Sense Organs , " Fiziologicheskiy zhurnal SSSR ( USSR Physiology Jour
nal ), Vol . XXXIII , No. 4 , 1947 .
50 . G. V. Gershuni , " Reflex Reactions on Action of External Stim
uli on the Sense Organs in their connection with Sensation , "
Fiziologicheskiy_zhurnal SSSR ( USSR Physiology Journal ) , Vol . XXXV, No.
5 , 1949 .
51 . R. Ya . Golant, Orasstroystvakh pamvati ( On Disorders of Mem
ory ) , Medgiz ( State Medical Publishing House ) , Moscow -Leningrad , 1935 .
52. N. I. Grashchenkov and A. R. Luriya, " On the Systemic Local
ization of Functions in the Cerebral cortex , " Nevropatologiya i
psikhiatriya (Neuropathology and Psychiatry ), No. 1 , 1945.
53. L. V. Zankov ( ed . ) , " Psychologico - pedagogical Problems of
the Restoration of Speech in the Case of Cranial Traumata , " Izvestiya
APN RSFSR ( News of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences) , No. 2 ,
1945 .
54. L. V. Zankov ( ed . ) " Speech Disorders in cases of Cranial
Traumata and Its Restoration , " Izvestiya APN RSFSR (News of the RSFSR
Academy of Pedagogical Sciences) , No. 15 , 1948 .

645
 55. A. V. Zaporozhets and Ya . 2. Neverovich , " Dynamic of the Res
toration of Motor Functions of the Hand After Trauma , " Uchenyve zapiski
MGU (Academic Notes of the Moscow State University ) , No. 3 , 1947 .
56. A. V. Zaporozhets and S. Ya . Rubinshteyn , " Psychophysiological
Questions of the Organization of Restorative Work Therapy " Uchenye
zapiski MGU ( Academic Notes of the Moscow State University ) , No. 3 , 1947 .
57. B. V. Zeygarnik , "On the Problem of the Understanding of
Figurative Words or Phrases in cases of Pathological Alterations of Think
ing , " Anthology , Novoye v uchenii apraksii, agnozii, afazii (New Points
in the Study of Apraxia , Agnosia and Aphasia ) , Ogiz (State United Publish
ing Houses ) , Moscow , 1934 .
58. B. V. Zeygarnik , " Experimental Psychological Investigation of
Cerebral Trauma Patients , " Anthology , Nervno - psikhicheskiye zabolevaniya
voyennogo vremeni (Wartime Neuro - Psychic Ailments ) , Moscow , 1948 .
59. B. V. Zeygarnik , "Lesion of Spontaneity in Cases of Wartime
Traumata of the Frontal Portions of the Cerebrum , " Anthology , Nevrologiya
voyennogo vremeni ( Wartime Neurology ) , Moscow, 1949 .
60. B. V. Zeygarnik , " On the Question of local and General Cerebral
Factors in cases of Frontal Lesions of the Brain , " Nevropatologiya i
psikhiatriya (Neuropathology and Psychiatry ) , Vol . XII, No. 6 , 1943 .
61. B. V. Zeygarnik , " Species of Thought Lesions , " Materialy
soveshchaniva po psikhologii ( Papers of a Conference on Psychology )
izd - VO APN RSFSR (RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences Publishing
House ) , 1957 .
62. B. V. Zeygarnik and G. V. Birenbaum , " On the Problem of
Semantic Perception , " Sovetskaya nevropatologiya , psikhiatriya i
psikhogigiyena (Soviet Neuropathology , psychiatry and Mental Hygiene) ,
Vol . IV , No. 6 , 1935 .
63. B. V. Zeygarnik and G. V. Birenbaum , " On the Dynamic Analysis
of Thought Disorder , " Sovetskaya nevropatologiya , psikhiatriya i
psikhogigiyena ( Soviet Neuropathology , psychiatry and Mental Hygiene ) ,
Vol . IV , NO . 6 , 1935 .
64. N. N. Zislina, " Lesion of the Visual After - Images in Cases
of Affections of the Cerebral cortex , " Problemy fiziologicheskoy optiki
(Problems of Physiological Optics), Vol . II , 1955 .
65. A. G. Ivanov - Smolenskiy , " Biogenesis of Speech Reflexes ,"
Psikhiatriya , nevrologiya i eksperimental'naya psikhologiya (Psychi
atry , Neurology and Experimental Psychology ) , No. 1-2 , 1922 .
66. A. G. Ivanov- Smolenskiy, " Experimental Researches of Direct
and Symbolic Projection of the Human Cerebrum , " Arkhiv biologicheskikh
nauk ( Archive of Biological Sciences) , Vol. XXIX , 1935.
67. A. G. Ivanov - Smolenskiy , " On the Interaction of the First
and Second Signals Systems in Certain Physiological and Pathological
Conditions . " Fiziologicheskiy Zhurnal SSSR ( USSR Physiology Journal ) ,
Vol . XXXV , No. 5 , 1949 .
68. A. G. Ivanov - Smolenskiy , Ocherki patofiziologii wsshey
nervnoy deyatel'nosti (Outlines of Pathological Physiology of the Higher
Neural Activity , Moscow , 1950 .

. 646 ..
 69. A. G. Ivanov - Smolenskiy , " On the Study of the Joint Operation
of the First and Second Signals Systems of the Cerebral cortex , " Zhurnal
wysshey nervnoy deyatel'nosti ( Journal of Higher Neural Activity) , Vol .
I , No. 1 , 1951 .
70 . A, G. Ivanov- Smolenskiy ( ed . ) , Trudy Instituta wsshey nervnov
deyatel'nosti . Seriya patofiziologicheskaya (Works of the Institute
of Higher Neural Activity . Pathological Physiology Series) , Vol . I , 1955 ;
Vol . II , 1956 .
71. M. P. Ivanov , Narusheniye vzaimodeystviya dvukh signal'nykh
sistem v formirovanii slozhnykh dvigatel'nykh reaktsiy pri
porazheniyakh mozga ( Lesion of the Interaction of the Two Signal Sys
tems in the Formation of Complex Motor Reactions in cases of Affection
of the Brain ) , Candidate's Dissertation, Chair of Psychology . MGU (Mos
cow State University ) , Moscow , 1953 .
72. L. G. Kabelyanskaya, Sostoyaniye slukhovogo analizatora pri
sensornoy afazii ( The State of the Auditory Analyzer in the case of
Sensory Aphasia ) , Candidate's Dissertation, AMN SSSR ( Academy of Medical
Sciences of the USSR) , Moscow , 1955 .
73. 0. P. Kaufman , " Restoration of the Speech Process in Cases
of Motor Aphasia , " Uchenye zapiski MGU (Academic Reports of the Moscow
State University ) , No. 111, 1947 .
74 . 0. P. Kaufman , " Optical Agraphia in Cases of Local Brain
Traumaya , " Anthology, Nevrologiya vovennogo vremeni (Wartime Neurology ),
Moscow , 1949 .
K. Kh . Kekcheyev (ed. ) , " Questions of Psychophysiology ,"
Izvestiya APN RSFSR (Newsof the RSFSRAcademy of Pedagogical
No. 8 , 1947 .
),
76 . V. M. Kogan , " Restoration of the Semantic Aspect of Speech in
Aphasia Cases , " Uchenyve zapiski MGU ( Academic Notes of the Moscow State
University ), No. 111, 1947 .
77. V. M. Kogan , " The Role of Consciousness in the Process of com
pensation , " Trudy nauchnoy sessii Tsentral'nogo instituta ekspertizy
trudosposobnosti (Works of A Scientific Session of the Central Institute
for Expert Investigations on Employability ), Moscow , 1948 .
78. V. M. Kogan , " A Study of the Gnostic Nature of Speech on the
Basis of a Dynamic Analysis of Aphasia , " Materialy_soveshchaniya po
psikhologii ( Papers of a Conference on Psychology) , izd - vo APN RSFSR
(RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences Publishing House ) , 1957 .
79. V. M. Kogan , Analysis of Gnostic Nature of Speech on the
Basis of a Dynamic Study of Aphasia (Ms. ) .
80 . A. Ya . Kolodnaya , " Syndromes of Spatial Lesions in the Case
of Cranial Traumata , " Uchenwe zapiski MGU ( Academic Notes of Moscow
State University ) , No. 111 , 1947 .
81. A. Ya . Kolodnaya, "Lesion of the Differentiation of Right
and Left and the Role of the Cutaneous Analyzer in Its Restoration , "
Izvestiya APN RSFSR (News of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences ) ,
No. 53 , 1953 .

. 647
 82. E. A. Korobkova , " Restorative Work in the Amnesiac Stage of
Aphasia , " Uchenvye zapiski MGU ( Academic Reports of Moscow State Univer
sity , No. 111 , 1947 .
83. E. A. Korobkova, " Stimulatory and Inhibitory Factors of the
Work Capacity of Neurotics , " Trudy Tsentral'nogo instituta ekspertizy
trudo sposobnosti (Works of the Central Institute for Expert Investiga
tion of Employability ) , Moscow , 1939 .
84. N. M. Kostomarova, " On Certain Lesions of the Systemic Activ
ity of the Cortex in Cases of Affections of the Cerebrum , " Izvestiva
APN RSFSR (News of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences ), No. 53 ,
TUSSR Academy of Sciences Press ), 1954 .
85. S. V. Kravkov , Glaz i vego rabota ( The Eye and Its Function ),
izdvo_AN SSSR (USSR Academy of Sciences Press) , Moscow , 1950 .
86. N. K. Krasnogorskiy , Trudy po izucheniyu vysshey nervnov
deyatel'nosti cheloveka i zhivotnykh (Works at Study of the Higher Neural
Activity of Man and Animals) , Vol. I , izdvo AN SSSR (USSR Academy of
Sciences Press ) , Moscow -Leningrad , 1954 .
87 . M. S. Lebedinskiy , Afaziya , apraksiya , agnoziva ( Aphasia ,
Apraxia and Agnosia ) , Khra'kov , 1941 .
88 . M. S. Lebedinskiy , " Disorder of Cortical Functions in Cases
of Traumata of the Cerebrum, " Trudy Ukrainskogo psikho-nevrologicheskogo
instituta (Works of the Ukrainian Psychoneurological Institute) , Vol .
XII , Kharikov , 1943 .
89. M. S. Lebedinskiy , " Restorative Therapy of Speech Disorders, "
Anthology , Nerveyve i psikhicheskiye zabolevaniya vovennogo vremeni ( War
time Nervous and Mental illnesses) , Moscow , 1948 .
90. M. S. Lebedinskiy , " On the Peculiarities of Lesion of the
Psyche in cases of Affections of the Right Hemisphere , ” Anthology ,
Problemy sovremennoy psikhiatrii (Problems of Contemporary Psychiatry ),
izd- VO AMN SSSR (USSR Academy of Medical Sciences Publishing House) ,
Moscow , 1948 .
91. R. Ye . Levina, Nedostatki pis'ma i chteniya u detey (Writ
ing and Reading Defects in Children ) , Moscow , 1940 .
92. R. Ye . Levina , Opyt izucheniya negovoryashchikh detey
(alalikov ) ( Experience of A Study of Non -Speaking Children Afflicted
With Alalia ) , Moscow , 1951 .
93. A. N. Leontiyev and A. V. Zaporozhets, Vosstanovleniye
dvizheniy ruki posle vovennoy travny ( Restoration of Manual Movements
After War Injury ) , Moscow , 1945 .
94. A. N. Leontiyev and T. 0. Ginevskaya , " Gnostic Sensitivity
of a Damaged Hand , " Uchenwe zapiski MGU ( Academic Reports of Moscow
State University ) , Vol . III, 1947 .
95. A. I. Lipkina, " Peculiarity of Visual and Auditory Memory in
Cases of Commissural Aphasia , " Izvestiya APN RSFSR ( News of the RSFSR
Academy of Pedagogical Sciences) , No. 15, 1948 .
96. V. I. Lubovskiy , " Some Peculiarities of the Higher Neural
Activity of Oligophrenic Children , " Anthology , Problemy wsshey
nervnoy deyatel'nosti normal'nogo i anormal'nogo rebenka (Problems of

648
the Higher Neural Activity of the Normal and the Abnormal Child ), Vol .
I , izdvo APN RSFSR (RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences Publishing
House) , 1956 .
96a . V. I. Lubovskiy , " Peculiarities of the Higher Neural Activity
of Oligophrenic Children of Various Clinical Groups , " ibid ., Vol . II ,
1958 .
97 . A. R. Luriya and A. N. Leont'yev , " Investigation of the ob
jective Symptoms of Afferent Reactions, " Anthology , Sovremennye prob
lemy psikhologii (Contemporary Problems of Psychology ) , Moscow , 1926 .
97a. A. R. Luriya, " Psychology and Clinical Diagnosis , "
Psikhologiya ( Psychology ), 1928 .
98. A. R. Luriya , " The Combined Motor Method in the Investigation
of Affective Reactions , " Problemy Sovremennoy psikhologii (Problems of
Contemporary Psychology ), Trudy Instituta psikhologii (Works of the In
stitute of Psychology ), Moscow , 1928 .
99. A. R. Luriya and M. S. Lebedinskiy , " Combined Motor Method
in the Examination of Nervous Patients , " Trudy kliniki nervnykh bolezney
MGU ( Works of the Moscow State University Clinic for Nervous Ailments ) ,
Moscow , 1929 .
100. A. R. Luriya , Psikhofiziologiya affektivnykh protsessov ( The
Psychophysiology of the Affective Processes) , Doctoral Dissertation de
fended in Tbilisi State University , 1937 , ( English translation , " The
Nature of Human Conflicts , " New York , 1932 [sic ] ) .
101 . A. R. Luriya , " Lesion of Grammatical Operations in Cases of
Brain Affections , " Izvestiya APN RSFSR ( News of the RSFSR Academy of
Pedagogical Sciences) , No. 1 , 1945 .
102 . A. R. Luriya , " Pathology of Number Concept and counting.,
Izvestiya APN RSFSR (News of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences ) ,
No. 1 , 1945 .
103 . A. R. Luriya , " Pathology of Movements in Cases of Lesions of
the Pre - Motor Zone, " Uchenyye zapiski MGU ( Academic Notes of the Moscow
State University ) , No. 90 , 1945 .
104 . A. R. Luriya , Ucheniye ob afazii v svete mozgovoy patologii
( Theory of Aphasia in the Light of Brain Pathology ) , Doctoral Disserta
tion defended in Kiev Medical Institute , 1943 .
105. A. R. Luriya , " Principles of the Study of Traumatic Aphasias
and Restorative Therapy for Them , " Uchenwe zapiski MGU ( Academic Notes
of the Moscow State University ) , No. 111, 1947 .
106. A. R. Luriya and A. N. Leont' ye" , " Psychophysiological Ways
to Restore Functions After War Injury , " Uchenye zapiski MGU ( Academic
Notes of the Moscow State University ), No. 3 , 1947 .
107. A. R. Luriya, " Lesion of Set and Action in cases of Brain Af
fections , " Trudy sektora psikhologii AN Gruz SSR ( Works of the Psychol
ogy Section of the Georgian SSR Academy of Sciences) , Tbilisi , 1945.
108. A. R. Luriya , Travmaticheskava afaziva ( Traumatic Aphasia ) ,
izd- VOAMN SSSR ( USSR Academy of Medical Sciences Publishing House ) ,
1947 .

- 649 -
 109. A. R. Luriya , Vosstanovleniye funktsiy mozga posle voyennoy
travmy ( Restoration of the Functions of the Brain After War Injury) ,
izd- VO AMN SSSR (USSR Academy of Medical Sciences Publishing House ),
1948 .
110 . A. R. Luriya , Ocherki psikhofiziologii pisima ( Outlines of
the Psychophysiology of Writing ) , izd - VO APN RSFSR (RSFSR Academy of
Pedagogical Sciences Publishing House ), Moscow , 1956 .
111. A. R. Luriya , " Questions of Hearing and Speech in the Light
of the Theory of I. P. Pavlov , " Vestnik otorinolaringologii ( Herald
of Otorhinolaryngology ), No. 4, 1951 .
112. A. R. Luriya , " Basic Problems of the clinical Treatment of
Focal Infections in the Light of the Ideas of I. P. Pavlov , " Zhurnal
vysshey nervoy deyatel'nosti ( Journal of Higher Neural Activity ) ,
Vol . II , 1952 .
113. A. R. Luriya, " The Role of the Word in the Formation of Tem
porary Connections in Man , " Voprosy psikhologii ( Questions of Psychol
ogy ) , No. 1 , 1955 .
114. A. R. Luriya , Rol' slova v formirovanii vremennykh svyazey v
normal'nom i anormal ' nom razvitii The Role of the Word in the
Formation
of Temporary Connections in Normal and Abnormal Development ), izd - vo
APN RSFSR (RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences Publishing House ) ,
1956 .
115. A. R. Luriya , " On the Question of the Lesion of Writing
and Reading in Polyglots , " Fiziologicheskiy zhurnal SSSR ( USSR Phys
iology Journal ) , Vol . II , No. 4 , 1956 .
116 , A. R. Luriya , " On the Regulative Role of Speech in the For
mation of Voluntary Movements , " Zhurnal wsshey nervnov devatel'nosti
( Journal of Higher Neural Activity ) , Vol . VI, No. 5 , 1956 .
117. A. R. Luriya , "On Two Species of Analytico - Synthetic Activ
ity of the Cerebral cortex , " Trudy Odesskogo gosudarstvennogo univer
siteta (Works of the Odessa State University ) , Vol . CXLVII , 1957 .
118. A. R. Luriya ( ed . ) , Problemy wsshev nervnov devatel'nosti
normallnoge i anormal Inogo rebenka (Problems of the Higher Neural Activ
ity of the Normal and the Abnormal Child ) , Vol . I , izd- VO APN RSFSR
( RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences Publishing House ), 1956 ; and
Vol . II , 1958 ,
119. A. R. Luriya , " The Motor Analyzer and Cerebral Organization
of Movement , " Voprosy psikhologii ( Questions of Psychology ) , No. 2 , 1957 .
120. A. R. Luriya , " Some Basic Questions of the Higher Neural
Activity in Normal and Abnornal Development , " Vestnik MGU (Herald of
the Moscow State University ) , 1957 .
120a .A. R. Luriya , " The Role of Speech in the Regulation of Nor
mal and Abnormal Behavior , " Anthology , Problemy wsshey nervnov
devatel'nosti normal'nogo i anormal'nogo rebenka ( Problems of the
Higher Neural Activity of the Normal and the Abnormal Child ) , Vol .
II , izd -vo APN RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences Publishing House ),
1958 .

• 650 -
 121 . A. A. Markosyan , "On the Interaction of the Two Signal Sys
tems In the Involuntary Processes , " Materialy so veshchaniya po
psikhologii ( Papers of a Conference on Psychology) , izd -vo APN RSFSR
( RSFSR Acadery of Pedagogical Sciences Publishing House ) , 1957 .
121a . Ye . N. Martsinovskaya , "Lesion of the Regulative Role of
Speech in Mentally Retarded Children , " Anthology , Problemy wsshey
nervnoy deyatel'nosti normal'nogo i anormal'nogo rebenka (Problems of
the Higher Neural Activity of the Normal and the Abnormal Child) , Vol .
II , izd - vo APM RSFSR ( RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences Publishing
House ) , 1958.
122 . V. S. Merlin , " Coordination of the Movements of a Damaged
Hand , " Uchenyye zapiski NGU ( Academic Notes of Moscow State University ),
No. 111 , 1947 .
123. A. I. Meshcheryakov, Narusheniye vzaimodeystviya dvukn signal ' .
nykh sistem v formirovanii prostykh dvigatel'nykh reaktsiy pri lokal'nykh
porazheniyakh golovnoro mozga (Lesion of the Interaction of the T10 Sig
nal Systems in the Formation of Simple Motor Reactions in cases of Local
Affections of the Cerebrum ) , Candidate's Dissertation , In - t psikhologii
( Institute of Psyehology ) , Moscow , 1953 .
124. A. I. Meshcheryakov , " Participation of the Second Signal Sys
tem in the Analysis and Synthesis of Chain Stimuli in Normal and in Men
tally Retarded Children , " Anthology , Problemy vysshey nervoy deyatell
nosti normal'nogo i anormal'nogo rebenka (Problems
of the Higher Neural
Activity of the Normal and the Abnormal child ) , Vol . I , Izd- VO APN
RSFSR (RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences Publishing House ) , 1956 .
124a .A. I. Meshcheryakov , "Mechanisms of the Processes of Abstrac
tion and Generalization in Mentally Retarded Children , " ibid ., vol . II ,
1958 .
125. G. M. Mokhova , " Restoration of Speech in Cases of Motor
Aphasia , " Izvestiya APN RSFSR ( News of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical
Sciences ) , No. 15 , 1948 .
126. v . N. Myaşishchev, " Tasks of the Psychophysiological Exper
iment in Nervous and Mental Ailments Clinics and Clinical Diagnosis , "
Anthology , Psikhologicheskiy eksperiment v klinike nervnykh i dushevnykh
bolezney ( The Psychological Experiment in the Nervous and Mental Ail
ments Clinics and Clinical Diagnosis) , Leningrad , 1938 .
127. V. N. Myasishchev, "The Psychological Significance of Electro
cutaneous Indices , " Trudy Instituta mozga ( Works of the Brain Institute ) ,
Leningrad , No. 9 , 1939 .
128 . V. N. Myasishchev , " Psychology and Medicine , " Trudy Instituta
mozga (Works of the Brain Institute ), Leningrad, No. 11 , 1940 .
129. V. N. Myasishchev , Nevro- psikhicheskaya devatel nost ! i
elektrokozhnye pokazeteli v norme i patologii (Neuro - Psychic Activity
and Mectrocutaneous Indices in Normal Cases and in Pathological Ones ) ,
Doctoral dissertation No Place of Publication Given], 1945.
130. V. N. Myasishchev and N. v . Golikov , " Electroencephalo
graphic Data in the Investigation and Examination of Brain Injury , " Antho
logy , Nervove i psikhicheskiye zabolevaniya voyennogo vremeni (Wartime
Nervous and Psychic Ailments) , Leningrad , 1948.

- 651 -
 131. V. N. Myasishchev, "The Psychology of Attitudes and the Phys
iology of the Brain , " Uchenwe zapiski LGU (Academic Reports of Leningrad
State University ) , No. 119 , 1949 .
132. V. N. Myasishchev , " Psychology and Medicine , " Voprosy Psikhologii
( Questions of Psychology ), No. 3 , 1956 .
133. L. A. Novikova , " Electrophysiological Investigation of Speech
Kinesthesias, " Materialy_soveshchaniy po psikhologii ( Papers of Conferences
on Psychology ), izd- VO APN RSFSR (RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences
Publishing House ) , 1957 .
134 . L. A. Orbeli , Lektsii po fiziologii nervnoy sistemy ( Lectures
on the Physiology of the Nervous System ) , Moscow -Leningrad , 1935 .
135. V. N. Osipova , " Speed of Formation of Speech Reactions in
Children ," Novoye v refleksologii ( New Points in Reflexology ), Leningrad ,
1926 .
136. V. N. Osipova, "Report on the work of the Brain Institute Child
Reflexology Laboratory , " Problemy izucheniya i vospitaniya lichnosti ( Prob
lems of Personality Study and Training ) , 1926 .
137. I. P. Pavlov , Poln . cobr . soch . ( Complete Collected Works) ,
Vols. I- V, izd - VOAN SSSR (USSR Academy of Sciences Press ) , MOSCOW
Leningrad , 1951-1953 .
138. Pavlovskiye sredy ( Pavlovian Wednesdays), Vol . I-III , izd
VO AN SSSR TUSSR Academy of Sciences Press ) , Moscow -Leningrad, 1949 .
139. Pavlovskiye klinicheskiye sredy (Pavlovian Clinical Wednes
days), Vol . I- II, izd - vo AN SSSR (USSR Academy of Sciences Press) ,
Moscow - Leningrad , 1954 1955 .
140. N. P. Paramonova , " On the Formation of the Interaction of
the Two Signal Systems in the Normal Child , " Anthology , Problemy ws
shey nervnov deyatel'nosti normal'nogo i anormal'nogo rebenka ( Prob
lems of the Higher Neural Activity of the Normal and the Abnormal
Child) , Vol . I , izd - vo APN RSFSR ( RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences
Publishing House ) , 1956 .
1471. N. P. Paramonova , " The Role of the Orientational Reflex In
the Formation of the Motor Conditioned Reactions in Man , " Tezisy
konferentsii po problemam orientirovochnogo refleksa (Abstracts of a
Conference on Problems of the Orientational Reflex ), Moscow , 1957 .
141a . M. L. Pevzner , Deti -oligofreny ( Oligophrenic Children ) ,
Izd - VO APN RSFSR (RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences Publishing
House ) , 1960 .
142. A. Ye . Petrova, Osnovnov kompensatornyy faktor pri
epilepticheskom i shizofrenicheskom protsessakh ( The Basic Compensatory
Factor in cases of Epileptic and Schizophrenic Processes ) , Doctoral Dis
sertation , Moskovskiy meditsinskiy institut (Moscow Medical Institute ) ,
Moscow , 1944 ,
143. A. Ye . Petrova, " Basic Psychological Peculiarities of Epilep
tics ," Trudy kliniki nervnykh bolezney 1 - go Moskovskogo meditsinskogo
instituta (Works of the 1st Moscow Medical Institute Clinic for Nervous
Ailments) , Moscow , 1937 .

- 652 -
 14ht . A. Ye . Petrova, " Role of the Psychological Experiment in the
Determination of the Character of Work Capacity of Those Suffering from
Idiopathic Epilepsy , " Sovremennaya nevropatologiya psikhiatriya i
psikhogigiyena (Contemporary Neuropathology , psychiatry and Mental Hy
giene), No. 5 , 1936 .
145. K. I. Povarnin , " Materials on the questions of Experimental
Psychological Examinations of the Mentally Ill ," Obozreniye psikhiat .,
krim . antropol , i eksp . psikh . ( Survey of Psychiatric, Criminalistic
Anthropoligical and Specialized Psychology ) , 1917 .
146. G. I. Rossolimo , Eksperimental'noye issledovaniye
psikhomekhaniki (Experimental Research of Psychomechanics) , 1- y MGU
(First Moscow State University ) , Moscow, 1928 .
147. S. Ya . Rubinshteyn , Vosstanovleniye trudo sposobnosti posle
voyennykh travm mozga ( Restoration of WorkCapacity After Wartime Brain
Traumata ), Candidate's Dissertation , In - t, psikhologii (Psychology In
stitute ) , Moscow, 1944 .
148 .. S. Ya , Rubinshteyn , " Expert Investigation and Restoration of
Employability After Wartime Brain Traumata , " Anthology , Nevrologiya
voyennogo vremeni (Wartime Neurology) , Medgiz ( State Medical Publishing
House ) , Moscow , 1949 .
149 , Z. Ya . Rudenko , Narusheniye scheta pri mozgovykh porazheniyakh
( Lesion of Counting Ability In cases of Affections of the Brain ) , Candi
date's Dissertation , AN SSSR ( Academy of Medical Sciences of the USSR ) ,
Moscow , 1953 .
150. Ye . I. Ruzer , " On the Question of the correlation of Brain
Lesions and Local Affections in the Structure of Dementia After a Cran
ial Trauma Sustained Under Fire , " Nevropatologiya i psikhitriya (Neuro
pathology and Psychiatry ) , 1944 .
151. I. D. Sapir , Die Neurodynamik des Sprachapparates bei
Aphasiker ( The Neurodynamic of the Speech Apparatus in Aphasiacs ) , (in
German Journal fuer Psychologie und Neurol . ( Psychology and Neurology
Journal ) , Vol . XXXVIII , 1929 .
152. I. D. Sapir , "Aphasia , Speech and Thought, " Nevropatolofiya ,
psikhiatriya, psikhogigiyena (Neuropathology , psychiatry, Mental Hygiene ) ,
Vol . III , 1934 .
153. I. M. Sechenov , Sobr . Soch . ( Collected Works ) , Vol . I-II ,
izdvoAN SSSR ( USSR Academy of Sciences Press ) , Moscow , 1951 , 1952 .
154. I. M. Sechenov , A Letter to M. A. Bokovaya ( Published in
part in Kaganov, Mirovozzreniye I. M. Sechenova ( The Outlook and Phil .
osophy of I. M. Sechenov) , Moscow , 1948.
155. A. N. Sokolov , " On the Question of Speech Mechanisms of Men
tal Activity , " Materialy soveshchaniya po psikhologii ( Papers of a con
ference on Psychology ) , izd- VO APN RSFSR (RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical
Sciences Publishing House ) , 1957 .
156. A. N. Sokolov , "On the Speech Mechanisms of Mental Activity , "
Izvestiya APN RSFSR (News of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences ) ,
No. 81 , 1956 ,

- 653 -
 157. Ye . N. Sokolov , " Higher Neural Activity and the Problem of
Perception , " Voprosy psikhologii ( Questions of Psychology ) , No. 1 , 1955 .
158 . Ye . 1. Sokolov , " On the Reflex Mechanisms of Repetition ,
Materialy_soveshchaniya po psikhologii ( Papers of a Conference on Psy
chology ) , izd - VO APN RSFSR (RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences Pub
lishing House ) , 1957 .
159. Ye . N. Sokolov, " The Orientational Reflex ," Anthology ,
Orientirovochniy refleks i wsshaya nervnaya deyatel'nost ' ( Orienta
tional Reflex and Higher Neural Activity ) , izd - VO APN RSFSR (RSFSR
Academy of Pedagogical Sciences Publishing House ), 1957 .
159a . Ye . li. Sokolov, Vospriyatiye i uslovnw refleks ( Perception
and the Conditioned Reflex ) , izd- vo MGU (Moscow State University Publish
ing House ) , 1958 .
159b . Ye . N. Sokolov ( ed . ) , Orientirovochny refleks i problemy
vysshey nervnoy deyatel'nosti (Orientational Reflex and Problems of
Higher Neural Activity ) , izd- vo APN RSFSR ( RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical
Sciences Publishing House ) , 1959 .
160. I. M. Soloviyev, " On the Psychological Modification of the
Speech Representations, " Izvestiya APN RSFSR ( News of the RSFSR Academy
of Pedagogical Sciences ) , No. 15 , 1948 .
161. I. M. Solovlyev , Osobennosti poznvatel'noy deyatel'nosti
uchashchikhsva vsporogatel'nykh shkol (Peculiarities of the Activity of
the Pupils of Ausiliary Schools) , Uchpedriz ( State Teacher Training Pub
lishing House ) , Moscow , 1953 .
162. B. G. Spirin , Narusheniye podvizhnosti nervnykh protsessov
posle operatsii na golovnom mozgu (Lesion of the Mobility of the Neural
Processes After an Operation on the Cerebrum ), Candidate's Dissertation ,
AMN SSSR ( USSR Academy of Medical Sciences ) , Moscow, 1951 .
163. N. N. Traugott, o vzaimodeystvii signal'nykh sistem pri
neko torykh ostro voznikayushchikh narusheniyakh deyatel'nosti golovnogo
mozga ( on the Interaction of the Signal Systems In the case of Several
ute Lesions of the Activity of the Cerebrum ) , Doctoral Dissertation ,
In - t . psikhologii AN SSSR ( USSR Academy of Sciences , Psychology Insti
tute ) , Leningrad, 1954 .
1614 . N. A. Filippycheva, Inertnosti vysshikh korkowkh protsessov
pri lokal'nykh proazheniyakh bol ! shikh polushariy mozga ( Inertia of the
Higher Cortical Processes in cases of Local Lesions of the Great Cerebral
Hemispheres ), Candidate's Dissertation , AMJ SSSR ( USSR Academy of Medical
Sciences ) , Moscow , 1952 .
165. Ye . D. Khomskaya, " On the Question of the Role of Speech in
Compensation of the Lesions of the Motor Reactions , " Problemy wsshey
nervnoy deyatel'nosti normal'nogo i anormal'nogo rebenka (Problems of
the Higher Neural Activity of the Normal and the Abnormal Child) , Vol .
I , izd - VO APN RSFSR ( RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences Publishing
House ) , 1956 .
166 . Ye . D. Khomskaya, " On the Pathology of the Interaction of the
Two Signal Systers in Mentally Retarded Children , " ibid .

654 -
 167 . Ye . D. Khonskaya, "The Role of Speech in Compensation of Le
sions of Motor Reactions, " Materialy soveshchaniya po psikhologii ( Pap
ers of a Conference on Psychology ) , izd - VO APN RSFSR (RSFSR Academy of
Pedagogical Sciences Publishing House ) , 1957 .
167a . Ye . D. Khomskaya, " Investigation of the Influence of Speech
Reactions on Motor Reactions in Children with Cerebrasthenia , " Anthol
ocy , problemy wisshev nervnoy deyatel'nosti normal'nogo i anormal'nogo
rebenka (Problems of the Higher Neural Activity of the Normal and the
Abnormal Child ) , Vol . II , izd- vo APN RSFSR ( RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical
Sciences Publishing House ) , 1958 .
168. L. G. Chlenov, " New Ideas in the Theory of Sensibility , "
Sovetskaya klinika ( Soviet Clinical Medicine ) , 1932 .
169. L. G. Chlenov, " Design of the Body and Its Lesions , " An
thology , Novove v uchenii ob apraksii , agnozii i afazii ( New Points
in the Theory of Apraxia , Agnosia and Aphasia ) , Moscow , 1934 .
170 . L. G. Chlenov and A. P. Sutkova , " On the Pathology of Touch ,
Arkhiv biologicheskikh nauk ( Archive of Biological Sciences ) , Vol . XLIV ,
1936 .
171. L. G. Chienov , " On the Pathology of Spatial Vision , " Anthology ,
Problemy kliniki i terapii psikhicheskikh zabolevaniy ( Problems of Clin
ical Diagnosis and Therapy of Mental Illnesses) , Moscow , 1938 .
172. L. G : Chlenov , " The Problem of Localization in the Light of
Restoration ," Sovetskaya nevropatologiya i psikhiatriya (Soviet Neuro
pathology and I'sychiatry ) , No. 1, 1946 .
173. L. G. Chlenov , " On Inactivity As A Manifestation of Physiolo
gical Debility , " Uchenye zapiski MGU ( Academic Reports of the Moscow
State University ) , No. 111, 1947 .
174. L. A. Shvarts, " Significance of the Word and Its Auditory
Image as a conditioned Stimulus , " Byulleten ! eksperimental'noy biologii
i meditsiny ( Bulletin of Experimental Biology and Medicine ) , Vol . XXV ,
1948 .
175. L. A. Shvarts, " The Meaning of a Word and Its Auditory Image
As Conditioned Stimuli , " Byulleten ' eksperimental'noy biologii i
meditsiny ( Bulletin of Experimental Biology and Medicine ) , Vol. XXVII ,
1949 .
176. zn . I. Shif , " On the Lesion of Comparison in Reading , "
Izvestiya Al’N RSFSR ( News of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences),
No. 15 , 1948 .
177. Zh . I. Shif , " On Lesion of Reading in cases of Disorders of
Recognition of Letters , " Izvestiya APN RSFSR (News of the RSFSR Academy
of Pedagogical Sciences), No. 15, 1948 .
178. A., M. Shubert, " Psychopathological Description of a Case of
Lesion of Visual - Spatial Perceptions , " Problemy kliniki i terapii
psikhicheskikh zabolevaniy ( Problems of Clinical Diagnosis and Therapy
of Psychic Illnesses ) , Anthology , III , Moscow, 1936 .
179 . A. M. Shubert , " Dynamic of Bilingual Agraphia and Alexia in
Cases of Cerebral Trauma , " Sbornik trudov Instituta psikhiatrii (Anthol
ogy of Works of the Institute of Psychiatry ) , Vol . I, 1940 .

- 655 -
 180. A. M. Shubert and L. G. Chlenov , " On Reduced Spatial Orien
tation , " Sovetskaya nevropatologiya i psikhiatriya (Soviet Neuropathology
and Psychiatry ) , 1941 .
181. A. M. Shubert , " On Certain Lesions of the Cognitive Activity
in Traumatic Situations , " Materialy soveshchaniya po psikhologii ( Papers
of a Conference on Psychology ) , izd - VO APN RSFSR (RSFSR Academy of Peda
gogical Sciences Publishing House ) , 1957 .
182 . A. I. Shumilina , " Functional Significance of the Frontal
Areas of the Cerebral Cortex in the conditioned Reflex Acitivity of
Dogs ," Problemy vysshey nervnoy deyatel'nosti ( Problems of Higher Neural
Activity ) , izd - VO AMN SSSR ( Publishing House of the USSR Academy of Med
ical Sciences) , 1949.
183. N. A. Shustin , Narusheniye nervnoy deyatel'nosti posle
udaleniya lobnykh doley bol ' shikh polushariy u sobak (Lesion of the
Neural Activity Aiter Removal of the Frontal Portions of the Hemis
pheres in Dogs ) , Doctoral Dissertation , In - t fiziologii AN SSSR ( USSR
Academy of Sciences , Physiology Institute ) , Leningrad , 1955 .
134. M. B. Eydinova and D. S. Futer , " Materials on the Question
of the Mechanisms of Compensation in Cases of Aphasia , " Anthology ,
Novoye v uchenii ob agnozii , apraksii i afazii (New Points in the Theory
of Agnosia , Apraxia and Aphasia ), Moscow , 1934 .

- 656 -
 EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGICAL LABORATORIES IN PSYCHIATRIC CLINICS IN
THE SOVIET UNION

By B. V. Zeygarnik and
S. Ya , Rubinshteyn

The research conducted at experimental - psychological laboratories

in psychiatric clinics is one of the applied areas of psychology
pathopsychology . Together with other laboratories found in psychiatric
hospitals and clinics they are intended to solve practical tasks of these
clinics and they play thereby an auxiliary , back - up role . This role in
cludes the use of objective psychological methods to analyze psychopatho
logical phenomena, to discern illnesses , i.e. , to make differential
diagnosis, to estimate the degree of decrease of mental capacities dur
ing examinations or to calculate the effectiveness of therapy , etc.
In addition to the practical , applied direction of the works of
these laboratories, certain independent investigations are also carried
out in them which are of theoretical importance for psychopathology and
for general psychology .
A characteristic suitably distinguishing the development of ex
perimental pathopsychology in the Soviet Union from certain other fields
of psychology was the presence in it of stable natural science tradi
tions. Even before the October Revolution very valuable experimental
experience was acquired by many of these laboratories which existed in
a number of large psychiatric and psychoneurological establishments of
Russia .
It is known that a man as early as I. M. Sechenov attached great
importance to the close cooperation between scientific psychology and
psychopathology . In his letter to M. A. Bokova he wrote about psychol
ogy , that " this science, evidently , will become the basis of psychiatry,
just as physiology lies at the basis of the pathology of the body . "
The first clinical experimental -psychological laboratory in Rus
sia was opened by V. M. Bekhterev in 1885 in Kazan . Later such laboran
tories were opened at psychoneurological clinics in St. Petersburg ,
Moscow , Kharkov , Yuriyev and other cities . The authors of the first
experimental researches completed at these laboratories were M. K.
Valitskaya , Vorotynskiy , Krainskiy, Zaborskiy , V. F. Chizh and others .
To a significant measure their efforts differed ( both in respect of
their practical bent and in respect of their theoretical foundation )
from the idealistic works, on general psychology contemporary to them .
The opposition of the natural science experimental branch of psychology
at the end of the 19th century to its idealistic current found expres
sion in the discussion which took place at the end of 1894 at the ses
sion of the Moscow Psychological Society and in the journal Voprosy
Filosofii i Psikhologii MQuestions of Philosophy and Psychology " )
(November 1894 ) . In answer to the proposal made by N. N. Lange in 1893
on the desirability of opening psychological laboratories at certain

657 -
Russian universities, Professors of Psychiatry , S. S. Korsakov and V. F.
Chizh , openly objected to it and came out against the under - estimation
and hushing up of the " experimental psychology " laboratories then exist
ing in Russia . S. S. Korsakov stated that it was impossible to disregard
these laboratories simply because they exist attached to medical and not
historical - philological faculties .
A large number of experimental - psychological investigations were
conducted in the clinic of mental and nervous diseases of the Military
Medical Academy under the direction of V. M. Bekhterev . His associates
and students completed around 20 doctoral dissertations, monographs,
devoted to experimental research of peculiarities of associations, con
centration ( attention) and mental working capacity during various mental
illnesses ( schizophrenia, manic- depressive psychocis, progressive paral
ysis , epilepsy , etc. ) .
In an article summing up all of these investigations, after having
asserted certain fundamental positions relative to the experimental
psychological methods, V. M. Bekhterev [117 pointed out that the exper
imental study of patients is necessary to supplement and make more
thorough the clinical observations .
V. M. Bekhterev stressed the nonproductivity of the Wundt psycho
metric methods of investigation ( with the aid of a chronoscope, tachyisto
scope , etc. ) for the practical needs of psychiatric clinics and called
for the simplicity and availability of these experimental methods . He
pointed out that the most complex psychological phenomena are being ex
posed more easily and reliably with just such simple experimental tech
niques .
Together with S. D. Vadychko , V. M. Bekhterev developed specially
a number of fundamental instructions and concrete methodical techniques
for the objective psychological study of the mentally ill [12], [737 .
The number of methods used in the V. M. Bekhterev school for
studying the mentally ill was very large . The most used method among
them were the word association experiment, the method of determining
and comparing concepts, corrective tests for investigation of attention ,
calculation tasks to bring in the dynamics of the work capacity of pa
tients, etc. Nearly every group of mental patients was subjected to in
vestigation : those suffering with manic - depressive psychosis,
schizophrenia ( primomania ), epilepsy, progressive paralysis, etc.
Among the experimental psychological investigations of the
Bekhterev school , the investigation of speech by M. I. Astvatsaturov
0, the dissertation by K. N. Povarnin (1297 on attention ( the cen
sor, or in modern terms the opponent was Academician I. P. Pavlov ) ,
the investigation of creativity and other intellectual functions in
the mentally ill by V. V. Abramov 1 etc. , were of enormous value .
V. M. Bekhterev considered as the most obvious and essential
requirement that the methods used in the clinic should have been pre
viously tested on a great number of psychically normal persons of
various education and age . Hence in nearly all the experimental works

- 658 -
of the Bekhterev school comparative groups of healthy and mentally ill
persons , homogeneous in respect of education were subjected to investi
gation . Thus , for example, in a number of interesting works by L. S.
Pavlovskaya [1217, [122] a comparison is made of free associations,
judgments and conclusions of healthy people and those suffering with
paralytic feeblemindedness and also a comparison of conclusions made by
healthy persons , idiots, (oligophrenics ) and schizophrenics .
In the unusually careful and methodically refined dissertation of
L. S. Gutman (417 a comparison is made of the characteristics of the as
sociation process , stability of attention and of the curves of the in
tellectual capacity of healthy persons and the mentally ill in various
phases of maniac -melancholic psychosis . Special attention should be
given to that circumstance noted by V. M. Bekhterev that an experiment
permits a deeper penetration into the qualitative peculiarities of the
intellectual activity of the patients, sometimes revealing mechanics
which cannot be brought to light in the course of simple clinical obser
vations . Thus , for example , the rate of word associations in maniac
excited ( disturbed ) patients proves to be not in the least faster, but
for the most part slower in comparison with the norm . In both ( appar
ently so opposed) phases of the disease (maniac and depressive ) many
common peculiarities are revealed by experiment.
In the experimental research on associations during various forms
of schizophrenia s. D. Vladychko [25], [267 observed their qualitatively
differing peculiarities . Thus, for example , during the simple form of
feeblemindedness ( dementia praecox simplex ) difficulties were noted in
responses to words having an abstract meaning , as well as stereotypes
in the answers , and answers consisting in a general definition of a
stimulus - word .
In summing up a number of experimental investigations, V. M.
Bekhterev came to the conclusion that the association research method
aids in diagnosing incipient feeblemindedness in those cases where
clinical observation is still unable to give any indications in this
regard .
There is no possibility of presenting in this article all of
those practically, chiefly diagnostically, valuable conclusions which
were arrived at by the associates and students of V. M. Bekhterev and
by Bekhterev himself on the basis of the experimental investigations
they conducted .
Under Bekhterev's immediate guidance a significant number of
experimental works on general psychology were issued from his school .
A second center in which clinical psychology was developed was
the psychiatric clinic of S. S. Korsakov in Moscow . In this clinic was
the psychological laboratory, second in Russia . It was organized in
1886 and directed by A. A. Tokarskiy .
Just like all the representatives of the progressive trends
in psychiatry , s . S. Korsakov upheld that opinion that knowledge of
the fundamentals of psychological science afford the possibility of

· 659 -
understanding correctly the degeneration of the psychic activity of a
mentally ill person ; not by accident did he begin his lecturing in the
psychiatric course with a familiarization with the fundamentals of psy
chology . This is a fact attested to by published introductory lectures
or S. S. Korsakov found in the journal Nevropatologiya i Psikhiatriya
(Neuropathology and Psychiatry ). (It should be noted that similar tra
ditions were upheld likewise by the followers of S. S. Korsakov -- V. P.
Serbskiy , A. N. Bernshten and others .)
Not divorcing psychic activity from the physiological processes
but reducing it to the latter either , s . S. Korsakov in these lectures
took as starting - point materialist views of I. M. Sechenov and stated
the idea that " the neural mechanism comprising the substrate of the
psychic phenomenon operates along the lines of a reflex act. "
The works issued from the ainic of S. S. Korsakov contained
propositions which made a valuable contribution to the theory of psy
chological science , The works of S. S. Korsakov himself must here be
mentioned especially . His work K Psikhologii Mikrotsefalov (On the
Psychology of Microcephalics ) , his Mediko -psikhologicheskiye Issledodan
iya Odnoy Formy Narusheniy Pamyati ( The Medical and Psychological In
vestigation of One Form of Lesion of Memory ) contain an interesting
analysis of the structure of feeblemindedness . The clinical observa
tions and propositions contained in these works lead to the idea that
the lesions of the intellectual activity of ill persons cannot be re
duced to the degeneration of individual faculties but that it is a case
of complex forms of lesion of all -purposive thinking activity .
The works of A. A. Tokarskiy are also a valuable contribution to
psychology . In his work O Gluposti (On Stupidity ), A. A. Tokarskiy [153 ]
makes an attempt to determine the structure of feeblemindedness which he
characterizes as " a sharp discrepancy of ideas from reality , " one that
leads the mind of man to be incapable of analyzing actuality and de
creases in man the faculty of perception ,
S. S. Korsakov and A. A. Tokarskiy attached great importance to
introducing the newest ( for that time) research methods into psychology .
In the laboratory directed by them work was done on the development and
improvement of experimental techniques . In their works Zapiski Psik
hologicheskoy Laboratorii (Notes from the Psychological Laboratory )
systematic accounts were published on the projects of associates and
students who were conducting experimental investigations ( A. Basistov,
V. Tselikov, I. Kholchev , A. Kasatkin , P. Pod ' yampol'skiy , 0. Viktorov
and others) . From the same ( notes ) we learn of detailed reports made
on experimental psychology . After the death of S. S. Korsakov and A.
A. Tokarskiy the traditions of cooperation between the clinic and exper
imental psychology for a long time predetermined the work of the Moscow
psychiatric school. (Note: It is interesting to note that from the ac
counts of the psychological laboratory we learn that S. S. Korsakov and
A. A. Tokarskiy purchased the laboratory equipment from their personal
means . )

• 660 -
 After the death of A. A. Tokarskiy, A. N. Bernshteyn [ 9], [ TOT
who directed the psychological laboratory developed a system of exper
imental - psychological measures for investigating the mentally ill . Sev
eral of these experimental methods became firmly established in clinical
practice and are used even to this day . The methodological techniques
of A. N. Bernshteyn were directed not only to the quantitative but also
to the qualitative analysis of psychic disturbances . A. A. Bernshteyn
also developed charts necessary for interpreting experimental data in
solving clinical problems .
Interest in experimental psychology was manifested in the fact
that a number of meetings of the Moscow Society were devoted to a fa
miliarization with the various systems of research methods. Articles
appeared in the journal Nevropatologiya i Psikhiatriya ( Neuropathology
and Psychiatry ) , devoted to the experimental- psychological examination
of patients . P. F. Chertkov presents comparative data on the results
of the experimental investigation of the memory in patients suffering
with Korsakov's psychosis progressive paralysis and epilepsy ( 1910) .
The work of I. M. Rozenshteyn , Eksperimental'noye Issledovaniye
Sposobnosti k Zapominanivu u Alkogolikov (Experimental Investigation of
the Faculty of Recall in Alcoholics) , (1910 ) , as well as the work of F.
G. Rybakov , Psikhologicheskaya Laboratoriya Pri Moskovskoy
Psikhiatricheskoy Klinike (The Psychological Laboratory at the Moscow
Psychiatric Clinic) , (1908) , were published . In 1911 the book of A. N.
Bernshteyn was issued devoted to a description of experimental
psychological research methods . In the same year F. G. Bybakov issued
his wonderfully compiled Atlas Psikhologicheskogo Issledovaniya Lichnosti
(Atlas of the Psychological Investigation of Personality ) .
Thus , on the eve of the Great October Revolution clinical exper
imental psychology in Russia had achieved definite successes . A network
of psychological laboratories had been created in clinics ; methods for
the experimental investigation of the degeneration of psychic activity
were being developed ; anthologies were being published which were devoted
to methods of experimental - psychological investigations.
The Great October Socialist Revolution introduced basic changes
into the theory and practice of psychological research . The struggle
with idealism which had developed in the field of general psychology
influenced also the work of the experimental - psychological laboratories
and psychiatric clinics . This appeared in efforts to interpret material
istically the morbid manifestations of the psychic life and in the cam
paign against the use of psuedo - scientific methods for auto - observation
and psychoanalysis .
Whereas psychopathological investigations abroad continued ( and
are continuing to a considerable measure up to the present time ) to be
based on the theoretical concepts of Freud and the psychoanalytic method ,
in the Soviet Union very little attention was paid to this direction even
in the first years after the revolution . The majority of psychologists
working in psychiatric clinics rejected the speculative metaphysical

- 661 -
theories and directed their searches to the solution of concrete clinical
problems. In accord with the new arrangement of the psychiatric clinic
directed to prophylaxis and accounting of social factors in the compensa
tion of mental illnesses, the tasks and methods of psychopathology were
altered . Nevertheless this rearrangement of psychopathology was a pro
tracted affair ; nor did it proceed without internal conflicts .
In the first years after the revolution clinical psychological
successes multiplied significantly . After the Great October Revolution
the network of psychological laboratories in psychiatric clinics and
psychoneurological institutes was expanded . The results of experimental .
psychological research became the subject for wide discussion at meet
ings of the society of psychiatrists and neuropathologists.
From an account of this society in Petrogard for the period 1917
1921 it can be seen that a large number of reports on experimental psy
chology were heard at the meetings: a report by N. M. Dobrovol'skiy
" Investigation of the concentration of Attention During Traumatic Psy
choneurosis , " three reports by I. N. Spirtov " Evoking Associations in
Psychasthenics , " "The Character of Judgments During Early Feebleminded
ness , " " Judgment in Psychasthenics " ; a report by V. N. Osipova " On the
Method of an Individual Natural Experiment, " in which the author pre
sents the characteristics of the existing research methods and offers
data from her own investigations conducted on three hundred fifty pa
tients ; a report by N. M. Dobrovol'skiy " The Experimental Psychological
Arrangements of the Laboratory of the Clinic for Mental Illnesses of
the Military Medical Academy " ( 1921 ) , etc.
In the first years of Soviet rule ( 1918) psychologista
experimener A. M. Shubert who subsequently dedicated his entire life
to working in a psychiatric clinic began his creative activity in a
clinic .
The efforts of the experimental - psychological laboratory in the
1920's had in the main a practical character : psychological research
was chiefly directed at solving practical clinical tasks . However ,
these efforts were disconnected in an organizational sense ; laboratories
appeared and expanded in psychoneurological establishments differing in
character , were uncoordinated by single leadership and direction .
In the Moscow State Psychoneurological Institute in 1924 eight
reports were devoted to problems of psychology (v . I. Timofeyev, " Com
parative Psychological Investigation of the Mentally Ill" ; M. A.
Aleksandrova and I. D. Gormakov , " Experience of the Experimental
Psychological Research of the Imagination in Somnambulists" ; K. Kh .
Kekcheyev and Ye I. Ruzer , " Investigation of the Budgeting of Time as
an Introduction to the Study of Occupational Fatigue " ).
Interesting projects devoted to an experimental analysis of
schi sophrenic and organic feeblemindedness were issued in 1925 by the
Minsk Psychiatric Hospital . In the Rovno Psychiatric Hospital exper
imental investigations of the peculiarities of attention in the mentally
ill were carried out . With the help of extremely simple experimental
methods ( showing a story -picture to the subjects ) the capacity of var
ious groups of mentally ill for fixing attention , lability and inertia
in the orientation to new material was determined .

662 -
 At the Second Leningrad Psychiatric Hospital investigations
were conducted devoted to a comparative experimental analysis of
choice in mentally ill and healthy persons ; while in Kiev psycho
logical investigations were devoted to lesions of speech in schizo
phrenia [75]. In the psychological laboratory of the Odessa Psychiatric
Minic Ye M. Fedotova studied sick adolescents by the Troshin method .
In the clinic for the mentally ill in Baku (Azerbaybzhan State Univer
sity ) , A. A. Perel'man studied the scope of attention in schizophrenics .
Many psychiatrists and physiologists began their scientific can
reer with experimental -psychological research . Thus ,for example, the
candidate's dissertation of A. G. Ivanov - Smolenskiy 1857 concerned the
experimental - psychological investigation of psychasthenics. R. Ya .
Golant published the_results of a significant investigation on the dis
orders of memory [ 387.
The list of investigations emanating from psychological labor
atories of quite different cities and establishments of our country in
the 1920-1930 period could be continued . However , the works already
aited indicate the variety and abundance of problems which were the
subject of psychological investigations . Whereas part of them was de
voted to general questions of psychology , others were directed at
problems posed by clinical practice .
The tendency of psychopathological research in the 1920-1930's
mirrored also a general trend of psychoneurology of that time to
prophylaxis and to an alignment with labor hygiene . Many industrial
and transportation organizations opened psychoneurological institutes
and laboratories in which works on psycho - physiology , patho
psychology and hygiene and expertise of the working capacity of the
mentally ill , et . , were conducted side by side with medical investiga
tions as such .
The very structure of the institutions, the journals and
scientific conferences mirrored this union of the psychology of labor
with psychiatry . Thus , for example , at the Moscow State Psychoneuro
logical Institute there was a laboratory of the psycho - physiology of
labor . K. Kh . Kekcheyev , head of this laboratory used the chrono
cyclographic method to study the pathological pictures of the mentally
ill . In this same institute a psychotechnical department existed in
which Ye . I. Ruzer worked as an assistant who was engaged in studying
fatigue in healthy as well as mentally ill people [137] .
At the All -Russian Congress of Psychoneurologists held in Jan
uary 1923 there was a section of general psychology where reports by
A. A. Smirnov, S. V. Kravkov , and P. A. Sheverev were heard ; there was
also a section on the psychophysiology of labor at which N. N.
Shpil'reyn and A. P. Nechayev delivered reports . Certain investigations
conducted at that time were devoid of scientific value because of the
interest at the time in scientifically unfounded methods the so - called
tests . However , many works from the number devoted to the study of work
capacity , labor hygiene and rehabilitation of the mentally ill have re
tained a significant practical interest .

- 663 -
 In addition to the investigation of psychopathologists in the
field of labor hygiene at the beginning of the 1930's the experimental
psychological laboratories in psychiatric clinics continues their work .
Such laboratories existed in psychoneurological institutes as
well as in many hospitals: in the oldest Donskoy Psychiatric Hospital
(now , the Hospital imeni Soloviyev) ; in the psychiatric clinic directed
by Professor Krasnushkin ; in an Oblast psychiatric clinic, and in the
Hospital imeni Gannushkin . Psychological research was even used in cer
tain psychiatric colonies (Kaluga Psychiatric Colony " Bushmenevka" ) and
in departmental hospitals ( the railroad psychiatric hospital of the
Belorussian Railroad ) .
In the famous psychiatric hospital imeni Kashchenko experimental
psychological research was conducted concerned with lesion of the psy
chic processes during schizophrenia and in gross organic diseases of
the brain (A. M. Shubert) [ 170], [1717). The results of these works
were widely used in monographs , text books, and articles of the most
famous clinical psychiatrists (v . A. Gilyarovskiy , G. Ye. Sukhareva , T.
P. Simson , M.Ya. Sereyskiy , M. O. Gurevich , and others ).
Kharkov was one of the famous centers for the development of ex
perimental medical psychology in the 1920-1930's . M. S. Lebedinskiy who
began his experimental work there in the psychological sector of the
Psychoneurological Institute of the Southern Railroads devoted a whole
series of investigations to the experimental study of the pathology of
speech in schizophrenia and sensory aphasia . Late , he directed the di .
vision of clinical psychology of the Central Psychoneurological Insti
tute . A considerable number of very valuable investigations dealing with
the pathology of the thinking and speech were issued by this division .
Among the latter should be cited for their physiological basis and ex
perimental proficiency , the work of P. Ya . Gal'perin and R. A. Golubeva
( 357 which brought to light the mechanisms of paraphasia_in patients.
The investigations of Professor M. S. Lebedenskiy (85-917 which were de
voted to the characteristics of the actions and speech of schizophrenics
were later transferred to Moscow to the Central Institute of Psychiatry
of the Academy of Medical Sciences .
The journal Sovetskaya Psikhonevrologiya ( Soviet Psychoneurology ),
issued in Kharkov , published a considerable number of experimental
psychological investigations from various cities in the Soviet Union .
It was in Kharkov, too , that the famous Soviet psychologist L.
S. Vygotskiy performed his first investigations [307, [31] . Thanks to
them , clinical psychopathology received special development. L. S.
Vygotskiy's research was continued at his Moscow laboratory ( the psy
chological laboratory of the All - Union Institute of Experimental Medi
cine -- VIEM , founded in 1932. )
The theoretical propositions of L. S. Vygotskiy on speech and
thinking made a substantial contribution to clinical psychology and de
termined the future paths of its development . Having made the problems
of the development of consciousness the object of his research , L. S.
Vygotskiy attached great importance to the study of the degeneration of

- 664 -
the structure of human activity , studying how the relations of the
higher psychic processes are altered during various diseases of the
brain ,
L. S. Vygotskiy frequently stated that the analysis of the patho
logically altered psychic processes is very productive for solving ques
tions of theoretical psychology . He paid special attention to the lesion
of thinking in schizophrenics . He enunciated the proposition that the
lesion of concepts is a basic symptom of schizophrenic thinking , that in
the schizophrenic patient the meaning of words is altered . Nevertheless
the lesion of concepts is not , according to the opinion of L. S. Vygot
skiy , the cause of the schizophrenic process . # The lesion of the func
tion of the formation of concepts is the first result of the schizo
phrenic process but not its precursor . " In agreement with the
assumptions of I. P. Pavlov the author considers that when speaking
about the schizophrenic process one should think " about the protective
functions of the organism reacting by the development of internal inhi
bition to a debility of the nervous system . "
The theoretical concept of L. S. Vygotskiy and his associates
played a significant role in the developing of theoretical concepts
and concrete experimental and methodical searches in the field of psy
chopathology . They contributed to the complete overcoming of the ob
solete psychometric and the so - called " functional " traditions in compil
ing methods so greatly implanted in clinics under the influence of G. I.
Rossolimo .
L. S. Vygotskiy showed the mutual causality of various perceptive
processes in the entirety of the psychic activity of the healthy and the
morbid individual and helped to overcome the cleavage between the con
cepts of the intellect and the affect . This cleavage was especially char
acteristic for the psychiatric clinic in which the concepts of " intellect
ual " and " extra- intellectual , " i.e. affectively conditioned disorders ,
became institutionalized .
It was L. S. Vygotskiy and his associates discovering the affective
structure of every intellectual act who helped to overcome functionalism
in psychopathology . After a series of investigations published by them ,
the experimental methods of a majority of the psychopathological labor
atories began to have a more integral , complex character and began to
expose the purposiveness and internal grganization of activity of pa
tients in the execution of tasks .
The positions of L. S. Vygotskiy on the fact that in the psy
chically sick people the sense of words disintegrates were also
developed in the investigations of his associates ( F. V. Bassin , G.
V. Birenbaum , B. V. Zeygarnik , M. S. Lebedinskiy and N. G. Morozova ) .
On the basis of his research , F. V. Bassin showed that the sense
of a word di.sintegrates in schizophrenics into a multitude of senses
not coinciding with the objective and real relations between the objects
designated by these words. The degeneration of concepts in schizophren
ics results in a change in the relationship with the environment .

- 665
 In the works of G. V. Birenbaum and B. V. Zeygarnik [ 147, the
experimental data presented offer a comparative characterization of
the degeneration of thinking in schizophrenics and during gross organic
affections of the brain ( traumas, epilepsy ) ..
A series of complex works of psychiatry and psychology dealing
with an analysis of the degeneration of personality and systemic
feeblemindedness [ 32] ,[ 42 ], [62] wasissued from thissame laboratory.
These investigations were later continued at the Psychological Labor
atory of the RSFSR Central Institute of Psychiatry .
Intensive experimental - psychological investigations were con
ducted under the direction of v . N. Myasishchev at the Leningrad In
stitute of the Brain imeni Bekhterev for several decades . Following
the tradition of V. M. Bekhterev, V. N. Myasishchev attempted to com
bine psychiatry and psychology and to introduce into psychiatric clinics
objective methods of examining patients . His group of students and as
sociates completed two large series of investigations concerning the
emotional - volitional sphere .
The first series ( 1920's) was an attempt to find and develop a
method for the objective recording of the emotional components of
every psychic activity of a human individual . The electrocutaneous
record of a person ( ECR ) which was registered by a galvanometer was
used as the objective indicator . Many associates and students of V.
N. Myasishchev ( T. Ya . Khvilivitskiy, R. I. Meyerovich , Ye . Ye .
Plotnikova, V. N. Nikol'skiy, v. 0. Milyavskaya, Tarkhanov and
Panova) worked at the study of the ECR during various forms of psychic
activity in different groups of mental patients .
The attempt to introduce a psychophysiological experiment into
psychoneurological dinical work was, understandingly , of very great
interest . However , the method itself of recording the ECR was never
widely used in the clinic due to a certain technical complexity in it
and the insufficient substantiveness of the data obtained with its
aid .
The second, a considerably larger series of investigations com
pleted in the Division of Psychopathology of the Leningrad Institute of
the Brain , was devoted to the investigation of the emotional - volitional
sphere of patients suffering with various forms of diseases (manic
depressive psychosis , progressive paralysis, hysteria, etc. ) .
At first glance , if one judges by the titles and by the introduce
tions of artides by certain authors one could wonder whether their
works were a continuation and application to psychiatric clinical work
of the methods and interpretations of the psychological school of Kurt
Lewin . Such , for example, are the works dealing with the effect of
success on the level of pretension during hysteria , the recall of com
pleted and uncompleted actions in schizophrenia , manic - depressive psy
chosis and other diseases .
Actually , however , this entire series of researches bore a much
more profound substantive character than the research of K. Lewin . In
it the principles to the approach to emotional problems and to the

- 666 -
structure of human volitional action were radically changed . Whereas a
negative characteristic of the investigations by the Lewin school was
their Gestaltist formal character , the associates of V. N. Myasishchev
found a method to overcome this formalism . A majority of their inves
tigations was directed at the analysis of the structure of the work
activity of patients, to the study of how the relationship of the pa
tients to work influences the curve of their working capacity . Exam
ining lesions of the working capacity as a basic manifestation of a
person's mental illness, V. N. Myasishchev analyzed the indicators of
this working capacity as one of the criteria of the psychic state of
the patient. His article [ 1047 on work capacity and personality diseases
played a significant role in developing psychopathology . Numerous in
vestigations by R. I. Meyerovich , Ye . Ye . Plotnilova , Ye . S. Averbukh ,
T. Ya . Khvilivitskiy , K. M. Kandaratskaya and others, which followed the
line of the propositions laid down by V. N. Myasishchev , are of real
value up to the present_time both in respect of_content and of exper
imental method 37, 1937 , 1947, 1953 , 1961 , 1927 .
A number of famous investigations which have had great practical
and theoretical value were conducted by a group of psychologists from
the Central Scientific Research Institute of Expertise of Work Capac
ity TSIETIN . This institute , the first in the USSR and in the world ,
for many years included in its complement an experimental psychological
laboratory (head of the laboratory is V. M. Kogan ). In addition to gen
eral problems in the expertise of work capacity and rehabilitation of
patients afflicted with somatic illnesses, the associates of this labor
atory participated in the solution of difficult tasks of expertise of the
work capacity and rehabilitation of psychic patients .
The scientific research of the associates of this laboratory (A.
M. Anikin , A. Ye . Petrov , E. A. Korobkov, N. M. Kostomarov , R. A.
Gal'perin and others) was based on the generalization of the broad ex
perience of practical examination work .
Works dealing with the peculiarities of the intellectual activity
of patients who had suffered traumas of the brain [80 ] [81] with the
characteristics of psychic activity and work capacity of epileptics were
issued by this laboratory . A large number of works concerned the peculi
arities of the personality of neurotics [76] and the structure of the
lesions of the work capacity of schizophrenics [33], [727.
The data from the investigations conducted have considerable im
portance for solving problems on work recommendations and work capacity ,
and are widely used up to the present time . Numerous work methods den
voted to the principles and methods of psychological investigations in
expertise work issued from these same laboratories ,
The importance of this cycle of works transcend the bounds of
narrowly expert application . Analyzing the disturbances of work organ
ization , the associates of TSIETIN paid much attention to studying the
various forms of psychic activity .
Considerable interest accrues to the conclusion by V. M. Kogan
[69], 707, based on a large amount of factual material, to the effect

667 -
that during certain organic diseases of the brain , an incapacity for a
contraction of the scope of attention considering simultaneously several
changing actions of the environment is a basic lesion of psychic life
which lowers the work capacity of the patient .
The phenomena, observable during the expert examination of work
capacity , of exhaustion , inertia and other functional difficulties of
the psychic activity of patients, basically preserving their habits
and abilities, necessary for single mental actions, offered this group
of psychologists the basis for seeking special experimental techniques
of research . Thus, as far back as February 1936 a group of psycholo
gists in the examination of work capacity advanced the proposition that
experimental - psychological methods should offer the possibility for
analyzing protracted labor actions of patients and that " it was neces .
sary to give to a protracted complex test which permits the process of
activity to be analyzed preference over the short assignments of the
classical task type in which_judgment is made exclusively on the basis
of results (v. M. Kogan (697 ).This thesiswasprogressive for its
time .
The results of the experimental- psychological analysis of the
work capacity of neurotics [76] was important from a practical point
of view . It showed , for example , the dependence of their work capacity
on the content of the activity . During activity requiring principally
sensory exertion the labor of a neurotic is less productive than during
activity which includes a continuous motor component,
Analogous, practically valuable facts were discovered during the
experimental - psychological examinations of patients suffering with epi
lepsy , schizophrenia , vascular diseases of the brain , etc. Among the
psychologists who worked in psychiatric Minics before World War II , a
certain few should be mentioned . They did not head any special school
or scientific direction but their independent individual investigations
were a valuable contribution to psychopathology . The works of the
following distinguished by great experimental proficiency should be
placed in this category : A. M. Shubert [7707 , [ 1717 , A. N. Zalmanzon
(49), ( devoted to a comparison of the characteristics of thinking
among schizophrenics and epileptics ), Ye , N. Meller 1987 (on automat
isms and deautomatization of the voluntary actions during schizophrenia ) ,
M. P. Kononova (devoted to an analysis of the thinking process of adoles
cent schizophrenics (747), and 2. B. Shneyerson (on the disorder of
spatial representations of psychically ili children [1697 ).
During World War II , in connection with the increased proportion
and importance of traumatic injuries of the brain , many psychologists
and entire experimental -psychological laboratories were transferred to
the study of psychic lesions in traumas of the brain .
Psychologists working in psychiatric establishments were in
cluded in the restorative work at neurosurgical hospitals ( psycholo
gists from TSIENTIN at Gorkiy , psychologists from the RSFSR State
Institute of Psychiatry , at the Neurosurgical Hospital " Kisegach , " at

- 668 -
which base the psychological staff of the Clinic of Nervous Diseases of
the All Union Institute of Experimental Medicine, headed by A. R. Luriy ,
were working at that time) . During the war A. M. Shubert conducted re
searches aimed at explaining schizophrenoid lesions of the intellectual
activity in traumatic injuries of the brain at the imeni Kashchenko hos
pital ( 172). The difficult circumstances of the wartime period made it
necessary to investigate the asthenic condition among children and
adolescents; this research was conducted in the children's ward of the
imeni hospital Kashchenko by M. P. Kononova . E. A. Yevlakhova , under
the guidance of A, R. Luriy , studied the peculiarities of the perception
of patients who had suffered frontal traumas of the brain ; 2. B.
Shneyerson studied the lesions of spatial orientation in patients with
closed traumas of the cranium [7697.
The group of psychopathologists of the Institute of Expertise of
Work Capacity conducted during the war a series of valuable investiga
tions dealing with the restoration of the work capacity of invalids of
the Great. Patriotic War . Types of work capacity lesions were isolated
( principally lesions of the perceptual processes, lesions of activity
and endurance) [807.
Much research dealt with the analysis of the processes of res.
toration of_the functions of the invalids of the Great Patriotic War
[T387, [1397 .
After the war the staff and number of experimental psychological
laboratories in psychiatric clinics and hospitals were considerably cur
tailed . Intensive investigations were continued chiefly at scientific
research institutes at the Union and republic level while the number of
laboratories and hospitals could be counted in units ( in Ulyanovsk ,
Krasnoyarsk , Kalinin , Ryazan ' and in a few Moscow Hospitals ) .
At the USSR Central Institute of Psychiatry M. S. Lebedinskiy
and a group of associates continued to study the characteristics of
speech during schizophrenia [907, 1917 .
Investigations on disorders of the thinking process during schizo
phrenia and traumas of the brain were carried out at the RSFSR Institute
of Psychiatry [55], [56] .
At the Institute of Forensic Psychiatry imeni Serbskiy the peculi .
arities of the intellectual processes during reactive states were studied ,
and methodological means were sought to expose the degrees of organic dem
pression during aggravation of patients sent for examination ,
The decrees of the joint session of the USSR Academy of Sciences
and the Academy of Medical Sciences devoted to the teaching of I. P.
Pavlov introduced radical changes into the theory and practice of psy
chiatry and general psychology . Of course , there began a reorganization
of projects and of the experimental- psychological laboratories in
psychiatric clinics . This was expressed in a reexamination of concepts .
methods and bias of research . The necessity arose of more strict and ob
jective methods of examining patients and for a more profound interpreta
tion of experimental data based on the reflex principle of explanation
of the psychic life . Under the direction of M. S. Lebedinskiy

- 669 -
experimental investigations of the activity of the visual analyzer in
schizophrenics from the point of view of the correlation of the sig
nals systems began to be carried out at the USSR Institute of Psychi
atry .
At the RSFSR Central Institute of Psychiatry (B. V. Zeygarnik )
the study was begun of the dynamic lesions of the intellectual activity
in patients in the light of the teaching of I. P. Pavlov on hypnoidal
phases .
Psychologists at the Central Institute of Expert Examination of
Work Capacity (V. M. Kogan and E. A. Korobkova ) , while studying prob
lems of work capacity , began to base their judgments on the positions
of I. P. Pavlov and his school in relation to dynamic stereotype and
the process of its alteration .
These works have significant practical value for the determina
tion of the procedure of rehabilitation of invalids.
At the Institute for Forensic Psychiatry inemi Serbskiy new ,
specially developed experimental procedures permitting penetration
into the mechanisms of reactive depression and reactive speech dis
inhibition were used in investigating various forms of the reactive
states [7437 .
At the same laboratory experimental investigation was begun on
auditory hallucinations and an attempt was made to show the reflex mech
anism of hallucinatory phenomena ( s . Ya . Rubinshteyn ) .
G. V. Birenbaum and K. V. Shekhanova studied a disorder of con
sciousness after insulin shocks at the Ryazan Psychiatric Hospital . In
addition to this , G. V. Birenbaum developed methods for estimating the
effectiveness of therapy for epilepsy and conducted an analysis on a
group of patients undergoing treatment.
Nevertheless, not everything proceeded smoothly in the develop
ment of psychopathology during these years . An attempt was made to sub
stitute the object of psychological science by the concept of higher
neural activity and to replace the experimental - psychological labora
tories with physiopathological laboratories . This resulted in a temporary
decrease in productivity from these laboratories .
The periodical Kommunist ( Communist) ( 1956, 47) pointed out the
impermissible divorce of psychological science from practice as a whole
which had been brought about at that time and particularly the mistake
of shutting down the psychological laboratories in clinics. This arti
cle also indicated that an incorrect attitude to psychological science
on the part of certain departmental heads had played a great part in
the divorce of psychology from practice .
To a considerable degree , this accusation could also be levelled
at the Ministries of Health . However , after the stand taken by the
periodicals Voprosy Filosofii ( Problems of Philosophy) and Kommunist
the situation began to be corrected . Certain laboratories which had
been closed were reopened ( for example, the Psychological Laboratory of
the Institute of Psychiatry USSR ) and the network of investigations in
the field of clinical psychology was expanded .

- 670 -
 Deserving of much attention , nevertheless , is the circumstance
that in the period of the greatest decrease of experimental pathopsy
chological work it was still preserved to a considerable degree in
units concerned with psychiatric examination ( work , forensic, military ,
etc. ) . This is explained by the fact that experimental psychopathology
is practically necessary in the process of the entire psychoneurological
examination , Precisely this practical tendency also explains its pro
ductivity .
Certain organizational measures brought about by the Academy of
Pedagogical Sciences and the Ministry of Health also contributed to
strengthening experimental -psychological research in psychiatric clinics ,
At the conference on psychology organized by the Institute of
Psychology of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences and held in
1955 , a number of reports were heard which were devoted to problems of
clinical psychology . The reporters as well as those who participated in
the discussion stressed the value of the research conducted on clinical
material for general problems of psychology and clinical practice .
Applying the research data on aphasic disorders , V. M. Kogan
( Institute of Expert Examination of Work Capacity , Moscow ) , gave a psy
chological analysis of the gnostic nature of speech . He showed that, in
all forms of aphasia , speech cannot be used by the patient as a means of
communication or as a method of reaction expressing the relationship of
the individual to his surroundings . Turning from a "means " into an " end , "
speech degenerates as an activity and loses not only its back - up role
but also the coordination of the mechanism .
The problem of the reflex nature of auditory illusions was treated
by a report by S. Ye . Rubinshteyn in which an attempt was made to study
the mechanisms of hallucinations by analyzing the process of auditory
perceptions of patients . The author constructed a special method af
fording the opportunity not only of specifying the quality and force of
stimuli but also of creating a situation for listening to low ( on the
borderline of audibility ) sounds . On the basis of the experimental data
obtained at the psychological laboratory of the Institute of Forensic
Psychiatry imeni Serbskiy , the author expressed the hypothesis that
audi tory illusions arise reflexively as distorted , fixed reactions to
an external stimulus .
A classification and analysis of experimental factors in the
field of lesions of thinking of patients having various forms of psy
chic disorders were given in a report by B. V , Zeygarnik ( Institute of
Psychiatry of the RSFSR Ministry of Health ) .
A report by A. M. Shubert ( Institute of Forensic Psychiatry) was
devoted to an analysis of the lesions of perceptional activity in trau
matic situations .
Psychiatrists and neuropathologists delivered reports at this
same session . A report by R. A. Zachepitskiy and Ye . K. Yakovleva
(Psychoneurological Institute imeni V. M. Bekhterev, Leningrad ) showed
the importance of improper training in the origin of neuroses . On the
basis of a careful study of 200 neurotics , the authors established that

- 671 -
incorrectly formed personality attitudes play the primary pathogenic
role in the genesis of neuroses . The authors stressed the importance
of combining the work of psychiatrists, neuropathologists and psychol
ogists . T. Ya. Khvilivitskiy ( Psychoneurological Institute imeni
Bekhterev) in his report showed the value of therapy of psychoses as an
experimental method for psychopathology and psychology . Using various
therapeutic actions on patients and analyzing the dynamics occurring in
their condition , the author obtained certain data on the problem of the
interrelationships of emotions and thinking .
All the speakers and discussion participants stressed the importa
ance and necessity of combining the work of clinicians and psychologists .
In April 1956, an expanded session of the Presidium of the Scien
tific Council of the USSR Ministry of Health was held. At this meeting
were discussed measures for improving medical psychology side by side
with other problems. Decisions were adopted on expanding the network
of laboratories, on introducing lectures in medical psychology in the
Institute for the Advanced Training of Physicians and in certain medical
higher educational institutions, and also on the expediency of publishing
manuals on methods of experimental -psychological investigations of pa
tients in clinics .
Shortly after the conference of the Presidium of the Scientific
Council of the USSR Ministry of Health the RSFSR State Institute of
Psychiatry published a short specialized methodological letter , "On
Experimental -Psychological Examinations of Patients in Psychoneurolog
içal Establishments , " addressed principally to psychiatric hospitals
1837. Tasks , theoretical premises and principles for constructing
experimental -psychological tests in the clinic were outlined in this leta
ter . It states that psychological research is a supplementary method
aiding the clinician in recognizing and analyzing diseases , that it can
not be conducted in isolation from clinical tasks and must respond to
the questions of the clinicist .
The tasks presented for psychological investigation are various :
1 ) the psychological experiment can be used by the clinician for differ
ential diagnostic purposes ; 2) the experimental - psychological investiga
tion may be set the task of analyzing the structure of the patient's
defect ( independently of the differential diagnostic task ) ; 3) the
experimental - psychological investigation can be used for establishing
the degree of the psychic lesions of the patient . This task acquires
special importance in analyzing the dynamics of diseases, for example,
when estimating the effectiveness of treatment , in establishing the
quality of remission , in labor and forensic examinations.
The methodology of the experimental - psychological investigation
is variously constructed in function of the requirements of clinical
practice . The selection and construction of the research method also de
pend on the general psychic condition of each patient , on the degree of
accessibility and the state of his consciousness , and on the general edu
cational training of the patient .

. 672 -
 The most important principles for conducting psychological exper
imentation which determine the selection and construction of the individ
ual experimental method are : the principle of the functional test ; the
principle of the qualitative analysis of the characteristics of the
course of various psychic processes of the patient ( in contrast to the
false task of a single quantitative measurement of them ) and the require
ment of objectivity of the indicators of the investigation .
Descriptions of the various methods of experimental investigation
are presented in the methodological letter .
A methodological handbook on this question is being prepared for
publication at the present time according to a plan of the Medical Liter
ature Publishing House .
In 1958 I. N. Dukel'skaya and E. A. Korobkova issued still anothr
methodological letter " Medical - Labor Examination and Rehabilitation
of Schizophrenics" (432). In it, data from theclinicalandpsycholog
ical investigations of the authors were generalized as well as the re
sults of the study of the labor activity of patients . The authors state
that rehabilitation is achieved in the course of development of a set to
work on the part of the patient and via a certain critique of his condi
tion . The possibility of realizing work compensation depends on the
complex of clinico -production factors in which the favorably established
mutual relations in the production group are of crucial importance .
The characteristics of some peculiarities of the work capacity of
schizophrenics are presented in the brochure , In patients who have not
yet emerged from the processional state , an active relationship to the
work to be done has not been formed , The labor activity is still not
capable of distracting patients from morbid experiences . In shizo
phrenics in a state of remission with emotional - volitional disturbances ,
instability of work capacity and a lack of endurance for a protracted
exertion of efforts are observed . The authors note that in certain in
tellectually intact patients a greater endurance is noticeable in more
complex activity than in more simple activity . This trait is explained
by the fact that the complexity of the work , allowing , as it does , the
introduction of creative techniques , mobilizes the activities of the
patient debilitated by disease , The complexity of the work is a source
of compensation . The brochure notes that one of the factors organizing
an active purposiveness of the patient is the introduction of a motor
component into the work . An especially vital factor in compensation of
the patient, in the author's opinion , is the perception of his value in
the production group , the positive " social feeling" of the patient.
Investigations devoted to an analysis of various forms of lesions
of thinking were conducted in the psychological laboratory of the State
Institute of Psychiatry of the RSFSR Ministry of Health ( B. V. Zeygarnik ) .
On the basis of experimental data the author distinguished several var
iants of lesions of thought. The lesion of the process of generaliza
tion and abstraction can appear in two forms : in the form of a decrease
in the level of generalization and in the form of a distortion of the pro
cess of generalization . In the first case there are observed in the

- 673 -
patients an insufficiency of volume of acquired relations , the predom
inance of immediate impressions, and the dominance of individual sen
sory representations of the most habitual sort . Verbal - logical opera
tions recede into the background . In patients in the second group ,
experimental - psychological research establishes the dominance of the
verbal - logical connections; the associations of the patients do not cor
respond to real - life relation between objects ; therefore their judgment
cannot properly reflect the real content of objects and phenemona.
The second variant of the lesions of thinking uncovered can be
characterized as a disorder of the dynamic of thinking which appears to
be unusually varied . This variant emerges in the form of instability
of the thinking act , in the form of an insufficient purposiveness of as
sociation and in the form of insufficiently rapid change of response
reactions in connection with a change of stimulus .
The third variant of lesion of thinking consists in the non
criticality of thinking, in a lesion of its regulatory function , and
in the incapacity to correlate its actions and judgments with objective
norms .
An analysis of the experimental data permits the conclusion that
degeneration of thinking occurring at more than one level and in differ
ent directions is not a regression to a lower phase of development ,
The experimental data citedwere published in 1958 as amonograph [547.
Reports of clinical psychologists were especially numerous at
the 1st Congress of the Society of Psychologists held in July 1961 ( Sec
tion on Medical Psychology ) .
The work of the Section on Medical Psychology was concentrated
around the following problems: 1 ) the value of psychology for medical
practice ; 2) the problem of compensation ; 3) the problem of the path
ology of thinking .
The report by A. R. Luriya was devoted to the role of psycholog
ical research in diagnosing brain affections . In it he showed that the
investigation of the disorders of the psyche in the case of brain injury
should bear the character of a qualitative structural analysis of the
symptoms and proceed in close harmony with a study of the character of
the lesions of the higher neural activity of the patients. In his re
port L. G. Chlenov ( Institute of Neurology, Academy of Medical Sciences )
spoke about the importance of psychological research for the clinic .
He stated the proposition that the psychological method adequately un
covers the variety of lesions of the analyzers. In his report I. M.
Tonkonogikh ( Institute imeni Bekhterev) spoke about the importance of
experimental -psychological research . He pointed out that psychological
analysis aids in revealing the structure of dementia in cases of aphasia .
The reports of V. M. Myasishchev , R. A. Zachepitskiy , and Ye , K.
Yakovleva ( Institute imeni Bekhterev ) noted the importance of psycholog
ical research for an understanding of the pathogenesis of neuroses . They
stressed that a knowledge of psychological personality traits is a nec
essary condition for developing rational therapy methods. A. A.
Oganesyan ( Yerevan Medical Institute) reported on the necessity of study
ing the psychology of somatic patients .

- 674 -
 A large number of the reports were devoted to the problem of
compensation of damaged psychic activity .
The role of consciousness in the process of compensation was
treated in the report by V. M. Kogan ( Institute of Expert Examination of
Work Capacity ) . Starting from an understanding of compensation as an
active adaptation and as a functional rearrangement of activity , the
speaker pointed out that no compensation is possible without a con
scious recognition of its defect . The role of consciousness in the pro
cess of compensation emerges in the shape of the formation of this at
titude to the defect . The constructive role of consciousness consists
in the actualization of experience and the finding of that criterion by
which the recognized situation can be filled out .
Data are presented in the report by Ye . D. Khomskaya ( Chair of
Psychology , Moscow State University ) which indicate the regulatory role
of the speech processes in the compensation of defects arising in cases
of affections of certain sections of the great hemispheres of the cere
brum . The report by M. Marushevskiy (Chair of Psychology , Moscow State
University) was also devoted to the peculiarities in the organization of
movements in the case of focal affections of the brain and to the regu
latory influence of the word relations system .
Reports were presented which paid much attention to the pathology
of thinking . M. S. Lebedinskiy , on the basis of clinical - psychological
research , analyzed certain problems on the psychology of speech and think
ing . He showed that investigations of lesions of thinking deepen our
knowledge about the psychological structure of concepts , the process of
generalization , the correlation of speech processes and their physio
logical bases . The speaker presented the problem of the justifiability
of connecting the peculiarities of speech and thinking with personality
traits not only in the process of the pathological restructuring of
personality but also in the process of its formation .
In his report B. V. Zeygarnik ( Institute of Psychiatry, RSFSR
Ministry of Health ) analyzed how research data on the degeneration of
thinking can be valuable in resolving certain questions of general psy
chology . The experimental - psychological data present material which
permits some steps to be taken on the path of overcoming functionalism
in the interpretation of the cognitive activity of the human individual .
They indicate that thinking degenerates not as an individual faculty
but as a purposive activity . Certain conclusions on the correlation of
degeneration and development of thinking can be made from research . The
author demonstrated that the structure of individual variants of the dis
orders of thinking do not correspond to the structure of mental activity
of children at the individual stages of their development, that degenera
tion is not negative development.
The report by E. S. Beyn ( Institute of Neurology , Academy of
Sciences ) was devoted to the characteristics of thinking of patients suf
fering from aphasia . The author established that changes in the process
of abstraction , and contraction of the semantic structure of verbal con
cepts , are characteristic for all forms of speech disorders. On the

- 675 -
basis of the experimental data obtained in studying aphasia, the author
formulated the proposition : " the categorical processes , acts of abstrac
tion , speech in respect of its origin , appear in the sequel to be rel
atively independent and do not require constant reinforcement by vocal
speech . "
A. N. Averbukh's report ( Psychoneurological Institute imeni
Bekhterev ) was devoted to the peculiarities of " asthenicn thinking .
The latter is characterized by superficiality of judgments, insuffi
ciency of synthesis, a lowered capacity for intellectual effort . The
author states that slight manifestations of " asthenic " thinking may be
encountered in neurotics and in the debiltated ; therefore , a knowledge
of the peculiarities of this type of thinking can be important for med
ical and pedagogical psychology .
In his report B. A. Lebedev (Psychoneurological Institute imeni
Bekhterev ) treated questions of the correlation of affect and thinking
in the normal and pathological psychic activity of man .
Not only psychologists but clinicians ( psychiatrists and neuro
pathologists) as well participated actively in the proceedings in the
section of medical psychology .
A resolution of the 1st Congress of the Society of Psychologists
states that the development of the problems of medical psychology is
one of the most important fields of the liaison of psychology with
practice . Considering as vital the expansion of the work on medical
psychology , the Congress entrusted the central council of the society
to present to the Ministry of Health and the USSR Academy of Medical
Sciences the question of expanding the network of psychological labora
tories in neurological , psychiatric, neurosurgical and recuperative
clinics .
Almost simultaneously with the sessions of the 1st Psychological
Congress, the All - Russian Conference of Young Specialist Psychiatrists
and Neuropathologists was held in Gorkiy .
The young rising psychopathologists Yu . F. Polyakov (Manager of
the Psychological Laboratory of the Institute of Forensic Psychiatry
imeni Serbskiy) and T. I. Tepenitsyna ( from the Psychological Labora
tory of the State Institute of Psychiatry of the RSFSR Ministry of
Health ) delivered reports at this conference on the experimental in
vestigation conducted by them . Yu , F. Polyakov's report was devoted
to an analysis of the disorders of thinking in cases of schizophrenia ,
while the report of Tepenitsyna treated the comparative characteristics
of the methods of investigation of thinking : objective and word classi
fication ( based on the material of the clinic of vascular diseases of
the brain and schizophrenia ).
In recent years ( 1958-1959 ) the growth of young cadres in exper
imental psychopathology has become especially noticeable. The speciali
zation in psychopathology by a number of students of the psychological
department of Moscow State University has contributed to this situation .
Courses of lectures on the pathology of thinking and on psychopathology
are delivered in this department ( B. V. Zeygarnik ).

- 676 -
 In addition to the lectures and the practical assignments con
ducted at the base of the hospital imeni Gannushkin , the students do
course and diploma work at the psychological laboratory of the State
Institute of Psychiatry of the RSFSR Ministry of Health , and become
acquainted with the psychiatric clinic and the method of experimental
investigation of the mentally ill . After graduating from the univer
sity , students who are so specializing are sent to work at psychiatric
hospitals of the Russian Federation and there they conduct independent
work under the guidance of the psychological laboratory of the State
Institute of Psychiatry of the RSFSR Ministry of Health . Individual
psychoneurological establishments make use of young psychiatric doctors
for organizing the experimental - psychological work .
The number of recently opened experimental psychological lab
oratories and consulting offices in psychoneurological establishments
of the USSR is still not very large . Work is best organized in the
Tambov Psychoneurological Hospital (v . A. Vasil'yeva ), in the Tula Psy
choneurological Hospital ( N.D. Belov) and in the Fifth Moscow Suburban
Hospital (v . P. Shershakov ) . Somewhat later psychological consulting
offices were organized in the Stavropol, Valday and Lipetsk Hospitals,
and in the cities of Karaganda , Orel and Smolensk . Young psychologists
are working in nearly all the largest cities beyond the boundaries of
the Russian Federation ( in Tbilisi -- Kutaliya , in Alma - Ata -- Gutsevich ,
in Yerevan Gasparyan and Arutyunyan , in Kiev -- Tarashchanskaya, etc.
In February 1960 the first conference for the exchange of experience of
psychopathologists in psychiatric hospitals and clinics was convened by
the Institute of Psychiatry of the RSFSR Ministry of Health together with
the Chair of Psychology of Moscow State University . Among the participants
at the conference were clinical -psychiatrists ( V. M. Banshchikov , I. A.
Berger , T. I. Gol'dovskaya, I. N. Dukel'skaya, L. L. Rokhlin, I. G.
Ravkin , G. Ye . Sukhareva ), and also psychologists (B. V. Zeygarnik , M.
P. Kononova, V. M. Kogan , A. N. Leontyev , A. R. Luriya , M. S.
Lebedinskiy , Yu . F. Polyakov, S. Ya . Rubinshteyn , A. M. Shubert and many
others) .
Along with the rapid growth of the network of experimental
psychological offices in practical hospital institutions, the laborator
ies of scientific research institutes ( Psychoneurological Institute imeni
Bekhterev , Institute of Psychiatry of the Academy of Medical Sciences,
the State Institute of Psychiatry of the RSFSR Ministry of Health , and
the Institute of Forensic Psychiatry imeni Serbskiy ) are being strength
ened and methodically equipped .
Further strengthening of the complex work of psychiatry and psy
chology will be fruitful for the development of both sciences.

. 677 .
 LITERATURE

1. V. V. Abramov , Objectivno - psikholigi sheskoye issledovaniye

tvorchestva i drugikh intellektual'nykh funktsiy u dushevnobolnykh (ob
jective Psychological Investigations of Creativity and Other Intellect
ual Functions in the Mentally Ill ), St. Petersburg, 1911 .
2. G. B. Abramovich , "On a Clinical Psychological Experiment , "
Sovetskaya psikhonevrologiya ( Soviet Psychoneurology ), Kiev -Kharkov,
No. 1 , 1939 .
3. Ye . 5. Averbukh , "On the Recall of Completed and Incompleted
Actions During Manic- Depressive Psychosis ( Experiment in Studying the
Effective - Volitional Sphere of Manic - Depressive Psychotics) , " Anthology,
Sovetskaya nevropsikhiatriya (Soviet Neuropsychiatry ), No. 1 , 1936 .
4 . A. M. Anikina , " On the Differential Characteristics of the
Labor Processes of Patients Suffering with Idiopathic and Traumatic
Epilepsy ," Anthology , Epilepsiya (Klinika i trudo sposobnost ( Epilep
sy : Clinic and Capacity for Work ) , State Publishing House of Medical
Literature (Medgiz ), 1939 .
5. A. M. Anikina and A. Ye . Petrova , " On the Work Capacity of
Schizophrenics ( According to Psychological and Production Data ) ,
Anthology, Problemy pogranichnoy psikhiatrii (klinika i
trudo sposobnost!) (Problems of Borderline Psychiatry; Clinic and Work
Capacity ) , Biomedgiz , 1935 .
6 . V. Ya. Anfimov , " Concentration , Attention and Psychic Work
ing Capacity During Epilepsy , " Obozreniye psikhiatrii (Review of Psy
chiatry ), No. 11-12 , 1908 .
7. M. I. Astvatsaturov, Klinicheskiye i eksperimental'no
psikhologicheskiye isslodovaniya rechevoy funktsii ( Clinical and Exper
imental -Psychological Investigations of the Speech Function ) , 1908 .
8. A. ll. Bernshteyn , Trudy psikhologicheskoy laboratorii pri
Moskovskom pedagogicheskom sobranii (Works of the Psychological Labora
tory of the Moscow Pedagogical Board ) , No. 1 , Moscow, 1909 .
9. A. N. Bernshteyn , " Experimental Psychological Pattems of
Intellectual Disorders During Mental Illnesses , " Report delivered at a
session of the Moscow Society of Neurologists and Psychiatrists on 30
April 1910 .
10. A. N. Bernshteyn , Klinicheskiye priyemy psikhologicheskogo
issledovaniya dushevnobolinykh (Clinical Psychological Investigations
of the Mentally 111 ) , 2nd edition , Gosizdat, 1922 .
11. V. M. Bekhterev , " Objective Investigation of Neuropsychic
Activity , " Obozreniye psikhiatrii i nevrologii ( Review of Psychiatry
and Neurology ) , No. 9 , 1907 .
12. V. M. Bekhterev , " Objective Investigation of the Mentally
Ill , " Obozreniye psikhiatrii, nevrologii i eksperimental'noy psik
hologii (Review of Psychiatry, Neurology and Experimental Psychology) ,
No. 11-12 , 1907 .
13. V. M. Bekhterev and S. D. Vladychko , Ob eksperimentalno
obyektivnom issledovanii dushevnobol'nykh (On the Experimental Objec
tive Investigation of the Mentally Ill) , St. Petersburg , 1911 .

678 .
 14. G. V. Birenbaum and B. V. Zeygarnik , " Dynamic Analysis of
Disorders of Thought , " Sovetskya nevropatologiya , psikhiatriya i psi
khogigiyena ( Soviet Neuropathology , psychiatry and Mental -Hygiene ) ,
Vol . 4 , No. 6 , 1935 .
15 . A. Blankfel'd , " Experience in Using the Associative Exper
iment of Jung -Blehler for the Exposure of Pseudo - simulation ( The Incor
rect Diagnosis of a Somatic Disease ) , Trudy respublikanskoy psikhiatri .
cheskoy bolinitsy USSR (Works of the Republic Psychiatric Hospital of
the Ukrainian SSR ) , Vol . 1 , 1934 .
16 . L. M. Blumenau , " On the Question of the Research of the
Originality of Associations ," Vestnik psikhologii ( Herald of Psychol
ogy ) , Vol . 3, No. 5 , 1906 .
17 . N. R. Bogush , " Peculiarities of Optical Images During Hal
lucination - Paranoic and Confabulation Syndromes in Schizophrenics ,'
Nevrologiya i psikhiatriya (Nuerology and Psychiatry ) , No. 2-3, 1939 .
18. N. I. Bondarev , Metodika psikhiatricheskogo issledovaniya
( Psychiatric Investigation Methods) , Military Medical Academy, Chair
of Psychiatry , 1943 .
19. M. I. Vaysſel'd , " Regularity in the Memory Failing Proc
ess , " Sovetskaya psikhonevrologiya ( soviet Psy cnoneurology ) , No. 3,
1933 .
20. M. K. Valitskaya , " On the Question of the Psychophysical
Changes of the Mentally Ill ," Vestnik klinicheskoy i sudebnoy psikhia
trii ( Herald of Clinical and Forensic Psychiatry) , Vol . 6 , No. 1 , 1898.
21. M. K. Valitskaya , Issledovaniye assotsatsiy
dushevnobolinykh ( Investigation of the Associations of the Mentally Ill ),
Kazan !, 1891.
22 . Yu. V. Vasilenko , " On the Question of Restitution In Aphasic
Disorders , " Sovetskaya psikhoneurologiya , Kiev - Kharkov , No. 6 , 1936 .
23 . Yu . A. Vasillyev , " Qualitative Analysis of Errors In the cor
rective Method ," Zhurnal psikhologii , nevrologii i psikhiatrii ( Journal
of Psychology , Neurology and Psychiatry ), Vol . 4 , 1924 .
24 . Ya . L. Vikker , " On Lesion of Orientation in a Spatial Direc
tion , " Sovetskaya psikhonevrologiya, Kiev - Kharkov , No. 4 , 1936 .
25. S. D. Vladychko , " Attention , Mental Work Capacity and Freely
Arising Associations in Early - Stage Feebleminded Patients , " Obozreniye
psikhiatrii (Review of Psychiatry), No. 6 , 1908 .
26. S. D. Vladychko , Kharakter assotsiatsiy u bol'nykh_s
khronicheskim pervichnym pomeshatel ' stvom (Character of Associations in
Patients with Chronic Primary Insanity) , St. Petersburg , 1909 .
27 . N. P. Volokhov, " Professor L. G. Bel'skiy Method of Investi
gating the Emotional Sphere as Applied to Abnormal Children , " Sovetskaya
psikhonevrologiya, ( Soviet Psychoneurology ) , No. 2 , 1933.
28. Voprosy filosofii i psikhologii ( Questions of Philosophy and
Psychology) , " From the Edi tor, " Letter of Professor V. F. Chizh and the
Note of S. S. Korsakov in a statement from the editor , Book 25 , 1894.

. 679
 29 . " 2nd All - Union Congress of Neuropathologists and Psychia
trists, " Sovetskaya psikhonevrologiya (Soviet Psychoneurology) , No. 1 ,
1936 .
30. L. S. Vygotskiy, " The Problem of Mental Backwardness , " Izbr .
psikhologicheskiye issl . ( Collected Psychological Researches ), Vol . 1 ,
1956 .
31 . L. S. Vygotskiy , " Lesion of Concepts In Schizophrenia ,'
Izbr . soch . ( Collected Works), Vol. 1 , 1956.
32. L. S. Vygotskiy , N. V. Samukhin and G. V. Birenbaum , " Ques
tion of Dementia In Pick's Disease , " Sovetskava nevropatholgiya ,
psikhiatriya i psikhogigiyena (Soviet Neuropathology, psychiatry and
Psychohygiene), Vol. 3, No. 7, 1934 .
33. R. A. Gal perina, " On the Peculiarities of Work Capacity
and Compensatory Capacities of Schizophrenics , " Anthology . Ekspertiz
trudosposobnosti i trudoustrovstvo bol'nykh shizofreniyey (Expertise
of the Work Capacity and Rehabilitation of Schizophrenics) , All -Union
Scientific Research Institute of Expert Examination of Work Capacity
of Invalids, Moscow , No. 14 , 1940 .
34 . P. Ya , Galperin , " Two Concepts of Higher Neural Activity in
Their Relation to Psychology , " Sovetskaya psikhopevrologiya ( Soviet
Psychoneurology ), No. 3, 1933 .
35. P. Ya . Galperin and R. A. Golubeva , "Mechanisms of Paraphasia
of the Complex Type , " Sovetskaya psikhonevrologiya ( Soviet Psychoneurol
ogy ) , No. 6, 1933 .
36. Genik and Vorotynskiy, " Psychometric Investigations on Per
sons Under Hypnosis , " Vrach ( Physician ), 1890 .
37. R. Ya . Golant, " On Recall of Completed and Incompleted Ac
tions In Progressive Paralysis , " Sovetskaya nevropatologiya, i
psikhogigiyena (Soviet Neuropathology, Psychiatry and Mental Hygiene) ,
1935 .
38 . R. Ya . Golant, O Rasstroystvakh pamyati (on Disorders of
the Memory) , Moscow - Leningrad , 1925 .
39 . V. A. Gorovoy - Shaltan , "Psychomotor Coordination During the
Perception of the Rate of Motion in Various Psychic Conditions , "
Nevrologiya i psikhiatriya ( Neurology and Psychiatry ), Vol . VII , No.
2 , 1938 ,
40 . Gerver , " Experimental Research on the Memory of Visual Per
ceptions , " Obozreniye psikhiatrii (Review of Psychiatry), No. 8, 1899 .
41. L. S. Gutman , -" Experimental - Psychological Research on Manic
Depressive Psychosis ( Condition of concentration , Attention , Mental Work
Capacity and Associations), Seriya doktorskikh dissertalsiy ( Series of
Doctoral Dissertations ) , St. Petersburg , No. 15, 1909 .
42 .A. M. Dubinin and B. V. Zeygarnik , " On the Question of Trau
matic Feeblemindedness , " Nevropatologiya i psikhiatriya (Neuropathology
and Psychiatry ) , No. 7-8 , 1940 .
43. I. N. Dukel'skaya , D. Ye , Melekhov and E. A. Korobkova ,
" Examination of the Work Capacity and Rehabilitation of Schizophrenics

- 680 -
in the State of Remission , " Metodicheskove pisimo tsietina (Methodolog
ical Letter of Central Scientific Research Institute of Expert Examina
tion of the Work Capacity of Invalids), Moscow , 1955 .
43a . I. N. Dukel'skaya and E. A. Korobkova , Vrachebno - trudovaya
ekspertiza i trudogstrovstvo bol'nykh_shizofreniyey (Medical Labor
Examination and the Rehabilitation of Schizophrenics) , Medical Publish
ing House , Moscow , 1958 .
44. Ahukovskiy , "On the Memory of Passive Motions , " Obozreniye
psikhiatrii, (Review of Psychiatry ) , No. 5 , 1899 .
45. K. I. Zavadovskiy , Kharakter assotsiatsiy y bol'nykh s
khroniches_pervi chnym pomeshatel ' stvom The Character of Associations
in Patients with Chronic Primary Insanity) , Dissertation , 1909 .
46. A. N. Zalmanzon , " Structure and Limits of Schizophrenic
Feeblemindedness , " Sovetskaya psikhonevrologiya ( Soviet Psychoneurol
ogy ) , Kharkov, 1937 .
47. A. N. Zalmanzon , " Problem of Systemic Feeblemindedness "
Trudy psikhiatricheskoy kliniki 1 - go mi ( Works of the Psychiatric Clin
ic of the First Moscow Medical Institute ) , 1937 .
48 . A. N. Zalmanzon , " Question on the Basic Disorder In Schizo
phrenia , " Trudy psikhiatricheskoy kliniki 1- go mmi ( Works of the Psychi .
atric Clinic of the First Moscow Medical Institute ) , No. 4, 1934 .
49. A. N. Zalmanzon and S. I. Skornyakova, " Question of the
Structure of Schizophrenic and Epileptic Thinking , " Trudy psikhiatriches
koy kliniki 1 - commi ( Works of the Psychiatric Minic of the First Mos
COW Medical Institute ) , No. 4, 1934 .
50. B. V. Zeygarnik , " Problem of Understanding the Figurative
Meaning of Words or Propositions During Pathological Alterations of
Thinking , " Anthology : Novove v ychenii apraksii agnozii i afazii
(New Developments in the Study of Apraxia, Agnosia and Aphasia) , Mos
COW , 1934 .
51. B. V. Zeygarnik , "Psychological Analysis of the Structure of
Post Traumatic Depression , " Sbornik trudov tsip ( Anthology of Works of
the Central Institute of Psychiatry), Vol. I , 1940 .
52. B, V. Zeygarnik , "Psychological Analysis of Post- Traumatic
Depression and Defect , " (Sbornik trudov tsip ( Anthology of Works of the
Central Institute of Psychiatry) , 1941 .
53. B. V. Zeygarnik , " Questions' on Local and Total Brain Factors
During Frontal Lesions of the Brain , " Nevropatologiya i psikhiatriya
(Neuropathology and Psychiatry ), voi. XII, No. 6 , 1943.
54. B. V. Zeygarnik , Psikhologicheskiy analiz postkontuzionnykh
narusheniy slukha i rechi (Psychological Analysis of the Post Contusion
Lesions of Hearing and Speech ) , Medical Literature Publishing House ,
Moscow , 1943 .
55. B. V. Zeygarnik , " Data on Experimental -Psychological Re
search In Traumata of the Frontal Portions of the Brain , " Sbornik
trudov tsip ( Anthology of Works of the Central Institute of Psychi
atry) , Vol . III , 1947.

- 681
 56. B. V. Zeygarnik , " Experimental Psychological Investigation
of Patients with Traumata of the Brain , " Anthology : Nervnye i
psikhicheskiye zabolevaniya voyennogo vremeni (Nervous and Psychic Di
seases During Wartime ) , Medical Publishing House , Moscow , 1948 .
57. B. V. Zeygarnik , " Lesion of Spontaneity In Cases of Trau
mata of the Frontal Portions of the Brain , " Anthology : Nevrologiya
voyennogo (Wartime Neurology ) , Vol . I , 1949.
58. B. V. Zeygarnik , "On One Type of Lesions of Thinking , "
Voprosy psikhologii (Problems of Psychology ), No. 6 , 1956.
59. B. V. Zeygarnik , " Types of Lesions of the Thinking Proc
ess , " Materialy_soveshchaniy po psikhologii ( Papers of a Conference
an Psychology) , Publishing House of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical
Sciences , 1957 .
60. B. V. Zeygarnik and G. D. Birenbaum , " The Problem of Seman
tic Perception , " Sovetskava nevropatologiya, psikhiatriya i psikhogigiy
ena ( Soviet Neuropathology, psychiatry, and Mental-Hygiene ), vol. IV, No.
6 , 1935 .
61. B. V. Zeygarnik and P. Ya. Galperin , " Psychological Changes
After Leuko tomy in Schizophrenics," Nevropatologiya i psikhiatriya (Neu
ropathology and Psychiatry ), Vol . XVII, No. 4 , 1948 .
62. B. V. Zeygarnik and E. L. Kaganovskaya , " The Psychopathol
ogy of Negativism During Epidemic Encephalitis , " Sovetskaya nevro
patologiya psikhiatriya i psikhogigiyena ( Soviet Neuropathology ,
Psychiatry and Psycho -hygiene ) , Vol . IV , No. 8 , 1935 .
63. B. V. Zeygarnik and S. Ya. Rubinshteyn , " On Experimental
Psychological Experimentations in Psychoneurological Establishments , '
Methodological Letter of the State Institute of Psychiatry , Ministry
of Health , RSFSR , 1956 .
64. B. v . Zeygarnik , Narusheniya myshleniva u psikhi cheski
bol'nykh ( The Disturbances of Thinking in the Psychically Ill Pa
tient) , Moscow , 1958 .
65. A. G. Ivanov- Smolenskiy , Razvitive ucheniya o psikhastenii
i opyt eksperimentallno -psikhologicheskogo issledovaniya psikhastenikov
(Development of the Theory of Psychasthenia and the Experience of the
Experimental -Psychological Investigation of Psychasthenics ), Disserta
tion ( In the Library of the Military Medical Academy ) , 1921 .
66. A. V. Il'in , " Experience of the Experimental Investigation
of the Process of concentration in Feebleminded Persons , " Obozreniye
psikhiatrii, nevropatologii i eksperimental'noy psikhologii (Review
of Psychiatry, Neuropathology and Experimental Psychology) , No. 8, 1908.
67. A. V. Il'in , "On the Processes of Concentration ( Attention )
In Feebleminded Mentally Ill Patients , " Seriya doktroskikh dissertatsii
( Series of Doctoral Dissertations) Military Academy of Sciences, St.
Petersburg , 1909 .
68. K. Kh . Kekcheyev, " The Application of the Chrono cyclographic
Method to the Study of Pathological Gaits , " Psikholigiya , nevropatologiya
i psikhiatriya ( Psychology , Neuropathology and Psychiatry), Vol. II , 1923.

· 682 -
 69 . V. M. Kogan , " Principles and Methods of Psychotechnical
Research in Expert- clinical work , " Tezisy dokladov na nauchnoy sessii
tsientina 11-15 fevralya 1936 . ( Abstracts of reports at the scien
tific session of the Central Scientific Research Institute of Examina
tion of Work Capacity and Work Organization of Invalids, held 11-15
February 1936 ), Occupational Literature Publishing House , 1936 .
70. V. M. Kogan , " Rehabilitation of Psychic Patients . Instruc
tive Methodological Data on the Question of Medical - Labor Expert Exam ,
ination and Rehabilitation , " Sb . tsietin ( Anthology of tsietin ), 1940 .
71. V. M. Kogan , " Characteristics of the Work Capacity of Psy
chically Ill Patients (with Schizophrenia and Epilepsy ) and Measures
for Organizing Their work , " Tezisy dokladov na nauchnoy sessii 3-2
fevralya 1941 .. (Abstracts of Reports at the Scientific Session on
3-7 February 1941) , TSIETIN , 1941 .
72 . V. M. Kogan and N. M. Kostomarova , " Characteristics of
the Work Capacity and Work Organization of Schizophrenics , Expert
Examination of the Work Capacity and Work Rehabilitation of Patients
with Schizophrenia , " Sb . 14 tsietin ( Anthology 14, TSIETIN ) , 1940 .
73. M. P. Kononova, " Psychological Analysis of Asthenic Condi
tions During Exhaustion ( in Children and Adolescents ) , " Sb . trudov
bol'nitsy imeni kashchenko ( Anthology of Works of the Hospital imeni
Kashchenko) , No. 4 , 1945 .
74. M. P. Kononova , " Psychological Data During the Study of
Inertly Present Schizophrenia in Children , " Sovetskaya nevropatologiya ,
psikhiatriya i psikhogigiyena , (Soviet Neuropathology, Psychiatry and
Mental Hygiene) , Vol. VI, No. 11 , 1935 .
75. K. N. Kornilov , " Psychic State of the Exanthematous Typhus
Patient, Psikhológiya nevropatologiya i psikhiatriya ( Psychology, Neuro
pathology and Psychiatry) , Vol. II , 1923.
76. E. A. Korobkova and M. G. Savvich , " Psychological Peculiar
ities of the Work Capacity & Neurotics , " Tezisy_dokladev nauchnoy sessii
tsietina 11-15 fevralya 1936 9. (Abstracts of Reports of the Scientific
Session of TSIETIN , held 11-15 February, 1936) , Professional Literature
Publishing House , Moscow , 1936 .
77. E. A. Korobkova, " Experimental Study of Factors Stimulating
and Inhibiting Work Capacity , " Problemy ekspertizy trudo sposobnosti i
diagnostika pogranichnykh sostoyaniy (Problems of Examining Work Ca
pacity and the Diagnosis of Borderline States ) , Biological -Medical
Publishing House , 1939 .
78. E. A. Korobkova , " Work Rehabilitation of Epileptics , "
Sotsialinove obespechenive ( Social Security ) , No. 9 , 1940 .
79. P. Ya . Korol'kov , " Experimental Data on the Problem of As
sociations," Vestnik psikhologii (Herald of Psychology ), Vol . I , No. 5 ,
1904.
80. N. M. Kostomarova, "Ways for Restoring the Work Capacity of
Invalids of the Patriotic War Having Severe Consequences Resulting from
Traumatic Brain Damage , " Tezisy dokladov na nauchnoy sessii 3-7 fevralya
1941...( Abstracts of Reports at the Scientific Session on 37 February
1947) , TSIETIN .

683 -
 81. N. M. Kostomarova, " Qualitative Characteristics of Degra
dation of the Intellectual Activity of Patients with Diffusive Changes
of the Central Nervous System as the Result of Head Trauma , " Anthology :
Travmaticheskive povrezhdeniya tsetral'noy nervnov sistemy ( Traumatic
Damages to the Central Nervous System ), Medical Publishing House, 1940 .
82. N. M. Kostomarova and S. A. Shubina, " Methodology of In
struction and Work Rehabilitation of Schizophrenics According to the
Traits of Artistic Training , " Tezisy dokladov na nauchnoy sessii 3-2
fevralya 1941 g . ( Abstracts of Reports at the Scientific Session held
on 3-7 February 1941 ) TSIETIN , 1941.
83. Lazurskiy and Shipov, " Memory of Homogeneous Visual After
Impressions , " Nevrologicheskiy vestnik (Neurological Herald ) , Vol .
VIII , No. 1 , 1900.
84. N. N. Lange, Psikhologicheskiye issledovaniya (Psychological
Researches ), Odessa, 1893 .
85. M. S. Lebedinskiy , " On the Question of Speech Disorders in
Schizophrenics, " Sovetskaya psikhonevrologiya ( Soviet Psychoneurology ) ,
Kiev -Kharkov , No. 3 , 1933 .
86. M, S, Lebedinskiy , " Psychological Analysis of Cases of Sen
sory Aphasia , " Nevropatologiya, psikhiatriya i psikhologiya (Neuropathol
ogy , Psychiatry and Psychology) , Kharkov, Vol . V , No. 4 , Kharkov .
87. M. S. Lebedinskiy , " On the peculiarities of Distrubances of
the Psychic- Life in cases of Damage to the Right Hemisphere , " Anthology:
Problemy sovremennoy psikhiatrii ( Problems of Modern Psychiatry ), Moscow ,
1945 .
88. M. S. Lebedinskiy , " On the Question of Speech Disorders in
Schizophrenics , " Sovetskaya psikhonevrologiya ( Soviet Psychoneurology ) ,
Kiev - Kharkov , No. 3 , 1938 .
89. M. S. Lebedinskiy , " Fundamentals of the plan of the Psycho
logical Sector , " Bulleten psikhonevrologicheskogo instituta yuzhnykh
zhelezhnykh dorog (Bulletin of the Psychological Institute of the
Southern Railroad ) , Kharkov , No. 1 , 1933.
90. M. S. Lebedinskiy , " Speech of Schizophrenics and Aphasics , "
Sovetskaya psikhonevroloviya, (Soviet Psychoneurology ), Kiev - Kharkov,
No. 8 , 1937 .
91. M. S. Lebedinskiy , " Dynamic Characteristics of the Actions
of Schizophrenics," Sovetskaya psikhonevrologiya (Soviet Psychoneurol
ogy ) , Kiev - Kharkov, No. 1 , 1940 .
92. N, G. Lishchina , " Study of the Fluctuations of Attention
During the Perception of Homogeneous Visual Sensations, " Vestnik
psikhologii, kriminalistiki, antropologii i cipnotiza (Herald of Psy
chology , Criminology , Anthropology and Hypnotism ) , No. 2, 1904.
93. R. I. Meyerovich , " Experimental Analysis of the Work Cam
pacity Curve of Patients with Manic - Depressive Syndromes, " Sovetskaya
nevropatologiya , psikhiatriya i psikhogigiyena ( Soviet Neuropathology ,
Psychiatry and Mental Hygiene ), Vol. IV , No. 1 , 1935 .
94. R. I. Meyerovich " Peculiarities of the Work Process of Pa
tients in a Maniac Condition , Sovetskaya nevropatologiya, psikhiatriya
i psikhogigiyena ( Soviet Neuropathology, psychiatry and Mental Hygiene) ,
Vol . IV , No. 9-10 , 1935 .

- 684
 95. R. I. Meyerovich , " Psychological Analysis of Completion Ten
dencies During progressive Paralysis, " Sovetskaya nevropatologiya , psik
hiatriya i psikhogigiyena ( Soviet Neuropathology, psychiatry and Mental
Hygiene) , No. 1 , 1935 .
96 . R. I. Meyerovich and K. M , Kondratskaya " Level of Pretension
of Hysterical Children , " Anthology : Psikhicheskive osobennosti trud
novospituvemykh i umstvenno otstalykh detey (Psychic characteristics of
Problem and Mentally Retarded Children ) . Trudy instituta im bekhtereva
(Works of the Institute imeni Bekhterev ), Leningrad , Vol . V , 1936 .
97. R. I. Meyerovich and Ye . Ye . Plotnikova , " Success and Fail
ure and Its Effect on the Level of Pretension During Hysteria, " Anthol
ogy : Sovetskaya nevropsikhiatriya ( Soviet Neuropsychiatry ), Vol . I ,
1936 .
98. Ye . N. Meller , " On Disturbances of the Volitional Sphere
During Schizophrenia ," Nevropatologiya i psikhiatriya ( Neuropathology
and Psychiatry ), Vol . VII , No. 2 , 1938 .
99. Metody eksperimental'nogo issledovaniya lichnosti (Methods
of Experimental Investigation of Personality ), Publishing House of the
Pedagogical Museum of the Military - Educational Institutions, St.
Petersburg , 1908 .
100. v . 0. Milyavskaya , " On the Question of the Work Curve of
Backward Children , " Anthology : Psikhicheskiye osobennosti
trudnovospituvemykh i umstvenno otstalykh detey . trudy instituta im
bekhtereva (Psychic Characteristics of Backward and Mentally Retarded
Children . Works of the Institute imeni Bekhterev ), Leningrad , Vol . V,
1936 .
101. L. A. Mireltzon , Praktikum po psikhiatrii (metodicheskiye
materialy ) (Handbook on Psychiatry) (Methodical Material) , Odessa,
1940 .
102 . S. S. Mnukhin , " On the Nature and Genesis of ' oligophasia '
During Epilepsy , " Sovetskaya nevropsikhiatriya ( Soviet Neuropsychiatry ),
No. 1 , 1936 .
103. v. N. Myasishchev, " On the Conjugate Cutaneous-Galvanic Re
flex , " Trudy instituta mozga (Work of the Institute of the Brain ), Lenin
grad , No. 3 , 1929 .
104. V. N. Myasishchev , " Work Capacity and Personality Disease , "
Psischiatriya , nevrologiya i psikhogigivena (Psychiatry, Neurology and
Mental Hygiene ) , No. & 10 , 1935.
105. V. N. Myasishchev, " Personality and the work of Abnormal
Children , " Psikhicheskiye osobennosti trudnovospituyemykh i umstvenno
otstalykh detey (Psychic Characteristics of Backward and Mentally Re
tarded Children ) , Leningrad, 1936 .
106. V. N. Myasishchev , " Psychological Importance of the Electrico
Cutaneous Characteristics of Man , " Trudy instituta im bekhterev (Works
of the Institute imeni Bekhterev ) , Vol . IX , 1939 .
107. V. N. Myasishchev , " Psychic Functions and Attitudes , " Ucheny
ye zapiski lgu (Academic Reports of the Leningrad State University ) , No.
70 , 1949 .

- 685 -
 108. V. N. Myasishchev , " On the Material Substrate of the Psychic
Life in the Light of the Teachings of I. P. Pavlov ," Uchenye zapiski
lgu ( Academic Reports of the Leningrad State University ) , No. 70 , 1949 .
109. V. N. Myasishchev, " Problem of the Psychology of Man in the
Light of the Teachings of I. P. Pavlov on the Relation of the Organism
to the Environment," Uchenwe zapiski lgu ( Academic Reports of Leningrad
State University ) , Issue 7 , No. 147 , 1953.
110. v . N. Myasishchev , " Problem of the Psychological Type in the
Light of Teachings of I. P. Pavlov , " Uchenye zapiskilgu ( Academic Re
ports of Leningrad State Univeristy) , Issue 6 , No. 185 , 1954 .
111. v. N. Myasishchev, " On the Question of the Principles of Ex
perimental Investigation of Higher Neural Activity , " Uchenye zapiski
lgu (Academic Reports of Leningrad State University ), Philosophy Series,
Issue 8 , No. 203, 1955 .
112. V. N. Myasishchev , "On the Importance of Psychology for Med
icine , " Voprosy psikhologii (Problems of Psychology ), No. 3, 1956.
113. V. N. Myasishchev, " Certain Problems of the Psychology of
Human Relations ," Uchenyye zapiski lgu ( Academic Reports of Leningrad
State University ), Issue 9 , No. 214, 1956 .
114. M. P. Nikitin , " Question of Formation of Visual Perceptions, "
Vestnik psikhologii ( Herald of Psychology ), Vol . II , No. 2 , 1905.
115. V. N. Nikol'skiy , " Types of Planning the the Completion of
Tasks by Backward Children , " Anthology : Psikhologicheskiye osobennosti
trudnovospituyemykh i umstvenno otstalykh detimi . trudy instituta im
bekhtereva (Psychological characteristics of Backward and Mentally Re
tarded Children . Works of the Institute imeni Bekhterev ) , Leningrad ,
1936.
116. V. N. Nikol'skiy, " Characteristics of the Work Curve of
Backward Children According to Data of a Psychological Experiment, "
Ibid .
117. V. N. Obraztsov , Pis'mo dusheonobol'nykh ( The Writing of
Mentally Ill Patients) , Dissertation , St. Petersburg , 1904.
118. V. N. Obraztsov , " Analysis of the Writing of Paranoics ,"
Russkiy meditsinskiy vestnik (Russian Medical Herald ), No. 23 , 1903.
119 . " Review of the Activity of the Russian Society of Exper
imental Psychology for the Period 1891-1900 . " Report of Dr. F. F.
Fisher in Moscow 27 February 1901 .
120. V. N. Osipova , " Psychology of complexes and Associative
Experiments According to the Projects of the Zurich Clinic , "
Nevropatologiya i psikhiatriya (Neuropathology and Psychiatry ), No. 6,
1908 .
121. L , S , Pavlovskaya , Eksperimental'noy psikhologicheskoye
issledovaniye umozaklyucheniy u dushevnobol'nykh (Experimental
Psychological Investigation of Deductions Made by the Mentally Ill ) ,
St. Petersburg , 1909 .
122. L. S. Pavlovskaya , " Experimental - Psychological Investigation
on the Method of Acad . V. M. Bekhterev and Dr. S. D. Vadychko on Idioto
Children and Youthful Feebleminded Patients , " Obozreniye psikhiatrii ( Re
view of Psychiatry ), St. Petersburg , 1909 .

- 686 -
 123. A. Ye . Petrova and A. M. Anikina , " On the Question of the
Character of the Work Capacity During Schizophrenia , " Problemy
pogranichnoy psikhiatrii (Problems of Borderline Psychiatry) , Moscow ,
1935 .
124. A. Ye . Petrova and A. M. Anikina , " On the Work Capacity of
Schizophrenics Having Components of Arteriosclerosis of the Brain , "
Anthology : Shizofreniya i arterioskleroz golovnogo mozga (Schizophrenia
and Arteriosclerosis of the Brain ) , Moscow , No. 5 , 1936 .
125. A. Ye . Petrova and A. M. Anikina , " The Role of the Psycho
logical Experiment in Determining the Work Capacity of Idiopathic Epi
leptic Patients , " Nevropatologiya , psikhiatriya i psikhogigiyena
( Neuropathology , psychiatry and Mental Hygiene) , No. 5 , 1936 .
126. A. Ye . Petrova , M. P. Kononova , and A. M. Anikina, " The
Problem of Maneuverability as a Differential Criterion of the Work
Capacity of Traumatics , Neurotics and Organics ," Anthology: Shizo
freniya i travmaticheskiye zabolevaniya golovnogo mozga i trudo
sposobnosti pri nikh (Schizophrenia and Traumatic Diseases of the
Brain and Work Capacity During Them ), Anthology of TSIETIN , MOSCOW
Leningrad , 1936 .
127 . K. I. Platonov , " A Test of the Experimental -Psychological
Investigation of the Capacity of Concentration and Immediate Reproduc
tive Capacity in Senile Persons , " Obozrenive psikhiatrii ( Review of
Psychiatry ) , St. Petersburg , 1910 .
128. Ye , Ye . Plotnikova, " The Characteristics of the Work Proc
ess of the Mentally Retarded Child , " Anthology: Psikhikcheskiy
osobennosti trudonovospituvemykh i umstvenno otstalykh deter . trudy
instituta imeni bekhtereva (Psychic Characteristics of Backward and
Mentally Retarded Children . Works of the Institute imeni Bekhterev ) ,
Vol . V , 1936 .
129. K. N. Povarnin , vnimaniye i ego rol ' v prosteyshikh
psikhicheskikh protsessakh (Attention and Its Role in the simplest
Psychic Processes) , St. Petersburg , 1906 .
130. M. Ya , Polyakova , " Test of the Comparative Investigations
of the Characteristics of the Memory of Psychoneurotics (Psychological
Researches ) , " Trudy instituta im . bekhtereva (Works of the Institute
imeni Bekhterev) , Vol. IX, 1939 .
131. M. Ya , Polyakova, " Recall of ' Intention ' in Hysterical and
Neurasthenic Persons," Sovetskaya nevropsikhiatriya ( Soviet Neuropsychi
atry ) , Vol . XI , 1936 .
132. "Minutes of the Sessions of the Society of Experimental
Psychology , " Obozrenie psikhiatricheskoy , nevrologicheskoy, eksterimental ' .
noy psikhologii (Review of Psychiatric, Neurological and Experimental Psy
chology ) , 1904.
133. Psikhologicheskiye essledovaniya (Psychological Research ) ,
Editor , B. G. Anan'yev, trudy instituta im bekhtereva ( Works of the In
stitute imeni Bekhterev ) , Leningrad , Vol. IX , 1939 .

687 -
 134. Ye . P. Radin , "Method of Psychological Research of Delirium
and a Critical Review of Contemporary Theories on Delirium , " Obozreniye
psikhiatrii, nevrologii i eksperimental'noy psikhologii (Review of Psy
chiatry , Neurology and Experimental Psychology ) , Editor , Bekhterev , St.
Petersburg , 1904 .
135. A. 2. Rozenberg , " On the Psychology of the Amnesic Syndrome, "
Sovetskava nevropsikhiatriva ( Soviet Neuropsychiatry ) , No. 1 , 1936 .
136. G. A. Rotshteyn , " Structural Homogeneity of Symptoms in Cases
of so - called Traumatic Cerebropathy , " Anthology : Travmaticheskiye
povrezhdeniya tsentralinoy nervnoy sistemy ( Traumatic Injuries to the
Central Nervous System ) , TSIEMN, Medical Literature Publishing House ,
Moscow , No. 12 , 1940 .
137. Ye . I. Ruzer , " The Role of Experimental - Psychological Research
in Mental Hygiene Work in Higher Educational Institutions , " Sovetskaya
psikhonevrologiya (Soviet Psychoneurology ), Moscow , Vol . V, No. 2 , 1935 .
138 .S. Ya . Rubinshteyn , Vosstanovleniye trudo sposobnosti posle
voyennykh trav mozga (Resotration of Work Capacity After War Traumata
of the Brain ) , Candidate's Dissertation , Moscow, 1944 .
139. S. Ya. Rubinshteyn , " Expert Examination and Restoration of
Work Capacity After War Traumas of the Brain , " Nevrologiya vovennogo
vremeni ( Neurology During Wartime ), Vol . I , Anthology of the Institute
of Neurology of the Academy of Medical Sciences USSR , 1949 .
140. S. Ya , Rubinshteyn , " On the Reflex Nature of Hallucinations ,
Report at the All - Union Conference on Psychology , " Materialy soveshchan
iay po psikhologii (Papers from a Conference on Psychology ) , Publishing
House of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences, 1957 .
141 . S. Ya , Rubinshteyn and A. V. Zaporozhets , Metodika
vosstanovitel'noy trudoterapii pri raneniyakh verkhnikh konechnostev
(Methodolody of Restorative Work Therapy During Injuries of the Upper
Extremi ties ) , Medical Publishing House , 1942 .
142 . S. Ya . Rubinshteyn and A. V. Zaporozhets , " Psychophysiolog
ical Problems in the Organization of Restorative Work Therapy , " Uchenye
zapiski mgu ( Academic Reports of Moscow State University ) , Vol . II , No.
3 , 1947 .
143. S. Ya . Rubinshteyn , " O neko torykh shizofrenopodobnykh
narusheniyakh myshleniya u bolnykh vo vremya reaktivnykh sostoyaniy (On
Certain Schizophrenoid Lesions of Thinking in Patients in Reactive
States , " ( Manuscript is preserved at the Institute of Forensic Psychi
atry imeni Serbskiy ) , Moscow , 1950 .
144 . F. G. Rybakov , Atlas dlya eksperimental'no -psikhologicheskogo
issledovaniya lichnosti (Atlas for the Experimental - Psychological Inves
tigation of Personality ) , Moscow , 1910 .
145. V. V. Seletskiy, " Disassociation of Ideas and Its Importance , "
Zhurnal nevropatologii i psikhiatrii im . korsakova ( Journal of Neuro
pathology and Psychiatry imeni Korsakov ) , Book I, 1908 .
146 . V. V. Seletskiy , " On the Question of Digital Agnosia and
Acalculia , " Sovetskava psikhonevrologiya (Soviet Psychoneurology ), No.
10 , 1936 .

- 688
 147 . 2. A. Soloviyeva , " On Slight Intellectual Disorders During
Schizophrenia , " Sovetskava nevropatologiya , psikhiatriya i psikhogigiyena
( Soviet Neuropathology , psychiatry and Mental Hygiene) , Vol . III , No. 5,
1934 .
148. [ Translator's Note : Not given in text ]
149. E. Stumbur , " On the Recall of Completed and Incompleted Ac
tions During Schizophrenia,“ Sovetskaya nevropatologiya, psikhiatriya i
psikhogigiyena (Soviet Neuropathology, psychiatry and Mental Hygiene) ,
1935 .
150. S. A. Sukhanov , " Paralogical Thinking , " Psikhoterapiya ( Psy
chotherapy ), No. 1 , 1914.
151. V. I. Timofeyev , " An Experiment of Psychological Investiga
tion of the Mentally 131 ," No date nor place of publication .]
152. A. A. Tokarskiy , "On the Question of Association of Ideas , "
Voprosy Milosofii i psikhologii (Problems of Philosophy and Psychology ),
Books 21.35 , 1896 ,
153. A. A. Tokarskiy , " On Stupidity , " Ibid . , Book 35 , 1896 .
154. A. A. Tokarskiy , " Notes from the Psychological Laboratory of
the Psychiatric Clinic of Moscow State University , " Ibid ., Books 21-35,
1896 .
155. Toporkov, Popytka psikhologicheskogo analiza rukodeliy
dushevobolnykh (An Attempt at the Psychological Analysis of the Handi
craft Work of the Mentally Ill Patients ) , St. Petersburg , 1903.
156 . Toporkov , Vtorichnove slaboymiye posle dementsii ( Secondary
Feeblemindedness After Dementia ) , Dissertation , St. Petersburg , 1905 .
157. M. Toporkova and L. Kenigsberg , " On the correlation of the
Various Mental and Motor Processes , " Vestnik psikhiatrii, nevrologii i
eksperimental'noy psikhologii (Herald of Psychiatry, Neurology and Enxo
perimental Psychology ) , No. 5 , 1911 .
158. Issledovaniya po probleme chuvstvitel'nosti ( Research on the
Problem of Sensitivity ) , Editors , Osipov and Anan'yev, Trudy instituta
im . bekhtereva (Works of the Institute imeni Bekhterev ) , St. Petersburg,
Vol. XIII, 1940 .
159 . Trudy XIV sessii ukrainskogo psikhonevrologicheskogo instit
uta (Works of the XTV Session of the Ukrainian Psychoneurological Insti
tute ), Vol . XXIII (70 ) , 1947 .
160 . T. Ya , Khvilivitskiy , " Attitude to Work and Its Role in the
Development of the Work Curve of Psychoneurotics," Sovetskava nevro
patologiya, psikhiatriva i psikhogigiyena ( Soviet Neuropathology , Psy
chiatry and Mental Hygiene ) , No. 4 , 1935 .
161. I. Kholchev, " On Individual fluctuations of Attention , "
Voprosy filosofii i psikhologii , Book 57 , 1901 .
762 . Tsimkin , " Comparative Tests with Ebbighais ! s Method and
Narration of a Dictated Text , " Reprint, Riga , 1914.
163. A. A. Chernukha , " On Feeblemindedness During Schizophrenia , "
Nevropatologiya i psikhiatriya ( Neuropathology and Psychiatry) , Vol . VII ,
No. 1 , 1938 ,

- 689 -
 164. V. F. Chizh , " Experimental Research by the Complication
Method on Aperception of Simple and Complex Notions , " Vestnik psikhi.
atrii (Herald of Psychology ), Vol . I , 1885 .
165. V. S. Chizh , " Measurement of Time of Elementary Processes
in the Mentally 121 , " Ibid , Vol . III , 1885 .
166 . V. S. Chizh , " Breadth of Perception in the Mentally Ill , "
Arkhiv psikhiatrii (Archives of Psychiatry ), Moscow , 1890 .
167. V. S. Chizh , " Experimental Research on the Memory of Audio
Perceptions , " Obozreniye psikhiatrii ( Review of Psychiatry ) , Vol. I ,
1896 .
168. Ye . A. Shevelev, "On Thinking Aloud During Psychic Di
seases , Sovetskaya psikhonevrologiya (Soviet Psychoneurology ), No. 1 ,
1937 .
169. 2. B. Shneyerson , " Disorders of Orientation in Direction
During a closed Trauma of the Brain , " ( Dissertation ) , Moscow , 1947 .
170. A. M. Shubert, " Psychopathological Characteristics of a
Case With a Lesion of Visual Spatial Perceptions , " Anthology .
Profilaktika, klinika i terapiya psikhicheskikh zabolevaniy (Prophy
laxis, Clinical Treatment and Therapy of Psychic Diseases) , No. 3,
1938 .
171 .
A. M. Shubert, " Zchizophrenoid Lesions of the Intellectual
Activity During Organic Diseases of the Brain , " Sbornik nauchnykh rabot
psikhiatricheskoy bollnitsy im . kashchenko (Anthology of Scientific Works
of the Psychiatric Hospital imeni Kashchenko) , Moscow , Vol . V, 1946 .
172 . A. M. Shubert , " Schizophrenoid Lesions of the Intellectual
Activity of Patients with Craniocerebral Traumata , " Problemy psikhiatrii
voyennogo vremeni . sbornik bol'nitsy im kashchenko (Problems of Psychi
atry During Wartime . Anthology of the Hospital imeni Kashchenko ), Mos
cow , 1945 .
173. A, M, Shubert , " On Certain Characteristics of Lesion of the
Intellectual Activity During Frontal Traumata , " Anthology : Problemy
kliniki i terapii psikhicheskikh zabolevaniy . sbornik trudov bol'nitsy
im . kashchenko (Problems of the clinical Treatment and Therapy of Psy
chic Diseases . Collection Works of the Hospital imeni Kashchenko ) ,
Moscow , 1949 .
174. A. L. Epshteyn , " On Certain characteristics of Attention in
the Mentally 111, " Psikhologiya, nevrologiya i psikhiatriya ( Psychology ,
Neurology and Psychiatry ) , No. 2 , 1933.
175 . D. G. El'kin , " Case of Eidetism During Sclerosis of the
Brain , " Sovetskava psikhonevrologiya ( Soviet Psychoneurology ) , Kiev
Kharkov , No. 4 , 1936 .

- 690 -
PECULIARITIES OF THE MENTAL DEVELOPMENT OF STUDENTS OF AUXILIARY SCHOOLS

by Zh . I. Shif
1

Special psychology was developed as a branch of psychological

science in the Soviet period . The conditions contributing to its
development are associated with the system of governmental measures
which were implemented by Soviet rule from the moment of its consoli
dation for the purposes of caring for abnormal children and creating
the most favorable conditions possible for their training and educa
tion , for every assistance in their development .
Socialist humanism showed itself in this area in the introduc
tion of general compulsory instruction for the blind , deaf -mutes ,
mentally retarded and other groups of abnormal children . An extens
ive system of boarding schools was created for them in which they
could receive work training and preparation in addition to the know
ledge provided by the programs of the special schools .
Scientific leadership in this area of pedagogy was provided by
the Experimental Defectological Institute ( today the Scientific Re
search Institute of Defectology , Academy of Pedagogical Sciences ,
RSFSR ) . In this institute ( Director , I. I. Dangushevskiy ) , under the
guidance of Professor L. S. Vygotskiy , the study of psychological
peculiarities of mentally retarded (oligophrenics ) and deaf - mute
children has been conducted since 1929. It is continuing up to the
present time .
A study of the psychology of abnormal children is also being
conducted at the Scientific Research Institute of Psychology of the
Ministry of Education of the Ukrainian SSR (Director : G. S. Kos tyuk ;
Head of Department : A. M. Gol'dberg) .
The first book resulting from a series of psychological invest
igations conducted at the Institute of Defectology was issued in
1935. This book , Umstvenno otstallyy rebenok / The Mentally Retarded
Child ), contained the research of L. S. Vygotskiy, L. V. Zankov, and
I. M. Solov'yev on the problem of the psychology of the mentally re
tarded child [ 19_7 . In 1935, L. V._Zankov published Ocherki psikh
ologii unstvenno Ōts talogo rebenka ſoutline of the Psychology of the
Mentally Retarded Child/ 7 477. A laboratory for the study of the
psychology of deaf -mute and mentally retarded children was formally
organized in that same year ( Director : L. V. Zankov ) .
In the ensuing years , five monographs , seven anthologies and
three volumes of Izvestiya APN RSFSR ( News of Academy of Pedagogical
Sciences RSFSR ) containing 50 psychological investigations were pub
lished on the psychology of mentally retarded children .
Over 80 scientific and scientific - popular articles on the
psychology of mentally retarded children were published in the period
ical Uchebno -vospitatel'naya rabota v spetsial'nykh shkolakh (Teach

- 691 -
ing and Tutoring Work in Special Schools ) . Ten candidates ' disserta
tions were defended .
Since the first stages of its formation , the Soviet psychology
of mentally retarded children has been conducting a struggle against
the views propagated in the pre - revolutionary bourgeois literature on
the psychological characteristics and possibilities for the development
of these children .
Thus the point of view stating that during oligophrenia there is
one substantial partial defect ( certain authors consider that attention
is dama ged , others that thinking has been harmed, a third group sees the
roots of the deficiencies in the emotional - volitional sphere ) was op
posed by the argument that oligophrenic children are characterized by
an insufficiency which encompasses in a peculiar manner their psychic
life as a whole . All research that was conducted in this field con
firmed the accuracy of the position defended by Soviet special psych
ology .
Against a purely quantitative approach to the evaluation of
the level of development of oligophrenic children and the emphasis on
the limit of their possibilities , against the tendency characteristic
of the old studies in this field of conferring the same status on oli
gophrenic school children , according to the characteristic features of
their psychic life , as the status assigned_to_normal pre - pre -school
and pre -school children (G. Ya . Troshin , [ 1657), Soviet psychology
proposed a basically new approach based on the proposition that the
fundamental laws for the development of the psychic life are also appli
cable to the processes of the development of the abnormal child , even
though they acquire a singular form in this connection . The deciding
argument for the development of this proposition in research studies
on the psychology of mentally retarded children was the significant ,
indisputable and evident progress achieved in the development of oli
gophrenic children trained in Soviet auxiliary schools . Hence , spec
ial psychology , already in its first research studies , emerges as a
psychology of development , i.e. it is engaged in a study of oligo
phrenic students of junior , medium and senior school age , in a com
parison of these students and in a clarification of the means and
peculiarities of their development.
A comparison with the development of normal children was neces
sary for understanding the peculiarities of the development of mental
ly retarded children . Consequently , the psychology of a mentally re
tarded child was elaborated as a comparative psychology of normal and
abnormal children . Comparative research was found to be even more
necessary since processes had to be studied which were especially sig
nificant in characterizing children deviating from a normal state ,
whereby these processes had frequently not been studied or elucidated
in the field of child psychology . These processes include certain
problems concerned with the psychology of perception : above all , the
perception of the environment and the perception of spatial relations ,

- 692 -
also such problems of the psychology of memory as the alteration of
visual representations, modification of repetition , etc ; the same
holds for the psychology of comparison and of many psychological and
pedagogical problems .
During the course of the past decades a psychological study
was conducted on oligophrenic children whom psychiatry classifies as
morons and sends to the auxiliary schools . The study of the develop
ment of moronic children during the course of their instruction in
school , and a constant comparison of these children with normal child
ren studying in school made it possible to describe the peculiar nature
of the development of morons not only by means of a " subtraction proc
ess " as this was done previously , i.e. not only by means of clarifica
tion of those factors which these children lacked . Gradually the pos
sibility is increasing of tracing and demonstrating how , in the con
text of schooling, new possibilities arise in an ologophrenic child
according to the measure of his development, which make such a child
progress forward and which , to a certain extent , straighten out his
abnormal line of development . It should be borne in mind , of course ,
that the peculiarities characteristic for mentally retarded children ,
es tablished during the course of research , exhibit different combin
ations and assume a different expression in moronic children clas
sified at the present time by Soviet psychiatrists among the various
forms of oligophrenia (M.S. Pevzner _1227) . These peculiarities are
manifested and combined in a different way even in each individual
child 587 .
The study of the psychic life of mentally retarded children is
closely connected with practical pe da gogical work conduc ted with
these children and has a pronounced pedagogic bias . The psychology of
mentally retarded children provides data which help improve the peda
gogical approach adopted in their training and education .
The experimental psychology research performed during the past
years and the development work on theoretical questions has followed
two lines : 1) the peculiarities and the course of development of
psychic processes and individual forms of activity in mentally re
tarded children were studied ; 2 ) work was done on the study of the
personality of mentally retarded school children .
The cognitive activity of these children was studied in greater
de tail than other aspects of the psychic life . For this reason , there
fore , in summing up certain results obtained on the road which has
been covered we shall examine the results of the research conducted in
this field . We shall not consider here what has been done in a study
of the peculiarities of the emotional -volitional sphere of mentally
retarded children (1.M. Solov'yev, [1497 , s . Ya . Rubinshteyn, 41457 ),
in the study of the structure of their activity ( v . Ya . Vasilevskaya,
757, B. 1. Pinskiy, [1427, in the studyof the personality of a
moronic child (L. V. Zankov and his associates, 577/587. Nor shall
we describe the research published in recent years on the physiology

- 693 -
of the higher neural activity of oligophrenic children (A. R. Luriya
and his associates, [ 907, in which new data are presented on lesions
of the neurodynamic in oligophrenics (L. A. Novikova, [ 1067 ; N. N.
Zislina , (677, on the weakness of their neural processes in general
and the special weakness of their internal inhibition , the slightness
of the irradiation of their neural processes , their considerable in
ertness and the defects in the interaction of their signals systems ,
etc. which are manifested in the peculiar nature of the cognitive ac
tivity of these children (0.5 , Vinogradova (147; V. I. Lubovskiy (827 ,
[837 ; A. I. Mescheryakov [ 967, 1977; N.P. Paramonova [1187; and
others ) .
We have set ourselves the task of sketching certain most gen
eral essential peculiarities characterizing the processes of percep
tion , memory and thinking of moronic children and their development
trends which have been disclosed in the research work of Soviet psych
ologists and which have made it possible to a certain extent to pro
vide scientific basis for the specificity of the pedagogical work
performed on these children .

Comparative experimental research studies on the perception of

normal children and oligophrenics , conducted under the guidance of
I. M. Soloviyev , were summarized by him in an outline entitled Vospri
yatiye deys tvitel'nosti umstvenno otstalymi shkol'nikami ( Perception
of Reality By Mentally Retarded School Children) [1577. The propos i
tions developed and discussed in this work which are being supple
mented by a steady stream of new research , convincingly demonstrate
the incorrect nature of the viewpoint alleging that oligophrenic
children merely exhibit a defective though activity while their percep
tion is preserved fully intact . In describing the peculiarities of
the perception of oligophrenics we base ourselves chiefly on this
work .
In this review we shall not draw a distinction between the
peculiarities of the perception of objects and the peculiarities of
the perception of their images in students belonging to junior classes
of the auxiliary school , since we shall outline only the most general
peculiarities and show the basic tendencies in the development of per
ception which are manifested, although in a somewhat different form ,
in both of these species of sensory cognition ; let it be added that
we are elucidating mainly the peculiarities and the course of develop
ment of visual perception , which has been studied most extensively in
oligophrenics .
It is know that the rapidity of visual perception offers man
vast possibilities for accurate orientation , for taking into account
the peculiarities of his surroundings , and for adapting himself to
its changes .
In comparative experimental investigations of normal and mental
ly retarded school children , the criterion used to measure the rapid

- 694 -
ity of perception was the length of time during which the image of an
object had to be shown in a tachistoscope , in order for a correct re
cognition of this object to be achieved ( K. I. Veresotskaya , [107.
A short exposure which was sufficient for first grade students
of a general educational school to recognize in the image of an ob
ject shown to them " some kind of object, " i.e. for the appearance of
an object perception, caused a different recognition reaction among
first grade students of an auxiliary school : this period of time was
not sufficiently long for these students to form an image of the ob
ject shown to them ; oligophrenics were only able to perceive lines and
spots . In case of an exposure of 22 milliseconds normal children
correctly identify 57 % of the objects shown to them while mentally re
tarded children could not identify correctly a single object. Upon in
crease of the exposure time to 42 milliseconds, normal children recog
nized 95 % of the objects , while mentally retarded children recognized
only 55% of the objects ; in the remaining cases false recognition took
place since oligophrenics grasped the outlines of the objects very
sketchily , were unable to achieve a dissected perception of their form
and to discern their characteristics .
On the basis that first grade students of an auxiliary school re
quire a considerably longer period of time than normal children study
ing in the same grade for the correct recognition of an object , the
assumption was made that in the given context a pathological decrease
of the mobility of cortical processes takes place in oligophrenic
children .
A slowdown of perception processes appears to be a definite
characteristic of these children but this slowdown is not a permanent
feature . Under favorable conditions a slight increase in the rapidity
of perception of objects is observed already in third grade oligo
phrenic pupils , but their lag behind normal children still continues
to be quite significant and is constantly observed in various forms of
activity of oligophrenics .
Sluggishness is observed not only during the perception of indi
vidual objects but even during the perception of combinations of objects .
This results in the narrow and limited nature of the perception of oli
gophrenics which is constantly noted by pedagogues . In an experimental
research study (M. M. Nudel'man, [1137, junior grade pupils of an aux
iliary school had to ennumerate the objects located in a section of
the street visible to them from their school window ; these pupils noted
a much smaller number of objects than did normal children , pointed out
only the nearest large objects and omitted the small ones , especially
in those cases when their color did not aid in their identification .
The perception of things located in the street was undifferentiated,
limited and mea ger .
The fact that these children can identify fewer parts and proper
ties in objects than can their normal counterparts attests to an un
differentiated nature of perception in oligophrenics ; this is also con
firmed by the inability of oligophrenics to distinguish parts of an

- 695 -
object having identical properties, by their ready identification of ob
jects and properties of objects which are only similar , etc. (A.I._Lip
kina and M.v. Zvereva , X657; Zh . I. Shif , [1737; V.G. Petrova, [1257).
Certain peculiarities of the recognition by oligophrenics of the
spatial properties of objects have been studied as well as their per
ception of spatial relations . An experimental - psychological research
study of E.S. Beyn [ 1 ] has proved that, upon variation of the dis
tance at which an object is placed , the perception of its size also
varies in oligophrenics . An object which is moved back 3 , 6 , and 9
meters is perceived as being smaller in size than it actually is .
The constancy of perception of size of objects in oligophrenic children
increases somewhat in the senior grades .
It is known that the perception and recognition of objects is
made somewhat more difficult when their usual position in space is
changed. Tachistoscopic tests in which the images of exhibited ob
jects were turned at an angle of 1800 or 90 ° disclosed certain diffi
culties in the perception and recognition of these objects even in
normal children . The differences observed in this case between oligo
phrenic and normal children were found to be especially significant
107. An object shown upside down was as a rule not recognized at
all or was recognized as another object in the usual position . In
addition to the difficulty experienced in distinguishing the spatial
arrangement of objects , these tests also showed that an active adapta
tion of perception , necessary for the recognition of changes in the
spatial layout of objects presents considerable difficulties for oli
gophrenics (1577. The difficulty experienced in an active reorganiza
tion of perception was also observed during tachistoscopic tests in
volving the recognition of objects upon a gradual increase in the
time of their exposure . The inaccurate or sketchy manner in which the
object was first identified was not overcome by a subsequent oppor
tunity of perceiving its outlines and the correlation of its compon
ent parts during a longer period of time and more fully .
The difficulty of an active reorganization of perception , its
variation and adaptation to changing conditions , and its inertness
are manifested in the slow and singular development of the keenness
of observation of oligophrenics (L.V. Zankov, 577 ); the organization
of their observations requires constant attention and guidance on the
part of the instructor .
Deficiencies in the perception of spatial relations are particu
larly clearly observed during the examination of pictures by oligo
phrenics . Although a perspective foreshortening of objects is compre
hended by them more easily than are other spatial relations , never
theless , a toy automobile sketched in the foreground of the picture was
frequently perceived by them as a real automobile , while a real auto
mobile shown a long distance away in the same picture was perceived as
a child's toy . A superimposition of one set of objects on another
set , which always caused an impression of depth in normal school child
ren , caused a sharp disorientation among oligophrenics and resulted in

- 696 -
an absurd breakdown of the superimposing and superimposed objects and
in a meaningless synthesis of their parts (K.I. Veresotskaya , Z117).
When oligophrenics perceive and examine pictures they have dif
ficulty in understanding those relations which bind together the people
and the objects shown in a picture into a single and topical whole .
1.M. Soloviyevis research work (1577 showed that the lack of specific
ity in the recognition of items shown in a picture caused by the weak
ness of analysis and synthesis processes taking part in perception is
the reason why these items are combined by the children by means of
oversimplified and not special bonds , and this fact makes it more diffi
cult for them to understand the contents of a picture. It was estab
lished that, in perceiving pictures , oligophrenics are poor at differ
entiating expressive movements which are characteristic for certain
human experiences ; they are not always able to distinguish the por
trayal of a pantomime from the portrayal of the purposeful actions ;
they also have difficulty in distinguishing facial mimicry (E.A. Yev
lakhova, 107, 17). This factconsiderably reduces their under
standing of the contents of a picture which they are inspecting .
By the time oligophrenic children reach the third or fourth
grade they exhibit a better perception of items shown in pictures and
of the semantic and spatial relations between these items . Senior
grade students are capable of understanding much more fully and intel
ligently pictures describing a topic which they can grasp ( N.M. Stad
nenko, 11617,v.Ya. Vasilevskaya, [ ? ]).
Thus , the slow , narrow and undīfferentiated nature of percep
tion , the weakness of analysis and synthesis processes during the per
ception of objects and of their relations , as well as the difficulty
experienced during an active readjustment of the perception , which
are characteristic for oligophrenics , result in the fact that the
survey of a segment of surrounding reality is considerably more over
simplified and less truly comprehended in oligophrenics. than in norm
al children . The same thing applies to the perception of pictures by
oligophrenics .
The fact that the entire psychic activity of oligophrenic
children takes place on such a significantly impoverished and modif
ied sensory basis is clearly expressed in the peculiar features of
their activity .
In this article , we shall not analyze in detail the practical
activity of oligophrenics , and we shall merely describe briefly indi
vidual manifestations of this activity , associated with the peculiar
features of the perception of these children . Thus , for example , in
studying the orientation of oligophrenics in space , difficulties in
locomotion were noted which can be explained not so much as resulting
from deficiencies in the motor system , which have been described in
detail in the literature , but rather as being due to defects in their
spatial perception and defective surveying ability . Pedagogues have
noted the poor orientation of recently enrolled children in the
school building, such as a frequent search for the door of their

- 697 -
classroom and of their place in class . It is difficult for these child
ren to master the skill of going to school and coming home without an
escort , if this road is new to them and not quite simple .
The slow nature and insufficient differentiation of the percep
tion of oligophrenic children is manifested in their practical actions
(L.V. Zankov 477 ), and in the manual labor of students belonging to
junior grades (G.M. Dul'nev ( 357). A series of special research studies
(B.I. Pinskiy ( 1387 has shown the type of deficiency characteristic for
the constructive activity of oligophrenic pupils belonging to the first
and second grades . When confronted with the task of building a wall
out of play blocks according to a model , pupils in the second and third
grades of the auxiliary school were able to reproduce only the most gen
eral outlines of this wall , by showing that it consists of a wider and
narrower section . However , neither the ratio of these sections in re
gard to their height and width , nor the characteristic features of the
construction of each wall were reflected in the structures erected by
these children . Defects in the perception of oligophrenics are also
manifested in the process of mastering professional work (A.P. Gozova
(247).
At the present time , we have a sufficiently large number of facts
at our disposal to allow us to speak boldly about the considerable and
successful development of the practical and labor activity of oligo
phrenics in case they have received the proper instruction . In the
most general form, we can say that the development of their labor act
ivity takes place as a result of education and instruction in school ,
as a result of their receiving instruction via object lessons , in
manual labor , in a correctly organized practical activity , as a re
sult of the concern that these children should consciously understand
what they perceive and what they do .
Observations and special research , specifically a research
study concerned with the distinction of color shades , have shown that
the development of perception processes in oligophrenic children of
the senior grades takes place not as a result of training in these
processes , as such , but as a result of the development of graphic
thought processes, and specifically , as a result of a graphic compari
son (zn . I. Shif (1737, M.L. Kaganova (707).
In the course of projects conducted under the direction of
L.V. Zankov, concerned with a study of the psychological character
istics of the interaction between words and graphic means in mental
ly retarded school children [627, it was established that a frequent
showing of an object does not help much to make the perception of this
object more differentiated , and to make the activity caused by this
perception more accurate . In order to overcome the identification of
similar figures by oligophrenics , the following system of exercises
was developed : the discrimination was begun with the least similar
figures and then more and more similar figures were shown . This re
search work has shown how processes involving a graphic comparison
and comprehension contribute to the improvement of perception

- 698 -
and practical actions ( v.G. Petrov _T247).
A number of studies point out that perception reaches a greater
de gree of accuracy , and that the practical activity associated with
this perception is raised to a higher level in case this perception
and activity are controlled by a concrete guiding verbal instruction .
If this instruction is very general and contains a large number of
links, its effect is insignificant [1267 , [142 ], [ 77. According to
the data available , the most favorable conditions for improving the
perception are created when the analysis and synthesis processes , dur
ing the perception of an object , are accompanied by various species
of practical activity of the children with these objects , whereby
these processes are firmly established as a result of this activity
(such as drawing, modeling, building {817 , [1397). The development of
thought and speech plays a considerable role in the development of the
perception of oligophrenic school children . Certain complex forms of
analysis , synthesis , comparison and generalization , provided they are
correctly organized, gradually become accessible to these children .
The weakness of these processes is very significant in junior grade
pupils of an auxiliary school , but in case of a properly organized in
struction program , these processes are developed and in turn contri
bute to the development of perception and a practical activity on the
part of oligophrenic children .

The works of L.V. Zankov and the experimental psychological

research conducted by his associates under his direction have been
devoted to a study of the peculiar features of processes of the re
call of study material and of the reproduction and use of this mater
ial by oligophrenic children . Problems concerned with the preserva
tion and changes of notions and knowledge in mentally retarded child
ren have been studied by I.M. Solov'yev and his associate M.M. Nudel '.
man .
From old studies it was known that the memory of oligophrenic
children stands at a low level . Many authors , including G. Troshin ,
believed that the amount of information available to oligophrenics was
acquired by them by means of a direct impression upon their memory and
was based on a well preserved mechanical memory . The main cause for
the defective nature of the memory of oligophrenics was considered to
lie merely in the extreme weakness of their meaningful recall ,
Soviet psychologists have shown that such a viewpoint is in
consistent since it does not take into account the development trends
of the memory of oligophrenics . A comparative study of the develop
ment of recall in normal and oligophrenic children of various ages ,
undertaken by L.v. Zankov 167, 477 has disclosed first of all that
a direct impression upon the memory of graphic and verbal material is
far lower in children studying in junior grades of an auxiliary school
than in normal children of the same age . In addition , it was es tab

- 699 -
lished that mentally retarded children of the junior school age , not
having received a special instruction , did not know how to make inde
pendent use of techniques of meaningful recall . L.V. Zankov has
shown further that , upon reaching the medium and especially the senior
school age group , morons make very great progress in meaningful re
call and make very insignificant progress in direct inculcation . The
problem concerning the way in which mentally retarded children are able
to master means for achieving meaningful recall and what difficulties
they have to overcome in this connection was extensively treated dur
ing the study of memorizing and reproduction by morons of pairs of ob
jects and pairs of words (L.V. Zankov 167, A.N. Leont'yev (807).
It has been established that mentally retarded children require
special instruction in the identification and utilization of associa
tions which unite the material that has to be recalled, and that these
children need considerable help on the part of a pedagogue . The assoc
iations which are established by oligophrenics on their own are fre
quently superficial and do not result in an high - grade recall of the
material , nor in a distinction of this material from similar material
which is recalled by means of equally superficial associations . On
condition of a very careful and thorough instruction in technique of
achieving meaningful recall , oligophrenic children can learn how to
make use of such a method of recall . The development of their memory ,
the acquisition of richer information from life and the assimilation
of school knowledge take place in these children precisely by means
of a meaningful recall , the techniques of which are acquired by these
children during the course of instruction 507.
The establishment of a basic trend in the development of the
memory of moronic children was of vital importance in correcting er
rors in an understanding of the peculiar features of the memory of
such children and also for a correct organization of their instruction .
Let us clarify the latter fact : from the erroneous assertion concern
ing the effectiveness of a mechanical recall on the part of oligo
phrenics and on the inaccessibility for these children of meaningful
recall , a conclusion was reached in regard to the necessity of train
ing their mechanical memory , and it was considered pointless to be
come concerned about the development of complex memory processes in
these children . Soviet special schools , on the basis of the results
obtained during psychological research studies , have overcome this
conception and by directing their efforts to the development in oli
gophrenic children of an ability to recall in a meaningful manner ,
are making considerable progress in this respect .
Research on child psychology has shown that , from the end of
the junior grade school age period , the effectiveness of voluntary re
call considerably outstrips the development of involuntary recall , and
has extensively clarified the problem of the dependence of both types
of recall upon the activity in the context of which this recall takes
place (A.A. Smirnov (1477).

- 700 -
 Studies of the peculiar features of memorizing in oligophrenic
children have disclosed that the premeditated ( voluntary ) recall of
mentally retarded school children is not significantly more productive ,
in contrast to normal school children , than_is_their unpremeditated
(involuntary) recall (B.I. Pinskiy [1387, [1357). Thus, groups of
fifth and seventh grade pupils of an auxiliary school , after being
warned before the reading of a story that they would have to tell
this story in their own words , after reading the story twice , were
able to reproduce only 46.6 % of the semantic units making up the story .
Other groups of pupils belonging to the same grades were not warned
about the impending narration of the story . Upon being unexpectedly
confronted with the necessity of giving a verbal account of the sub
ject matter read , these pupils were able to reproduce 40 % of the same
semantic units , i.e. almost as much as those pupils who had to give a
verbal account after a premeditated memorizing . The difference in the
success at reproduction of these stories by pupils of the fourth and
fifth grades of a popular school amounted to 30 % in favor of a premed
itated recall . These studies also note the considerably lower degree
of success in unpremeditated recall of school age morons , as compared
to normal children . It was shown that the source of the under develop
ment of both types of recall lies in the reduced level of fulfillment
of the activity in which the children recall the material offered to
them ; defects in the nature of the activity of oligophrenics are mani
fested especially strongly in the limited development of a premeditated
recall .
Research studies conducted by L.V. Zankov 327 and G.M. Dul'nev
[ 31 ] have shown that thepresence of a definite intention does not af
fect the course of reproduction in oligophrenics to the same extent as
in normal school children . Thus , while intending to recall and repro
duce the material in a definite sequence , or to recall and reproduce
this material word for word , etc. , even senior grade pupils manage to
reproduce this material , after becoming familiar with it for the first
time, in the same incomplete and inaccurate fashion as in those cases
when they do not have this intention . An intention is realized only
after a repeated perception of the material and after a sufficient com
prehension of it . The weak or poor realization of an intention , in
addition to showing the difficulty in understanding the material , also
constitutes a manifestation of the inability , on the part of an oligo
phrenic , to subordinate his activity to a definite totality of re
quirements imposed upon him .
A considerable number of research studies have been devoted to
the study of peculiarities of reproduction in oligophrenic children .
A study of the manner in which words that had to be recalled " in
pairs " are reproduced by mentally retarded school children has shown
the way in which the meaningful character of their recall develops :
the children made up a sentence in which they combined the words which
had to be recalled . When they were asked to reproduce these words ,
the children reproduced the whole sentence and had difficulty in ex

- 701 -
tracting from the sentence those words which they were supposed to recall
(L.V. Zankov 467) ; these words were found to be "welded" to the con
text of their memorization whereas , during the course of recall , oligo
phrenic children experienced difficulties in establishing relations be
tween words which would have contributed to their combined recall , during
the reproduction of words , difficulties of another type were encountered :
these children had difficulties in analyzing , in " liberating " words
from those associations which had helped in their memorization .
For example , it was shown that the de pe ndence of the information
acquired by oligophrenics upon the conditions and forms under which
this information was obtained robs this information of the " mobility "
which is indispensable for its further use . This characteristic feat
ure of the reproduction of a learned subject matter casts light , among
other things , on the difficulty which is constantly experienced by oligo
phrenics , in applying the knowledge acquired when solving new problems .
Studies of the peculiarities in the reproduction of texts by
fifth , sixth and seventh grade students of an auxiliary school, con
ducted under the direction of_L.V . Zankov, (m.S. Levitan [ 797, G.M.
Dul'nev 317, B.I. Pinskiy [1357, v.g. Petrova) have shown that, in
memorizing a story, oligophrenics can establish fewer connections be
tween the parts of the story than can normal school children ; in most
cases , these connections are less essential and more superficial . For
this reason , from the standpoint of fullness of reproduction , sixth
grade pupils of the auxiliary school lagged far behind third grade
pupils of a popular school ; the number of thoughts reproduced by the
former from the story proposed to them was almost three times smaller
than the number of thoughts reproduced by the latter . Only scattered
portions of the story were reproduced , which were not sufficiently close
ly connected with each other and were not the most significant passages .
In isolated cases , the few things which the children were able to mem
orize were reproduced by them word for word , whereby the coherence of
the reproduced material suffered from the fragmentary nature of the re
production ; in other cases , the children presented the content of the
story in their own words , whereby in this case they generally used
very general expressions , and this resulted in a loss of concreteness
in the story as told by these children . Both of these characteristic
features of reproduction are associated with the character of the
speech of oligophrenic children , who assimilate with great difficulty
and in an extremely insufficient manner the rich and extensive system
of meanings of words and expressions and seldom acquire the skill of a
consistent narration .
Also worthy of attention are the numerous distortions of the
material which has been read during the course of its reproduction ,
which frequently consist in the fact that this material is made simi
lar to material which was previously familiar to the children . Dur
ing the reproduction of material, an unfounded introduction of a
large volume of information was observed , which some times is only
remotely related to the material which has been read . This fact is

- 702 -
an indication of an insufficient distinction , in regard to its content ,
between knowledge which has been recently assimilated and previous
knowledge . As a result of all these facts , the reproduction made by
mentally retarded children was found to be inaccurate and unclear and
frequently to teem with errors . We must add that mistakes made by
junior grade students in the process of reproduction are not easily
corrected even when the children realize these mistakes [1337. The
children experience difficulty in changing a reproduction which has
once been performed. Therefore, the elimination of mistakes arising
during reproduction requires considerable help on the part of the in
structor and also considerable effort on the part of the children .
In the senior grades , this characteristic feature is somewhat less
apparent .
The fullness and accuracy of the reproduction of material by oli
gophrenics depend of course upon the type of material which they have
to reproduce and also upon the nature of the connections which combine
this material into a whole . A study was made of the characteristic
features of the reproduction of a material which was combined into a
whole by means of sequence and causality connections .
In reproducing material which is connected by relations of se
quence (for example, a sequence of figures, words , historical events ) ,
pupils of the fifth to seventh grades , if they are not given any help ,
rely primarily upon external and chance factors which unite the ob
jects to be recalled . Therefore , in case of a postponed reproduction ,
the correct sequence of a series becomes lost (L.V. Zankov 2547). An
analysis has shown that oligophrenics experience difficulties in es
tablishing on their own significant connections uniting consecutive
links of a series . If certain links of the chain are similar and
their distinction presents considerable difficulty , these links are
shifted and identified , resulting in a distortion of the correct se
quence of a series during the course of reproduction . However , if the
process of instruction is organized in such a way that significant
connections uniting the members of a series are explained to the
children in a readily accessible form, and if these connections are
consolidated in the proper manner , then the reproduction of a sequence ,
for example , of historic events , becomes considerably more accurate .
Seventh grade students have exhibited definite progress in the repro
duction of material which is united by sequence relations .
Research studies conducted by M.S. Levitan and V.G. Petrova
under the guidance of L.V. Zankov have shown that if material subject
to reproduction contains causal relations which oligophrenics can
understand and which are presented in the form of causal conjunctions ,
the children rely upon these relations and use them during reproduc
tion .
As a result , such a reproduction is more full and accurate than
the reproduction of a similar text in which causal connections are
unders tood but are not expressed in the text . Here , too , can be
noted how the degree of success in the reproduction of a text in

- 703 -
creases from the fifth to the seventh grade .
We must note in particular that recollections are used by mental
ly retarded school children in a very unskilled manner . They find this
process to be of considerable difficulty ( 1527, and this is clearly ex
pressed in those cases when oligophrenics must independently remember
certain knowledge which is indispensable for solving some kind of task .
This defect can be corrected to a certain extent in senior grades .
Starting from the fact that the memory of oligophrenics grows
mainly by drawing upon meaningful recall , L.V. Zankov has undertaken a
number of research studies 517, which are devoted to a clarification
of the importance of varying the forms of repetition in order to in
crease the successful rate of reproduction of oligophrenics . Psycho
logical and didactic research work, conducted in this _connection ( zh .
1. Shif [1747, G.V. Murashov ( 1007, L.A. Isayenko (697 , Kh . S. Zamskiy
(637) has shown that if a matērial was presented to mentally retarded
children for learning purposes in a wide variety of connections , if
this material was consciously comprehended in different aspects , and
if during questioning the form of the question was varied , then mental
ly retarded children were able to reproduce this material better and
were able to break it down more easily than in those cases when the
material was repeated many times without any modifications , and thus
assumed the form of a learning by rote . This confirmed again that the
development of memorization and reproduction in morons , in the same
way as in children capable of hearing , draws upon semantic memory .
This particular group of research studies has contributed to definite
improvements in the development of a method for the consolidation of
knowledge in the fields of natural science , geography and history in
an auxiliary school , where at the present time a modification of repe
titions during the instruction of those subjects is used instead of
the previously dominant repetition having a monotonous content and
form .
All of the data presented by us here illustrate the great
originality of the processes of recall and reproduction in mentally
retarded children and at the same time disclose the basic trends of
development of these processes .
* *
*

The problem concerned with the manner in which oligophrenic

children can preserve in their memory the results of their observa
tions and their acquired knowledge has attracted a great amount of
attention on the part of psychologists . Pedagogues working in aux
iliary schools are constantly noting the manner , characteristic for
oligophrenics , in which they rapidly forget and are unable to call
to mind the knowledge they have acquired . 1.4 . Solov'yev (1527 has
undertaken a comparative study of the processes by means of which
visual notions are preserved in the memory and forgotten in normal

- 704
adults , as well as in students of popular and auxiliary schools ; pro
longed research work in this field was conducted by M.M. Nudel'man
[ 1087, [1107. The characteristic features of oligophrenic children
could be clearly observed against a background of rules governing the
process of forgetting , which were established in normal adults and
school children . It was shown that the visual representations of
oligophrenics are considerably poorer and less differentiated than
those of normal people of the same age . Since oligophrenics are un
able to notice the characteristic features of an object during the
course of its perception , they also do not preserve these features in
the representation : in their drawings , the objects described have no
details and are given in an oversimplified spatial arrangement . It
was possible to clarify the manner in which , during the process of
forgetting , the representations of normal and mentally retarded child
ren undergo a change . In the mentally retarded, changes in these re
presentations take place in an extremely intensive manner and are ex
pressed in an eras ure in them of the characteristic features present
in objects ; whereas normal children , whose representations or notions
are richer and closer to the original , preserve and even stress for a
certain time in their representation the characteristic features of
objects ; only after a considerable period of time , does a certain
erasure of their specificity take place , which never reaches the same
degree as that observed in mentally retarded children ,
The absence of an emphasis of the characteristic features of
objects in the representations of oligophrenics is explained by I.N.
Solov'yev as being due to the fact that , during the process of recol
lection, oligophrenics do not exhibit the same intensive mental work
which is characteristic for the recollection of normal school child
ren . of particularly great importance in understanding the character
istic features of the psyche of oligophrenics is the change in the
representation of similar objects which is observed in these people ;
this change is expressed in a drastic rapprochement of these objects ,
and sometimes in their complete identification . I.M. Solov'yev and
M.M. Nudel'man have been able to prove in a convincing manner that
the processes of rapprochement follow a much more rapid and intensive
course in mentally retarded children than in normal school children .
These authors have discovered three types of rapprochement: mutual
assimilation of new impressions and old ones which are similar to
these new impressions ; a mutual assimilation of similar representa
tions , which is very strikingly expressed in oligophrenics ; sometimes ,
there is an assimilation of old representations to new ones . It has
been proven that the processes of assimilation in the three above
mentioned types take place not only in the field of visual represent
ations , but also during the for getting of verbal material {1137. This
fact is of basic importance since it shows that the process of intens
ive assimilation , which is characteristic of oligophrenics , manifests
itself in various species of their activity .

- 705 -
 Research work on processes of forgetting have established a
regular dependence of an assimilation of representations and know
ledge upon the character of the objects or materials being recalled ,
upon the degree of similarity of the objects , the representations of
which must be preserved in the consciousness of children , upon the
similarity of the phenomena the knowledge of which they must call to
mind , upon the condition of the notions and knowledge previously pos
sessed by the children .
A rapid and very considerable capacity for assimilating acquired
knowledge is a characteristic feature of the psyche of mentally retarded
children (1507. A consequence of this assimilation is an oversimplifi
cation of all relations found in reality in the consciousness of an oli
gophrenic .
The clarification of the characteristic features of the preserv
ation and forgetting of what has been perceived by oligophrenic child
ren was a considerable success in the understanding of the peculiar
nature of the development of this category of children . The differ
ence between their memory and the memory of normal children was found
to be much more significant than the differences between both cate
gories of children in the field of perception [1587. A correct under
standing of the peculiar features of the memory of oligophrenics is of
considerable importance in the approach adopted for examining the
characteristic features of their thought . Any kind of activity process
is connected with the mobilization and use of knowledge possessed by
the children ; in virtue of their intensive forgetting and extensive
assimilation , oligophrenics experience very great difficulty in the
actualization of the knowledge they have acquired for the solution even
of relatively simple practical intellectual problems . Their defective
and modified notions do not provide the necessary amount of contribution
to the solution of a task which is in progress , and do not ensure a
correct solution of this task . The establishment of the laws govern
ing forgetting proved to be an extremely important factor for conduct
ing proper pedagogical work with oligophrenic children .
I.M. Solov'yev and M.M. Nudel'man have shown that in the senior
grades it is possible to achieve a certain counteraction to such a
characteristic feature of oligophrenics as assimilation during the
process of for getting . If students of an auxiliary school are taught
in practice how to analyze , compare and distinguish objects having
various degrees of similarity , if this activity is accompanied by
verbal explanations , and if the knowledge imparted in verbal form is
combined with an analytical perception of corresponding objects , then
oligophrenics are less inclined to assimilate representations and
knowledge , and their retnetion of this knowledge and these representa
tions becomes more effective .
Thus , the development of the memory of oligophrenics is assoc
iated with an improvement of meaningful recall ; the retention of pieces
of acquired knowledge and measures aimed at combatting their assimila
tion can be achieved to a certain extent by making use of analysis ,

- 706 -
comparisons , and by developing a graphic and verbal thought and speech
in children .

All authors have noted that speech appears in oligophrenics at

a much later date than in normal children , develops much more slowly
than in these children and is characterized by a number of peculiar
features . It is natural that , by the beginning of the school age
period , the speech of oligophrenics differs to a very great extent
from the speech of normal children of the same age .
Oligophrenics are further characterized by considerable defects
in pronunciation , which are due mainly to the poor differentiation of
the auditory perception of speech . Defects in pronunciation give rise
to corresponding mistakes in the written speech of oligophrenic child
ren . In order to overcome these defects in pronunciation and writing ,
it is often necessary to conduct extensive work aimed at the develop
ment of analysis and synthesis processes in the field of the auditory
perception of speech in oligophrenics ; frequently , it is also neces
sary to perform special work aimed at correcting and developing their
articulation movements .
There are also indications pointing to a retarded rate of oral
and written speech in oligophrenics , which is associated by a number
of authors with the peculiar features of their motor system ; the lack
of expression in the oral speech of oligophrenics is also stressed , as
well as the poor nature of its tonation structure (M.P. Feofanov ( 1677).
A study of the motivation of oral and written speech 197,
[ 1677 has shown that oligophrenics usually exhibit weak and undeveloped
inclinations to engage in a dialogue , to present an extensive narra
tion of what they have seen or read , and to clarify those things which
they do not understand or which require a correction . A lack of co
herence and comprehension in both the oral and written speech of oli
gophrenics is also noted by all authors . Peculiarities in the under
standing of business and literary texts by students belonging to vari
ous grades of an auxiliary school have been described and studied in
detail , and the progress which these students make as a result of in
struction has been demonstrated ( v.Ya. Vasilevskaya [ 87).
The lag in the development of various aspects of the speech of
oligophrenics limits their contact with those around them and thus in
hibits to a considerable extent the growth of their cognitive facul
ties , and the acquisition of information transmitted by means of words .
Certain peculiarities of the vocabulary of oligophrenics have
been described in greater detail than other problems concerned with
the psychology of their speech . This vocabulary has been studied from
many different aspects ; for example , a study has been made of the
manner in which students belonging to different grades of an auxili
ary school understood the meaning of words having a varying degree of
community ; an investigation was made of the way in which oligophrenics ,

- 707 -
during exercises aimed at the development of speech , utilize words used
to designate the properties of objects which they have previously
learned , and work has also been done at clarifying characteristic feat
ures of the use by oligophrenics of words belonging to various grammat
ical categories during their presentation of a text which had been pre
viously read . In all of these research studies , the object of study
was the vocabulary of oligophrenic children used by these children in
their speech activity , which was not reinforced at this particular mom
ent by a sensory cognition .
We shall now present briefly the results of this research work .
In studying the manner in which students of the first five grades of an
auxiliary school understand nouns having varying degrees of community
and used to designate objects ( zh.I. Shif) , it was found that familiar
terms having a wide general meaning ( conventionally speaking , generic
designations such as , for example , words like tool , berry, fruit , in
sect , animal , etc. ) were considered by junior grade pupils of auxiliary
schools as being " unsaid " words , whereby these pupils stated that these
words are not used to name objects but are " only written . " These child
ren frequently narrow down the meaning of these words , and believe that
only a plane is called an instrument and only strawberries are called
berries . By the time they reach the fourth grade , as a result of ex
ercises aimed at the development of speech, these children are able to
comprehend that these terms are used as titles for a group of objects ,
but they do not always use these terms properly ; only at a consider
ably later date , do mentally retarded children recognize these terms
as a possible means for a second designation of an object , which in
cludes its most important characteristics .
Oligophrenics are unable to catch the difference between special
and narrow designations such as an " Antonovka " apple , a cabbage
butterfly , a mongrel dog, etc. and terms having a broader meaning,
such as apple, butterfly , dog , and consider that the former represent
an unnecessary duplication of the latter . Pupils of the third and
fourth grades were surprised when asked to explain the meaning of such
specialized designations as a mongrel dog or an " Antonovka " apple ;
they proposed the replacement of these words by terms having a more
general meaning , such as a dog or an apple , with which they identify
these words and which they consider as being more adequate designa
tions of objects . The comprehension of special terms was very poorly
developed in oligophrenic children over a period of five years . In
contrast, normal children displayed, even during junior school grades ,
a differentiated attitude towards words having a varying measure of
community and made rapid progress over a period of three years in the
comprehension of generic designations , and thereafter likewise in the
comprehension of special terms used to designate a " variety . "
A study of the manner in which oligophrenics utilize adjectives
used to designate various properties of objects , which adjectives they
have previously learned , (G.M. Dui'nev (327) disclose even more clearly
their peculiar attitude toward terms having a special meaning . The

-- 708 -
study was conducted in such a way that the meanings of adjectives were
explained in detail to third grade pupils of an auxiliary school , while
the adjectives themselves were learned by heart by the children . After
this , the children had to use these adjectives in filling blanks in a
text made available to them . It was found , that in performing this
task , these third grade pupils used the terms big or small instead of
the special designations of the form of ob jects which they had learned ,
such as long , narrow , high ; the word bad was used by these children in
stead of many special designations such as dirty , heavy, malicious, old ,
and torn which were required by the text ; the word red was used instead
of the words orange , crimson and pink . In other words , it was estab
lished that , instead of the many special terms which the children had
learned and , as experiments showed , had not forgotten , these children
used in their active speech several familiar words having a general
meaning, thereby unjustifiably expanding the sphere of their applica
tion .
A new stage in the study of the vocabulary included the attempt,
undertaken under the direction of I.M. Solov'yev, to examine which
terms are used by oligophrenic school children in recognizing objects
which these children examined [1577 ,[737and also to clarify which
designations are used by these children when they establish various pro
perties of objects during an analysis and comparison of these objects
2817, [ 57. This research work discloses the characteristic features
of the use of a vocabulary during the cognition_by mentally retarded
children of their surrounding object world (1567 .
It was found that during the examination and recognition of
unfamiliar objects , oligophrenics did not use terms having a broad
general meaning with which they were familiar and which were appropri
ate in such cases . Instead, they mistakenly used terms having a more
specific meaning , used to designate objects familiar to them and which
resembled the objects which they examined ; the sphere of diffusion of
terms having a general meaning was found to be unreasonably narrow .
Thus , they did not call a porcupine an animal, but rather a hedgehog,
and they called an ant -eater a mole , an elk a billy goat, etc. At the
same time , oligophrenics rarely utilized those terms familiar to them
which are used in a specialized and precise designation of objects ;
thus , when the children compared various objects , it was found that
they called a pharmaceutical vial a bottle , the label on this vial a
paper , a cork -- a plug, the beak of a bird a nose , claws - finger
nails , feathers hair , etc. (M.V. Zvereva (657). In other words ,
instead of using special designations , oligophrenics very frequently
and mistakenly had recourse to more familiar terms and some times to
terms having a more general meaning . It should be added that oligo
phrenics seldom use adjectives to which normal school children usually
have recourse for the purposes of a special designation of objects
during their recognition , analysis and comparison . Thus , in describ
ing a small gold wrist watch or a thick red faceted pencil , oligo
phrenics did not use , in contrast to normal school children , those

- 709 -
adjectives ( modifiers ) which were used by normal school children , did
not use a special designation for the objects displayed , but merely
called these objects a watch or a pencil, ( Ye.M. Kudryavtseva (1577 ).
During the course of an analysis of the properties of objects being
examined and during the comparison of objects , it was found that , in
the same way as in speech which did not rely upon sensory cognition ,
oligophrenics frequently used the terms large and small which were used
by first and second grade pupils as substitutes for many designations
of the form of objects known to these children ; the term thick was
used not only in the correct manner but also in the meaning of broad ;
oligophrenics did not use antonyms to designate opposite properties of
a form, but frequently used the words , not long , not thin . They also
frequently used one name to designate similar colors , for example ,
orange was called red by them . In senior grades could be noted a cer
tain progress in using certain designations during the determination
of properties of objects ; terms appear which designate the form of
objects , the weight , characteristics of the surface (A.I. Lipkina
(817) . In designating a color , oligophrenics used the terms light
and dark together with the names corresponding to the color tone ;
the words pink, azure , lilac , etc. appear in their speech . However ,
even in the senior grades , an insufficient accuracy in the use of
special terms is observed during the determina tion of closely related
properties which are difficult to differentiate , such as light
white , transparent colorless , etc. , as well as a frequent recourse
in these cases to the use of limited groups of terms (zh . I. Shif
( 1737).
During a study of the peculiarities_in_the exposition of a story
which was previously read (1.P. Feofanov _1687) , it was established
that the operating vocabulary of oligophrenics , by the time they reach
the fifth or sixth grade , is augmented to a certain extent by verbs
having a narrow special meaning which previously were not found in
this vocabulary . Whereas in the junior grades , the children used
such verbs as rode , walked , slept ; in the senior grades , words with
prefixes make their appearance , which stress shades of meaning, such
" priyekhal" ( he arrived ), " zaye khal" (he called on the way ) , " proshel "
(he walked past) , "pereshel" (he crossed ) , " zashel" (ne stopped by) ,
" prospal " (he overslept) , etc. Moreover , verbs are also used in a
figurative sense .
The same tendency is also observed in the use of adverbs ; in
junior grades , the number of adverbs used is limited and these adverbs
are used in an unwarrantedly broad meaning . For this reason, some ad
verbs used by fourth grade pupils to designate the spatial location of
an object express this position in an inaccurate manner ; by the time
the children reach the sixth grade , the designation of a spatial
position with the aid of adverbs becomes more accurate .
Prepositions , by means of which are expressed a wide variety of
spatial relations, such as the prepositions " pozadi" (back of) ,
" voeredi " ( in front) , " sboku " (on the side ) , etc. are replaced in the

- 710 -
oral and written speech of oligophrenics by the preposition " okolo " ( near ) ,
and less frequently by the preposition "u" (near or by ) . Such an over
simplification is also observed when prepositions are used to express
other groups of relations ; the same applies to the manner in which con
junctions are used , which connect a principal and a subordinate clause .
Thus , oligophrenics studying in junior and medium grades of an
auxiliary school utilize words of a varying degree of community , be
longing to different grammatical categories , in a much less correct
manner than do normal school children . This explains to a considerable
extent the defective manner in which stories are told and expositions
are made by oligophrenics , as well as the deficiencies in the designa
tion of real objects and their properties by these children .
The peculiar features described above constitute a manifesta
tion of the peculiarity of the vocabulary used by oligophrenics and of
the limited nature of this vocabulary , which is pointed out by all re
searchers engaged in a study of the speech of mentally retarded children .
The same peculiarities explain why the stock of words known to oligo
phrenics is distributed into an active and passive vocabulary in a dif
ferent way than is the case in normal children . A characteristic feat
ure for oligophrenics is a much greater discrepancy between the ir act
ive and passive_vocabulary than is the case in normal school children
(G.M. Dui'nev (347) . The number of words used by oligophrenics during
communications with others , during the exposition of a previously read
text and in the designation of objects and phenomena is much more limited
and quite peculiar . At the present time , it can be considered as an
established fact that the scanty nature of the active vocabulary used
by oligophrenics cannot be considered as being merely the result of dif
ficulties of recall of certain new words 337. In those cases when an
understanding of the meaning of certain words has been secured and
these words have been firmly assimilated by the children as a result of
a frequent repetition in different contexts , such words are not com
pletely forgotten and are preserved in their passive vocabulary , and ,
as has been shown , can be reproduced under certain definite conditions ,
but this does not mean that these particular words will be included in
their active vocabulary . The research studies which have been conducted
have shown that oligophrenics use very few nouns , used for a general
des ignation of objects , which nouns are widely used by normal children ;
further , it was found that they also do not practically utilize at all
those specialized terms which render the designation of objects more
precise . Likewise little used in the active vocabulary of oligophrenics
are terms , used in a differentiated and accurate designation of external
and functional properties of objects (adjectives , verbs, adverbs ) . Al
so seldom used are those conjunctions which serve to express causal and
sequential relations .
In attempting to explain the characteristics of the active vocab
ulary used by oligophrenics , it should be noted first of all that the
small number of words which they use and the insufficient differentia
tion of the meanings of these words are intimately connected with the

- 711 -
undifferentiated and limited nature of their cognitive activity . The
incompleteness and poverty of the perception of objects possessing a
wide variety of properties and present in a complex relation with each
other , the drastic leveling of the peculiar features of these objects
in their representation in those cases when these objects are assimil
ated to each other , and the defective nature of their mental analysis
and synthesis result in the fact that oligophrenics do not need a rich
and differentiated vocabulary ; they are completely satisfied with hav
ing a limited number of words at their disposal , although they are also
familiar with many other words . The fact that these words did not enter
into their active vocabulary indicates that, after making their appear
ance in the speech of the oligophrenics , these words did not exert the
proper effect upon the improvement of their cognitive activity . Con
sequently, the verbal designations acquired by the children do not play
the same role in effecting a change in their sensory cognition in the
case of oligophrenics as they do in the case of normal school children .
On the basis of certain observations , it is possible to express
the idea that those special terms which are firmly assimilated by the
practice of everyday life are included more rapidly than others into
the active vocabulary of oligophrenics . Observations have shown that
children working in a sewing workshop applied the terms broad , narrow ,
long , short , to thread and cloth , i.e. they used these terms in the
context of a definite practical activity . However , the meanings of
these special terms were found to be extremely narrow ; while perform
ing other assignments , these same children used the terms large and
small . Thus , the poverty of their active vocabulary is not due to
difficulties in acquiring or learning words as such ; the limited na
ture of this vocabulary is due to an impoverished cognitive activity ,
on the one hand , and to the insufficiently active transformative role
of words in the development of the thought process of oligophrenics ,
on the other hand . A consequence of this fact is the insufficient
mas tery of the " multistage , " generalized and subtly differentiated
system of terms characteristic for a language . A change in the vocab
ulary used by oligophrenics in senior grades constitutes an index of
their mental development , occurring in combination with the develop
ment of their speech . This change is expressed in an increasing
generalization and differentiation of the vocabulary , and in an en
richment of its active word complement .
In recent years , the grammatical structure of the speech of
oligophrenic children has become the subject of serious attention on
the part of psychologists and pedagogues (1707, 1237. It was found
that violations of word order in a sentence and the omission of prin
cipal parts of the sentence are characteristic features for junior
grade students . An inability to express relations of sequence or
caus ality is frequently observed . It was noted that case forms are
not used in the great variety of their meaning , but rather as an ex
pression of a limited group of relations having a concrete character ;
only in the fifth and sixth grades do children develop an ability to

- 712 -
utilize several meanings of each case form; at the same time , the verbal
and written speech of oligophrenics becomes richer and more coherent .
The deficiencies in the use of words and word combinations are
intimately connected with the peculiar features of the thinking process
of oligophrenic children , are caused by these peculiar features , and in
turn exert an influence upon them and impart an entirely original char
acter to their speech .
*
*

Let us attempt now to illustrate certain peculiar features of the

thought process of oligophrenic children as well as the paths for its
development .
A study of the cognitive activity of junior grade students in
an auxiliary school was conducted by I.M. Solov'yev and his associates
1567; this group of research studies established the characteristic
features of analysis and synthesis processes during the perception of
objects and the originality of such types of mental activity as the
recognition and comparison of objects in oligophrenics belonging to the
junior school age group .
A special study of the course of processes involving an analysis
and synthesis of objects being examined [817 has shown that the mental
breakdown of an object, i.e. the analysis of its structure , takes place
in a different way in junior grade pupils of an auxiliary school than
in normal children of the same age . Oligophrenics are able to note a
much smaller number of parts in an object . They omit parts which are
of essential significance for the object , unless these parts possess
specially noticeable or remarkable properties ; they identify parts
having Observations
littlesignificance, etc. [657,[ 77.
on senior grade students in an auxiliary school
have shown that , as a result of object lessons , natural science les
sons and mainly as a result of a properly organized working activity
in agriculture and in workshops , the analysis of the structure of ob
jects is somewhat more rich and more precise . This manifests itself
in the fact that the enumeration of parts in an object being examined
without any definite connection of these parts with each other , which
is observed in junior grade pupils , gives way to a more consistent
performance at the breakdown of an object ; the corresponding form of
synthesis is also improved .
A study of such a type of analysis of objects as the identifi
cation of their properties has shown that oligophrenics are able to
note predominantly visually perceived properties , and are much less
frequently able to identify properties which can be perceived by
touch or by means of a profound muscular sensitivity . Consequently ,
the mental analysis of properties is based in mentally retarded school
children not on the total and combined activity of all analyzers , but
rather rests predominantly on the visual analyzer ; this results in a

713 -
considerable ones ide dness of the analysis , and in the fact that oligo
phrenics are able to identify in objects a considerably smaller number
of properties than normal children of the same age .
A study of the characteristics of the vocabulary used by oligo
phrenics in designating the properties of objects has shown how diffi
cult it is for them to perform this type of mental analysis ; they have
great difficulty in differentiating shapes and sizes , and can only im
perfectly distinguish the wide variety of properties of the surface of
objects and the material out of which these objects are made ; the de
signation or identification of colors is also a very difficult business .
Words play an exceptionally important role in that type of mediate re
flection of reality which involves the identification of the properties
of an object . With the aid of words , it is possible mentally to sepa
rate the properties of an object from each other and from the object as
a whole . During the normal development of a child , words are used very
early and effectively in analyzing the properties of objects . As for
oligophrenic children , defects in the sensory cognition , the thought
and the speech of oligophrenics are intimately interrelated in this
particular case and condition each other . Also noteworthy is the fact
that an analysis of the properties of objects is the more difficult for
oligophrenics , the more complex is the structure of the objects . By
means of a carefully organized system of exercises , oligophrenics can
be taught how to distinguish a definite group of properties of objects .
In senior grades , the identification of properties is indubitably im
proved . Oligophrenics are then capable of distinguishing not only
the size , shape and color but also the material out of which the object
is made , its weight, characteristic features of its shape , surface ,
etc.
Observations show that a knowledge of the properties of objects
is retained if this knowledge is constantly applied in the working
activity of oligophrenics . However , if the knowledge obtained does
not find a practical application in their everyday actions , this know
ledge , although it is not completely forgotten , under goes a change and
a " dedifferentiation " takes place .
A study of the manner in which the development of the processes
of analysis of objects takes place in oligophrenics during the course
of their school age period has shown that the fullness and detailed
nature of the analysis increase , and that oligophrenics gradually
learn how to identify the essential characteristics of an object . How
ever , the poverty of this analysis still makes older oligophrenics con
siderably different from normal school children ( 1.M. Solov'yev ).
During the course of assimilation of school knowledge , the stu
dents are faced not only with an analysis of graphic objects , but also
to a much greater extent with an analysis of data or materials presented
to them in verbal form . Several research studies are devoted to the
study of these processes_in_oligophrenic students of senior grades
(M.M. Nudel'man [1117,1127, zn .I. Shif (1767). These studies have
shown that, if the reproduction of a story read by fifth grade students

- 714 -
of an auxiliary school , in which a definite object is described, is
based on a list of questions or a plan submitted to these students ,
the reproduction is more complete by 40 % than in the case where this
reproduction takes place without the help of questions , i.e. when the
analysis of the verbal information obtained in regard to the structure
of this object and its properties must be performed independently by
these students . Further , it was shown that if the order of the ques
tions or the plan involving the reproduction of information on charac
teristic features of the object , which was suggested to the children ,
does not correspond to the order in which the material present in this
particular story is arranged , a search for the answer to these questions
causes difficulties even for students of the sixth and seventh grades :
their answers are not sufficiently differentiated , since a demarcation
of the material , which is necessary in order to answer the question , is
not always achieved by them . The above data indicate the difficulties
which are encountered by oligophrenics while performing an analysis of
information concerning an object , when this information has been offered
in verbal form, even in case these students are helped . If the material
dealing with a definite problem or an assigned topic must be extracted
not from one text but from several texts , the difficulties in the
analysis which are experienced by oligophrenic children increase fur
ther . It is natural that the synthesis performed on the basis of a
selective analysis of several texts is extremely deficient . Thus ,
seventh grade students , after reading several stories describing dif
ferent animals , had to tell only how all of these animals breathe ;
instead of doing this , however , they spoke not only about the breath
ing but also about the feeding and various other habits of these ani
mals . In individual cases , the problem of breathing was even omit
ted [1127.
After reading three small stories describing a queen bee , a
working bee , and a drone , and having been given the assignment of
writing a story about a beehive , pupils belonging to the fourth and
fifth grades of an auxiliary school identified with each other the
queen bee and the working bee according to their external appearance
and functions and opposed these two types of bees to the drone . This
overs implification taking place during the synthesis was linked up
with an extremely defective analysis (1117. Confronted with the task
of collecting information , found in different textbooks , on three dif
ferent birds , sixth and seventh grade pupils also exhibited a tendency
( although not as sharply pronounced) to identify the characteristic
features of these birds [1767. These students also failed to carry
out a subtle and complex analysis , as a result of which they could have
extracted special information from these texts , necessary for the form
ation of a concrete image of each of the birds about which they had
read . Therefore , their synthesis proved to be schematic and non
concrete : they did not give a characteristic of a definite zoological
species , but limited themselves merely to data by means of which the
item described could be referred to a broad zoological class , namely

715 -
to the class of birds .
The data obtained showed that the knowledge of zoology acquired
by oligophrenics from books is not sufficiently concrete and that they
are much less enriched by this knowledge than are normal children .
The knowledge acquired in junior grades during object lessons is poorly
utilized by oligophrenics during their analysis of material read in the
field of natural science . Apparently , object lessons which are not
consolidated by the working activity of these children do not result in
a sufficient development of these children and poorly prepare them for
the acquisition of knowledge from books .
We shall now talk about research studies concerned with charac
teristic features of the recognition of objects by students in junior ,
medium and senior_grades of an auxiliary school . These research studies
( I.M. Solov'yev ( 1577 , Ye . M. Kudryavtseva (737) have shown that an ex
tremely general and nonspecific recognition of the objects examined is
characteristic for junior grade students of an auxiliary school . They
are satisfied with the most generic designation of the objects shown to
them , since they are unable to note and identify their characteristic
features and properties . Errors in recognition are frequently observed
in these children , which are caused by the fact that similar objects
are recognized as being identical and therefore are given identical
names , for example , a compass is recognized as a watch and is according
ly designated as a watch .
The specificity of recognition and its accuracy are slightly im
proved by the time the children reach the senior grades ; sometimes ,
even complex forms of recognition are observed . However , even in the
senior grades , oligophrenics do not exhibit the same degree of concrete
ness and versatility in the recognition of objects which is observed in
normal school children . The peculiar nature of the thinking process
of oligophrenics manifests itself during the recognition of objects in
the fact that a correct recognition is usually not sufficiently concrete
or specific and is incomplete (thus , a wrist watch and a table watch
are designated by oligophrenics merely as a watch , without being given
a special name ) .
The oversimplified and crude comprehension of reality , manifested
during the recognition of objects , is also clearly observed in oligo
phrenics during the comparison of objects (M.V. Zvereva and A.I. Lip
kina (657 ). A comparison requires a" correlative " examination and an
alysis of the objects being compared . At the same time , during the
course of comparison , statements are frequently observed in first and
second grade oligophrenic pupils expressing discrepant marks , which
makes the process of comparison of objects impossible or disturbs the
course of this process . As a result of exercises in making comparisons ,
this peculiarity is somewhat improved by the time the children reach
the third and fourth grades , and the actual process of comparison be
comes more systematic . However , the " correlative " analysis of ob
jects being compared , performed by oligophrenics , is not only poorer
than in normal school children but also exhibits a number of peculiar

- 716 -
features . Junior grade students in an auxiliary school experience con
siderable difficulties in understanding that a similarity between ob
jects represents a complex and varied relationship between these ob
jects . Similar objects are frequently recognized as being either dif
ferent or identical . The research study conducted by V.G. Petrova
[257 has shown that depicted objects, having the same structure and
color but differing from each other in the size of the ir parts and in
the arrangement of these parts , were considered as being identical by
second and third grade pupils .
By the time the children reach the third and fourth grades , as
a result of an improved analysis , the characteristic of the similarity
of objects becomes more complex and the range of objects considered as
being similar is expanded . It should be noted, however, that the ident
ification of the specificity of similar objects is difficult even for
senior grade students . The processes of comparison are considerably
improved in these students and contribute to their general development,
but neither in a comparison or in a recognition of objects do oligo
phrenics achieve the same degree of generalization , fullness , and con
cre teness which characterize these processes in normal children .
The processes of generalization in oligophrenic children have
not been studied to any great extent . According to available data ,
these processes are quite peculiar . There are reasons to believe that
accidental superficial characteristics frequently serve as a basis for
the establishment of a common nature of objects in junior oligophrenics
(L.V. Zankov 477) .
A study of the development of the process of generalization in
oligophrenics was performed on material involving shades of different
colors , differing in their lightness and saturation (Zh.I. Shif
1737). This study has shown that the broad and undifferentiated
grouping effected by junior grade pupils of objects having a similar
color located next to each other on the spectrum , gives way only
gradually to a proper generalization . A proper generalization of
the shades of one and the same color is quite narrow in medium grades
and becomes somewhat broader by the time the children reach the senior
grades . Oligophrenics differ to a considerable extent from normal
school children , who , at the beginning of their school age period, no
longer combine together shades of adjacent colors and who are charac
terized by a rapidly developing proper generalization of shades of the
same color differing in their lightness .
This research study disclosed a certain discrepancy between the
comprehension of objects and their designation during the course of
development of the children ; this discrepancy manifested itself in
the actions performed by oligophrenic children in various contexts .
The development of a graphic or descriptive thinking process resulted
in the fact that fourth and fifth grade pupils no longer group to
gether saturated shades of red and orange and blue and violet colors .
However , they still continued to call an orange color red , and a
OO

violet color blue .

- 717 -
 Particular difficulties are experienced by oligophrenics in mak
ing a correct distinction and generalization of similar verbal mater
ials (L.V. Zankov and V.G. Petrova 1597 ), which they are inclined to
combine on the basis of a superficial similarity .
Let us now examine certain research studies describing individual
aspects of the solution of problems by oligophrenics . A psychological
and pedagogical study of the manner in which fourth to sixth grade pup
ils of an auxiliary school reproduce and solve simple arithmetic prob
lems (1.M. Solov'yev [ 1557 , M.I. Kuz'mitskaya / 757) has shown that
these children are unable to get an idea of the objective content of a
problem , i.e , of the data presented in the problem , of the relations
between these data and their connection with the question formulated
in the problem . Oligophrenics are baffled by the " presentation , " the
tersely formulated conditions of the problem . The loss of the object
ive content manifests itself in this case in a defective reproduction
of the conditions of the problem , in an incorrect selection of methods
for solving this problem , and in an absurd arrangement of designations .
The data obtained in these research studies are very important in un
derstanding the role of language in the mental activity of oligo
phrenic children . The activity of a reproducing imagina tion , which
takes place on the basis of language , is clearly impeded in oligo
phrenics . This is the reason , among other things , why a knowledge of
history, geography , and natural science imparted to the children in
verbal form, without a proper reliance upon graphic materials , does
not contribute to the development of oligophrenics and leads to verb
alism . Texts which have been read do not result in images which cor
respond so readily to these texts as in normal children , nor do they
stimulate oligophrenics to reflect upon these texts . This peculiarity
is manifested in both junior and senior grade pupils_of an auxiliary
school . A research study conducted by L.V. Zankov /487 has shown that
oligophrenics are able to identify simple causal relationships between
those phenomena occurring in inanima te nature which are associated
with their real-life experience . However , the same children experi
ence difficulties when they must imagine similar causal relations ,
albeit comprehensible to them but connecting phenome na presented to
them in a verbal form .
A further problem which should be described in connection with
a study of the peculiarities encountered during the solution of a
problem by oligophrenic school children is concerned with the actual
application by these children of the knowledge which they must use in
solving a problem assigned to them .
It has been noted in many psychological and pedagogical research
studies that oligophrenics experience considerable difficulties in
making actual use of acquired knowledge , in selecting from known facts
those facts which must be utilized in the given context . It has fre
quently been pointed out that the knowledge acquired by oligophrenics
is " welded " to the form in which this knowledge has been learned . The
intimate connection between assimilated pieces of knowledge and the

- 718 -
conditions under which they have been acquired, and the form in which
they have been learned , deprives them of an indispensable " mobility . "
If we consider also the lack of fullness and breakdown of these pieces
of knowledge , and the ease with which they can be mutually assimilated ,
we can readily understand the difficulties which oligophrenics en
counter in drawing upon and using this knowledge when solving any kind
of new problem .
We must not get the idea , however , that learned knowledge is not
used by oligophrenics . This knowledge is actually applied by them ,
otherwise their development would be impossible . However , the actual
application of the required pieces of knowledge does not all by itself
result in a correct solution of a new problem . In a research study con
cerned with the solution of arithmetic problems by oligophrenics Z1557,
2757 and in studies devoted to the solution of practical problems by
olīgophrenics ( 1347, it was noted that , instead of using knowledge ac
tually available for practical use according to the requirements of the
problem being solved, such knowledge is frequently used in its unchanged
form , namely in the_form in which this knowledge has been learned .
1.M. Solov'yev [1587 has suggested an explanation for a number of pecu
liar features arising in oligophrenics during the course of the solu
tion of a problem in case of such an actual application of knowledge .
He notes that , in drawing upon their available knowledge without know
ing how to modify this knowledge and adapt it to the conditions of the
new problem , oligophrenics modify a new arithmetic problem confronting
them, and adjust this problem to the actualized knowledge known to
them , for example to a previously solved problem , the verbal expres
sion of which is similar to the conditions stipulated in the problem
being solved . The generalization arising in oligophrenics in this case
bears the marks of an adjustment, and of course results in an incorrect
solution . For the fruitful use of available knowledge , which is drawn
upon in order to solve a new problem , it is necessary that this know
ledge be subjected to a creative modification and transformation .
Available knowledge ( here we have in mind not rules , but definite types
of problems previously solved which the children use as models should
not be used literally during the solution of a new problem ; from a
previously solved problem , there must be extracted that which is com
mon to both this old problem and the new problem which must be solved,
while discarding that which is differeni . Processes involving a break
down of old knowledge and a dovetailing with it of new knowledge being
acquired (which processes are indispensable every time that a new prob
lem has to be solved ) confront oligophrenics with very great difficul
ties . Instead of a genuine generalization , which takes place on the
basis of a selective purposeful modification of previous knowledge ,
there is observed in oligophrenics either a literal transfer of such
knowledge , or an adjustment, i.e. an assimilation of one type of problem
to another type . These peculiar features of thought , characteristic
for oligophrenics , are intimately connected with the neurodynamic of
their higher neural activity und require a careful consideration on the

- 719 -
part of method specialists and pedagogues in order that they may be
righted as far as possible .
Research studies conducted by R.Ya. Zhuravleva _G47 and v.g.
Petrova [1237 under the direction of L.V. Zankov, have shown the dif
ficulties in generalization , experienced by senior grade students of
an auxiliary school , in those cases when the actual application of
previously learned rules is required in order to solve new problems
concerned with spelling or parsing .
A study of the actual application of knowledge has disclosed in
a striking manner the mutual influences occurring in the consciousness
of an oligophrenic during the course of his accumulation of new in
formation and the forgetting of previously acquired information . A
recourse to spelling rules was sometimes found to be impossible in
view of difficulties experienced in distinguishing similar material ,
and in view of the confusion , arising in the consciousness of oligo
phrenic students of the fifth to seventh grades , of previously learned
and new rules , which exhibit in their formulations a common similar
portion ( "this word must be changed, " " this word must be checked" ) ,
i.e. in view of the fact that an assimilation of similar rules has
taken place 2047.
A study of the state of orthographic competence exhibited by
fifth to seventh grade pupils has shown that mis takes in respect of
matter covered in programs of preceding years are always almost, twice
as frequent as mistakes associated with the program of the current
year . All the facts presented above indicate that the " ves tiges of
assimilated study material are present in a clearly unfavorable state
in oligophrenic children , that they are subjected to massive altera
tions , the principal change being a loss of specificity and an assim ,
ilation of even remotely similar materials . This factor is also one
of the substantial causes of difficulty in the actual application of
knowledge during the solution of a problem . In recent years , research
work has been conducted on the psychological mechanisms respons ible
for the formation of mental actions in oligophrenic_children of the
junior school age period (N.I. Nepomnyashchaya [1037, [ 1047), which
makes it possible to trace the peculiar nature of the devēlopment of
elementary counting operations in these children .
All of the data concerned with peculiarities in the though ac
tivity of mentally retarded children point up the profound specificity
of this type of activity in oligophrenics . At the same time , all re
searchers note that , as a result of instruction , a significant develop
ment of the thought processes takes place in this particular category
of children ; this increases the possibility for these children to ac
quire knowledge , promotes the development of perception and memory ,
and , which is the most important thing, improves considerably the
practical activity of oligophrenic children : the work done by these
children in workshops and on farms is the more productive , the great
er is their progress in comprehending the basic components of their
activity .

- 720 -
 * *

The considerable number of research studies conducted by Soviet

psychologists which have been noted in this article show that , in case
of the mental retardation of a child , we cannot speak about a dama ge
inflicted on any single group of psychic processes . There is no doubt
that a deficiency embraces the entire psychic life of an oligophrenic
as a whole , and that this deficiency is manifested the more clearly ,
the more complex is the psychic activity being examined .
The peculiarities and paths of development of perception and
memory , as well as certain peculiarities of the though of these
children , have been studied in greatest detail . It has been shown that
deficiencies of oligophrenics , which are most strikingly manifested in
defects of their thought and speech are intimately associated with the
peculiar nature of their sensory cognition , namely with the slow and
insufficiently differentiated nature of their perception , and the low
grade retention of notions and knowledge .
Soviet psychologists , studying the peculiar features of the
mental development of students in an auxiliary school , have rallied
unanimously around the following basically important principle , ex
pressed in his day by L.S. Vygotskiy (207, and which has not only been
confirmed but has also undergone a further development during the course
of psychological research work : on condition that moronic children re
ceive a special education and instruction , these children can develop
not only and not so much elementary habits and skills but they can al
so master to a certain extent meaningful recall , voluntary attention ,
comparison and generalization . Although these processes are extremely
weak in oligophrenics , nonetheless as a result of the plasticity of
the cortex , it is precisely complex processes ( such is the general law
of development) which can be primarily affected by such a social influ
ence as the one exerted by instruction , and begin to perform a major
role in the development of this category of children .
The proposition that the development of oligophrenics takes
place as a result of the cultivation in them of complex types of
psychic activity appears to be paradoxical only at first glance . An
acknowledgement of this proposition simply means an acknowledgement
of the fact that the development of an oligophrenic child is subject
to the same basic and general laws which control the development of a
To adopt this
normal child . To this proposition
proposition -- and all facts speak in its
favor -- means that we have to acknowledge that , in spite of all the
complexity of this defect , there are good reasons to assume that an
oligophrenic may undergo a significant development in case favorable
conditions for his education and instruction are created . We still do
not have a sufficient amount of data at our disposal in order to be
able clearly to formulate the laws governing the development of oligo
phrenics in contrast to normal children , but we do already have a

- 721 -
certain amount of material connected with this problem at our disposal.
First of all, we must take into account the fact that , when we
speak of the development of complex forms of a psychic activity in
this category of children , we have in mind that their development is
quite peculiar in regard to its course and results , and that this devel
opment is conditioned by great complications which hamper its course .
It was already noted above that the perception and memory of oligo
phrenics can be developed under favorable education and instruction
conditions , but that the peculiar nature of these processes is still
quite significant even in senior grade students . Even under the most
favorable conditions of instruction , a characteristic feature of the
mental activity of oligophrenics is not only a weak generalization but
also an insufficient concreteness of their cognitive processes , which
concre teness is so indispensable for a proper organization of their
practical working activity . Knowledge acquired in verbal form does
not exert such a significant influence upon the course of their develop
ment as it does in normal children . On the other hand , progress made
in their sensory cognition and practical activity is not sufficiently
comprehended and shaped in the form of words , which in turn limits the
role played by such progress in the general development of oligophrenic
children .
These peculiarities , the significance of which is extremely
great for the development of oligophrenic children , must be taken into
account in every possible way during their education and instruction .
Data concerned with the development trends of mentally retarded child
ren and characterizing the peculiarities of these children must be
defined more accurately in regard to the junior , medium and senior
school age groups ; in this case , they will acquire a concrete pedagog
ical significance . Such a more precise definition constitutes one of
the most urgent tasks in the field of the psychology of mentally re
tarded children .
Soviet auxiliary schools have made significant progress in the
education and instruction of mentally retarded children ; however , we
must not be satisfied with what has already been achieved , and we
should not consider that ways have already been found which contribute
to the greatest possible extent to the development of oligophrenic
children .
On the basis of psychological research studies and observations
of children studying in an auxiliary school , it can be asserted that
the development of complex forms of their psychic activity can be
achieved best of all when the instruction of these children is intim
ately connected with various types of their practical and working ac
tivity and when this instruction makes a maximum possible use of
graphically effective means . As an example , we can point out that
the identification , for example , of a similarity between objects be
ing compared could be achieved when the children were faced with the
necessity of using these objects for a definite purpose . Oligophrenics
had difficulties in establishing a similarity "in their mind ; " whereas

- 722 -
this process was facilitated by drawing upon a real - life experience or
a practical activity . Observations show that if the knowledge acquired
by these children is rooted in the ir practical and working activity ,
in work involving self - service or in agricultural work , and if such
knowledge has a definite importance for the children , the utilization
of this knowledge by the children is facilitated . Knowledge acquired
on the basis of language does not play such a significant role in the
development of an oligophrenic as it does in the development of a nor
mal child .
Progress in the development of complex forms of the psychic
activity of oligophrenics depends to a great extent upon the condi
tions and the system of their education and instruction . This proga
ress , naturally , is manifested in their entire behavior , but most
strikingly and fully in the character of the practical and working
activity of these children , which , at the same time , constitutes one
of the most effective ways for their development and also the basic
form of their participation in the working life of their country .

- 723 -
 LITERATURE

1. E. S. Beyn , " The Size of a Remote Object in the Perception of

Mentally Retarded and Deaf -Mute School Children ," Anthology ,
Voprosy_psikhologii glukhonemykh i umstvenno otstalykh detey
( Problems Concerned With the Psychology of Deaf -Mute and Men
tally Retarded Children ) , Moscow , 1940 , State Training and
Pedagogical Literature Publishing House .
R. M. Bo skis and R. Ye . Levina , " The Influence Exerted by Defects
in Pronunciation Upon the Assimilation of Reading , Writing and
Spelling, " Uchebno - vospitatel'naya rabota v spetsial'nykh
shkolakh ( Instruction and Education Work in Special Schools ) ,
Nos . 3-4 , State Training and Pedagogical Literature Publishing
House , 1950 .
3. I. I. Budnitskaya , " Comparative Study of the Correlation Between
a Drawing and a Story in Mentally Retarded and Normal School
Children , " Anthology , Psikhologicheskiye voprosy sochetaniya
slova i naglyadnosti v uchebnom protsesse vspomo gatel'noy
shkoly (Psychological Problems Associated with the Combination
of Verbal and Visual Methods in the Instruction Process of an
Auxiliary School ) , Moscow , Publishing House of the Academy of
Pedagogical Sciences RSFSR , 1956 .
4. I. I. Budnitskaya , Sootnosheniye me zhdu rasskazom i risunkom
ucha shchikhsya mlad shikh klassov ( sravnitel'noye issledovaniye
normal'nykh umstvenno otstalykh skhol'nikov ) ( The Correlation
Between a Story and a Drawing in Junior Grade Students (Compara
tive Study of Normal and Mentally Retarded Children ) ) , Candi
date's Dissertation , Moscow , 1958 .
5. V. Ya . Vasilevskaya , Tipy rasstroysto deyatel'nosti u umstvenno
otstalykh podrostkov ( Types of Activity Disorders in Mentally
Retarded Adolescents ) , Candidate's Dissertation , Moscow , 1947 .
6. V. Ya . Vasilevskaya , " Pedagogical Study of a Child Upon His Ad -
mission to an Auxiliary School , " Uchebno - vospitatel'naya rabota
v spetsial'nykh shkolakh ( Instruction and Education Work in
Special Schools ) , No. 4 , 1954 , Moscow , State Training and Peda
gogical Literature Publishing House .
7. V. Ya . Vasilevskaya and I. M. Krasnyanskaya , " Peculiarities of
the Cognitive Activity of Auxiliary School Students During the
Course of Work With Visual or Graphic Materials , " Izvestiya APN
RSFSR (Gazette of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences RSFSR ) ,
No , 68 , 1955 .
8. V. Ya , Vasilevskaya , Ponimaniye uchebnogo materiala ucha shchimi sya
v spomo gatel'noy shkoly (Understanding of Study Materials by
Auxiliary School Students ) , Publishing House of the Academy of
Pedagogical Sciences RSFSR , 1960 .
9. V. Ya . Vasilevskaya , " Pedagogical Study of Badly Retarded Child
ren , " Anthology , Obucheniye i vospitaniye umstvenno otstalykh
detey ( Instruction and Education of Mentally Retarded Children ) ,

- 724 -
 ( Based on the experience of work done at institutions for the
badly mentally retarded ) , Moscow , Publishing House of the Academy
of Pedagogical Sciences RSFSR , 1960 .
10 . K. I. Veresotskaya , " Recognition of Images of Objects in Function
of Changes in Their Spatial Location ( Comparative Study of
Mentally Retarded , Deaf - Mute and Normal School Children ) , An
thology , Voprosy psikhologiiglukhonemykh i umstvenno otstalykh
detey (Problems of the Psychology of Deaf -Mute and Mentally
Retarded Children ) , Moscow , 1940 , State Training and Pedagogical
Literature Publishing House .
11 . K. I. Veresotskaya , " Perception of Depth ( Third Dimension ) in
Pictures by Auxiliary School Students , " ibid .
12 . 0. S. Vinogradova , " On Certain Peculiarities of Orientation Re
actions Toward Stimuli of the Second Signal System in Normal
and Mentally Retarded School Children , " Voprosy psikhologii
(Problems of Psychology ) , No. 6 , 1956 .
13 . 0 , S. Vinogradova , " Certain Peculiarities of the Vascular Com
ponent of the Orientation Reflex in Oligophrenic Children ,
Trudy nauchnoy sessii po defektologii ( Works of a Scientific
Session on Defectology ), Moscow, Publishing House of the Academy
of Pedagogical Sciences RSFSR , 1958 .
14. 0. S. Vinogradova , " Study of the Orientation Reflex in Oligo
phrenic Children by the Pletismographic Method ," Anthology ,
Orientirovochnyy refleks i voprosy vysshey nervnoy deyatel ' .
nosti ( The Orientation Reflex and Problems Associated with the
Higher Nervous Activity ) , Moscow , Publishing House of the
Academy of Pedagogical Sciences RSFSR , 1959 .
15 . L. S. Vygotskiy , " Concerning the Book of Prof. A. N. Graborov :
Vspomo gatel 'naya shkola (Auxiliary Schools) , " Narodnoye pros
veshcheniye ( National Education ) , Moscow , 1925 .
16 . L. S. Vygotskiy , " Development of Higher Forms of Behavior in
Childhood , " Anthology , Psikhonevrologicheskiye nauki v SSSR
( Psychoneurological Sciences in the USSR ) , Moscow - Leningrad ,
1930 ,
17. L. S. Vygotskiy , " The Collective as a Factor in the Development
of an Abnormal Child , " Voprosy defektologii (Problems of De
fectology ) , No. 1-2 , and 3 , 1931 .
18 . L. S. Vygotskiy , Introduction to the book by Ye . Gracheva :
Vospitaniye i obucheniye gluboko otstalogo rebenka ( Education
and Instruction of the Badly Retarded Child ) , Moscow , State
Training and Pedagogical Literature Publishing House , 1932 .
19 . L. S. Vygotskiy and I. I. Danyushevskiy ( Editor ) , " The Mentally
Retarded Child , " Psikhologicheskiye issledovaniya (Psychological
Research ) , No. 1 , State Training and Pedagogical Literature Pub
lishing House , Moscow , 1935 .
20 . L. S. Vygotskiy , " The Problem of Mental Backwardness, " Izbrannyye
psikho logicheskiye issledovaniya ( Selected Psychological Re
search ) , Moscow , Publishing House of the Academy of Pedagogical
Sciences RSFSR , 1956 .

. 725 -
21 . G. L. Vygotskaya , " On the correlation of Words and Actions in
Mentally Retarded School Children , Spetsial'naya shkola (Spe
cial Schools ) , No. 6 , Moscow , State Training and Pedagogical
Literature Publishing House , 1958 .
22 . N. G. Gartsshteyn , " The Formation of a conditioned Reflex and
a Conditioned Brake in Oligophrenic Children , " Anthology , Opyt
sistematicheskogo issledovaniya uslovnoreflektornoy deyatel'nosti
rebenka ( An Experiment in the Systematic Investigation of the
Conditioned -Reflex Activity of a Child ) , 1930 .
23 . M. F. Gnezdilov , Obucheniye russkomu yazyku v mlad shikh klassakh
v spomo gatel'noy shkoly ( Russian Language Instruction in Junior
Grades of an Auxiliary School ) (A textbook for teachers ) , Moscow ,
State Training and Pedagogical Literature Publishing House , 1959 .
24 . A. P. Gozova , " On the Problem of a combination of Demonstration
and Explanation During Labor Instruction of Auxiliary School
Students, " Uchebno -vospitatel'naya rabota v spetsial'nykh
shkolakh ( Instruction and Educational Work in Special Schools ) ,
No. 4 , Moscow , State Training and Pedagogical Literature Pub
lishing House , 1957 .
25 . A. P. Gozova , " On the Development of Tactile Perception in
Auxiliary School Students , " Spetsial'naya shkola ( Special
Schools ) , No. 5 , Moscow , State Training and Pedagogical Litera
ture Publishing House , 1959 .
26 . A. S. Griboyedov, " On the Aims of an Auxiliary School , " Voprosy
izucheniya i vospitaniya lichnosti (Problems Concerned with the
Study and Training of the Personality ) , No. 1-2 , 1929 .
27 . I , I , Danyushevskiy and L , V. Zankov ( Editor ) , Voprosy vospitaniya
i obucheniya glukhonemykh i umstvenno otstalykh detey . Sbornik
statey (Problems Concerned with the Education and Instruction
of Deaf - Mute and Mentally Retarded Children . Collected Arti
cles ) , Moscow , State Training and Pedagogical Literature Pub
lishing House , 1941 .
28 . I. I. Danyushevskiy , " Let Us Put an End to Irresponsibility in
the Staffing of Auxiliary Schools , " Uchebno - vo spitatel'naya
rabota v spetsial'nykh shkolakh ( Instruction and Education Work
in Special Schools ) , No. 1-2 , Moscow , State Training and Peda
gogical Literature Publishing House , 1951 .
29 . I. I. Danyushevskiy , Uchebno -vo spitatel'naya rabota v det skikh
domakh i spetsial'nykh shkolakh (Instruction and Education Work
in Children's Homes and Special Schools ) , Moscow , Publishing
House of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences RSFSR , 1954 .
30 . G. M , Dul'nev , oznachenii namereniya dlya tochnosti i polnoty
vo sproizvedeniya teksta ( On the Importance of Intention for an
Accurate and Full Reproduction of a Text ) , Candidate's Dis
sertation , Moscow , 1939 .
31 . G. M. Dul'nev , " On the Importance of Intentions for the Accurate
and Full Reproduction of a Text ( Comparative Study of Mentally
Retarded and Normal School Children ) , " Anthology , Problems of

- 726 -
 the Psychology of Deaf -Mute and Mentally Retarded Children ,
Moscow , State Training and Pedagogical Literature Publishing
House , 1940 .
32. G. M. Dul'nev , " Concerning the Characteristic of the Use and
Understanding of Adjectives by Mentally Retarded Children , '
Uchebno - vo spitatel'naya rabota v spetsial'nykh shkolakh ( In
struction and Education Work in Special Schools ) , No. 1-2 , Mos
cow , State Training and Pedagogical Literature Publishing House ,
1948 .
33 . G. M , Dul'nev , " On the Reproduction of Newly Assimilated Words
by Auxiliary School Students , " Izvestiya APN RSFSR (Gazette of
the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences RSFSR ) , No. 19 , 1948 .
34 . G. M. Dul'nev , " On the Assimilation by Auxiliary School Students
of a Vocabulary in Their Mother Tongue , Uchebno - vospitatel'naya
rabota v spetsial'nykh shkolakh ( Instruction and Education
Work in Special Schools ) , No. 4 , Moscow , State Training and
Pedagogical Literature Publishing House , 1952 .
35 . G. M. Dul'nev , " Study of Students During Manual Labor Lessons,
ibid . , No. 2 , Moscow , State Training and Pedagogical Litera
ture Publishing House , 1952 .
36. G. M. Dul'nev , " Study of Auxiliary School Students During the
Course of Instruction , " Izvestiya APN RSFSR ( Gazette of the
Academy of Pedagogical Sciences RSFSR ) , No. 37 , 1953 .
37 . G , M. Dul'nev ( Editor ) , " Characteristic Features of the Use of
Graphic and Verbal Means of Instruction in an Auxiliary School,
ibid . , No. 68 , 1954 .
38 . G. M , Dul'nev and A. R. Luriya ( Editor ) , Printsipy otbora detey
vo vspomogatel'nyye shkoly ( Principles Governing the Selection
of Children Assigned to Auxiliary Schools ) ( Chapter III ) , Moscow ,
Publishing House of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences RSFSR ,
1956 .
39 . E , A. Yevlakhova , " Concerning the Problem of the Perception and
Comprehension of Topical Artistic Pictures by Auxiliary School
Students , " Doklady APN RSFSR (Reports of the Academy of Peda
gogical Sciences RSFSR ) , No. 3 , 1957 .
40 . E. A. Yevlakhova , " Peculiarities of the Perception of the Por
trayal of Expressive Movements in Auxiliary School Students,
ibid . , No. 4 , 1957 .
41 . E. A. Yevlakhova , " Concerning Certain Characteristics of the
Perception of Topical Artistic Pictures by Auxiliary School
Students ," Uchebno - vospitatel'naya rabota v spetsial'nykh
shkolakh ( Instruction and Education Work in Special Schools) ,
No. 4 , Moscow , State Training and Pedagogical Literature Pub
lishing House , 1957 .
42 . E. A. Yevlakhova , Osobennosti vospriyatiya syuzhetno -khudozhestven
nykh kartin uchashchimisya vspomogatel'noy shkoly ( Character
istics of the Perception of Topical Artistic Pictures by Aux
iliary School Students ) , Candidate's Dissertation , Moscow , 1958 ,

• 727 -
43 . R. Ya . Zhuravleva , Psikhologicheskiy analiz pol'zovaniya orfo
graficheskim pravilom (Psychological Analysis of the Use of an
Orthographic Rule ) , Candidate's Dissertation , Moscow , 1948 .
44 . R. Ya . Zhuravleva , " State of Spelling Skills of Auxiliary School
Students ," Uchebno - vospitatel'naya rabota v spetsial'nykh
shkolakh ( Instruction and Education Work in Special Schools ) ,
No. 2 , Moscow , State Training and Pedagogical Literature Pub
lishing House , 1949 .
45 . L. V. Zankov, " Active Memorizing in a Mentally Retarded Child , "
Psikhonevrologicheskiye nauki v SSSR (Psychoneurological Science
in the USSR ) , Moscow - Leningrad , 1930 .
46 . L. V. Zankov , " The Development of Memory in a Mentally Retarded
Child , " Umstvenno otstalyy rebenok . Psikhologicheskiye is
sledovaniya (Mentally Retarded Children . Psychological Re
search ) , Vol. I , No. 1 , Moscow , 1935 .
47 . L. V. Zankov , Ocherki psikhologii umstvenno otstalogo rebenka
( Outline of the Psychology of the Mentally Retarded Child ) ,
Moscow , State Training and Pedagogical Literature Publishing
House , 1935 .
48 . L. V. Zankov , " On the Problem Concerned with the Development of
Thought of School Children , " Anthology , Novyye puti v de .
fektologii ( New Trends in Defectology ) , Moscow , State Training
and Pedagogical Literature Publishing House , 1935 .
49 . L. V. Zankov and M. F. Gnezdilov , " Development of the Verbal and
Written Speech of a School Child , " ibid .
50 . L. V. Zankov, Psikhologiya umstvenno otstalogó rebenka ( Psychology
of the Mentally Retarded Child ) , Moscow , State Training and
Pedagogical Literature Publishing House , 1939 .
51 . L. v . Zankov , " Concerning Repetition , " Byulleten ' uchebno
vospitatel'noy raboty detskikh domov , v spomo gatel'nykh shkol i
shkol glukhonemykh ( Bulletin of Instruction and Education Work
Done in Children's Homes , Auxiliary Schools and Schools for
Deaf -Mutes ) , No. 9 ( 12 ) , Moscow , People's Commissariat of Pub
lic Education , 1939 .
52 . L. V. Zankov , " On the Problem of the Peculiar Nature of the
Memory ofMentally Retarded Children , " Uchebno - vospitatel'naya
rabota v vspomo gatel'nykh shkolakh i v shkolakh dlya glukho
nemykh detey ( Instruction and Education Work in Auxiliary
Schools and in Schools for Deaf - Mute Children ) , No. 8 , Moscow ,
State Training and Pedagogical Literature Publishing House ,
1940 .
53 . L. V. Zankov and I. I. Danyushevskiy ( Editor ) , Voprosy psikhologii
glukhonemykh i umstvenno otstalykh detey . Sbornik statey (Prob
lems of the Psychology of Deaf-Mute and Mentally Retarded Child
ren . Anthology of Articles ) , Moscow , State Training and Peda
gogical Literature Publishing House , 1940 .
54 . L. V. Zankov , " Sequence of Reproduction and Its Characteristics
in Mentally Retarded School Children , " Anthology Vopro sy

- 728 -
 vospitaniya i obucheniya : lukhonemykh i umstvenno otstalykh
detey (Problems of the Education and Instruction of Deaf -Mute
and Mentally Retarded Children ) , Moscow , State Training and
Pedagogical Literature Publishing House , 1941 .
55 . L. v . Zankov, Pamyat ' shkol'nika ( The Memory of the School Child ) ,
Moscow , State Training and Pedagogical Literature Publishing
House , 1944 .
56 . L. V. Zankov , Pamyat ' ( hemory ) , Moscow , State Training and
Pedagogical Literature Publishing House , 1949 .
57 . L. V. Zankov ( Editor ) , " Psychological Peculiarities of Junior
Grade Students in an Auxiliary School, " Izvestiya APN RSFSR
( Gazette of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences RSFSR ) , No. 37 ,
Moscow , 1951 .
58 . L. V. Zankov ( Editor ) , O pedagogicheskom izuchenii uchashchikhsya
vspomo gatel'nykh shkol ( On the Pedagogical Study of Auxiliary
School Students) , Moscow , Publishing House of the Academy of
Pedagogical Sciences RSFSR , 1953 .
59 . L. V. Zankov and V. G. Petrova , " Comparative Study of a School
Child's Ability to Distingui sh Similar Material, " Izvestiya
APN RSFSR (Gazette of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences RSFSR ),
No. 57 , Moscow , 1954 .
60 . L. V. Zankov and V. G. Petrova , " Study of the Ability of School
Children to Distingui sh Similar Material," Reports presented
at a Conference on Problems of Psychology , Moscow , Publishing
House of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences RSFSR , 1954 .
61 . L. V , Zankov ( Editor ) , " Problems concerned with the Psychology
of Auxiliary School Students" (Works of the Institute of De
fectology ) , Izvestiya APN RSFSR ( Gazette of the Academy of
Pedagogical Sciences RSFSR ) , No. 57 , Moscow , 1954 .
62 . L. V. Zankov ( Editor ) , Psikhologicheskiye voprosy sochetaniya
slova i naglyadnosti v uchebnom protsesse v spomo gatel'noy shkoly
(Psychological Problems Associated with the combined Use of
Verbal and Graphic Methods in the Instruction Program of an
Auxiliary School) , Moscow , Publishing House of the Academy of
Pedagogical Sciences RSFSR , 1956 .
63 . Kh . S , Zamskiy , " Concerning Variety During the Repetition of In
struction Material in an Auxiliary School , " Izvestiya APN RSFSR
(Gazette of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences RSFSR ) , No. 57 ,
Moscow , 1954 ,
64 . M , V. Zvereva , Osobennosti protsesse sravneniya predmetov
umstvenno otstalymi shkol'nikami ( Peculiarities of the Process
of Comparison of Objects by Mentally Retarded School Children ) ,
Candidate's Dissertation , Moscow , 1948 .
65. M. V. Zvereva and A. I. Lipkina , " On the Comparison of Objects
by Mentally Retarded School Children , " Anthology , Osobennosti
poznavatel'noy deyatel'nosti ucha shchikhsya vspomo gatel'noy
shkoly (Peculiarities of the Cognitive Activity of Auxiliary
School Children ) , Moscow , Publishing House of the Academy of
Pedagogical Sciences RSFSR , 1953 .

- 729 -
66 . B. V. Zeyga rnik , Narusheniya myshleniya u psikhicheskikh bol'nykh
( Lesions in the Thought Process of Mental Patients ) , Moscow ,
Ministry of Health RSFSR , 1958 .
67. N. N. Zislina , " Electrophysiological Study of the Functional State
of the Brain of Oligophrenics by the Method of Rhythmic Light
Stimulations , " Anthology , Problemy vysshey nervnoy deyatel ' .
nosti normal'nogo i anomal'nogo rebenka (Problems of the Higher
Nervous Activity of Normal and Abnormal Children ) , Vol . I ,
Moscow , Publishing House of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences
RSFSR , 1956 .
68 . A. G. Ivanov - Smolenskiy , Ocherki patofiziologii vysshey nervnoy
deyatel'nosti ( Outline of the Physiopathology of the Higher
Neural Activity ) , Moscow , State Publishing House of Medical
Literature , 1952 .
69 . L. A. Isayenko , " Concerning the Improvement of Instruction in
Natural Science in Auxiliary Schools ," Uchebno - vospitatel'naya
rabota v spetsial'nykh shkolakh ( Instruction and Education
Work in Special Schools ) , No. 1 , Moscow , State Training and
Pedagogical Literature Publishing House , 1949 .
70 . M. L. Kaganova , " Teaching Students of an Auxiliary School How to
Recognize and Name Colors, " Voprosy uchebno -vospitatel'noy
raboty vspomo gatel'noy shkoly ( Problems Concerned With In
struction and Educational Work in an Auxiliary School ) , No. 2 ,
People's Commissariat of Public Education , 1939 .
71 . G. A. Ka she, Logopedicheskaya rabota v pervom klasse vspomo gatel '.
noy shkoly ( Logopedical Work in the First Grade of an Auxiliary
School ) , Moscow , Publishing House of the Academy of Pedagogical
Sciences RSFSR , 1957 .
72 . N. I. Krasno gorskiy , Trudy po izucheniyu vysshey nervnoy deyatel '.
nosti cheloveka i zhivotnykh (Works Concerned With the Study of
the Higher Neural Activity of Man and Animals ) , Vol. I , Moscow ,
State Publishing House of Medical Literature , 1954 .
73 . Ye . M. Kudryavtseva , Izmeneniye uznavaniya predmetov v khode
razvitiya ucha shchikhsya ( Changes in the Recognition of Objects
During the course of Development of Students ) , Candidate's Dis
sertation , Moscow , 1954 .
74 . N. F. Kuz'mina - Syromyatnikova , " Graphic and Verbal Means Used in
Preparatory Exercises Aimed at Teaching the Solution of Arith
metical Problems , " Izvestiya APN RSFSR ( Gazette of the Academy
of Pedagogical Sciences RSFSR ) , No. 68 , 1955 .
75 . M. I. Kuz'mitskaya , " Basic Difficulties Experienced by Auxiliary
School Students During the Solution of Arithmetical Problems , "
ibid . , No. 88 , 1957 .
76 . R. Ye . Levina and G. A. Ka she , " Teacher's Work on the correction
of Speech in the Junior Grades of an Auxiliary School , " Uchebno
vospitatel'naya rabota v spetsial'nykh shkolakh ( Instruction and
Education Work in Special Schools ) , No. 4 , Moscow , State Train
ing and Pedagogical Literature Publishing House , 1954 .

- 730 -
77 . R. Ye . Levina and G , A , Kashe, " Defects in Pronunciation and
Writing in First Grade Students of an Auxiliary School , " ibid .
78 . R. Ye . Levina , " Lesions in the Development of the Speech AC
tivity of Children , " Anthology , Voprosy patologii rechi (Ques
tions of the Pathology of Speech ) , Publishing House of the
Ukrainian Psychoneurological Scientific Research Institute ,
1959 .
79 . M. S. Levitan , Zapominaniye i vo sproizvedeniye slovesnogo ma
teriala i ikh osobennosti u umstvennykh otstalykh detey ( The
Recall and Reproduction of Verbal Material and Their Peculiari
ties in Mentally Retarded Children ) , Candidate's Dissertation ,
Moscow , 1939 .
80 . A. N. Leont'yev , " Mediate Memorization in Children with an In
adequate and Morbidly Altered Intellect, " Vopro sy defektologii
(Problems of Defectology ) , Moscow , No. 4 , 1928 .
80a . A. N. Leont'yev , " Principles of the Psychological Development
of a Child and Problems of Mental Insufficiency , " in book
Problemy razvitiya psikhiki (Problems Concerned with the De
velopment of the Psychic Life ) , Publishing House of the Academy
of Pedagogical Sciences RSFSR , 1959 .
81. A. I. Lipkina , " Analysis and Synthesis During the Cognition of
Objects by Auxiliary School Students ," Anthology , Osobennosti
poznavatel'noy deyatel'nosti ucha shchikhsya vspomo gatel'noy
shkoly (Peculiarities of the Cognitive Activity of Auxiliary
School Students ) , Moscow , Publishing House of the Academy of
Pedagogical Sciences RSFSR , 1953 .
82 . V. I. Lubovskiy , " Certain Peculiarities of the Higher Neural
Activity of Oligophrenic Children , " Problemy vysshey nervnoy
deyatel'nosti normal'nogo i anomal'nogo rebenka ( Problems Con
cerned With the Higher Neural Activity of a Normal and Abnormal
Child ) , Vol . I , Moscow , Publishing House of the Academy of
Pedagogical Sciences RSFSR , 1956 .
83 . V. I. Lubovskiy , " On the Role of the Second Signal System in
the Formation of Conditioned Relations in a Normal and Mentally
Retarded Child , " Doklady APN RSFSR (Reports of the Academy of
Pedagogical Sciences RSFSR ) , No. 2 , 1957 .
84 . V. I. Lubovskiy , " Peculiarities of the Higher Neural Activity of
Oligophrenic Children Belonging to Various Clinical Groups , "
Problemy vysshey nervnoy deyatel'nosti normal'nogo i anomal'nogo
rebenka ( Problems of the Higher Neural Activity of a Normal and
Abnormal Child ) , Vol . II , Moscow , Publishing House of the
Academy of Pedagogical Sciences RSFSR , 1958 .
85 . V. I. Lubovskiy , " Certain Summary Results of the Study of the
Higher Neural Activity of Oligophrenic Children ," Trudy nauchnoy
sessii po defektologii ( Works of a Scientific Session on De
fectology ) , Moscow , Publishing House of the Academy of Pedagogi
cal Sciences RSFSR , 1958 .

- 731 -
86 . V. I. Lubovskiy , " Concerning One of the Reasons Responsible for
the Lesion of the Formation of New Relations During Oligo
phrenia , " 18th Conference Devoted to Problems of the Higher
Neural Activity . Abstracts of Reports and Papers Presented by
the All - Union Society of Physiologists , Biochemists and Pharma
cologists , Leningrad , 1958 .
87 . Lukina and Shni rman , " An Experiment in the Cultivation of Con
junctival Motor Reflexes in Oligophrenics , " Novoye v reflekso
logii ( New Developments in Reflexology ) , Anthology III .
88 . A. R. Luriya , Rol' slova v formirovanii vremennykh svyazey v
normal'nom i anomal'nom razvitií ( The Role of Words in the
Formation of Temporary Connections During the Course of a
Normal and Abnormal Development ) , Moscow , Publishing House of
the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences RSFSR , 1955 .
89 . A. R. Luriya , " Certain Basic Problems Concerned with the Higher
Neural Activity During Normal and Abnormal Development , " Vest
nik MGU (Herald of Moscow State University ) , No. 2 , 1957 .
90 . A. R. Luriya ( Editor ) , Problemy vysshey nervnoy deyatel'nosti
normal'nogo i anomal'nogo rebenka (Problems Associated with the
Higher Neural Activity of a Normal and Abnormal Child ) , Vol. I ,
Moscow , Publishing House of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences
RSFSR , 1956 ; Vol . II , 1958 .
91 . N. B. Lur'ye and M. S. Pevzner , " Concerning One Way of Conducting
Corrective and Educational Work on Oligophrenic Children With
a Crass Underdevelopment of the Personality , " Doklady APN RSFSR
( Reports of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences RSFSR ) , No. 1 ,
1959 .
92 . S. S. Lyapidevskiy , " Problems Concerned with the Screening of
Mentally Retarded Children , " Uchebno - vospitatel'naya rabota v
spetsial'nykh shkolakh ( Instruction and Education Work in Spe
cial Schools ) , No. 3 , Moscow , 1954 .
93 . S. S. Lyapidevskiy , " Concerning the Problem of the Study of
Imbecility in Children ," Uchenyye zapiski MGPI im . V. I. Lenina
( Academic Reports of the Moscow City Pedagogical Institute imeni
V. I. Lenin ) , Vol. XXXV, Defectological Faculty , No. 6 , Moscow ,
Publishing House of the Moscow City Pedagogical Institute imeni
V. I. Lenin , 1955 .
94 . Ye . N. Martsinovskaya , " Lesion in the Regulatory Role of Speech
in Badly Mentally Retarded Children , " Problemy vysshey nervnoy
deyatel'nosti normal'nogo i anomal'nogo rebenka ( Problems of the
Higher Neural Activity in a Normal and Abnormal Child ) , Moscow ,
Publishing House of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences RSFSR ,
1958 .
95 . A. I. Meshcheryakov , " On Certain Peculiarities of the Higher
Neural Activity of Mentally Retarded Children , " Uchebno
vospitatel'naya rabota v spetsial'nykh shkolakh ( Instruction
and Education Work in Special Schools ) , No. 3 , Moscow , 1955 .

- 732 -
 96. A. I. Meshcheryakov , " Participation of the Second Signal System
in the Analysis and Synthesis of Chain Stimuli in Normal and
Mentally Retarded Children , " Anthology , Problems of the Higher
Neural Activity of a Normal and Abnormal Child , Vol. I , Moscow ,
Publishing House of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences RSFSR ,
1956 .
97 . A. I. Nieshcheryakov , " Mechanisms of the Lesion of Abstraction
and Generalization Processes in tientally Retarded Children ,
ibid . , Vol . II , Moscow , Publishing House of the Academy of
Pedagogical Sciences RSFSR , 1958 .
98 . A. I. Meshcheryakov , " Study of the Neurodynamic of Verbal Gen
eralizations in a Mentally Retarded Child , " Trudy nauchnoy
sessii po defektologii (Works of a Scientific Session on De
fectology ) , Moscow , Publishing House of the Academy of Peda
gogical Sciences RSFSR , 1958 ,
99 . G. V , Murashov , " Formation of Concepts Based on Visual or Graphic
Materials During the Study of the Geographical Topics : 'Direc
tions , ' 'Distances, ' ' Plan , Anthology , Problems Associated
With the Instruction and Education of Deaf -Mute and Mentally
Retarded Children , Moscow , State Training and Pedagogical
Literature Publishing House, 1941 .
100 . G. V. Murashov , " How Mentally Retarded School Children Apply Geo
graphical Knowledge in Practice , " Izvestiya APN RSFSR ( Gazette
of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences RSFSR ) , No. 19 , Moscow ,
1948 .
101 . N , I. Nepomnya shchaya , " On the Problem Concerned with the Psycho
logical Mechanisms Governing the Formation of a Mental Action ,
Vestnik MGU ( Herald of Moscow State University ) , Moscow ,
No. 2 , 1952 .
102 . N , I. Nepomnya shchaya , " Certain Conditions Responsible for the
Lesion of the Regulatory Role of Speech in Mentally Retarded
Children , " Problemy vysshey nervnoy deyatel'nosti normal'nogo
i anomal'nogo rebenka ( Problems Associated with the Higher
Neural Activity of a Normal and Abnormal Child ) , Moscow , Pub
lishing House of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences RSFSR ,
1956 .
103. N. I. Nepomnya shchaya , Formirovaniye pervonachal'nogo scheta u
umstvenno otstalykh detey (k voprosu o putyakh preodoleniya
defekta pri umstvennoy otstalosti) (Formation of an Elementary
Calculating System in Mentally Retarded Children ( Concerning
the Problem of Means for Overcoming a Defect in Mental Retarda
tion ) ) , Candidate's Dissertation , Moscow , 1957 .
104 . N. I. Nepomnya shchaya , " The Role of Instruction in the Compensa
tion of Certain Neurodynamic Defects in Mentally Retarded Child
ren , " Voprosy psikhologii ( Problems of Psychology ) , Moscow ,
No. 2 , 1957 .
105 . N. I. Nepomnya shchaya , " On the Diagnosis of Oligophrenia , "
Doklady APN RSFSR (Reports of the Academy of Pedagogical Sci
ences RSFSR ) , No. 5 , 1959 ( in printing ) .

• 733 -
106. L. A. Novikova , " Study of the Electrical Activity of the Brain
of Oligophrenics , " Problemy vysshey nervnoy deyatel'nosti
normal'nogo i anomal'nogo rebenka (Problems of the Higher
Neural Activity of a Normal and Abnormal Child ) , Vol . I , Mos
cow , Publishing House of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences
RSFSR , 1956 .
107 . M , M , Nudel'man , Ob izmenenii predstavleniy pri zabyvanii (Oso
bennosti i zmeneniya predstavleniy pri zabyvanii u umstvenno
otstalykh i glukhonemykh shkol'nikov ) ( Concerning the Change
in Representations (or Notions ) During the Process of Forget
ting ( Peculiarities of the Change in Representations During
the Process of Forgetting in Mentally Retarded and Deaf - Mute
School Children ) ) , Candidate's Dissertation , Moscow , 1940 ,
108 . M , M. Nudel 'man , " On the Change of Visual Representations
During the Process of Forgetting in Deaf - Mute and Mentally Re
tarded Children ," Anthology , Problems of the Psychology of
Deaf- Mute and Mentally Retarded Children , Moscow , State Train
ing and Pedagogical Literature Publishing House , 1940 .
109 . M. M. Nudel'man , " On the Forgetting of a Geographical Map , "
Uchebno - vospitatel'naya rabota v spetsial'nykh shkolakh ( In
struction and Education Work in Special Schools ) , No. 4 , Moscow ,
State Training and Pedagogical Literature Publishing House ,
1940 .
110 . M. M. Nudel'man , " On Changes in Similar Representations in Men
tally Retarded and Deaf -Mute School Children , " Anthology :
Problems concerned with the Instruction and Education of
Deaf- Mute and Mentally Retarded Children , Moscow , State
Training and Pedagogical Literature Publishing House , 1941 .
111. M. M. Nudel'man , " On the Problem of Synthesis in Children's
Thought , " Uchebno - vospitatel'naya rabota v spetsial'nykh
shkolakh ( Instruction and Education Work in Special Schools ) ,
No. 2 , Moscow , State Training and Pedagogical Literature Pub
lishing House , 1941 .
112 . M. M. Nudel'man , " Types of Questioning and Their Significance
in the Development of the Thought Process of Students ,
No. 1 , Moscow , State Training and Pedagogical Literature Pub
lishing House, 1949 .
113 . M. M. Nudel'man , " On Certain Peculiarities of Representations
(or Notions ) Held by Students of an Auxiliary School , An
thology , Peculiarities of the Cognitive Activity of Auxiliary
School Students , Moscow , Publishing House of the Academy of
Pedagogical Sciences RSFSR , 1953 .
114 . M , M. Nudel'man , " Peculiarities of the Performance of Homework
by Auxiliary School Students, " Uchenyye zapiski Kolomenskogo
pedagogicheskogo instituta (Academic Reports of the Kolomna
Pedagogical Institute ) , Vol. I , Moscow , 1956 .
115 . V. N. Osipova , " Rapidity of Formation of Conjunctival Reflexes
in School Age Children , " Novoye v refleksologii i fiziologii

• 734 -
 ( New Developments in Reflexology and Physiology ) , Anthology
II , 1926 .
116. Ye . A. Osipova , " On the Problem of the Etiology of Oligophrenias,"
Anthology , Vopro sy detskoy psikhonevrologii ( Problems of Child
Psychoneurology ) , Moscow , 1925 .
117 . I. P. Pavlov , Polnoye sobraniye sochineniy ( Complete Collected
Works ) , 2nd edition , Vol. III , IV , Moscow - Leningrad , Publishing
House of the Academy of Sciences USSR , 1951 .
118. N. P. Paramonova , " Characteristic of the Part Played by an Ori
entational Reflex in the Switch - in of Conditioned Connections
During Oligophrenia ," Orientirovochnyy refleks i voprosy vysshey
nervnoy deyatel'nosti v norme i patologii ( The Orientation Re
flex and Problems Associated with the Higher Neural Activity
in a Normal and Pathological State ) ( Ye . N. Sokolov , editor ) ,
Moscow , Publishing House of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences
RSFSR , 1959 .
119 . M. S. Pevzner , " Clinical Characteristic of the Main Variations
of a Defect During Oligophrenia , " Anthology , Problems of the
Higher Neural Activity of a Normal and Abnormal Child , Vol. I ,
Publishing House of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences RSFSR ,
1956 ,
120 . M. S. Pevzner , " Clinical and Physiopathological Analysis of a
Basic Symptom During Oligophrenia , " Trudy nauchnoy_sessii po
defektologii ( Works of a Scientific Session on Defectology ) ,
Publishing House of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences RSFSR ,
1958 .
121 . M. S. Pevzner , " Lesion of the Regulatory Role Exerted by Speech
in the Behavior of Oligophrenics With Underdeveloped Frontal
Systems , " Anthology , Problems of the Higher Neural Activity
of a Normal and Abnormal Child , Vol. II , Moscow , Publishing
House of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences RSFSR , 1958 .
122 . M. S. Pevzner , Deti -oligofreny ( Oligophrenic Children ) , Moscow ,
Publishing House of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences RSFSR ,
1959 .
123 . V. G. Petrova , " On Certain Difficulties Experienced During the
Assimilation of the Declension of Nouns by Fifth Grade Students
of an Auxiliary School, " Uchebno - vo spitatel'naya rabota v
spetsial'nykh shkolakh ( Instruction and Education Work in
Special Schools ) , No. 3 , Moscow , State Training and Pedagogical
Literature Publishing House , 1954 .
124 . V , G. Petrova , " The Distinction of Similar Objects by Auxiliary
School Students in Function of the Nature of the Combination of
Words and Graphic Means, " Trudy nauchnoy sessii po defektologii
( Works of a Scientific Session on Defectology ) , Moscow , Publish
ing House of the Academy ofPedagogical Sciences RSFSR , 1958 .
125 . V. G. Petrova , " Distinction of Similar Objects by Auxiliary
School Students in Function of the Nature of the Combination of
Words and Graphic Means, " Anthology , Psychological Problems

• 735 -
 Concerned With the Combination of Words and Graphic Means in
the Process of Instruction Used in Auxiliary Schools, Moscow ,
Publishing House of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences RSFSR ,
1956 .
126 . V. G. Petrova , " On Different Methods of Combining Words and
Graphic Means During Object Lessons (An Experiment in Psycho
logical Analysis ) , " ibid .
127 . V , G. Petrova , " The Effectiveness of Various Methods of Pre
senting Classroom Material, " Uchebno -vospitatel'naya rabota v
spetsial'nykh_shkolakh ( Instruction and Education Work in Spe
cial Schools) , No. 2 , Moscow , State Training and Pedagogical
Literature Publishing House , 1957 .
128 . V. G , Petrova , " On the Remembering and Comprehension of Knowledge
by Mentally Retarded School Children During the Performance of
a Grammatical Task , " ibid . , No. 4 , Moscow , State Training and
Pedagogical Literature Publishing House , 1957 .
129 . V. G. Petrova , " On Certain Peculiarities of the Assimilation of
a Text by Mentally Retarded. School Children , " Spetsial'naya
shkola ( Special Schools ) , No. 3 , Moscow , State Training and
Pedagogical Literature Publishing House, 1958 .
130 , V. G. Petrova , " On the Problem of the Assimilation of Grammatical
Concepts by Auxiliary School Children , " ibid . , No. 3 , 1959 .
131 . V. G. Petrova , " On the Influence Exerted by the First Reproduc
tion Upon the Accuracy of Subsequent Narrations Made by Men
tally Retarded School Children , " Trudy vtoroy nauchnoy sessii
po defektologii (Works of the Second Scientific Session on De
fectology ) , Moscow , Publishing House of the Academy of Peda
gogical Sciences RSFSR , 1959 .
132. B. I. Pinskiy , " On Unpremeditated Memorization During the Process
of Repetition and Its Peculiarities in Mentally Retarded Child
ren , " Izvestiya APN RSFSR (Gazette of the Academy of Pedagogi
cal Sciences RSFSR ) , No. 19 , 1948 .
133 . B. I. Pinskiy , " On the Peculiarities of the Memorization Process
in Auxiliary School Students, " Uchebno - vospitatel'naya rabota
v spetsial'nykh shkolakh ( Instruction and Education Work in Spe
cial Schools ) , No. 3-4 , Moscow , State Training and Pedagogical
Literature Publishing House , 1952 .
134 . B. I. Pinskiy , " Peculiarities of Generalization and Distinction
in the Actions Performed by Oligophrenic School Children , "
Izvestiya APN RSFSR (Gazette of the Academy of Pedagogical Sci
ences RSFSR ) , No. 57 , 1954 .
135 . B. I. Pinskiy , " Reproduction Processes During Unpremeditated
Memorization and Peculiar Features of Such a Memorization in
Auxiliary School Students (Oligophrenics ), " ibid .
136. B. I. Pinskiy , " On the Role and Significance of a Pedagogical
Evaluation in an Auxiliary School , " Uchebno - vospitatel'naya
rabota v spetsial'nykh shkolakh ( Instruction and Education Work
in Special Schools ) , No. I , Moscow , State Training and Pedagogi
cal Literature Publishing House , 1954 .

- 736 -
137. B. I. Pinskiy , " On Certain Peculiarities of the Solution of Com
plex Arithmetical Problems by Fifth Grade Students of an Aux
iliary School , " ibid . , No. 3 , 1954 .
138. B. I. Pinskiy , " Dependence of the Actions Performed by Auxiliary
School Students Upon the Ratio Between Words and Graphic Means ,
Anthology , Psychological Problems Concerned with the Combined
Use of Words and Graphic Means in the Instruction Process of an
Auxiliary School , Publishing House of the Academy of Pedagogical
Sciences RSFSR , 1956 .
139. B. I. Pinskiy , " On the Peculiarities of the Performance of Prac
tical Actions by Junior Grade Students of an Auxiliary School, "
Uchebno - vospitatel'naya rabota v spetsial'nykh shkolakh (In
struction and Education Work in Special Schools ) , No. 2 , Moscow ,
State Training and Pedagogical Literature Publishing House , 1956 .
140 . B. I. Pinskiy , " On the Problem Concerned With a Carry - Over of
Past Experience by Junior Grade Students of an Auxiliary School, "
Voprosy psikhologii (Problems of Psychology ) , No. 5 , 1958 .
141 . B. I. Pinskiy , " On the Influence Exerted by Verbal Explanations
Upon the Actions of Mentally Retarded School Children During
the Carry -Over of Previously Acquired Experience.," Doklady APN
RSFSR (Reports of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences RSFSR ) ,
No. 3 , 1958 .
142 . B. I. Pinskiy , " Certain Peculiarities of Object Actions Peformed
by Auxiliary School Students , " Trudy nauchnoy sessii po de
fektologii ( Works of a Scientific Session on Defectology ) , Mos
cow , Publishing House of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences
RSFSR , 1958 .
143. Ye . N. Pravdina - Vinarskaya , Nevrologicheskaya kharakteristika
sindroma oligofrenii (Neurological Characteristic of an Oligo
phrenia Syndrome ) , Moscow , Publishing House of the Academy of
Pedagogical Sciences RSFSR , 1957 .
144 . I. V. Ravich - Shcherbo , " Concerning the Problem of the Inertness
of Neural Processes in Oligophrenic Children , " Psikhologicheskiye
osobennosti vysshey nervnoy deyatel'nosti cheloveka (Psychologi
cal Characteristics of the Higher Neural Activity of Man )
( Editor : B. M. Teplov ) , Vol . II , Moscow , Publishing House of
the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences RSFSR , 1960 .
145 . S. Ya . Rubinshteyn , Psikhologiya umstvenno otsta logo rebenka (Psy
chology of the Mentally Retarded Child ) ( A textbook for students
of defectological faculties at pedagogical institutes enrolled
in correspondence courses ) , Moscow , State Training and Pedagogi
cal Literature Publishing House , 1959 .
146. L. S. Sakharov , " Formation of Concepts in Mentally Retarded
Children , " Vopro sy defektologii ( Problems of Defectology ) ,
No. 2 , 1928 .
147 . A. A. Smirnov , " The Development of Memory , " Psikhologicheskaya
nauka v SSSR ( Psychological Science in the USSR ) , Vol . I , Mos
cow , Publishing House of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences
RSFSR , 1959 .

· 737 -
148 . I. M. Solov'yev , " Activity and Collateral Stimulation , " Psikho
nevrologicheskiye nauki v SSSR ( Psychoneurological Sciences in
the USSR ) , Moscow- Leningrad , 1930 .
149 . I. M. Solov'yev , " On the So - Called ' Psychic Saturation ' and Its
Peculiarities in Mentally Retarded Children , " Anthology , The
Mentally Retarded Child , Moscow, State Training and Pedagogical
LiteraturePublishing House , 1935 .
150 . I. M. Solov'yev , " On the Psychology of Graphic Instruction , "
Byulleten ' uchebno - vospitatel'noy raboty det skikh domov,
v spomogatel'nykh shkol i shkol glukhonemykh (Bulletinof In
struction and Educational Work Performed at Children's Homes ,
Auxiliary Schools and Schools for Deaf - Mutes ) , No. 11 ( 14 ) ,
People's Commissariat of Public Education , 1939 .
151 . I. M. Solov'yev , " Changes of Representations ( or Notions) in
Function of the Similarity and Differences of Objects ," Uchenyye
zapiski Gosudarstvennogo nauchno -issledovatel'sko go instituta
psikhologii ( Academic Reports of the State Scientific Research
Institute of Psychology ) , Vol. I , Moscow , 1940 .
152 . I. M , Solov'yev, " On Forgetting and Its Characteristics in Mentally
Retarded Children , " Anthology , Problems Concerned With the In
struction and Education of Deaf -Mute and Mentally Retarded Child
ren , Moscow , State Training and Pedagogical Literature Publish
ing House , 1941 .
153 . I. M. Solov'yev , " On the Psychology of Recognition , " Sovetskaya
pedagogika ( Soviet Pedagogy ) , No. 2-3 , 1943 .
154 . I , M. Solov'yev , " On Pathological Changes of Vocal ( or Speech )
Representations . Speech Disturbances During Skull and Brain
Injuries and Restoration of Speech , " Izvestiya APN RSFSR
(Gazette of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences RSFSR ) , No. 15 ,
Moscow , Publishing House of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences
RSFSR , 1948 .
155 . I. M. Solov'yev , " The Thought Process of Auxiliary School Students
During the Solution of Arithmetical Problems," Uchebno - vospita
tel'naya rabota v spetsial'nykh shkolakh ( Instruction and Educa
tion Work in Special Schools ) , No. 3-4 , Moscow , State Training
and Pedagogical Literature Publishing House , 1951 .
156 . I. M , Solov'yev ( Editor ) , Osobennosti poznavatel'noy deyatel'nosti
uchashchikhsya vspomo gatel'noy shkoly . Psikhologicheskiye
ocherki ( Peculiarities of the Cognitive Activity of Auxiliary
School Students . Psychological Outline ) , Moscow , Publishing
House of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences RSFSR , 1953 .
157 . I. M. Solov'yev , " The Perception of Reality by Mentally Retarded
Children , " Anthology , Peculiarities of the Cognitive Activity
of Auxiliary School Students, Moscow , Publishing House of the
Academy of Pedagogical Sciences RSFSR , 1953 .
158 . I. M , Solov'yev , " The Thought Process of Mentally Retarded
Pupils During the Solution of Arithmetical Problems, " ibid .

. 738 -
159. N. M. Stadnenko , " The Role Played by a Recognition of the Topic
( or Subject ) in the Perception of Pictures by First to Fourth
Grade Students, " Naukovi zapiski institutu psikhologii (Aca
demic Reports of the Institute of Psychology ), Lin Ukrainian ) ,
Vol. VI , Kiev , 1956 .
160. N. M. Stadnenko , " Certain Characteristics of the Comprehension
of Topical Pictures by First and Second Grade Pupils of a Popu
lar and Auxiliary School, ' ibid . , Lin Ukrainian / , Vol . IX , 1957 .
161 . N. M. Stadnenko , " Certain Peculiar Features in the Understanding
of Pictures by Students of an Auxiliary School , " Doklady APN
RSFSR ( Reports of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences RSFSR ) ,
No. 1 , 1958 .
162 . N. M. Stadnenko , Sravnitel'naya kharakteristika ponimaniya
syuzhetnykh kartin uchashchimisya I- II klassov massovykh i
vspomo gatel'nykh shkol ( Comparative Characteristic of the Un
derstanding of Topical Pictures by First and Second Grade
Pupils of Popular and Auxiliary Schools ) , Cand idate's Disserta
tion , Moscow , 1958 .
163. N. M. Stadnenko , " On the Development of Independent Written
Speech of Junior Grade Students in an Auxiliary School ,
ference of Defectologists Devoted to a Reorganization of Special
Schools in the Light of the Decisions Reached at the 21st Con
gress of the CPSU . Abstracts of Reports , Ministry of Public
Education of the Ukrainian SSR , Kiev , 1959 .
164 . G. Ye . Sukhareva , Klinicheskiye lektsii po psikhiatrii detskogo
vozrasta ( Clinical Lectures on the Psychiatry of Childhood ) ,
Vol. I , Moscow , State Publishing House of Medical Literature ,
1955 ; Vol . II , 1959 .
165 . G. Ya . Troshin , Antropologicheskiye osnovy vospitaniya , Srav
nitel'naya psikhologiya normal'nykh i nenormal'nykh detey (An
thropological Foundations of Education . Comparative Psychology
of Normal and Abnormal Children ) , Vol . I , St. Petersburg , Pub
lication of G. Ya . Troshin's School and Hospital, 1915 .
166. A. V. Usvayskaya , " Organization of Observations of Objects and
Natural Phenomena With Junior Grade Pupils of an Auxiliary
School , " Uchenyye zapiski MGPI im , V. I. Lenina (Academic Re
ports of the Moscow City Pedagogical Institute imeni V. I.
Lenin ) , Vol. LXXXI , Defectological Faculty , No. 7 , Moscow ,
1959 .
167 . M. P. Feofanov , " Peculiarities of the Construction of a Simple
Sentence in the Speech of Auxiliary School Students , " Izvestiya
APN RSFSR ( Gazette of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences RSFSR ) ,
No. 19 , 1948 .
168 . M. P. Feofanov , Ocherki psikhologii usvoyeniya russkogo yazyka
ucha shchimsya vspomo gatel'noy shkoly (Outline of the Psychology
of Assimilation of the Russian Language by Auxiliary School
Students ) , Moscow , Publishing House of the Academy of Pedagogi
cal Sciences RSFSR , 1955 .

• 739 -
169. M. P. Feofanov , " The Problem of Graphic ( or Descriptive ) Means
and of Graphic Language Instruction in Schools, " Izvestiya APN
RSFSR ( Gazette of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences RSFSR ) ,
1956 .
170 . M. P. Feofanov , Usvoyeniye uchashchimisya vspomo gatel'nykh shkol
predlozhnogo upravleniya ( Assimilation of Prepositional Govern
ment by Auxiliary School Students ) , Moscow , Publishing House of
the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences RSFSR , 1956 ,
171 . I. I. Finkel'shteyn , " Temporal Notions and Concepts of Oligo
phrenic Children , " Candidate's Dissertation , Moscow , 1948 .
172 . Zh . I. Shif , " Concerning Certain Methodical Techniques for Teach
ing History in an Auxiliary School, " Voprosy uchebno
vospitatel'noy raboty vspomo gatel'noy shkoly (Problems Associ
ated With Instruction and Educational Work Done in an Auxiliary
School ) , Bulletin No. 2 ( 5 ) , Administration of Children's Homes
and Special Schools of the People's Commissariat of Public
Education RSFSR , Moscow, 1939 .
173 . Zh . I. Shif , " Selection of Similar Color Shades and the Naming
of Colors ( Comparative Study of Deaf -Mute , Mentally Retarded
and Normal Children ) , Anthology , Problems of the Psychology of
Deaf -Mute and Mentally Retarded Children , Moscow , State Train
ing and Pedagogical Literature Publishing House , 1940 .
174 . Zh . I. Shif , " On Certain Peculiarities in the field of History
Instruction in an Auxiliary School, " Anthology , Problems of the
Education and Instruction of Deaf-Mute and Mentally Retarded
Children , Moscow , State Training and Pedagogical Literature
Publishing House , 1941 .
175. Zh . I. Shif , " On the Psychology of Comparison , " ibid .
176 . Zh . I. Shif , " On the Analysis and Synthesis of Material which Has
Been Read by Auxiliary School Students , " Trudy II nauchnoy
sessii po vopro sam defektologii (Works of the Second Scientific
Session on Defectology ) , Moscow , Publishing House of the Academy
of Pedagogical Sciences RSFSR , 1959 .
177 . Zh . I. Shif , " Concerning the Research Done by Soviet Psycholo
gists on the Peculiar Features of the Development of Mentally
Retarded School Children , " Scientific Conference Devoted to
Problems of the Reorganization of Special Schools , Abstracts
of Reports, Moscow , Publishing House of the Academy of Pedagogi
cal Sciences RSFSR , 1959 .
178 . M. G. Shtivel'man , " Certain Peculiarities in the Solution of
Practical Problems by Junior Grade Pupils of an Auxiliary
School , " Conference of Defectologists Devoted to the Reorgani za
tion of Work Done in Special Schools in the Light of the De
cisions Reached at the 21st Congress of the CPSU , Abstracts of
Reports , Ministry of Education Ukrainian SSR , Kiev , 1959 .
179. A. V. Yarmolenko , " Peculiarities of the Motor System of Abnormal
Children , " Voprosy izucheniya i vospitaniya lichnosti (Problems
Dealing with the Study and Training of Personality ) , No. 2 , 1928 .

- 740 -
 PROBLEMS OF THE PSYCHOLOGY OF THE DEAF - MUTE CHILD

1 By I. M. Solovlyev
In the past century and even at the beginning of the present
century , information on the characteristics of deaf -mute children could
only be found in textbooks on the teaching of deaf - mutes . This informa
tion was based on the existing experience in training, on teachers ' ob
servations, and was presented from a pedagogical point of view . The
works of V. Feti ( [83], 1835 ), I. Vasiliyev ( [ 107, 1900) , N. M.
Lagovskiy ( [ 347, 1901 ), and N. A. Rau (whose works were systematized
in a book published in 1947 5587) must be mentioned . Even today , the
specialist psychologist will gain useful information from reading
these works .
The process of separating the psychology of deaf-mutes as a spen
cial branch of the science of psychology began in the first decades of
the present century . Investigations that were psychological in the true
sense of the word began to appear , but these were still isolated works;
the best qualified of these works was carried out by A. N. Porosyatnikov
( [48], 1911 ) , who studied the memory of deaf -mute school children .
The Great October Socialist Revolution produced a great change
both in the social and legal position of deaf -mutes in general , as well
as in the education and training of deaf -mute children . General, com
pulsory education , which was also extended to deaf -mutes , was introduced ,
and the training of specialists in the teaching of deaf -mutes was inito
iated in higher educational institutions . In the Moscow Scientific Re
search Institute of Pedagogy a special section was organized ; in this
section a group of teachers and psychologists began a scientific elab
oration of the problems of defectology . Teachers of deaf -mutes in the
Ukraine displayed an interest in the psychology of deaf -mutes . I. A.
Sokolyanskiy and his co - workers discussed several problems of teaching
psychology in pedagogical studies [137. R. M. Boskis collected and
organized psychological observations in the course of his pedagogical
career .
In the following years an especially important role in the de
velopment of Soviet defectology was played by the Scientific - Practical
Institute of Special Schools and Children's Homes ( Director, I. I.
Danyushevskiy ), which was organized in Moscow by the People's Commis
sariat of Education of the Russian Federation . The scientific direc
tor of the institute , L. S. Vygotskiy, established an intensive program
in the study of the psychology of abnormal children (1931-1934 ) .
Subjects relating to the psychology of deaf -mutes began to ap
pear gradually among scientific problems. In 1935 , investigations of
the development of perception , memory , speech , and thought in deaf
mute children were begun in the psychological laboratory under the
direction of L. V. Zankov and I. M. Soloviyev ( works of Zn . I. Shif ,
E. S. Beyn , K. I. Veresotskaya, D. M. Mayants, M, M. Nudel'man ) . The
results of the psychological studies began to appear in print in 1939 .

· 741 -
They were published in the institute's bulletin : Uchebno - Vospitatell
naya Rabota v Shkolakh dlya Glukhonemykh i Vspomogatel'nykh Shkolakh
Training and Education in Schools for Deaf-Mutes and Auxiliary Schools )
( 1939-1941), and also in the form of separate publications . Works on
the speech of deaf -mutes were published (R. M. Biskis 6, 1939 , N. G.
Morozova and B. D. Korsunskaya [477, 1939 ). After this , two anthologies
under the editorship of I. I. Danyushevskiy and L. V. Zankov contained
the works of the psychological laboratory ( [23] ,1940 , [247, 1941) .
At this time L. V. Zankov and I. M , Solov'yev published their Ocherki
Psikhologii Glukhonemogo Rebenka [ Essays on the Psychology of the
Deaf-Mute Child (L28 ), which was the first attempt to systematize
the material acquired by researches .
The work of the psychologists who had been studying the prob
lems of deaf -mutes was directed into other channels by the demands of
the Second World War ; study of deaf -mute children was halted for sev
eral years , and the scientific activity which had been started earlier
was resumed only in the middle of the 1940's. It is now centered in
the Institute of Defectology of_APN Akademii Pedagogicheskikh Nauk
Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the RSFSR, and is taking on a more
profound and varied character .
An important contribution to the study of deaf -mute children
during this period are the investigations of the development of speech
in deaf -mute and partially deaf children . R. M. Bóskis 8 gives a
detailed and convincing criticism of the mistaken attitude toward deaf
mute and hard - of- hearing children which depreciates the possibilities
of their development. N. G. Morozova has studied the characteristics
of reading and reading comprehension of deaf-mute school children (447.
By means of psychological experiment zn . I. Shif investigated the psy
chology of language learning of deaf -mutes 1977 .
Cognition in a wider sense has been studied by L. V. Zankov , I.
M. Solovlyev , Z. I. Shif, M. M. Nudel'man , and their co - workers . L.
V. Zankov in collaboration with D. M. Mayants studied chiefly the fea
ture of verbal memory [ 467. I. M. Soloviyev investigated the develop
ment of tactile and visual perception [747, [75 ] and also the
development of more complex forms of cognition which are employed in
solving mathematical problems . zn . I. Shif studied the development
of simple and complex reactions_1997 ,the intellectual operations of
comparisonandgeneralization1981 , [ 101], and also visual_image
thought [1007. M. M.Nudel'maninvestigatedrecognition and verbal
designation of sounds and sounding objects , which is dosely related
to the practice of auditory work that is developing in schools for
deaf -mute children and children who are hard of hearing [51] . In ad
dition , he has also studied the features of imagination in deaf -mute
school children. T. V. Rozanova investigated the development of image
memory motor and visual [62 ] [63] [65]. She also studied the
dependence of the memory of material on the form of its spoken presen
taticn . The material was presented printed in the ordinary alphabet and
was communicated by the manua ? alphabet and also by means of sign

- 742 -
language [647. The collection Razvitiye Poznavatel'noy Deyatel'nosti
Glukhonemykh Shkol'nikov Development of Cognition in Deaf-Mute
School Children was published under the editorship of I. M.
Soloviyev (577 .
Having been separated from deaf - mute pedagogy as a psychologi
cal discipline with its own subject matter and special methods , but
cooperating with deaf -mute pedagogy in the general task of educating
and training of deaf -mute children , the psychology of deaf -mutes has
acquired the possibility of rendering essential aid in practical mat
ters. In collaboration with methodologists, systematic textbooks
have been developed (N. G. Morozov [46], [477 , zn . I. Shif 1947, 1967 ) ,
aid has been given to teachers of schools for deaf-mutes in the pre
paration of works for Pedagogicheskiye Chteniya (Pedagogical Readings
in Russian language, natural science , geography, arithmetic, extra
scholastic work (R. M. Boskis, T. V. Rozanova, I. M. Soloviyev, zn . I.
Shif) . The studies of psychologists are used by teachers of deaf
mutes in working out the problems of general pedagogy and didactics
( A. I. Diyachkov, S. A. Zykov, F. F. Rau) , in the development of par .
ticular methods (L. A. Isayenko , M. A. Tomilova ) , in the working out
of programs, and also in the conduct of pedagogical investigations .
2

Where a person with an affected sense organ is concerned , the

question immediately arises as to how this affects the operation of
the other sense organs . This question leads to the already well de
fined problem of the interaction between the sense organs, in the study
of which an important role belongs to psychology .
Thanks to the works of I. P. Pavlov [537, the understanding of
this problem was extended . We note the significance of the fact that
the old term " sense organ " took on a new meaning , which was developed
in the study of the analyzers . It is important that the set of sense
organs is understood more and more as a single system . However , infor
mation on the structure of this system and the interrelations within it
is still meager . We shall mention here , in the most general terms, those
features which are necessary to subsequent discussion .
The fact that a sense organ belongs to a system means that its
operation is conditioned by the activity of the entire system . In some
sense , one can speak of the participation of the other members of the
system in the operation of each member of the system and, specifically ,
about the assistance rendered to it. The " principle of assistance " is ,
however , realized with complete lack of uniformity . The system is
heterogeneous in its parts , and the relations between the parts are var
ied . Therefore , the assistance rendered by each of any two sense organs
to a third differs . In the same way the affliction of one of the analy
zers is manifested differently in each of the remaining ones .

. 743 -
 It has been shown , for example , that loss of sight has an un
favorable effect on hearing , although the damage here is comparatively
slight (v . S. Sverlov (867 ) . In contrast, affliction of the muscle
analyzer of the arm has an extremely unfavorable effect on perception
by the cutaneous analyzer. In our opinion [76], the loss experienced
by the unafflicted analyzer depends on its participation ( under normal
conditions) in the operation of the afflicted analyzer . The participa
tion of the muscle analyzer in the operation of the cutaneous analyzer
is so great that it is correct to speak of touch as a special form of
perception which is accomplished by the joint operation of both ana
lyzers .
In addition to the degree to which one sense organ participates
in the operation of another , we must also distinguish the character of
the assistance which is rendered . In this connection we can mention
four types of participation of one sense organ in the operation of
another and of assistance rendered by one to another (without, however ,
exhausting the entire actual diversity of the phenomena in question ) .
The first type of assistance of one analyzer in the operation of
ano ther includes tho se very simple cases in which that which is per
ceived by the " principal " sense organ assumes only a greater contrast
( " clarity " ) as a result of the stream of excitation coming from another
sense organ which is stimulated at the same moment ( see Note ]. In this
case the principal organ does not receive anything that is new or spe
cially reflected by the other organ . Its positive effect does not de
pend on the " contentive relation of the stimulations arriving at the
two organs . It is the intensity of the collateral stimulation that is
decisive ,
( [note] " The additional excitation of the organ of sight which
arises under the influence of audi tory stimulation is not uniformly
distributed over the entire visual field, but goes in greater measure
to that place where there already is considerable excitation and in
lesser measure to the more weakly excited portions of our visual ap
paratus . Thus , the contract already present between the fields is
increased if the difference in excitation of these fields is already
sufficiently great " ( S. V. Kravkov [ 327 )).
The second type of participation of one analyzer in the opera
tion of another includes those cases in which the image of an object
that arises as a result of stimulation of the principal sense organ is
augmented with components which are inaccessible to this organ and are
perceived by another organ which participates in the perception . These
components are introduced into the image obtained by the principal sense
organ . In such a case it is essential that the two organs reflect the
same object. Such cases are observed in the perception of taste , in
which olfactory components are included , and of sound, in which vibra
tory sensations are included , and in muscular perception , in which
cutaneous sensations are almost always present .
The third type of assistance includes those cases of reflection
of the same object by two sense organs in which the operation of the

• 744 -
cooperating organ leads not to the introduction of the components re
flected by it into the image received by the principal organ but to a
more complete analysis of the complex received by the principal sense
organ . In these cases better discrimination of the object occurs as a
result of the fact that some of its parts act not only on the " princi
pal" analyzer but on the analyzer cooperating with it. Thus, the sounds
emitted by an object aid in its visual analysis , particularly in analy
sis of its " sounding" parts . Sight renders even more considerable as
sistance of this type to an acoustic image . The visual images of a
singing person , a barking dog , a passing locomotive , an orchestra, are
analyzed differently thanks to the participation of hearing.
Finally , the fourth type of participation of one organ in the
operation of another includes those cases in which two organs obtain
from an object images which reflect the same " side" of that object .
The shape of an object is perceived both visually and tactually .
All the outlined forms of coaction of the various sense organs
in perception also occur in the perception of one's own behavior , one's
own movements and actions .
As we have already said , all these do not exhaust the great diver
sity of the interaction of the analyzers. However , those indicated are
sufficient to make us admit that for man the advantages of the coopera
tion are very great. Therefore , the proposition according to which the
other analyzers derive " benefit" from the affliction of one analyzer
needs examination . The gain derived by the remaining analyzers is ex
plained in two ways . In one view the brain is taken to be an energy
reservoir which feeds man's attention ; it is asserted that with the af
fliction of an analyzer the energy resources are redistributed : that
part which was destined for the inoperative analyzer , being free , now
goes to the remaining analyzers , and they immediately act with increased
energy .
In the other view , the extra flow of energy to the analyzers does
not result from a flow away from the afflicted analyzer but from an im
pulse produced by a feeling of self - inadequacy which mobilizes the en
ergy of the entire organism .
As regards the deaf , under the influence of the above theory the
opinion has been expressed that the perfection of the remaining analyzers
occurs easily and that they rapidly achieve refinement; their high
quality operation more than replaces the absent analyzer . This asser
tion is considered equally valid for a lost receptor in adults and
children . In the same way it is equally valid for the loss of a re
ceptor at any stage of a child's development and also for children in
whom the receptor is congenitally absent. Along with this it is as
sumed that compensation occurs by itself, " spontaneously , " and does
not require systematic and deliberate development of the remaining
analyzers of the child . There is supposedly no necessity for peda
gogical intervention . The problem is viewed only in its biological
aspect .

- 745 -
 In reference to the period of time required for compensation
for the absence of hearing ( thanks to the increased activity of the
analyzers present) and the achievement of the same level of sensory re
flection as is found in those who can hear , one can find in the liter
ature the opinion that this occurs before school age in children who are
deaf from birth or who become deaf before two years of age .
Are there, however , any solid, factual grounds for all these ata
titudes ? The studies of deaf - mute children conducted for a number of
years by a group of psychologists in the Institute of Defectology of
the APN RSFSR (527 have not provided any evidence that the loss of
hearing brings " benefit" to all the remaining sense organs .
It is , however , possible that this " benefits is not received
by all the remaining organs or that all do not receive it in the
same measure . In discussions of the influence of a defect on the
human organism the_appearance of a "psychophysical contrast " is men
tioned (A. Adler [ 10 ]) . Perhaps such a contrast should be sought
according to the general principle of contrasting action , between
the afflicted organ and one which is functionally close to it. Avail .
able evidence on blind children permitsme [767 to surmise that their
kinesthetic sense suffers more severely than their sense of taste or
smell , while touch is more affected than is hearing . Thus , there is
no special advantage arising from a supposed contrasting relation to
the afflicted sense organ gained by the closest functional " neighborski
of the afflicted sense . On the contrary , the more remote a sense or
gan is in relation to the afflicted organ , the better it functions .
We also surmise that in deaf -mutes 5527 the members of the system
of sense organs do not suffer equally from the loss of hearing , but this
does not occur in accordance with the requirement of " psychophysical
contrast " which is advanced by the theory of " benefit from affliction . "
With great clarity there emerges here a different character of the ef
fect of an afflicted sense organ , the opposite of the contrasting char
acter : the loss of hearing has an extremely negative effect on the
kinesthetic analyzer , particularly in that portion which is most
closely related to hearing; we have in mind the kinesthesia of the
motor - speech and respiratory organs .
In the theory just discussed the only truth is that the re
maining sense organs assume the compensation for the lost sense .
However , the entire diversity of interaction between the sense organs ,
including the positive action of some upon others, is not disclosed by
this theory . Taken as a whole , it does not correspond to the growing
knowledge of the interaction of the analyzers and is refuted by many
psychological studies which touch upon this problem .
With each passing year we come to have a better understanding
that the analyzers form a complex interacting system in which an essen
tial place is occupied by the assistance rendered by some analyzers to
the others ( see Note] .
( Note] Even I. M , Sechenov taught this with complete certainty
[677. Š. v. Kravkov (327 hasmade agreat contributionto the analysis
of this problem . L. I. Shifman's work [1027 in this direction must be
evaluated positively .)
• 746 -
 ‫دیا‬
Since the chief defect of a deaf -mute is not the loss of hear
ing but the secondary affection of speech and verbal thought, the hy
po thesis may arise that the foundation of a child's inferiority in this
case should not be sought within the first signal system but in the re
lations between the two signal systems. In other words, the contrast
of which we have spoken is formed between the low level of logical ver
bal thought and the high level of sensory visual thought. Is this, how
ever , really the case ?
The above judgment proceeds from the assumption that the first
signal system can successfully develop independently of the existence
of the second . Moreover , it is assumed that the absence or weakness
of the second signal system favors the development of the first .
" Contrast" is understood as an extraordinary development of the first
signal system as a result of an abnormal weakness of the second ,
This assumption confirms the existence of antagonistic rela
tions between the signal systems, and we easily detect in this view
point the thesis of dualistic psychology about the antagonism of sen
sory and rational knowledge .
This thoroughly erroneous viewpoint does not correspond to the
actual relations of the signal systems in their normal development ,
Psychological studies of children who could hear and speak allow one
to deduce a completely different relation between the two signal sys
tems , It is in fact contradictory , but the contradictions that arise ,
in being resolved , advance the development of both systems and do not
retard the development of one or the other .
We have in mind the information on normal children and also on
the mentally retarded and deaf which is found in the works carried out
in the Institute of Defectology of the APN RSFSR ( see zn . I. Shif [ 88 ],
[101], and also M. M. Nudel'man , M. V, Zvereva, A. I. Lipkina, I. M.
Soloviyev [717 ) .
Study of perception in deaf -mute children shows that partial or
total muteness has a negative effect on the development of the first
signal system , and, conversely, the ability to speak favors its develop
ment . In discussing the psychic development of deaf -mute children ,
the question of the relation of sensory knowledge and sign language is
The
sure to arise . Does not the contrast in question arise here?
studies conducted by A. I. Diyachkov [25] are significant in this con
nection ; he studied the perception , recognition , and designation by means
of sign language of geometrical objects by deaf - mute children from 7 to
16 years of age and by deaf -mute adults. Only deaf -mutes who could not
use verbal speech were studied . They were divided into two categories:
the first containing those with a well developed sign language and the
second those with a weakly developed sign language . As a result of the
study it was found that visual perception and recognition of geometrical
objects was on the lowest level in those subjects whose sign language
was poorest . Consequently , instead of the expected contrasting relations

747
between the development of speech and sensory knouledge , the reverse
was found : sensory knowledge is assisted not by weakness of speech
but , conversely , by its richness and successful development.
4

Let us turn to the attempts of the adherents of benefit- from

loss theory , which is refuted by Soviet psychology , to characterize
the personality features of people suffering from one or another de
fect. The adherents of this theory (A. Adler , K. Furtmueller , E.
Wechsberg) consider the source of development to be the experience
of loss , the " feeling of inferiority , " which , depending on its sharp
ness , evokes a contrast of very strong internal stress pervading the
entire personality so that the entire behavior is as if determined by
the tendency to compensation and overcompensation of the existing de
ficiency (A. Adler ( 107). Theinconvenience and unpleasantness due
to the damage of an organ , being realized and evoking the understanding
of a defect of the personality , its inferiority , cause the child to suf
fer and grow into the tormenting feeling of inferiority of the personal
ity . And this deep suffering which grips the child is supposedly the
motivation for the development of his psychic life since he applies
all his energies to the task of decreasing the sense of torment that
he experiences . According to this theory , development is the means of
deliverance from suffering . This is described as a difficult, thorny
path . The deficiency of an organ causes wisuitability to the environ
ment. A strong need develops to gain a better position among people .
The child's life becomes a sharp and complex struckle in which all the
r.ew reserve forces are brought into play , the inner contrasts reach a
high tension . This grim struggle_is accompanied by a high rate of ill
ness and mortality (^. Adler ( 1047), but only in this way is the reak
ness , the unsuitability , turned to strength , to adaptability and pover .
The child either emerges victorious from the struggle for a " better
social position " or becomes an invalid , a cripple, if he does not
finally perish .
Is this really the case with deaf -mute children ? ( Here and hence
forth we shall have in mind the students of an eight- year school for deaf
mutes, which corresponds basically to the elementary school for normal
children . )
mi I. Shir 1977 has studied the attitude of students of the mid
dle and upper age groups to the mastery of verbal speech , which in the
most obvious manner to the child decreases the difference between deaf
mutes and those who can hear , brings the position in life of the deaf
mute closest to that of the normal child . It was found that children
in the fifth year of school , 11-12 years of age , realize the difficulty
of communication with normal people and their own difference from them .
The children want to speak well so as to be able to communicate verbally
with those around them . The considerable progress in mastery of speech
that they have achieved in the previous years of schooling and which is

- 748 -
quite clear to then has a beneficial effect on them , and they are
optimistic about the possibility of further improvement of their
speech . The children realize that verbal speech will be essential
to them in their working life after school . They understand that it
is very important and necessary to master the language of words, and
for them this is ühe chief purpose of study in school . But their pur
pose does not create any acute feeling of their defect upon comparison
with the level of speech mastery that has been achieved at a given mom
ent . The wealness of their speech development as compared to normal
children of the same age does not discourage them . The aim seems to
them to be attainable with time , and the difficulties to be faced do
not seem too great .
Students in the next two years of school , the sixth and seventh ,
typically have the same attitude toward mastery of speech as toward any
other school subject . The desire to master language for successful ad
vancement in school subjects predominates . The children want to learn
to read the teacher's lips better so as to understand more easily his
explanations, they strive for articulate pronunciation because this
brings special approval and good marks , they try to learn the assigned
texts by heart in order to recite them correctly in oral or written
form when requested by the teacher; in general , they want to learn speech
to be successful in all subjects . On the other hand , "motivation related
to speech mastery in the name of the future, in order to arrange their
life and find their proper place in it, is far from being a reality "
( Zh . I. Shif ) . The students recognize the deficiency of their speech ,
but no special acute suffering or crushing burden is detected .
Obvious changes appear during the last two years in school when
the student is 16-18 years old . The evaluation of language as a means
of communication now increases. Mastery of language assumes a vitally
important significance , A " passion " for speech develops . The degree
of language mastery attained as a schoolboy is important for the ap
pearance of this change. Beginning at the level at which the schoolboy
has gained some ability to communicate with those around him and at
which the grammatical errors , insufficiency of vocabulary, and indis
tinctness of pronunciation are recognized as serious impediments at the
level of communication which has been attained , the attitude to lang
uage changes.
Thus, the necessity to master language begins really to occupy
the schoolboy only in the last years of schooling , and we assert that
only that degree of use of speech which leads to genuine communication
and permits comparison and clarification of what has been learned and
what is still lacking evokes the passionate desire to master speech
and mobilizes the efforts . Nor should the significance of the approach
ing departure from school and beginning of independent life be ignored .
Here there is a specific feature in common with normal school children .
A change in attitude toward school and study in the next - to - last and ,
especially , last grade of school has been no ted in psychological liter
ature : students in these grades experience dissatisfaction with

749 -
themselves for insufficient zeal in learning in previous years , worry
about the future , and try to make up what was missed by increased ap
plication .

How does the loss of hearing affect the operation of the re

maining analyzers?
The features of the sensations and perceptions of deaf -mute
children can be discovered if the child is observed in play , class ac
tivities, or manual work . However , preference should be given to spe
cial experiments in which the child's reactions are accomplished in
deliberately created and carefully controlled conditions . Ordinarily ,
these are small problems which are solved by action or movement; the
character of the solution of these problems will be affected by the
quality of the reflection of external reality . Speech may sometimes
be usefully included in this type of experiment .
In another type of experiment the reaction is verbal : the child
designates an object, its part , property , and , if necessary , describes
the object , picture , and situation .
We shall begin a review of existing information with a discussion
of the most important characteristic of sensations and perceptions, their
differentiation , one of the indicators of which is the degree of possible
specialization of reaction to a perceived external stimulus . Let us
turn to visual perceptions .
2n . I. Shif /88 has conducted several series of experiments in
which normal and deaf -mute children handled extremely simple objects
that differed only in color . In one series of experiments the children
selected from among many similar shades of color those which were sim
ilar to a given model . In another the children were told the name of
a color , and they selected the objects whose color corresponded to this
designation . In a third series they classified the objects by making
groups of similar objects . Among three - year -olds , the deaf -mutes showed
a lower degree of differentiation . The deaf -mutes, just like the nor
mal children , chose not only objects of the same color but also objects
of various colors of the spectrum . In this, however , the deaf -mutes
chose colors that were less similar to the example than did the normal
children . The groups they put together were considerably larger and
contained a more widely differing mixture of colors . The deaf children
did not perceive the color in those dark or light objects in which the
normal children saw the color . However , during the pre- school and also
early and middle school ages, differentiation of reactions increases
noticeably , slowly at first, and then more and more rapidly it approaches
the degree of differentiation found in normal children . In the process
of development, the choice of objects on the basis of a model is nar
rowed and only objects of the same color are grouped together ; objects
of other colors of the spectrum are not included .

- 750 -
 In light and dark shades the color was percieved , and light
tones of different colors were not grouped together as " white . " The
shades of color received special designations ( " light - green , " " dark
violet , " " light - light-yellow " ).
Study of the perception of complex objects pictures of ani .
mals by deaf -mutes and normal children of middle and upper school
age ( 10-16 years) shorted that differentiation in perception develops
intensively in both groups . It was again found that the differences
between the deaf -mutes and the normal children decrease with age , al
though they do not entirely disappear by the end of the age period
under study ( I. M. Solovlyev , unpublished data ) .
An important manifestation of differentiation in perception is
undoubtedly the time required for the process which gives a definite
image . We shall use the term " required perception time " to denote the
shortest space of time needed to obtain an image of the object of such
quality as will allow a completely definite recognition of the object.
A study by K. I. Veresotskaya [ 12 ] has shown that this required time de
creases in normal children during the period from three years of age to
adulthood . In deaf -mute children of early school age it is somewhat
longer than in normal children of the same age; in the next stage of de
velopment deaf -mute children approach normal children in this respect
too .
There are clear data on the problem of regularity of perception
in deaf -mutes and normal children .
Under my direction , E. S. Beyn 137 carried out a study of the
regularity of perception of the size of objects by the method of com
paring the perceived size of a nearby object with that of subsequently
presented distant objects . In the first series of experiments the dis
tance was three meters and in the second it was nine meters . Exper
iments were conducted with children between 10.5 and 11.5 years of age .
It was found that regularity of perception in deaf -mutes was very close
to that found in normal children and was only slightly inferior .
In her work K. I. Verestoskaya conducted a study of the percep
tion of objects whose position in the frontal plane was changed . By
means of a tachystoscope the children were shown colored pictures of
well known objects in normal position and turned 180 degrees, i.e.
" upside down . " The unusual position gave more difficulty to deaf
mutes in the first grade than to normal children in the same grade .
However , after two years, in the third grade , their results were
greatly improved .
The considerable degree to which recognition of an object was
dependent on its position in space , a fact found by K. I. Veresotskaya
was confirmed in the dissertation of A. N. Artobolevskiy 27, which
was researched under the direction of A. I. Dlyachkov . The investi
gator worked with geometrical figures, which were presented in the hor
izontal plane in normal position and turned at various angles up to
180 degrees . The author showed that unusual positioning of the figures
was difficult for deaf -mute children of middle school age ,

- 751 -
 Thus, visual perception in deaf -mute children , developing ac
cording to laws that are common to normal children as well , progresses
steadily , somewhat more slowly up to seven years of age and relatively
more rapidly thereafter . The complex forms of perception , which require
special techniques and extremely subtle differentiation , are more re
tarded in their development than the simple forms .
In general , the study of the development of tactile perception
in childhood received undeservedly little attention . Yet this problem
is very important because it concerns the cognitive activity of the
hand , which works, creates, plays an essential role in human intercourse .
The study of these perceptions in early childhood is in a better posi
tion as compared with school age . Several works have been devoted to
the early period, among which the study by F. N. Shemyakin [B7] should
be mentioned first of all . Our own studies were conducted with deaf
mute and normal school children from seven to 17 years of age ( I. M.
Solov'yev [75] , I.M. Soloviyev and Ye . I. Obozova [ 77 ) . One indisput
able result was the finding that there is intense development of tactile
perception in normal children during the entire period of school age ,
which does not cease in subsequent years, as experiments with adults
have shown .
In studying tactile perception in deaf -mute children , we found
that they differ more significantly from normal children in this re
spect than was found in the comparative study of visual perception . This
situation is explained by the fact that the reflection of reality by
means of touch requires more complex cognitive activity .
What is the situation with the kinesthetic sensations and percep
tions of deaf -mute children , especially those which are engendered by
movement of the hand ? Playing a very exceptional role in normal chil
dren , the hand is truly the " external extension of the human brain . "
With any damage to the sense organs it receives an additional and ser
ious "load" both as a tool of cognition and as a means of communication .
The cognitive activity of the hands gains extreme significance in the
blind . Along with this , the hands also carry out a new function in re
lation to language: reading . In addition to the duties in normal
children , the hands of deaf -mute children also play an increased role
in cognition by means of the sensitivity to vibration . In addition , in
deaf -mutes the hands are an extremely important tool for communication ,
serving for sign language and the manual alphabet . As far as the deaf
dumb - and - blind are concerned , the hands are the chief instrument of
cognition and the only instrument of communication . Thus , in the field
of defectology the role of the hands is exceptionally important. An
investigation of the kinesthesia of the hands of deaf -mutes conducted
in our laboratory by T. V. Rozanova [62 ][65], showed that the course
of development of kinesthetic perception differs from that found in the
study of touch . Kinesthetic perception develops more slowly in deaf
mute children than does tactile perception .
The difference during the period of school age ( from 7 to 17 years
of age) was manifested in the fact that a great advance in the development

- 752 -
of tactile perception , which brought the deaf -mutes close to normal
children , took place during the early school years , while a similar
advance in the development of kinesthetic perception was accomplished
only in the last years of school .
Thus , there are undoubtedly peculiarities of sensory perception
that are caused by a defect . However , experience shows that systematic
work in the training and education of deaf -mutes in the Soviet schools
has an extremely favorable effect on their development .
6

What are the features of the deaf-mute'sretention of his past

experience? Studies by M. M. Nudel'man (487, [119 ] showed that the no
tions of deaf -mute children were subject to more rapid and more signif
icant change than those of normal children . In the early and middle
school years the conditions for retention of vestiges of past exper
ience are less favorable in deaf -mutes . In contrast to normal chil
dren , there is a very strong tendency to increasing similarity and to
the leveling of differences between the " vestiges , " to their becoming
similar . With age , however , there is an intensification of the oppo
site tendency , which struggles with the above mentioned tendency , and
aims at emphasis, accentuation of differences .
The change in the notion of color was studied by zn . I. Shif
1997. A familiar shade of green was presented among a number of sim
ilar shades three times in the space of a month . The children were to
react only to the one seen previously . The change in the notion of
color was manifested in the fact that all the darker shades , which ap
proached the "middle" shade of green of the series , were recognized as
the given shade . At the same time , the group of shades which were
identified with the given shade was expanded . With the development of
the school child , the notion of color became much more stable .
Very considerable and rapidly beginning changes were detected
in a study of the tactile images which remained after perception of
objects by means of examining them with the hands. Levelling of tac
tile images occurred more intensively than was the case with visual
images in a parallel series of tests .
We have the right to conclude that the changes in images differ
in function of which analyzer is dominant in perception . It can be
asserted that coaction of two ( or more) analyzers in perception facil
itates stability of the images . Thus , in tactile perception the
participation of the cutaneous analyzer in the operation of the kines
thetic analyzer exerts a definite positive effect on the retention of
the corresponding images.
This dependence of the change of images on the analyzer to which
they belong appears in normal children as well as in deaf -mutes, but it
is more evident in the latter .
Increase in the stability of images proceeds more slowly in them ,
but this difference too gradually decreases .

- 753 -
 These features of the " vestiges , " of course , have an effect
also on the perception of objects: as a result of these features ,
the difference between an object perceived at a given moment and a
similar one perceived earlier is either not detected at all or is dis
tinguished very imperfectly . Along with this, to a greater or lesser
extent depending on the degree of levelling , there is lost the possi
bility of useful , productive changes in the image of an earlier per
ceived object expressed in the accentuation of its more important
parts and properties.
These phenomena are particularly noticeable among younger deaf
mute school children . This is clearly seen from experiments in which
studies were made of the perception by deaf -mute and normal school
children of silhouettes of known objects in medium gray on a white back
ground . To obtain comparative data , the subjects were shown the ob
jects in three dimensions and in color after one week , These were the
exact same objects whose silhouettes had been shown in the first test .
Each three - dimensional object was displayed in a fore - shortened view ,
its contour corresponding to the contour of the previously used sil
houette . In contradiction to the opinion expressed in child psychol
ogy that the child achieves the ability to recognize contour
representations extremely easily and early , the study showed that nat
ural objects in a realistic , three - dimensional representation are re
cognized by younger school children much better than are representations
in which the only reference is the contour ( A. P. Gozova ( 187). At
seven years of age this is perfectly clear . However , during the early
school years ( 7-11 years) the differences in recognition of plane and
three - dimensional objects almost completely disappears . This situation
must be evaluated as indicative of an important advance in the develop
ment of the child's perception . Seven - year - old deaf - mutes are notice
ably inferior to normal children in the ability to recognize
silhouettes, but they make serious gains during the early school years ,
closely approaching the indices of normal children .
In the same respect, what are the features of tactile perception
in deaf -mute children ?
Investigations have detected noticeable differences in tactile
recognition of two- and three - dimensional objects. While in tactile
recognition of three -dimensional objects the decisive role belongs to
tactile vestiges, tactile recognition of silhouettes occurs with the
essential participation of visual vestiges, which are often the more
important . Their use , however , requires careful correlation and com
parison of the contour that is tactually perceived with the qualitatively
rich visual traces of natural objects . If deaf-mute children have dif
ficulty in correlating a visually perceived silhouette with the visual
image of the natural object , the difficulties in correlation are in
creased greatly in comparison of a tactually perceived silhouette with
the visual image of the natural objects corresponding to that contour .
The visual image must have considerable " flexibility for the tactually

754 -
perceived contour to aid in distinguishing the contour in a complex
visual image of a colored object with rich diversity and variety in
its parts . In this respect the younger deaf - mute school children dif
fer considerably from normal children of the same age, and levelling of
this feature occurs later , during the upper school years .
7

Let us now turn to data obtained by Soviet psychologists in

studies of the thinking of deaf -mute children . Let us first of all
discuss the experiments by zn . I. Shif [1007 on solving of problems
that required the replacement of a certain object which was acutely
needed at the given moment by some other object which was only rela
tively similar to it. A collection of sufficiently diverse objects
was placed on the table in front of the adult or child . The subject
was asked three questions in turn : which of the objects present
could serve as a mug , a stopper , a hammer ?
How were these problems solved ? Each of them changed essen
tially the perception of one and the same object in function of the
intention of seeing in it first one, then another , and finally a
third object. These changes were clearly expressed in the entire
Mapproach " to the object in function of the task : in the different
inspection , testing, and use of the object .
If a narrow , closed , cylindrical box half as high as a glass was
examined as a mug , the subjects tried to convince themselves that the
cover came off and that the cylinder was of sufficient capacity . In
this case the cylinder was held ordinarily like a vessel , with the
opening up . If they wished to find a harmer among the objects, they
covered this same box , noted the external shape and diameter , thanks
to which it could serve as a hammer , croquet mallet, etc. , assuming
it were mounted on a handle; in these cases the subjects were diverted
from that which was most essential for solving the previous problem
the empty cavity within ; now the box was held in the hands or
placed horizontally on the table . When they took this same box for
a stopper , they distinguished the convenience of the smooth outer
sides, picked it up , not cupping it in the hand as they would a ves
sel , but only with the fingertips from above , and moved it downward ,
as though lowering a stopper into the opening of a " bottle with a
wide neck . "
In the case of essential differences between the real and
imagined subjects the subjects often indicated what must be done to
convert the given object into the required one . Various observations
were expressed about the necessary and possible changes , " improve
ments . " The object was transformed in the imagination . For a pear
shaped tea canister to become a mug , it would only be necessary to
straighten out its sides a little ; a thimble in this case would have
to be enlarged and have a handle added ; if the hole in an insulator
were plugged up with putty , it could hold a whole cubic centimeter of
liquid , etc.

• 755 -
 If the objects present were greatly different from the typical
model , the problem was more often solved in a different way . Simi
larity was established not with the initial object that served for the
image but with a different object which related to another aspect . Thus,
the thimble was not enlarged to the size of an ordinary mug but was taken
as a small toy mug .
In a number of cases in which there was little similarity between
the objects , the following type of solution was observed : no transfor
mations or improvements occurred , as a rule, but the object actually
present to the subject lost those special and specific properties that
distinguished it from the required object ; only that which made it sim
ilar to the object it was to replace was highlighted ; the subjects did
not wrestle with nor overcome the differences, the dissimilar features,
as they did in the above described cases . The object was taken and ex
amined " one - sidedly , " as if it displayed that criterion which was char
acteristic of the object to be replaced .
In the process of solving the problem , the adults usually started
the selection of objects with those that were most similar to the object
to be replaced and then proceeded to less similar objects . The motion
of cognitive activity , which was accomplished in the following three
stages, was characteristic: recognition of the required object in its
ordinary form ( for example , an ordinary mug ) among the articles present;
then a particular and even completely peculiar variety of it ( some par
ticular mug ); and , finally , an object similar to it only in the most
general features ( simply a receptacle, a vessel ) .
How did children behave when they had to solve the same problems ?
Normal school children , 9-10 years old , did not display any be
wilderment or lack of understanding in the task of seeing among the pre
sented objects another absent but required object . The test was taken
as an intellectual game in which they participated willingly and with
interest Since the methodology had been designated earlier for younger
school children , the tasks were within the understanding of these chil .
dren . In general , the course of the children's work was the same as
that of the adults : it also proceeded in three stages . The third
stage was especially animated . Decreased similarity with the image of
the ordinary object caused increased cognitive activity , thanks to which
the children not only recognized an " unevident, " " hidden " similarity but
also thought up ways in which the object should be improved so as to be
come more sui table for the solution ( for scissors to become a hammer the
handles should be filled with metal , for a porcelain insulator to be
come a hammer , a handle should be attached to it and this pencil here
could be used for this purpose , etc. ) .
In recognizing the articles as particular objects , the children
some times gave solutions which were beyond the limits permissible by
the sense of the task and which were consequently wrong . For example,
in solving the problem with the "mug , " they stopped at the tea canister
and said that it was very like a tea pot and that a good tea pot could

- 756 -
be made from it if this or that were added to it ; one of the school
girls , in solving the same problem , found that the tea canister was sim
ilar to a small cup, etc. However , the children made it known that their
proposals did not solve the problem .
It is curious that in solving the problem the school children se
lected articles which differed greatly from each other , although a com
pletely specific object was required . For example, in the problem of
indicating a substitute for a hammer , a stone and a tea canister were
chosen . The function was the common feature in these cases : the chosen
objects could have been used in the sense of the required one . The
children considered it necessary to justify the lack of similarity of
the objects , substantiate their choice , accompanying this with char
acteristic reservations .
What did the same experiments with deaf -mute children show ?
Not a little effort had to be applied for these children to " accept"
the problem . There were complications not only in communication , in
particular , in communicating the problem , but also in the necessity of
perceiving the objects "mediately , " which was a task of cognition that
was more difficult for the deaf -mutes than for the normal children .
When , for example, they were given the problem of the "mug , " they
shrugged their shoulders and explained their bewilderment by the fact
that there really was no mug , that there were other objects for differ
ent purposes ; going from one object to the next, they gave the real
purpose of each .
Nonetheless , to some degree all the deaf -mute children without
exception "mastered " the unusual , mediate cognition of objects .
A change of behavior within a short period from bewilderment
to genuine " ability was typical for the deaf -mutes and clearly differ
entiated them from mentally deficient children . As far as the actual
course of cognitive activity in carrying out these tasks was concerned ,
the deaf -mute children differed in this respect from the normal children
in the development of the solution . Having selected one or two articles
which were most similar to the required object , they stopped and for a
while absolutely refused to continue the work . Often the experimentor
had to convince them that there were suitable articles and ask them to
continue , to think again and find among the remaining articles one that
was similar to the required object. Recognition of similarity in the
articles which differed obviously from the required object was much
more difficult for the deaf - mutes than it was for the normal children .
And , as a rule , this difficulty was resolved , as it was with the nor
mal children , by transfer to recognizing as the required object objects
of a different aspect : the thimble was taken as a small mug , the in
sulator as a toy hammer . As did the normal children , the deaf -mutes at
times improved these objects . However , this second stage of the process
of solution was poorer in the deaf -mutes, both in relation to the range
of objects to which it was applied as well as in relation to the speci
ficity of recognition and also in the quality of the proposals for " im
proving " the objects for increasing their similarity to the required
objects .

757 -
 The deaf -mute children quickly moved to the third method of
selection : they indicated articles which were little like the re
quired object but which could nonetheless be used for the same pur
pose .
Entry into the third stage , in distinction to the difficulties
of moving to the second , was made " smoothly , " without a jump . Evi
dently , the normal children realized more clearly that the third method
was really very simple and that it was already not a real solution ;
there was a pause in their behavior during which they tried to provide
a " higher " solution and only after becoming convinced of its unattain
ability , did they become resigned to the necessity of moving to the
third way of solution . Evidently, the differences between the articles
did not seem so sharp to the deaf -mutes. Therefore , from the search
for a mug they went comparatively easily to a selection of something
" from which one could drink , " " in which water could be found , " " with
which one could take water , " etc.
In this connection , the attitude of the deaf -mute children to
an " erroneous recognition deserves attention . Not only the normal
adults but also the normal children , in solving a problem , in seeking
for example, among the many articles for one similar to a mug , made it
understood that they took a certain article ( of those present) for a
mug and a different one for a cup or glass . In selecting a " hammer , "
they gave one to understand that this was a hammer , this a sledge
hammer , and that a dumbbell . The experiments with deaf -mute children
created the impression that the various articles ( " for drinking , " " for
hammering, " " for stoppering " ) were less differentiated in their minds .
They more easily interpreted the articles present as objects which were
of a different kind from the required object , and , in contradistinction
to the normal children , did not always make reservations about such a
" recognition . " It seemed that the deaf - mutes considered such a wide
replacement as completely admissable . However , if the " genus " and
particularly " species of the articles was not sufficiently limited
and the children instead of articles of one genus or species selected
articles of another species and even of another genus , this does not
at all mean that the attributes of the required object ( for example, a
mug ) are generally seen very readily by deaf -mute children in any ar
ticle which has any attribute characteristic of the required object .
Not at all ! It is characteristic only of a developed adult to see im
mediately in a group of articles those which can serve to replace a
required object, and , in addition , to perceive readily the closeness of
one article to one species of objects , of another article to another
species of objects , etc. Experiments with deaf -mutes have clearly shown
that the transition to an object which differs greatly from the required
object is very difficult for them , and the overcoming of " breaks in the
scale of similarity presents greater difficulty for these children than
for normal children . The difference between the objects present and
that which was to be replaced ( for example, a mug ) was made very clear

- 758 -
in the experiments with deaf-mute children . This was not, however ,
expressed in the fact that these children spent longer in searching
for the " required " object than did the normal children but rather in
the fact that they ceased earlier searching for this object (mug ) and
began to look simply for some thing " into which one could pour " or " with
which one could scoop , " i.e. a broad genus of object ..
The difficulty in " reinterpretation " of an object for younger
deaf - mute school children was especially clearly detected where the
parts of an object were concerned . For example, the deaf - mute children
did not perceive an integral object in a cylindrical plastic stopper
screwed onto a bottle, whereas the normal children succeeded in this,
recognizing a small mug or glass in this stopper .
8

Deaf -mute children cannot learn verbal speech in the way that
is usual for normal children , but with special training they do achieve
a high level of speech development. With respect to the speech of
deaf -mutes the psychologist is in a different position than he is with
respect to the speech of normal people , which has been acquired in the
process of communication : he is dealing with the product of completely
special training . In addition , to this , the mastery of language and use
of speech by deaf -mutes display profound peculiarities which are not
found elsewhere and whose disclosure is of great interest to psychology .
One of the more evident peculiarities of deaf -mute children is
their verbal designation of objects . How is this accomplished when they
perceive known objects, and what are its features in the identification
of unknown objects ?
This question has been studied by Ye . M. Kudryavtseva [33] . In
the conclusion to this work it is explained that normal children use
designations that vary in their degree of generality in both cases .
Also , the use of words depends on the character of the cognitive ac
tivity involved . Where this activity , applied to an unknown or little
known object , does not differ essentially from the activity applied to
a known object, the differences in the character of the verbal designa
tions ( in identification of known and unknown objects ) are not great.
In both cases the words are of approximately the same degree of gen
erality . But if the perception of an unknown object is developed in
a way which differs from that of the perception of a known object,
the differences in designation ( of known and unknown objects ) are
considerable . In this case there are two tendencies in the naming of
unknown objects : first, there is the use of more specific designa
tions, which is observed primarily among younger children and becomes
rare among older children , although it does not completely disappear
even in adults ; second, there is the use of more generic designations,
which increases with development, particularly during the upper school
age , and is very characteristic of adults .

• 759 -
 How are these developmental differences in naming explained ?
In answering this question , let us first note the increasing
differentiation in the perception of objects itself . And let us first
mention the greater differentiation of perception , thanks to which ob
jects are better distinguished from one ano ther and are perceived in
their own individuality , This differentiation in perception can be
called " interobjective . " It entails increase in specificity of re
cognition , which is observed during the pre - school years and continues
throughout the school years .
On the basis of this differentiation there arises a further ,
more complex ( " intraobjective" ) differentiation in perception . We have
in mind the separation , conjunction , and delimitation of the perceived
features of an object which permit knowledge of the generic, the spe
cific, and the individual in it. There is , consequently , a many - sided
recognition of the object or recognition of various degrees of speci
ficity . On the one hand , perception of objects rises to very high de
grees of specificity and, on the other hand , falls to very low degrees ,
which are possible upon discovery of more and more generic aspects in
the object .
In connection with this the difference in cognitive activity di .
rected to known or unknown objects becomes understandable . When a
known object is given , specific recognition is easily , quickly , and
correctly accomplished , and cognition terminates with this iſ greater
fullness is not required . In perception of an unknown object, however ,
one must stop at that stage of unspecific recognition which is the
last reliable stage, beyond which further specification , as the older
school child understands well , threatens error .
This is the information which characterizes normal children ,
What is the situation with deaf-mute children ? In our studies[75]
there are data on the naming of known and unknown objects by students
in the fourth and eighth years of school . In the naming of known ob
jects the deaf -mutes behave like normal children in the same grades .
The only differences appear in the naming of unknown objects . Bas
ically they consist of the following: in these cases the deaf -mutes
made a specific , and thus in virtue of the unknown nature of the ob
jects , an erroneous recognition and used terms of specific signifi
cance , whereas the normal children clearly tended to make unspecific
identification and use terms of generic significance .
At the same time, the cognitive activity in perception of
known and unknown objects itself differed less with the deaf - mutes
than with normal children . In particular , the deaf -mutes used more
uniform forms of cognition . The length of time for carrying out cog
nitive tasks, depending on their complexity , varied little in the
deaf -mutes, while it varied very significantly in the normal children .
During the upper school age the cognitive activity of deaf
mutes, particularly their visual perception , continuously improves .
The development of individual components of cognition occurs somewhat
differently than in normal children . Thus , versatile recognition , which

- 760 -
permits discernment of an object with different degrees of specificity ,
develops more slowly than recognition tending toward specific , individ
ual cognition . The differentiation in perception which is the basis of
ever more subtle distinctions and leads to individualization of recog
nition greatly outstrips the second form of differentiation , which
consists of separation of the various aspects of one and the same ob
ject (" individual ," " particular , " and " general" ). This form of differ
entiation develops relatively slowly . " Interobjective differentiation
moves well ahead of " intraobjective differentiation .
Our study showed that cognition of objects by deaf -mute school
children is carried out in a small range of degrees of specificity .
Can this observed feature be recognized as invariable?
Study of cognition in deaf -mute school children in the first,
fourth , seventh , and eighth years of school has shown that in the up
per grades this feature begins to disappear , the difference between
deaf-mutes and normal children in this respect decreases, the deaf
mutes begin to master versatile recognition of objects (I. M.
Soloviyev [ 747, [757 ).

The deaf -mute child meets the written word at the same time as
he becomes acquainted with the word in general . In contradistinction
to this, the normal child encounters the written word as a perception
of a graphic representation of a word that he has already heard and
pronounced many times . The normal child already knows the acoustic and
kinesthetic images of this word , and the new visual image is included
as a component in the developed speech complex of verbal images relating
to this word . Hence , the slowness with which the deaf child memorizes
an adequate visual image of a word is completely understandable . This
image does not immediately gain the " stability necessary for success
ful reproduction of the word , and this instability of verbal images,
decreasing during the course of education , is still recognizable in
the speech of deaf -mutes for a long time.
Mention must also be made of the peculiarity of those changes
that are observed in the images of words in deaf -mutes . Whereas for
the images of objects the change of the entire image is characteristic ,
for verbal images the change is typically of a different kind and is
characterized by the preservation of individual " elements both in oral
and written reproduction of the word . The study of written reproduc
tion of words by deaf - mute children in the first year of school showed
the presence of frequent changes in the letter composition ( omissions,
transpositions, and substitutions of " elements" ) . M. Ye . Khvattsev
[ 847 found that in 72 per cent of the cases the words were reproduced
incorrectly in relation to the number of letters of which they are com
posed ; of the letters reproduced , only 51 per cent were correct .

• 761 -
According to S. A. Zykov [ 29], in the early stages of learning to read
and write the two extreme letters are preserved in reproducing words,
while the letters in the middle are often omitted or replaced by
others, and the sequence is sometimes changed (tetrad -- trati [note
book /, lampa lata [I amp7) . At times the distortions lead to com
OL

plete deformation of a word. Ye . I. Obozova and I. M. Soloviyev [ 75],

in studying the recognition of objects by deaf -mutes in the first year
of school , which was accomplished by writing the word that named the
object , found frequent distortions of the spelling and the presence of
combinations of letters that were no longer words ( although part of
them had some formal features of two - syllable words ) . At the end of
the third quarter such "letter combinations made up 30 per cent , and
at the end of the fourth quarter , 12 per cent of the designations of
objects . They were usually composed of letters contained in the verbal
designation of the objects previously recognized in the same experiment.
In the simplest cases this was a group of letters ( e.g. udb , tseo ) ; in
other cases a conglomeration of syllables ( e.g. asto soto , mo shem ) .
In the process of training , not only did the frequency of distortions
of the words reproduced diminish , but the distortions became less
crude as well . Simple groups of letters and conglomerations of sylla
bles gave way to formations of the nature of contaminations, in which
parts of two words could be discerned .
For example , the " word " baboshka in written designation of a but
terfly (babo'chka ] was formed with undoubted participation of the word
babushkā [grandmother ), from which the portion shka was taken; the " word"
korovati to designate a cow (korova) arose with
the participation of the
word krovat' [bed].
The contaminations could often be considered not as a simple com
bination of portions of two words but as the assimilation of one word
to another, reminiscent of the aşsimilation of the representations of
the objects . Thus , a gun (ruzhie), under the influence, as explained ,
of the word rezhet [ cuts), was called ruzhot; somewhat later the same
object was called rezhet, in which assimilation to the word rezhet was
even clearer . Here , we would like to point out again that assimilation
of words is of a different nature than assimilation of object images,
since the " elements " of verbal images remain unchanged , while the " ele
ments" of object images are certainly changed , although not all to the
same degree .
The instability of verbal images decreases gradually over a
long period ; it is still noticeable in the ninth year of school .
10

New data on the properties of words in the speech of deaf -mutes

are provided by the study of perception and recognition of words in the
process of reading . In the first stage of language learning it is noted
that differentiation of words occurs slowly . Errors are extremely fre
quent and very gross : one word is taken for ano ther even when there is

- 762 -
little similarity between them . This indicates that the distinctions
between images are slight and weak . For a rather long time the first
letter is of crucial importance, and later , also the last letter . From
this moment one can begin to speak of identification based on the bound
aries of the word . The internal ( " Middle " ) components can be changed
greatly and the identification will still remain the same . This has
been proved experimentally .
One must recognize an important advance in the development of
speech when a word is broken down to such a degree that its entire com
position as a whole begins to take part in recognition . The range of
erroneous identifications changes . Many words formerly perceived as
the same ( on the basis of the identity of the beginning or the beginning
and end ) are now distinguished . Primary importance is gradually trans
ferred to similarity of words as a whole , although this significance
is still not very great. Incorrect identifications are very frequent
but at the same time they change ever more completely in character . At
first, where the words as a whole are similar , the edges of the word ,
especially the beginning , are still important for the origin of incor
rect identification. The word_sprashivayete [ask]_is recognized as
strashno[terrible , zakryla ( covered as zerkalo (mirror ] ,sedoy (gray )
as sled [ trace]. The influence of both boundaries is shown by exam
ples such as : branish: [ scold ) is recognized asberesh ' ( take
radyyetsya (is happy as roditsya (is born ), pastukh_shepherd as
petukh ( rooster) , drozhit shivers as derzhit holds (N. G. Morozova
144 ) .
A similar method of word recognition , which is also found in nor
mal children , is practiced widely and maintained for a long time by deaf
mute children . In way of illustration we shall use some experimental
data from a study conducted with verbs rarely used in communication ( Ye .
I. Obozova and I. M. Solovlyev, unpublished work ) .
Five verbs, each in a different grammatical form , were to be rec
ognized , after a single reading , in a list of 25 verbs . Preliminary
experiments showed that deaf -mutes in the fifth year of school made 3.5
times as many errors in recognition as did normal children . In a subse
quent series of tests with adults, the deaf -mutes showed a significant
difference ( Table 1 ) .
TABLE 1

Incorrect Identifications as a Percentage

of Correct Identifications

Year in School Normal Deaf -Mutes

Fifth 83.0 211.6

Ninth 52.2 138.1
Adults 15.5

- 763 -
 Since all the words among which those to be remembered were
found were of different roots , the identity of roots could not have
provoked an incorrect identification . Analysis showed that the role
of identical inflections was also insignificant. Recognition was
based on similarity of words as a whole .
Of course , the similarity in question here was not the primitive
" similarity of identical initial and final letters . The similarity of
word stems was primary . In some cases the feature of belonging to the
same conjugation was significant, as a result of which the similarity
of stems was reinforced by the identity of inflection . As early as the
fifth year of school normal children are much less inclined than are
deaf -mutes to rely on the resemblance between words for identification ,
Deaf -mutes , even in the ninth year of school , use this basis widely ,
much more frequently than normal children in the fifth year of school .
The reason for imperfect recognition of a word " according to sim
ilarity ” is rooted in the character of the image of the word itself :
this image has not acquired what is necessary for analytic comparison .
In favor of this hypothesis there is evidence from the behavior of
deaf -mutes with respect to so - called derivative words: the children do
not recognize them . The work of N.G. Morozova 1387 showed that a ver
bal prefix drastically changes the " face of the verb , " and the children
do not see in it the familiar word which has the same root . On the con
trary, a derivative word is incorrectly identified as a result of the
fact that it has become similar to a word with a different root : for
example, prosunul (shoved through is read asprosnul.sya( awakened ]
But sunul shoved would not be read as prosnul sya.
Dissatisfaction with recognition of words by similarity of the
overall image of the word becomes more perceptible to the child and
forces him to use another course of action : discernment of those parts
of a perceived word that are common to well known words ,
This discernment in perceived words of a part that is contained
in a familiar word is at first carried out without_the necessary_consid
eration of the word : for example, molochnyy milk molchal (was sil
ent] , dobreli [ reached ] dobry kind , zaplata ſpatch zaplatil
(paid). It is not always a strictly identical part that is discerned .
Certain differences do not hinder identification of a part and incor
rect recognition of a word . In older school children the part which is
separated out approximates the stem or root of the word . Thus , the
word is now recognized according to the_root, the affixes and endings
being ignored . For example: opustil [Iowered ] pusti [ start]],
konchiki ( tips konchil [finished ],predstavlyal [represented
predstavlyavetsya [is represented ] , dovolen ( satisfied dovolino
Lenough (N. G. Morozova) . In distinction to recognition of the word
as a whole, the last method could be conventionally termed " recognition
of the entire word by its part . "
An important feature of this form of recognition is that the
other , unidentical parts of the word are not considered and do not affect
the meaning that the word a child reads assumes for him . For example ,
many words with the same root assume the same meaning. The same word
in various grammatical forms does not change in its meaning .

- 764 -
 Mastery of the grammatical structure of speech urgently re
quires of the school - children a new step : recognition not only of
the invariable part but also of the whole word in its various forms
and inflections ,
A favorable symptom of movement in this direction is the appear
ance of non -recognition of grammatically altered words . The reason
for this is now not that deaf children are incapable of discerning the
identical part of the word but that they understand that this part
does not provide the true meaning of the word , and that the altered
word has a different meaning , what meaning is unknown .
The principal advances in mastery of the grammatical structure
of speech are made in the middle and upper grades . With the existing
methods of teaching these advances are made slowly and require serious
efforts on the part of deaf -mutes . In this connection should be in
vestigated the problem of the properties of verbal images in normal
school children between 12 and 16 years of age . Since psychological
knowledge is exceptionally scanty here , we shall allow ourselves to
give a brief sketch of an experiment conducted by Ye . I. Obozova and
myself ( analogous to that described above ) , in which students in the
fifth and ninth grades as well as normal adults were given five famil
iar verbs to memorize ( each in a different grammatical form ) , after
which they were immediately asked to recognize them in a list of 25
words consisting of the same five verbs but with each verb in five dif
ferent grammatical forms, These were the same grammatical forms which
had occurred in the five verbs to be memorized . The task , consequently,
was to find in the list one verb in a specific form among five forms
of that same verb .
Comparing this series of experiments with that described above ,
we immediately found the following difference: recognition , even of a
completely unknown verb , from the root is much easier than recognition
of a known verb from the form , from the inflection . With normal fifth
graders the root was so dominant in the solution of this problem that
the difference of endings was completely ignored by several children ,
Other children paid only slight attention to the endings. The tenth
grade students solved the problem differently: the center of atten
tion was transferred to the inflection , which was separated out and
attained exceptional influence, whereupon the rest of the word lost
significance . Specific endings were recognized without regard to
the root . In other cases words with similar endings were recognized .
Naturally, the best, true solution was achieved with the participation
of the entire image of the word as a whole , which was most clearly ex
pressed in the case of the adults . Neither the root nor the ending
played a self - sufficient role to the exclusion of the rest of the word
for the adults . Correspondingly , nei ther the lexical nor the grammat
ical meaning separately but the word itself in that meaning associated
with its given form , i.e. its lexico - grammatical meaning , was recog
nized .

- 765 -
 Experiments with deaf -mutes in the fifth and ninth grades
showed that they lag far behind normal children where the grammatical
form of words is concerned . Whereas normal children in the ninth
grade transfer their center of attention to the ending , even to the
detriment of the stem , deaf -mutes in the same grade still separate out
and " operates with the stem alone,
11

Let us turn to the features of the sentences of deaf -mute

school children . As a result of the fact that the learning of words
plays a significant role in language learning by deaf - mutes ( in dis
tinction to the case of normal children who master ready -made turns of
phrase ), the relationship between the features of a word and its rela
tion to the other members of a sentence is more clearly expressed .
Sentence construction requires changes in the words and becomes possible
when the words display a sufficient degree of flexibility . This concerns
the inflection of words in function of their role in the sentence . The
speaking ( or writing ) of a sentence requires the reproduction of a word
in a specific inflected form .
At the beginning of speech development, words have very little
flexibility , not only in deaf -mutes but in normal children as well .
The first word - sentences are grammatically invariable . Words take on
the indicated property slowly in deaf - mute children . Its signs appear
after the sentence has come to consist of two or three members . The
sequence in which the uninflected words are placed is for a long time
the chief principal of sentence structure , Words are connected without
concord or government; they are not always reproduced in their initial
form ; the sentence is for a time an odd formation consisting of unproc
essed words . This character of the sentence is more clearly evident in
independent production than it is in exercises and recitations . All
subsequent changes in sentences are in some sense an overcoming of the
described method of their construction .
When , in the construction of an utterance , the deaf -mute school
child begins to reproduce the word as a member of a sentence, i.e.
adapts its form to the other words in the sentence , he still does this
very naively , but the significance of this achievement is nonetheless
extremely great. Zn . I. Shif 1977 has succeeded in illuminating this
period . The mutual adaptation of words, which is often an adaptation of
the following word to the preceding word , appears earliest in the fact
that any succeeding word takes on the same ending as the preceding
word .
Mastery of the main members of the sentence occurs before mastery
of the secondary members . This is shown in the earlier precision of
their relation . For some time the group of secondary members is not de
limited , and the influence of the predicate on this group can be seen .
Examples are : Mal'chik slovil babochkil, strekozil, zhuki (instead of
Mal'chik slovil babo chek , strekoz, zhukov -- The boy caught butterflies ,

- 766 -
dragon - flies, bugs ]: V_zooparke ya videl lisal
of V zooparke ya videl lis, zebr , slonov
zebral, slon ( instead
In the zoo I saw foxes ,
zebras , elephants .
We must emphasize the clearly manifested difference in the
quality of speech production by deaf -mutes depending on whether the
necessary linguistic material is given in perception or whether it has
to be recalled from memory . " The perceived " and " the recalled " in the
sphere of language are much further apart for deaf -mutes than for nor
mal children . This is shown in the fact that in sentence construction
from material recalled from memory the deaf -mutes more often join words
in an " unprocessed " form , the preceding word having less influence on
the succeeding word in the sense at least of " equalization " of form .
If the subject or all the main members are given and the sentence has
to be finished , the form of that which is recalled is equated to the
form of that which is perceived .
Further along there begins a stage at which delimitation of the
group of secondary members of the sentence presents an obstacle to the
equalizing influence of the main members, even though they , too , are
given in perception . It can be noticed that at times the group of main
members of the sentence is joined by finely varying relations, which is
in contrast to the crudely and monotonously related group of secondary
members . Examples are : My zhivem v derevyannov domov instead of My
zhivem v derevyannykh domakh We live in wooden houses ; Rebyata
prochitali interesnoy knigoy [ instead of Rebyata prochitali
interesnuyu knigu The fellows_read an interesting book ) ; Deti
chitali interesnykh zhurnalakh [ instead of Deti chitali interesnyve
zhurnaly The children were reading interesting magazines ; etc.
--

One's attention is drawn by the fact that in the group of secondary

members there is a strong tendency toward " equalization" of endings
which is not now dictated by the main members, the predicate in par
ticular : the words of the group of secondary members still form a
very primitive unit by means of a mutual " levelling " of their forms,
The equalizing effect here is exerted by that which was remembered on
that which is recalled .
This nature of the organization of the secondary members does
not disappear after the new , important advance whereby the children
begin to use government as well as agreement. Now , however , the endings
of homogeneous members of the group are made equal to the first of
them , whose form is determined by the predicate . Examples are : Kupili
cherepakhu, rybu , ēzhiku (instead of Kupili cherepakhu , rybu, ézhika
They bought a turtle , a fish , a porcupine ; Poymali zhukov , babochkov ,
strekozov ( instead of Poymali zhukov, babochek , strekoz They caught
bugs, butterflies , dragon - flies . The mono tonous inflection of all
members of the sentence , which was practiced in the early stages of
sentence mastery , is maintained , as we see , longest in the group of
secondary members ; later it is restricted to a pair of neighboring
words and tends to disappear completely in the process of language

- 767 -
mastery . In the upper grades this type of inflection of the members of
a sentence is observed as an exception in especially difficult conversa
tions . Zn . I. Shif has detected it in original composition of phrases
by school children in which noun government should have been used.
Equating to the neighboring word occurred most often in the use of the
genitive of possession (Deti chitali skazku Pushkinu ( instead of Deti
chitali skazku Pushkina -- The children read a study of Pushkin's ] ) ,
the genitive of the whole (My podo shli k berege reke instead of My
podoshli k beregu reki -- We approached the bank of the river ] ), and
the geni tive of relation (Shpiona priveli k nachal'niku zastavu (in
stead of Shpiona priveli k nachal'niku zastavy The spy was taken to
the chief of the outpost ) . The close relation between the tivo nouns,
which relate to the same object, causes an inflectional form which cor
responds to the simple agreement of an adjective with the noun it modi .
fies .
In language learning one and the same " linguistic phenomenon " is
to be considered on many levels, and in this more and more new informa
tion is gained . Systematization of this information is difficult for
the deaf -mute, and he clearly shows phases characterized by the suppres
sion or exclusion of one level in the consideration of another .
Let us return to the initial period of mastering the sentence ,
In a simple unextended sentence the subject is the determining factor
in agreement. It exerts a levelling effect on the second member ( the
predicate ) . In an extended sentence its influence extends even to the
secondary members, which are only gradually freed from this influence .
In the group of these members of the sentence the " remo ten term ( the
object) requires agreement of the " proximate member ( the attribute )
with it . Consequently , there occurs here a " feedback " effect of one
member on another . And it turns out that under the influence of these
cases of agreement deaf - mutes construct sentences in which not only
the preceding member of the group of secondary members but also the
nearest main member is made to agree with the object. An example is
Vova poymali dve mukhi instead of Vova povmala dve mukhi Vova
caught two flies .
This new one- sided approach to sentence construction eliminates
that which was achieved with the former approach : agreement between
the main members and delimitation of the group of secondary members
from them are lost, and the correct conjunction of the two groups is
replaced by an incorrect joining . Thus, whether it is the earlier
described " one- sidedness" ( the first member determines the agreement)
or the " one- sidedness " just described ( the last member determines the
agreement) that is operative, the words will be inflected differently
in the two cases , but nevertheless incorrectly in both cases , The proper
agreement is possible if nei ther of the approaches is eliminated , if
both approaches conflict and raise doubts , cause a check , a search for
reasons , which has a favorable effect on the solution of a grammatical
problem . As a result of such a " two - sided " examination , a more complex
cognitive activity develops, by means of which the contradictions are
eliminated and the required result is obtained .

• 768 -
 There is no doubt that a strict and constant order of the mem
bers in the sentence makes its structure much easier to understand
and facilitates the establishment of the exact relation and necessary
inflectional change of its members . The sequence of gestures in sign
language , which coincides with the simplest sequence in a verbal sent
ence , reinforces its application in verbal speech . The role of a def
inite sequential ordering of the members of a sentence for the under
standing of these members and for the understanding of the entire
sentence is so great that any unusual and radical change of this ord
ering results in an incorrect interpretation of the sentence in the
spirit of the usual sequence of its members . It is difficult for
deaf -mutes to distinguish between the sequential ordering and the con
struction of a sentence , to achieve a Mual " concept of the sentence :
to them the construction is subordinate to spatial ordering . Therefore,
with an unusual order the correct relation between the members of the
sentence according to its structure is disturbed , Thus, if the pred
icate is separated from the subject by a pair of uninflected words, it
will agree in gender and number with the neighboring word ( the object)
and not with the subject. Examples are : Papa (ochen ' teplo odela Veru
instead of Papa (ochen ! teplo odel Veru Papa dressed Vera very
warmly]: Devochka ochen ' khorosho narisovali griby [ Instead of Devochka
(ochen : khorosho narisovala griby The girl drew the mushrooms very
well] . If the object is placed before thepredicate, in the place of
the subject, they then agree as if the object were a main member of
the sentence (as if it were the subject ). An example is : Eto derevo
posadilo nashi shkol'niki [instead of Eto derevo posadili nashi
shkol'niki -- Our school children planted this tree . Considerable
special cognitive work is required of deaf -mutes in order for them
clearly to distinguish between the sequence of the members of the sen .
tence and its structure .

12

The vocabulary of the deaf -mute child differs not only in its
contents but in the meaning of the words in it. This must affect the
reproduction of words in constructing a sentence .
Observations of deaf -mutes give evidence that the meaning of a
word included in a sentence does not always strictly correspond to the
sense of the sentence . Two facts should be mentioned here . First , in
reciting a text, deaf -mute children replace one word with another , ob
viously different wori' whose meaning is not completely sui ted to the
For example: instead of poymal ( caught
sentence being constructed . For
they use lovil [was catching]; instead of potryasli yablonyu Tshook
the apple tree razbudili yablonyu [awakened the apple tree] ; in
stead of spit (sleeps Tég (lay down ) . Similar cases are compar
--

atively frequent. L. V. Zankov [20], with good reason , has proposed

seeing herein a manifestation of insufficient discrimination between
words which are close in meaning . There may have been deficient

- 769 -
discrimination at the time the words were being learned . However , it
is possible that differences in meaning originally existing are not re
tained in the memory , and with time the similarity between words becomes
identity of the words . So - called contamination of meanings does not
play the ultimate role in this process of the merger of meanings . We
believe it probable that words which are close in meaning have their
own peculiar fate in the memory of deaf -mutes ,
The second fact consists of the following : deaf -mute children
use a word whose meaning is not completely appropriate to the sense of
the sentence but whose " appearance has great similarity with that of
the required word . Some examples are : Skol'ki uplatili za vskhod ?
How much did you pay for the ascension ? ) instead of za vkhod for_ad
mittance ]: Skol'ko porucheno deneg?(How much money was entrusted ?).
instead of polucheno (received : Dozhdik vivet [ ft is_twisting rain ]
instead of llyét [It is pouring ]: ego vina Zhis fault] is reproduced as
ego vino _his wine ); the word polzayet crawls is chosen instead of
olezen [usefu17.
Thus, words of different wappearance " with relatively small and
fine distinctions in meaning merge together and lose the individuality
of their meanings . To them are added words that are of completely dif
ferent meaning but of similar phonetic shape , which take on a meaning
from the group to which they are joined .
Generalizing the data from theworks of L. V. Zankov [28], zn .
I. Shif [927, and N. G. Morozova (447, we assert that with deaf -mutes
there arise groups of words which
have been equated in meaning but
which have completely different or distinct meanings in the language.
The conversion of words into synonyms is characteristic of the change
of meanings in the vocabulary of deaf - mutes .
On the other hand , the isolation of groups of words joined by
community of meanings is greater in deaf -mutes than in normal people .
The isolated groups are more sharply distinguished from one another in
their meaning than is the case with normal people . Here , in particular,
is found one of the reasons for the difficulties of substituting equiv
alent words in reproducing a story by deaf -mutes, and consequently a
reason for the complexity of retelling a story " in their own words . "
For example, pribezhali (k mame s ryboy) [they ran ( to mama with a
fish )] or otdali (mame rybu) [ they gave ( The fish to mama) ] were never
replaced by the word prinesli [ they brought] , which normal children used
readily in this case , We must also mention the surprisingly sharp and
complete isolation of the forms of one and the same noun , verb , or other
inflected part of speech . Thus shchami ( pakhnet shchami) [cabbage soup
( there is a smell of cabbage soup has for deaf -mutes relation to the
word shchi (cabbage soup] and is not understood ; kadushkami [tubs]is
in no way related to kadushka [ tub]: konets [ end] has no kinship with
konchik (tip ]; sizhu [I sit has no relation to sidit [he sitsT; etc.
Smaller difference in meanings within groups and greater distinction
between groups make up one of the features of the speech system of

- 770 -
deaf -mute school children ; this develops as early as the end of the
early grades and does not completely disappear in the last grades.
This feature has a deleterious effect on the reproduction of
words . Strictly selective reproduction of a word is at times greatly
hindered by the lack of a special meaning for it. And where selective
reproduction is possible , it is done according to simpler rules . In
stead of the appropriate word , a word having a meaning typical for the
majority of words in the given group is reproduced . The most commonly
used meaning is given preference . In this case the chief role is played
by the vividness of the example or the emotionality of the happening at
which the meaning of the word was explained . A word that was in use
with the child not long before also had obvious advantages. The repro
duction of a word is strongly affected by the presence or absence of
the object it denotes, a point which is very evident in the first years
of junior school age .
If, in addition , we bear in mind the groups of words which rep
resent modifications of one and the same word , for example , the inflec
tions of a verb for person , number , and gender or the inflections of a
noun for case and number , then we can at once understand the exceptional
difficulty of strictly selective reproduction of a word in the very spe
cific form required by its role in the sentence . The diversity of mean
ings of one and the same word in its various inflectional forms gains
an ever subtiler differentiation over the course of a number of years .
An external expression of the complexity of mastery of the gram
matical structure of language by deaf -mutes is the ungrammaticality of
their speech .
Let us examine the forms in which deaf -mutes reproduce nouns in
composing sentences , The study of Zh . I. Shif [927 showed that deaf
mute school children of senior age achieve a certain accuracy in dis
criminating the grammatical expression of spatial , objective, and
instrumental relations . But fine discrimination of spatial relations,
the result of which is their distribution among various cases , does not
yet occur in deaf -mutes . There is a clear tendency to use one of these
cases for the expression of relationships, the case which expresses the
most obvious and simple relation being dominant . For spatial relations,
for example, the prepositional case is preferred , and the accusative
case is only gradually brought into use over the years.
Thus, the use of a case depends on the character of relations it
expresses , The children succeed comparatively easily and early in us
ing a noun in the instrumental case when it denotes an instrument and
is the means by which the action is accomplished . Using the dative
case , however , of a noun which denotes the indirect person or object
to which the action is directed is very difficult . Such use requires
an extremely fine differentiation of the expression of relations; it is ,
after all , a question here of one of the many forms of the relations of
the subject to the object or person. How do children behave if they do
not succeed in the correct reproduction of the case? They use the noun

• 771 -
in one of the two other cases that express the relation between sub
ject and object : the accusative or genitive case . Here there is a
noticeable tendency to use primarily the one form which expresses a
direct transfer of action from subject to object , i.e. the accusative
case (obnyal syna [ embraced the son ], vzyal knigu [took the book7 ).
Thus, the difficulty of reproducing the words necessary to com
pose a sentence is not limited to cases of separating out one word from
among others of similar meaning but is complicated by the existence of
words close in sound which differ in meaning , in particular , by the
existence of the various grammatical forms of the same word , with re
spect to which a sufficient degree of differentiation has not been
achieved . The resulting complexity in searching for the required word
is clearly manifested in the fact that instead of the appropriate word
another word is used which differs rather considerably in meaning, which
is , figuratively speaking , comparatively " far " from the required word
in the speech system of normal children but which is " right alongside "
it for the deaf -mute . Thus , instead of the designation of the entire
object, the deaf-mute will use a word denoting its part ( a scoop shaped
like a duck -- " head " ), its property ( a picture of a polecat " yel
low " ) , its purpose ( a penholder -- ito writen ); at times the name of
the object is replaced by designation of the situation in which the
presence of this object is characteristic ( a toy sailor " steam
ship " ) .
The properties of verbal images their integrity and inner
differentiation , stability and flexibility are mutually dependent.
Their improvement is necessary in the process of language learning .
At the same time , the aggregate of these properties, and also changes
in them , are closely tied to the development of the meaning of a word .
The nature of the word image is manifested with extreme clarity in the
composition of sentences . To a considerable degree it conditions the
linking and joining of words into a sentence .
The general laws of child development assume a special form where
the development of the deaf-mute child is concerned . This is determined
by the fact that there is an unusual relationship between the child and
his environment as a result of his defect .
In the psychology of abnormal children it is useful to distin
guish between the child's environments and the " conditions of the
child's development . " The same environment differs sharply with re
spect to the conditions for the development of a normal child and a
deaf -mute child . In an excellent environment the deaf child can have
at best good or even average conditions for development, while in
the same environment the conditions of development are optimal for
the normal child . A well equipped mass school created extremely favor
able conditions for the development of normal children ; it may be un
favorable for deaf -mutes . And this is understandable : the environ
mental requirements of the deaf -mute child with respect to conditions
for development are different from those of the normal child .

• 772 -
 The deaf -mute does not receive from the environment much of
what the normal child receives . As a result of deafness and dumbness ,
the channel , figuratively speaking , by which external stimuli enter
his head is not only greatly restricted but, in addition , transmits
these stimuli in a completely different proportion : some forms of
stimulus are transmitted in slight and others in insignificant
amounts .
A necessary condition for normal child development is systematic ,
intense increase of the amount, variety , and complexity of external
stimulations . The greatly reduced sum of stimulation reaching the deaf
infant grows extremely slowly with respect to quantity and especially
quality in subsequent years. By the same token the externally evoked
and organized actions of the child are less varied and complex than
those observed in the behavior of normal children ; their enrichment and
improvement take place slowly. Consequently , in the first years after
birth the difference in the conditions of development is increased , and
increased in a way that is unfavorable for the deaf child .
An important expansion in the stream of stimuli can occur only
if new and special paths are created for it. This the intervention of
deaf -mute pedagogy does . It is true that the creation of these paths
requires time and is a complex task of teaching . Nonetheless, the work
of deaf -muto pedagogy , as a rule brings about a turn in the child's
development since the quality of the effects of the environment is
increased as well as the quantity . This occurs because the expansion
is , to a considerable degree , in stimuli that completely replace the
acoustic stimuli or that are in some measure equivalent to them . The
improvement of the conditions of the deaf. child's development consists
in the fact that the stimuli of the environment that develop him become
accessible to him in growing measure and improving composition ,
Based on what has been said , the path of development of the deaf
mute child is represented in the following form : the difference in psy
chic activity between the deaf -mute and the normal child , which is
slight at the beginning of development, increases as time passes ; this
continues until a certain stage is reached and then , as a result of the
intervention of deaf -mute pedagogy , the difference no longer increases
but begins to decrease . In other words, during the first period the
path of development deviates more and more from the path of development
of the normal child and then , as a result of changed conditions of
life , turns in the direction of the development of the normal child .
The earlier the work of deaf - mute pedagogy begins , the less the deviation
of development from the " normal path . The subsequent approach to the
direction of development of the normal child is dependent upon the ef
fectiveness with which the deleterious effect of deafness - and - dumbness
is eliminated .
Just as in typical cases of compensation in general , compensa
tion in deaf -mutes must be understood in a dual sense . On the one
hand , the phenomenon of substitution is here manifested in the forma
tion of new channels for environmental stimuli to replace the affected

• 773 -
channels ( for example , visual perception of oral speech instead of
auditory perception ) . On the other hand , the elimination of the
deleterious effect of the affliction is manifested in a turning of
the path of development in the direction of the normal path .
In accordance with this, the efforts of Soviet deaf -mute peda
gogues are also directed along two main paths. First, they are di
rected toward the development of the most effective methods of estab
lishing communication between the child and his environment and
primarily toward more rapid, early , and stable mastery of verbal
speech ; second, they are directed toward such a training and education
as will provide the most varied and highest development possible of the
deaf -mute child .

- 774 -
 LITERATURE

1. Ye . I. Andreyeva, " Work on the Understanding of Figurative

Expressions in Schools for Deaf -Mutes , " Uchenwe zapiski LGPI imeni
A. I. Gertsena (Academic Reports of LGPI Leningradskiy
Gosudarstvennyy Pedagogicheskiy Institut -- Leningrad State Pedagogic
Institute ] imeni A. I. Gertsen ), Vol . 171 , Department of Deaf-Mute
Pedagogy , Leningrad , 1959 .
2 . A. N. Artobolevskiy , " Study of Elements of Geometry in
Schools for Deaf -Mutes , " Izvestiya APN RSFSR ( APN RSFSR Gazette ) , No.
88 , 1957 .
3. E. S. Beyn , " The Magnitude of a Distant Object in the Per
ception of Mentally Retarded and Deaf -Mute School Children , " Sb .
voprosy psikhologii glukhonemykh i ustvenno otstalykh detey (Anthol .
ogy : Problems of the Psychology of Deaf-Mute and Mentally Retarded
Children ), Edi tors , I. I. Danyushevskiy and L. V. Zankov, State Texto
book and Pedagogic Publishing House , Moscow, 1940 .
3a . V. I. Bel ' tyukov and L. V. Neyman , Vospriyatiye zvukov rechi
pri normal'nom i narushennom slukhe (Perception of Speech Sounds with
Normal and Defective Hearing ), Academy of Pedagogic Sciences RSFSR Pub
Lishing House , 1958,
4. Ye . S. Borishpol'skiy , Glukhonemoy i ego dushevny_mir ( The
Deaf -Mute and his Spiritual World ) , Saint Petersburg , 1900 .
5. R. M. Boskis, " On the Development of the Phonetic Aspect of
Speech in Children , " Sovetskaya pedagogika (Soviet Pedagogy ), No. 6,
1938 .
6. R. M. Boskis, o razvitii slovesnoy rechi glukhonemogo
shkol'nika ( On the Development of Verbal Speech by the Deaf -Mute School
Child ) , State Textbook and Pedagogic Publishing House, Moscow , 1939 .
7. R. M. Boskis, " Features of the Speech Development of the
Deaf -Mute Child , " Uchenye zapiski MGPI imeni V. I. Lenina ( Academic
Reports of MGPI Moskovskiy Gosudarstvennyy Pedagogicheskiy Institut
Moscow State Pedagogic Institute ] imeni V. I. Lenin ), Vol. 36, 1946 .
8. R. M. Boskis, " Features of Speech Development in Children
with a Damaged Auditory Analyzer , " Izvestiya APN RSFSR ( APN RSFSR Ga
zette) , No. 48 , 1953.
9. R. M. Boskis and N. G. Morozova, "On the Development of
Speech Mimicry by the Deaf -Mute Child , " Uchebno - vospitatel'nava rabota
v shkolakh dlya glukhonemykh í vspomogatel'nykh shkolakh ( Training
and Education in Schools for Deaf-Mutes and Auxiliary Schools) , No. 7,
1939 .
10. I. Vasil'yev , Metodika obucheniya glukhonemykh rechi , pis'mu
i chtenipu (Methodology for Teaching Deaf-Mutes to Speak , Read, and
Write ), Saint Petersburg , 1900 .
11. V. Ya , Vasilevskaya and B. D. Korsunskaya , " On the Naming of
Objects by Deaf -Mute School Children , " Uchebno - vospitatel'naya rabota
v shkolakh dlya glukhonemykh i vspomogatel'nykh shkolakh ( Training and
Education in Schools for Deaf -Mutes and Auxiliary Schools), No. 2 , 1941 .

- 775 -
 12. K. I. Verestoskaya , " Recognition of Pictures of Objects as
Dependent on their Spatial Orientation , " Sb . voprosy psikhologii
glukhonemykh i umstvenno otstalykh detey (Anthology : Problems of the
Psychology of Deaf-Mute and Mentally Retarded Children ), Editors , I.
I. Danyushevskiy and L. V. Zankov , State Textbook and Pedagogic Pub
lishing House , Moscow , 1940 .
13. Ukrayn ' skiy visnik eksperimental'noy pedagogiki ta
refleksologiy (in Ukrainian ] , ( Ukrainian Herald of Experimental Peda
gogy and Reflexology ) Ukrainian State Publishing House, No. 3-4 ,
1923–1929 .
14. T. A. Vlasova, Ovliyanii narusheniya slukha na razvitiye
rebenka ( On the Effect of loss of Hearing on Child Development), Acad
emy of Pedagogic Sciences Publishing House , Moscow , 1954,
15. Vserossiyskoye soveshchaniye po voprosam obucheniya i
vospitaniya glukhonemykh detey ( All -Russian Conference on Problems of
Training and Education of Deaf -Mute Children ), Abstracts of Reports by
I. I. Danyushevskiy, R, M. Boskis, V. V. Oppel ' , F. A. Rau, Ye. G.
Lastochkina, F. I. Ryazanov, and M. L. Shkolvskiy, People's Commis
sariat of Education RSFSR Publishing House , Moscow - Leningrad , 1938 .
16. L. S. Vygotskiy , Izbrannve psikhologicheskiye issledovaniya
( Selected Psychological Studies ) , Editors, A. N. Leontiyev and A. R.
Luriya, Academy of Pedagogic Sciences RSFSR Publishing House , 1956.
17. M. I. Glebova , Upotreblenive vidov russkogo glagola i
glagol'nykh form vremeni v pismennoy rechi glukhonemykh shkol'nikov
(Use of the Aspects and Tenses of Russian Verbs in Writing by Deaf
Mute School Children ), Author's Abstract of His Candidate's Disserta
tion , Moscow , 1958 .
18 , A. P. Gozova , " Features of Tactile and Visual Perception of
Plane and Three Dimensional Objects by Deaf - Mute School Children , "
Doklady APN RSFSR ( Reports of APN RSFSR ), No. 4, 1957 .
19 . A. P. Gozova , " On the correlation of the Whole and its
Parts in the Learning of Fractions by Deaf -Mute School Children ,'
Spetsial'naya shkola (Special Schools ), No. 5 , 1958.
20 . A. P. Gozova , " Visual - Image Thought of Deaf -Mute School
Children in Solving Practical Problems , " Trudy II nauchnov sessii po
defektologii (Works of the II Scientific Session on Defectology ) ,
Academy of Pedagogic Sciences RSFSR Publishing House , 1959 .
21 .
O A. M. Gol'dberg, " Contribution to the Problem of the
Features of Deaf -Mute School Children's Mastery of Word Meaning , "
Tezisy dokladov nauchnoy sessii po voprosam defektologii ( Abstracts
of Reports of the Scientific Session on Problems of Defectology ),
Academy of Pedagogic Sciences RSFSR Publishing House , Moscow , 1955.
22. A. M. Goldberg , " On Independent Verbal Transmission of
Perceptions by Junior Deaf -Mute School Children , " Doklad na I slvezde
obshchestva psikhologov: tezisy dokladov ( Report at the I Congress of
the Society of Psychologists: Abstracts of Reports ) , Academy of Ped
agogic Sciences RSFSR Publishing House , No. 1 , 1959 .

• 776 -
 23. I. I. Danyushevskiy and L. V. Zankov, Voprosy psikhologii
glukhonemykh i umstvenno otstalykh detey (Problems of the Psychology
of Deaf -Mute and Mentally Retarted Children ) , State Textbook and Peda
gogic Publishing House , Moscow , 1940 .
24. I. I. Danyushevskiy and L. V. Zankov , Voprosy vospitaniya
i obucheniya olukhonenykh i umstvenno otstalykh detey (Problems of
Training and Education of Deaf-Mute and Mentally Retarded Children ),
State Textbook and Pedagogic Publishing House , Moscow , 1941 .
25. A. I. Dyachkov , Vospitaniye i obucheniye glukhonemykh
detey ( Training and Education of Deaf -Mute Children ), Academy of Ped
agogic Sciences RSFSR Publishing House, 1957 .
26 . L. V. Zankov , " On Corrective Education in Special Schools , "
Uchebno - vospitatel'naya rabota v spetsial'nykh shkolakh ( Training and
Education in Special Schools ) , No. 1, 1947.
27. L. V. Zankov and D. M. Mayants, " Memory and Reproduction of
Objects by Normal and Deaf -Mute Children of Pre - School Age, " Sb . voprosy
psikhologii glukhonemykh i umstvenno otstalykh detey ( Anthology : Prob
lems of the Psychology of Deaf -Mute and Mentally Retarded Children ) ,
Editors, I. I. Danyushevskiy and L. V. Zankov, State Textbook and Ped
agogic Publishing House, Moscow , 1940 .
28. L. V. Zankov and I. M. Solovlyev , Ocherki psikhologii
glukhonemogo rebenka ( Essays on the Psychology of the Deaf- Mute Child )
State Textbook and Pedagogic Publishing House , Moscow , 1940 .
29. S. A. Zykov, Obucheniye glukhonemykh detey gramote ( Teach
ing Deaf -Mute Children to Read and Write ) , Academy of Pedagogic
Sciences RSFSR Publishing House , 1947 .
30. V. I. Kazakov, " Understanding and use of Words by Deaf
Mute School Children , " Izvestiya APN RSFSR ( APN RSFSR Gazette ), No. 9 ,
1947 .
31. V. I. Kazakov , " On the State of Speech in Deaf - Mute Chil
dren of Pre -School Age , " Tezisy nauchnoy sessii po vopro sam defektologii
( Abstracts of the Scientific Session of Problems of Defectology) ,
Academy of Pedagogic Sciences RSFSR Publishing House, 1955 .
32. S. V. Kravkov , Vzaimodeystviye organov chuvstv ( Interaction
of the Sense Organs ), Academy of Sciences USSR Publishing House, 1947.
33. Ye . M. Kudryavtseva, " Change in Recognition of Objects Dur
ing the Development of Students , " Doklady APN RSFSR (Reports of APN
RSFSR ) , No. 2, 1957 .
34. N. M. Lagovskiy , Obucheniye glukhonemykh ustnoy rechi ( Teach
ing Spoken Language to Deaf-Mutes) , Saint Petersburg, 1901, 2nd Edition ,
1911 .
35 . D, M, Mayants , " Reproduction of a Story by Deaf -Mute School
Children , " Uchebno - vospitatel'naya rabota v shkolakh dlya glukhonemykh
i vspomogatel'nykh shkolakh ( Training and Education in Schools for Deaf
Mutes and Auxiliary Schools), No. 2, 1940 .
36. D. M. Mayants, " Features of Retention and Reproduction of
Verbal Material in Deaf -Mute School children , " Ibid ., No. 11-12 , 1940 .

- 777 -
 37. D. M. Mayants , " Reproduction of Phrases by Deaf -Mute
School Children , " Ibid . , No. 5, 1940 .
38. D. M. Mayants, " Memory and Reproduction of Verbal Mater
ial by Deaf -Mute School Children , " Sb . voprosy vospitaniya i
obucheniya glukhonemykh i umstvenno otstalykh detey ( Anthology : Prob
lems of Training and Education of Deaf -Mute and Mentally Retarded Chil
dren ) , Editors, I. I. Danyushevskiy and L. V. Zankov, State Textbook
and Pedagogic Publishing House, Moscow, 1941 .
39. D. M. Mayants, "On the Verbal Speech of Students in the
First class of a School for Deaf -Mutes , " Uchebno - vospitatel'naya
rabota v spetsial'nykh shkolakh ( Training and Education in Special
Schools) , No. 3 , 1946 .
40. N. G. Morozova and B. D. Korsunskaya , O postanovke
ponyatiy v mladshikh klassakh shkoly glukhonemykh (on Organization of
Concepts in Junior Classes of Schools for Deaf-Mutes) , State Textbook
and Pedagogic Publishing House , Moscow , 1939 .
41. N. G. Morozova , " On Independent Written Language of the
Deaf -Mute School Child , " Uchenwe zapiski MGPI imeni V. I. Lenina (AC
ademic Reports of MGPI imeni V. I. Lenin ) , Vol . 49 , No. 3, Moscow ,
1947 .
42. N. G. Morozova, " On the Understanding of a Text, " Izvestiva
APN RSFSR ( APN RSFSR Gazette ), No. 7 , 1947 .
43. N. G. Morozova , " Understanding and Use of Prepositions by
Deaf -Mute School Children , " Uchebno - vospitatel'naya rabota v
spetsial'nykh shkolakh ( Training and Education in Special Schools ),
No. 2 , 1952 .
44. N. G. Morozova , O vospitanii so znatel'nogochteniya u
glukhonenykh shkollnikov (on Teaching Reading Comprehension to Deaf
Mute School Children ) , State Textbook and Pedagogic Publishing House ,
Moscow , 1953.
45. N. G. Morozova, " The State and course of Development of
Special Psychology , " Trudy nauchnoy sessii po defektologii (Works of
the Scientific Session on Defectology) , Academy of Pedagogic Sciences
RSFSR Publishing House, 1958 .
46. N. G. Morozova, " Features of Language Learning by Pre
School Deaf - Mutes , " Ibid .
47. N. G. Morozova and B. D. Korsunskaya ( ed . ) , Obucheniye i
vospitaniye eluchonemykh detey do shkol'nogo vozrasta ( Training and
Education of Deaf-Mute Children of Pre- School Age) , Academy of Ped
agogic Sciences RSFSR Publishing House, 1958 .
48. M. Mi. Nudel'man , " On the Change in Visual Images in Forget
ting in Deaf -Mute and Mentally Retarded Children , " Sb . voprosy
psikhologii glukhonemykh i umstvenno otstalykh detey ( Anthology: Proba
lems of the Psychology of Deaf -Mute and Mentally Retarded Children ) ,
State Textbook and Pedagogic Publishing House, Moscow , 1940 .

• 778 .
 49. M. M. Nudel'man , " On the Change of Similar Representations
in Mentally Retarded and Deaf -Mute School Children , " Sb . voprosy
vospitaniya i obucheniya glukhonenykh i umstvenno otstalykh detey ( An
thology : Problems of Training and Education of Deaf-Mute and Mentally
Retarded Children ) , State Textbook and Pedagogic Publishing House,
Moscow , 1941 .
50. M. M. Nudel'man , " Psychologico - Pedagogical Characteristics
in the System of Study of the Deaf -Mute School Child , " Uchebno
vospitatel'naya rabota v spetsial'nykh shkolakh ( Training and Education
in Special Schools) , No. 3-4 , 1948 .
51. M. M. Nudel'man , " Naming of Sounding Objects by Deaf-Mute
School children , " Sb . razvitive poznavatel'nov deyatel'nosti
glukhonemykh detey (Anthology : Development of Cognition in Deaf -Mute
Children ) , Editor , I. M. Soloviyev , State Textbook and Pedagogic Pub
lishing House , Moscow , 1957 .
52. V. V. Oppel ' , " Kinetic Speech of the Deaf , " Sb .
glukhonemo ta, glukhota, tugoukhost' ( Anthology : Deaf -Muteness, Deaf
ness , Hardness of Hearing ), Leningrad , 1936 .
53. I. P. Pavlov , Poln . sobr . soch ( Complete Collected Works) ,
2nd edition ( no date of publication given ) , Vol . 4, page 122 .
54 . N. F. Pongil'skaya , " On Some Features of the Understanding
of Nouns by Deaf -Mute Children , " Izvestiva APN RSFSR ( APN RSFSR Gam
zette ) , No. 9, 1947 .
55. V. G. Petrova , K psikhologii vosproizvedeniya slovesnogo
materiala glukhonemnymi shkol'nikami (Contribution to the Psychology
of Reproduction of Verbal Material by Deaf - Mute School Children ),
Author's Abstract of His Candidate's Dissertation , Institute of De
fectology of the Academy of Pedagogic Sciences RSFSR , Moscow , 1951 .
56. A. N. Porosyatnikov, " Comparative Study of Visual Percep
tions and Features of Memory in Normal and Deaf -Mute Children of School
Age , " Trudy vserossiyskogo s'yezda po vospitaniyu , obucheniyu i
prizreniyu glukhonemykh (Works of the All -Russian Congress on Training ,
Education , and care of Deaf -Mutes ) , Moscow , 1911 .
57. Razvi tiye poznavatel'noy, deyatel'nosti glukhonemykh detey .
sravnitel'nyye psikhologicheskiye issledovaniya glukhonemykh i
slyshashchikh detev, sb . (Development of Cognition in Deaf-Mute Chil
dren . Comparative Psychological Studies of Deaf -Mute and Normal Chil
dren , Anthology ), Editor , I. M. Soloviyev , State Textbook and Pedagogic
Publishing House , Moscow , 1957 .
58. N. A. Rau , Doshkol'noye vospitaniye glukhonemykh ( Pre
School Education of Deaf-Mutes) , State Textbook and Pedagogical Publish
ing House , Moscow , 1947 .
59. F. A. Rau , " On Deaf -Muteness , Deafness , and Hardness of Hear
ing , " Uchenwe zapiski MGPI imeni V. I.
Lenina ( Academic Reports of MGPI
imeni V. I. Lenin ) , Vol. 26, 1946.

• 779 -
 60. F. F. Rau, " Teaching Lip Reading , " Uchenye zapiski ( AC
ademic Reports ), Vol . 36 , Department of Deaf-Mute Pedagogy, No. 1 ,
Publishing House of MGPI imeni V. I. Lenin , 1946 .
61. F. F. Rau , L. V. Neyman , and V. I. Bel ' tyukov,
Ispolizovaniye i razvitive slukhovogo vosprivatiya u olukhonemykh
uchashchikhsya (Use and Development of Auditory Perception in Deaf
Mute Students ) , Academy of Pedagogic Sciences RSFSR Publishing House,
1954 .
62 . T. V. Rozanova , " Study of the Motor Memory of Deaf- Mute
School Children , " Doklady APN RSFSR (Reports of APN RSFSR ), No. 4,
1957 .
63. T. V. Rozanova , " Some Features of Image Memory of Deaf
Mute Children , " Spetsial'naya shkola (Special Schools ), No. 1 ( 84 ) ,
1958 .
64 . T. V. Rozanova , " On Deaf -Mute Children's Memory of Mater
ial Communicated in various Spoken Forms, " Spetsial'naya shkola ( Spe
cial Schools ), No. 3 ( 86) , 1958 .
65. T. V. Rozanova, " Development of Motor Memory of Deaf -Mute
and Normal School Children , " Tezisy dokladov na i s'yezde obshchestva
psikhologov ( Abstracts of Reports at the I Congress of the Society of
Psychologists), No. 1 , Academy of Pedagogic Sciences RSFSR Publishing
House , 1959 .
66. V. S. Sverlov , Prostranstvennaya oriyentirovka slepykh
( Spatial Orientation of the Blind ) , State Textbook and Pedagogic Pub
lishing House , Moscow , page 61 , 1951 .
67. I. M. Sechenov, Izbr . proizv. ( Selected Works ), Academy
of Sciences USSR Publishing House , Moscow -Leningrad , 1952.
68. I. A. Sokolyanskiy , " On Lip Reading , " Uchebno
vospitatel'naya rabota v spetsial'nykh shkolakh ( Training and Education
in Special Schools) , No. 1 , State Textbook and Pedagogic Publishing
House , Moscow , 1944 .
69. I. M. Soloviyev , " On Features of the Thought of Deaf - Mute
School Children , " Uchebno- vospitatel'naya rabota v spetsial'nykh
shkolakh ( Training and Education in Special Schools), No. 1, 1944 .
70. I. M. Soloviyev, " On the Pathological Change of Speech
Representations, " Izvestiya APN RSFSR (APN RSFSR Gazette ) , No. 15 ,
1948 .
71. I. M. Soloviyev ( ed . ) , Osobennosti poznavatel'noy
deyatel'nosti uchashchikhsya vspomogatel'noy shkoly (Features of
the Perception of Students in Auxiliary Schools ) , Academy of Peda
agogic Sciences RSFSR Publishing House, 1953 .
72. I. M. Soloviyev , " On the Features of Verbal Designations
of Objects by Deaf -Mute School Children , " Trudy nauchnoy sessii po
defektologii (Works of the Scientific Session on Defectology ) , Academy
of Pedagogic Sciences RSFSR Publishing House , 1958 .
73. I. M. Soloviyev , " On the Value of Training of Non - Speech
Hearing for the Development of Cognition in Deaf -Mute Children , " Sb .
ostatochny slukh u tugoukhikh i glukhonerykh detey ( Anthology : Re
sidual Hearing in Partially Deaf and Deaf -Mute Children ) , Academy of
Pedagogic Sciences RSFSR Publishing House , 1957 .

- 780 -
 74. I. M. Soloviyev , " On the Psychology of Tactile Perception , "
Tezisy dokladov na soveshchanii po vopro sam psikhologii poznaniya 20-22
Maya 1957 goda ( Abstracts of Reports at the Conference on Problems of
the Psychology of Cognition 20-22 May 1957 ) , Academy of Sciences USSR ,
Insti tute of Philosophy, Sector of Psychology , Moscow , 1957 .
75. I. M. Soloviyev, " Tactile Perception and the Features of
its Development in Deaf - Mute Children , " Sb . razvitive poznavatel'noy
deyatel'nosti glukhonemykh detey ( Anthology : Development of cognition
in Deaf -Mute Children ) , Editor , I. M. Soloviyev, State Textbook and
Pedagogic Publishing House , Moscow , 1957 .
76. I. M. Soloviyev, " Perception of the Surrounding Environ .
ment and its Features in Deaf -Mute Children , " Sb . razvi tiye poznavatel ' .
noy deyatel'nosti u glukhonemykh detey ( Anthology: Development of
Cognition in Deaf-Mute Children ) , Editor , I. M. Soloviyev , State Text
book and Pedagogic Fublishing House, Moscow , 1957 .
77. I. M. Soloviyev and Ye . I. Obozova , " On Perception of Ob
jects by Deaf -Mute School Children by Means of Touching and Drawing
Them , " Sb . razvitiye pomavatel'noy devatel'nosti glukhonemykh detey
( Anthology : Development of cognition in Deaf-Mute Children ) , Editor ,
I. M. Soloviyev , State Textbook and Pedagogic Publishing House , Moscow ,
1957 .
78. I. M. Soloviyev ( ed . ), Razvitive poznavatel'noy devatel'nosti
glukhonemykh detey (Development of Cognition in Deaf -Mute Children ) , State
Textbook and Pedagogic Publishing House , Moscow , 1957 .
79. I. M. Soloviyev , " Analysis of Perceived Objects in the Develop
ment of Normal and Deaf -Mute School Children , " Tezisy dokladov na I sivezde
obshchestva psikhologov ( Abstracts of Reports at the I Congress of the
Society of Psychologists ) , No. 1 , Academy of Pedagogical Sciences RSFSR
Publishing House , 1959 .
80. M. A. Tomilova , Razvitive samostovatel'noy rechi u
glukhonemykh uchashchikhsya Development of Independent Speech in Deaf
Mute Students) , State Textbook and Pedagogic Publishing House, Moscow,
1952.
81 . Trudy nauchnoy sessii po defektologii (Works of the Scientific
Session on Defectology ) , Academy of Pedagogic Sciences RSFSR Publishing
House , 1958 .
82. Trudy vtoroy nauchnoy sessii po defektologii (Works of the
Second Scientific Session on Defectology ) , Academy of Pedagogic Sciences
Publishing House , 1959 .
83. V. Fleri . Glukhonemyye , passmatrivayemyye votnoshenii k
ikh sostoyaniyu i k sposoban obrazovaniya , samym svoystvennym ikh
prirode (Deaf-Mutes in Relation to their Condition and to the Means of
Education Most Proper to Their Nature), Saint Petersburg , 1835 .
84. M. Ye. Khvattsev , " On the Development of the Process of
Reading in Students of the Preparatory Class of Schools for Deaf -Mutes,
Izvestiya APN RSFSR ( APN RSFSR Gazette ) , No. 9 , 1947 .

• 781 -
 85. M. Ye . Khvattsev, " The Written Speech of Deaf -Mutes in its
Correlation with Spoken Speech , " Uchenyye zapiski LGPI imeni A. I.
Gertsena ( Academic Reports of LGPI imeni A. I. Gertsen ) , No. 38 (no
date of publication given ).
86. S. N. Shabalin, " On Compiling the Characteristics of the
Deaf -Mute School Child , " Uchenwe zapiski LGPI imeni A. I. Gertsena
( Academic Reports of LGPI imeni A. I. Gertsen ) , Vol . 171, Leningrad ,
1959 .
87. F. N. Shemyakin , " Development of the Hand in the Child's
First Year of Life , " Uchenwe zapiski instituta psikhologii ( Academic
Notes of the Institute of Psychology ) , Vol . 2 , Moscow , 1941.
88. Zh . I. Shif, " Selection of Similar Color Shades and Naming
of Colors ( A Comparative Study of Deaf-Mute, Mentally Retarded , and
Normal Children ) , " Sb . voprosy psikhologii glukhonemykh i umstvenno
otstalykh detey (Anthology : Problems of the Psychology of Deaf-Mute
and Mentally Retarded Children ) , State Textbook and Pedagogic Publish
ing House , Moscow , 1940 .
89. zn . I. Shif, " Comparison of Objects and Establishment of
Similarity by Deaf -Mute School Children , " Uchebno- vospitatel'naya rabota
v shkolakh glukhonemykh i v vspomogatel'nykh shkolakh ( Training and Edu
cation in Schools for Deaf-Mutes and in Auxiliary Schools ) , No. 1 , 1940.
90. zn . I. Shif, " On the Difficulties of Differentiating the
Grammatical Cases for Deaf - Mute School Children , ” Ibid . , No. 11-12 , 1940.
91. zn . I. Shif, " On the Psychology of Comparison , " Sb . voprosy
vospitaniva i obucheniya olukhonemykh i umstvenno otstalykh detey (An
thology : Problems of Training and Education of Deaf-Mute and Mentally
Retarded Children ), State Textbook and Pedagogic Publishing House, Mos
cow , 1941 .
92 . Zh . I. Shif , " Psychological Analysis of the Deaf -Mute's Un
grammaticality , " Uchebno - vospitatel'naya rabota v spetsial'nykh shkolakh
( Training and Education in Special Schools), No. 1 , 1944.
93. zn . I. Shif, " On the Learning of the Simplest Semantic and
Grammatical Forms by Deaf -Mute School Children , " Sovetskaya pedagogika
( Soviet Pedagogy ) , No. 16 , 1944 .
94. zn . I. Shif, B. D. Korsunskaya, and N. S. Rozhdestvenskiy ,
Tablitsy po russkomu yazyku . po sobive dlya uchiteley shkol glukhonenykh
(Russian Language Tables. An Aid for Teachers of Schools for Deaf -Mutes) ,
State Textbook and Pedagogic Publishing House , Moscow , 1946 .
95. Zh . I. Shif , ” Psychological Features of the Learning of Ver
bal Speech by Deaf -Mute School Children , " Kniga dlya uchi telya shkoly
glukhonemykh ( A Book for the Teacher in Schools for Deaf-Mutes) , Academy
of Pedagogic Sciences RSFSR Publishing House , 1950 .
96. zn . I. Shif, O prepodavanii russkogo yazyka v nachal'nykh
klassakh shkoly glukhonemykh (On the Teaching of the Russian Language
in Beginning Classes of Schools for Deaf -Mutes) , State Textbook and
Pedagogic Publishing House , Moscow , 1952 .
97. zn . I. Shif, Ocherki psikhologii usvoveniya russkogo yazyka
glukhonemymi shkol'nikami (Essays on the Psychology of Deaf-Mute School
Children's Learning of the Russian Language) , State Textbook and Peda
gogig Publishing House , Moscow , 1954 .

782
 98. zn . I. Shif , " Some Features of the Development of Verbal
Logical Thought in Deaf - Mute School Children , " Trudy nauchnoy sessii
po defektologii (Works of the Scientific Session on Defectology) , Acad
emy of Pedagogic Sciences RSFSR Publishing House , 1958.
99 . Zh . I. Shif , " A Comparative Study of Simple and Complex
Reactions in Deaf -Mute School Children , " Sb . razvitive poznavatel'noy
deyatel'nosti u glukhonemykh detev (Anthology : Development of Cogni
tion in Deaf-Mute Children ) , Edi tor , I. M. Soloviyev, State Textbook
and Pedagogic Publishing House , Moscow , 1957 .
100 . Zh . I. Shif and I. M. Soloviyev , "On the Psychology of Vis
ual Image Thought , " Doklad na I slvezde obshchestva psikhologov . Tezisy
dokladov ( Report at the I Congress of the Society of Psychologists . Ab
stracts of Reports ), No. 1 , Academy of Pedagogic Sciences RSFSR Publish
ing House , 1959 .
101 . Zh . I. Shif , " Development of Color Perception in Normal and
Deaf -Mute Children , " Tezisy dokladov na I słyezde obshchestva psikholo
gov ( Abstracts of Reports at the I Congress of the Society of Psycholo
gists ) , No. 3 , Moscow , 1959 .
102 . L. A. Shifman , " On the Question of the Interrelation of the
Sense Organs and the Forms of Sensitivity , " Sb . issledovaniya po
psikhologii vospitaniya ( Anthology: Studies in the Psychology of
Teaching) , Editor , s . L. Rubinshteyn , Academy of Sciences USSR Publish
ing House , 1948 .
103. A. V. Yarmolenko , "On the Pre -history of the Small Child's
Need for Social Intercourse , " Uchenvye zapiski LGU . seriya filosofskikh
nauk ( Academic Reports of LGU Leningradskiy Gosudarstvennyy Universitet
Leningrad State University , Philosophical Sciences Series ), No. 11 ,
No. 244 , 1957 .
104. A. Adler , Über den nervosen charakter (on the Nervous Char
acter ) [in Germany, Verlag yon J. F. Bergmann , 4th Edition, Munich , 1928.
105. Adler and Furtmüller , Heilen und bilden ( Healing and Train
ing) (in German), Verlag von J. F. Bergmann , 2nd Edition, Munich , 1922.
106. A. Adler , der sinn des Lebens ( The Meaningof Life) (in
German ], Verlage Dr. Rolf Passer, Vienna and Leipzig , 1933.

- 783 -
 CHARACTERISTICS OF PERCEPTIONAL ACTIVITY IN THE BLIND

M. I. Zemtsova

It is customary to assume that vision plays a leading role in

orientation in space and in the various activities of man . It allows
the distinguishing of spatial signs and relationships ( shape , size ,
direction , length , movement , the relationship between the whole and
the part , and the relationship between the separate parts of the ob
ject ) . On the basis of the analysis and synthesis of the signs of the
object and their spatial properties complex visual forms are formu
lated which reflect the objects and phenomena of reality. In these
objects a whole series of purely optical symbols ( the variety of color
and light relationships , dynamic changes, perspective foreshortening,
and the like ) are included as component elements .
This promotes the consolidation and enrichment of the visual
presentations and creates favorable conditions for the process of the
cognition of reality and for the development of representations con
cerning spatial and temporal relationships between objects , concerning
the complex dynamic changes of reality . With the aid of vision man
immediately views a large number of objects at a distance . The se ob
jects are located in constantly changing temporal and spatial rela
tionships .
Visual perception plays a great role also in ontogenetic de
velopment . From the first days of life in children visual- auditory ,
visual-motor, visual - tactile , and other connections with the partici
pation of the visual component begin to be formed . This was even
shown by I. M. Sechenov and supported in a whole subsequent series of
experimental tests of different authors . Especially close connections
are formed between the visual and motor analyzers . They are the phys
iological basis of the development and perfecting of man's movements
and his ori entation in space .
It would be difficult to admit that the loss of vision , which
has such an important significance for the life and for the activity
of man , could remain without consequence for the development and for
the perceptional activity of man . However , there are many facts which
indicate that in the absence of vision man can achieve a high perfec
tion in the most varied and complex forms of activity . The problem
arises as to the development of the processes of compensation and to
the means used to overcome the difficulties arising in connection with
blindness .
The problem of compensation has great significance for clin
icians as well as for teaching specialists . It makes possible a clar
ification of the structure and composition of the disturbed functions ;
of how and by what means the restructuring of the functions occurs , of
what paths can be used to accelerate with the aid of active interfer
ence , the different types of substitution and restructuring, of how to
overcome the deleterious consequences of blindness , of what means of

- 784 -
pedagogical influence , techniques of training , education , and prepara
tion can best be used to fit persons who have lost their sight for
social - labor activity .
A series of general laws of compensation of disturbed functions
in the organism which permit the explanation of the partial forms of
compensation has been established by Soviet physiologists , clinicians ,
and psychologists on the basis of the teaching of I, M. Sechenov and
I, P._Pavlov ( the research of E. A. Asratyan 19, 101 , P. K. Anokhin
L6 , 7 , N. K. Bogolepov /111 , L. S. Vygotskiy /11/ , A , M. Zimkina /27 ,
28 , 297 , _A . N. Leont'yev _53 , 54 , 55/ , A. R. Luriya _57 , 581 , L. L.
Shik 1931 , and others ) .
In line with this research there are rich materials which have
been collected by defectologists on the study of the development of
the abnormal child in the process of training and education and which
have great significance for the understanding of the paths and means
of compensation . Such research has been carried out by a whole series
of specialists at the Institute of Defectology of the APN RSFSR /Akad -
emiya Psikhologicheskikh Nauk / ( Academy of Psychological Sciences of
the RSFSR ) and in other institutions . This research uncovered the
peculiarities of the development and the cognitive activities of child
ren in the case of various lesions of the analyzers and of the cortical
neuro - dynamic . The distinctive peculiarity of the psychologico -peda
gogical research in the study of the abnormal child consists of the
fact that it is not kept within the narrow limits of the purely labora
tory experiments , but is combined with active means of pedagogical in
fluence , and is a powerful means for raising the quality of training
and training of abnormal children , and their preparation for work .
The development of the theoretical bases of compensation and cognitive
activity of the abnormal child allows the use of the most efficient
methods and didactic techniques for the training and education of ab
normal children .
In the light of the theory of I. P. Pavlov concerning the higher
neural activity and contemporary scientific achievements in the area
of physiology the basic principles of the theory of compensation come
down to the following .
The processes of compensation are based on the reflex principle
and are subordinated to the general laws of the higher neural activity
of the normal organism .
The afferent signals arising under the influence of the sur
rounding reality have great significance for the various types of re
structuring and substitutions in the case of various lesions within
the organism . Any activity of man is controlled with the aid of the
system of afferent signals , which fulfill the functions of stimulation
to inception of activity and the functions of self - control of move
ments ( that is , the regulation of the motor acts ) .
The analyzers , with whose help reality is perceived , do not
function in an isolated fashion , but are closely connected to one an
other on the basis of the conditioned reflex principle . Depending upon

• 785 -
the content and conditions of activity , on the one hand, and on the
composition and structure of the disturbed functions , on the other ,
there are formed those complex intra -analyzer and inter -analyzer dy
namic systems of connections which ensure the processes of subtle
analysis and synthesis during the perception of reality .
In dynamic systems of connections various analyzers can ful
fill the leading role . Under recurrent and relatively unchanging con
ditions of activity , the systemic connections are characterized by a
more or less constant structure of the components . However , they are
not strictly fixed , but are constantly changing and re - organizing in
function of conditions , thanks to the exceptional plasticity of the
central nervous system . The formation of dynamic systems of connec
tions occurs most successfully in the process of organized purposive
training . In this process are revealed certain definite stages of the
development of the processes of analysis and synthesis . For any forms
of compensation the cortex of the large hemispheres of the cerebrum
secures a leading role .
Such , in most general features , are the physiological bases of
compensation in the light of the modern scientific notions. They help
to explain the general principles and the paths of substitution of the
disturbed functions in different damaged organisms .
In this work we are concerned with the partial forms of compen
sation which occur in cases of a total loss of vision .
Research on this problem has been conducted in many institu
tions : in the Leningrad Pedagogical Institute imeni Hertsen in the
faculty of typhlo - pedagogy , in the Leningrad Scientific - Research In
stitute of Work - Capacity Consultation and Work Organization for In
valids , in the Scientific - Research Institute of Defectology of the
APN RSFSR , in the Sverdlovsk Typhlo - Technical Laboratory of the Insti
tute of Defectology , and in the Chairs of Psychology in certain peda
gogical institutes .
All these research efforts were directed to explaining the pe
culiarities of the higher neural activity in the blind , the paths of
compensation in the absence of visual perception , the peculiarities of
cognitive activity , the laws of development of blind children , the
content and methods of their training and education , the technical
means of compensation , the practicable professions for the blind , and
the paths of their placement .
We will stop for a short review of the research in the field of
compensation and cognitive activity in the blind .
It has been shown by a whole series of Soviet authors that the
loss of visual perception is connected with serious neuro - dynamic
changes. These changes are conditioned by the restructuring of the
central nervous system in connection with the limitation of the affer
entation of the cortical activity and with the impoverishment in the
blind of the direct sensory perceptions of reality .
The absence of visual survey of the surrounding world makes dif
ficult the perception of objects at a distance and of the dynamic

- 786 -
changes of reality and the orientation of the blind in space . This
makes necessary the wider use in the process of orientational activi
ties of the intact analyzers in the blind : the auditory , motor , tac
tile , olfactory , and others .
The cutting-off of vision from the complex cooperative activi
ties of the analyzers entails an alteration of the structure and com
position of the components of the orientational reaction .
Through the research of many authors it has been shown that, in
the absence of vision , changes are observed in the flow of the orienta
tional reaction , especially to_auditory stimuli ( the works of B. D.
Asakhov / 8_1 , A. M. Zimkina / 8 , 291 , L. A. Novikova / 25a / , N. P.
Paramonova 125a , 661 , Ye . N. Sokolov [25a , 661 , A. I. Stepanov / 8_7,
8
and others ) .
As opposed to those who can see , the blind evince an intensifi
cation in the orientational reaction to auditory stimuli and for a
protracted period of time this reaction does not fade . This occurs in
connection with the fact that sounds for the blind possess another
signal significance than for those who can see . They are an important
factor of orientation in space ; in walking , in cognitive activity , at
work in production and at home . In consequence of the varied means of
the perception of reality by the blind and the seeing , the functional
structures of the orientational reaction in them are also varied . The
loss of vision causes a restructuring of the inter -analyzer connections
the alteration of the signal significance of many stimuli .
The resultsof the research carried out by A. M. Zimkina lē, 297,
and the co - workers in the laboratory which she directed shows that in
the orientational reactions to sounds in the blind , there occur power
ful sub - cortical impulses which charge the cortex and raise its tone ;
this has been considered by the authors as one of the means of compen
satory restructuring of the nervous system in connection with the loss
of vision .
The structures developed in the orientational reaction are not
strictly fixed ; rather they change , in function of the degree to which
the conditions of orientation have become habitual for the blind . Un
der certain conditions the orientational reactions to auditory stimuli
in the blind are not intensified and , in the same manner as in the see
ing , quickly fade , if the influences are repeated under the same condi
tions ( the works of L. A. Novinkova , N. P. Paramonova , E. N. Sokolov
/64 , 66 / ) .
The alteration of the neuro - dynamic upon loss of vision is con
firmed by researches on the electrical activity of the brain carried
out by many Soviet and foreign authors . However , the results of this
research are extremely contradictory . It was carried out upon a very
limited number ( 4-5 ) of blind persons , and , therefore , the conclusions
are not sufficiently conclusive .
In 1954-1955 research was carried out by us in conjunction with
L. A. Novikova 126 , 64 / on the electrical activity of the brain in 40
adult blind people ( among them were three persons who were born blind ) .

- 787 -
of the blind studied by us twelve persons were subjected to a repeated
investigation . The results of the investigation showed that in the
blind a significant change of electrical activity was observed in the
cortex in comparison with those able to see . An electroencepha logram
was characterized by a different rhythm than in the case of the see
ing . Of the forty blind persons studied the alpha - rhythm was depressed
in the occipital and other areas of the cortex in 37 cases . In place
of the alpha - rhythm ( that is , fluctuations of electrical potentials at
a frequency of 8 to 13 per second ) there was clearly recorded in the
blind a beta - rhythm ( fluctuations of the electrical potentials at a
frequency of 18 to 20 per second ) . The rhythm in the blind is charac
terized by a high frequency and a low amplitude of the bio - electrical
potentials . However , in three of the 40 blind a pronounced alpha
rhythm was observed in the occipital and other regions of the cortex .
As opposed to that in the seeing , the alpha - rhythm in them appeared
more often in the central and frontal regions of the cortex , whereby
no sort of difference was discovered on the electroencephalogram be
tween those blind from birth and those who became blind .
The presence of an alpha - rhythm in certain of the blind and its
absence in others is proof of the fact that the neuro -dynamic changes
arising in the blind as a consequence of the absence of afferentation
from the retina of the eye have a functional character . It was found
that , if rhythmic auditory stimulations are given , then an alpha
rhythm is observed in those blind from birth and those who have gone
blind . And it is recorded simultaneously in all regions of the cortex
and is most pronounced of all in the central region of the cortex . The
appearance of the alpha - rhythm is observed in the blind also during the
certain stimulations of the motor analyzer .
The materials obtained provide a basis for the assumption that,
in connection with the cessation of the sending of impulses from the
retina of the eye , the electrical activity of the cortex of the brain
in the blind changes as a consequence of the impoveri shment of the af
ferentation . This change is more pronounced in the occipital region
where a disappearance of the alpha - rhythm is observed , whereas in the
seeing the most pronounced alpha - rhythm is observed in the occipital
region of the cortex . The results of the research showed that the
neuro - dynamic changes embrace the entire cortex as a whole . Upon ad
ministration of auditory rhythmic signals a synchronized appearance of
alpha - rhythm was observed in all regions of the cortex with these
rhythms being more pronounced in the central and frontal regions , as
opposed to the case of the seeing .
The impulses arriving from auditory , motor , and other analyzers
in the absence of afferentation from the retina of the eye exert a dif
ferent stimulatory and inhibitory influence on the electrical activity
of the brain in the blind from that which they exert in the seeing .
This , evidently , explains the appearance of the alpha - rhythm in the
frontal and central regions of the cortex . This is proof of the re
structuring of the cortical neuro - dynamic in the absence of impulsation
from the peripheral terminal of the visual analyzer .

- 788 -
 The material obtained shows that with the cutting -off of vision
in the blind there was no sort of pathological phenomena whatsoever
observed in the cortical activity . On an electroencepha logram of a
blind person the slow waves ( delta -rhythm ) was not discovered . The
synchronized appearance of the alpha - rhythm in all areas of the cortex
indicates that the absence of visual pulsation does not disturb the
mechanism of the closing of the inter-analyzer connections .
From these materials we see that the loss of vision causes
neuro -dynamic changes , which have the character of functional compen
satory restructuring. These changes are not some sort of qualitative
new formations in the nervous system of the blind person . They only
testify to the fact that in the absence of vision the neural processes
are restructured . This restructuring embraces the whole cortical
neuro - dynamic . Numerous studies of the activity of the analyzers in
the blind carried out by a whole series of Soviet_authors ( T. I.
Belova 1371 , I. G. Belyaev / 11a / , S. G , Zhislin ( 24 / , 2. M. Zhukov
skaya ( 25 ) , _M . I. Zemtsova 1261 , A. M. Zimkina / 8 , 27 , 28 , 291 , K. Kh .
Kekcheyev 134 , 35 , 36 ,_371 , T. S. Murzayeva 637 , M. R. Magendovich
4591 , A._I. Rudnik 1721 , V , S , Sverlov / 74 , 75 , 76 / , I. A. Sokolyan
skiy / 83/ , A. V. Yarmolenko /98 , 99 , 1021 and others ) , have shown that
upon loss of sight there was a restructuring of the activity of the
audio , skin , motor and other analyzers . The mechanism of the regula
tion of the cortex in the absence of visual perception is guaranteed
via the broadening of the afferentation from various analyzers and the
formation of complex systems of dynamic connections , depending upon
conditions , which play an important role in compensation . During
micro -orientation in some cases an additional afferentation is enlisted
from varied organs and systems which are little used under the usual
conditions when the sense of sight is functioning (from the nails ,
tongue , lips , and other organs ) .
The afferentation of the cortex in the blind is enriched not
only by way of an enlistment of varied sources of signalization from
the periphery , but also by way of the use of the vestigial reactions
of the central nervous system .
In persons , who previously had the use of their sense of sight ,
vestiges of visual impressions are widely drawn into systemic connec
tions which enriches their representation of surrounding actuality ( the
works of M. I. Zemtsova 1261 , B. I. Kovalenko 391, V. M. Sretenskaya
184 / and others ) .
The vestiges of visual impressions gradually fade in proportion
to the development of the modes and means of compensation .
The fading of visual images denotes the restructuring of the
dynamic systems of connections and the formation of new systems of
connection . The era sure of the vestiges of visual representations is
not accomplished immediately . There is a certain inertia of neural
processes ; the vanished visual images again come to the surface some
times in cases where there are experienced difficulties in the orienta
tion of the blind . The more firmly the dynamic systems of connections

• 789 -
with the participation of the visual component have been reinforced ,
the more difficult it is to accomplish the extinction of the visual
images . However , the maintenance of the visual impressions depends on
the content of the activity of the persons who have gone blind .
The change of the neuro -dynamic upon the loss of sight , as was
no ted , is of a functional character and in principle has little effect
on the laws of development of sensitivity in the blind . The compara
tive developmental studies of the auditory , cutaneous , and motor sensi
tivity in the blind and in seeing children is witness to this fact .
The comparative audiometric measurements of hearing carried out
by us in 25 blind and 25 seeing children of 8 to 16 years of age re
vealed that with age the audio sensitivity to tones gradually rises
to a definite level in the blind as well as in the seeing children .
No sort of substantial deviations in the development of hearing in
blind children was observed .
K. Kh . Kekcheyev 134 , 377, and others have shown that the de
velopment of muscular feeling in blind and in seeing children also has
a common law : with age an increase of the muscular sensitivity is ob
served in blind as well as in seeing children , whereby a higher level
of sensitivity is observed in the blind in comparison with the seeing.
The author explains this by the fact that in the process of domestic
and work activity the blind persons in connection with the absence of
visual perception more often use muscular sensitivity , a fact which
enables its development and perfection . However , in seeing persons ,
depending upon the content of the practical activities , an increase of
various forms of sensitivity is observed : of the auditory , the_cu
taneous, the motor , and others ( the studies of B. G. Anan'yev / 2 , 3 ,
4 , 51 , N. K. Gusev , T. 0. Ginevskaya /21 , 221 , B. F. Lomov [ 2_) ,
L. A. Shifman (94 , 957 , and others) .
All this is indicative of the fact that in the blind no quali
tative new formations or pathological changes are observable in the
analyzer activity ; rather there is a tendency ( in common with the see
ing ) to the development of the analyzers and there are common develop
mental alterations of sensitivity .
Of great interest in_the study of sensitivity in the blind are
the studies of A. Birilev / 127, A. A. Krogius 1477 concerning the com
pensation of sight by hearing and touch . These studies opened up pos
sibilities for the mutual replacement of analyzers in the blind which
allows them to orient themselves in complex conditions during walking,
in work , in daily living , in perceptional activity , and so forth .
In the development of the tactile and muscular senses in the
blind , as our studies have shown , work activity plays an enormous role .
During the process of work there is formed the ability to evalu .
ate with the aid of the muscular sense the shape , size , weight of ob
jects , the proportional relationships , distance , direction , and the
like . All this allows the blind person correctly to orient himself
for the perception of classroom material , for the execution of work
movements , and also during walking . Studies of the movements of the

- 790 -
blind on different surfaces (the works of M. I. Zemtsova / 26 / , K. Kh .
Kemcheyev , Ye . I. Kostina 136 / , and others ) have shown that the blind ,
upon creation of certain definite conditions , orient themselves in
space very exactly and carry out delicately coordinated movements of
the hands during the execution of the most diversified work opera
tions .
Many blind persons , upon creation of relatively constant in
dustrial working conditions develop a virtuosity in work movements
and in productivity of labor which is not inferior to that of seeing
workers . The occupations of the blind in physical culture and sport
are of great significance for training in the art of movements and of
orientation in space . Physical training enables the development of
orientation and motor habits in the blind . The system and methods of
training the blind in physical culture have been developed by L. B.
Sambinkin 1731 , and N. N. Shepoval'nikov .
The study of the processes of compensation in man has shown
that these processes are very complex and represent a synthesis of
biological and social phenomena . Therefore , they cannot be under
stood if they are limited only to the physiological aspect of re
search . The very concept of compensation itself as the adaptability
of the organism to exterior conditions demands the introduction of a
series of amendments, when applied to man .
The phenomena of compensation in man are determined by the
content and conditions of activity in which it takes place , by the
social relationships into which the individual enters , by using
speech , with other people in the process of communal labor .
The specific peculiarities of compensation in man can be un
covered only upon inspection of this problem in the psychological as
pect . A whole series of psychological studies have shown that the so
cial relationships between people which arise in the process of work
activity have an important significance principally for the formation
of the process of compensation ( the works of v . N. Mya si shchev 621 ,
V. M. Kogan 441 / , and others ). The social motives of activity , the
social significance of the work done , the desire of the individual to
keep and strengthen his position in the community all this has an
enormous significance for the perfection of the means and modes of
the individual's activity in the development of the processes of com
pensation in the event of various lesions occurring in the organism .
Even A. I. Skrebitskiy ( 1903 ) showed the enormous perceptional
potentials in the blind and the significance of education and labor
activities for their intellectual and physical development 1851 .
The works of A. A. Krogius 147/ had great significance in the
business of the study of the psychological peculiarities in the blind .
In his book , The Psychology of the Blind and Its Significance for Gen
eral Psychology and Pedagogy , 1926 , he summarized the materials of a
twelve year study of the perceptional activity and the peculiarities
of the psychic development of the blind . His studies showed that in
the process of activity of the blind , thanks to the strenuous exercise

• 791 -
of hearing, touch , and other species of sensitivity , thanks to the spe
cial concentration of attention on audio , tactile , and other sensations
and to the ability correctly and encompassingly to interpret and evalu
ate them , the blind receive representations of surrounding objects and
phenomena and can orient themselves among them .
The most serious consequence of blindness is the difficulty in
perception by the blind of spatial properties of objects and the rela..
tionships between them . According to the studies of A. A. Krogius 147 /
the blind in comparison with the seeing commit crasser errors in the
evaluation of the length of lines , the curves of arcs , the values of
angles , and the position of figures . In the absence of sight , the
graphic representation in man suffers significantly . However , A. A.
Krogius 1471 notes that the content of the thoughts in the blind and
in the seeing are common ina smuch as the consciousness reflects the
relationships of objects . In proportion to the development of intel
lectual activity the sensory impressions in the blind as well as in
the seeing give way more and more to the activity of thought which
plays an enormous role in compensation ..
The studies of A. A. Krogius 147/ have shown that , during the
perception of objects by those who have gone blind , visual representa
tions have a great significance, which permits them more fully to ab
sorb the signs of the objects and to relate them one to another . He
has shown with great persuasiveness that the blind in comparison with
the seeing have great advantages in the development of memory . They
are significantly better than the seeing at recalling and reproducing
words , and numbers, at memorizing poems, and retaining acquired knowl
edge for a long time .
As a result of exercises the blind can achieve a virtuosity in
various fields of physical and intellectual labor . In function of the
importance for practical living , the tactile -motor, olfactory , gusta
tory , auditory , and other perceptions may be improved in the blind .
A. A. Krogius considered " providing them with the opportunity
to work and the_opportunity to enter into the general human work or
ganization " 1471 as one of the most vital demands for the blind .
While not detracting from the significance of the work of A. A.
Krogius, one cannot , however , agree with certain of his statements .
A. A. Krogius 147 / considered that the full and qualitative content of
the presentations in the blind and in the seeing was heterogenous, that
the blind were incapable of visual - image perception of space and had
to be satisfied by schemata and not by visual knowledge. The similarity
in the representations in the blind and seeing he considered only in
" the uniformity of the formal elements of visual and tactile percep
tions of space " 147, 89 / .
In the light of the Leninist theory of reflection and the Sechenov
understanding of psychic activity as a reflex - reflecting activity , the
tactile and visual perceptions reflect in the brain of man the objects
as objectively substantial realities . Therefore , according to their
content they are generic , and are different only in respect of the means
of reflection .

• 792 -
 Nor can one fail to note the unilateral interpretation by A. A.
Krogius of the sense of obstacles in the blind ( the so -called " sixth "
sense ) . The author , correctly rejecting the qualitative specificity
of this sense , came , at the same time , to an incorrect conclusion that
temperature sensations have a leading significance in the differentia
tion of obstacles by the blind . The contemporary studies of v . s .
Sverlov /74 , 75 / have shown that the perception of obstacles is based
on the formation of a complex system of different connections , the
leading role in which is possessed by the audio analyzer , auditory at
tention , and its other forms. This_information received persuasive
experimental support in his works 1747 .
The question has been raised by a whole series of authors as to
whether consciousness in the blind is abstractly schematic or is based
on effectively visual images . The research of_F . N._Shemyakin concern
ing topographic representations in the blind /91 , 92 / is of great in
terest in this regard . The author in comparative experimental material
conclusively showed that the blind in principle as also the seeing can
correctly mentally reproduce the shape of an object or a phenomenon .
In his experiments the blind were fairly well able to reproduce the
map of a locality , which translated the spatial position of the com
posite points in their mutual relationship to one another and to the
subject doing the representing . The blind investigated by him could
correctly indicate the direction of points in Moscow located on all
sides of them with approximately the same exactness as persons with
sight . The images which arose concerning this in the blind were not
generic or schema tized , but were characterized by a sui generis " motor
visualization . "
The character of the image in the blind and seeing are differ
entiated , but their content is common ina smuch as both reflect ob
jectively an existing reality , in the given case the topographic map
of a locality . The author notes that in topographic representations
the chief significance accrues not to visual, but to motor images . It
is even possible without visual representations correctly to reproduce
mentally the topography of a locality . However , this process of re
production is carried out differently in the blind and the seeing . In
the determination of the position and direction of objects , the seeing
make broad use of the turn , a gesture with who se aid they seem to ar
ticulate the representations of spatial relationships of objects arising
in their consciousness . In this they rely on the reproduction of com
plex visual images which include all the components arising in real
conditions of viewing and orientation in space .
The representations of direction to a given point in the seeing
are "merged " with mental turns of his body and the movement of the hand
( a gesture of pointing ) . The blind do not resort to such techniques
of reproduction . They determine the position and the direction of the
object. in relation to themselves , relying upon the movement of the
fingers .

- 793 -
 The speed of visual survey , notes F. N. Shemyankin , still does
not signify accuracy and reliability of determination in the evaluation
of direction . The motor presentation plays the chief role in this
/90 , 91 , 921. The author comes to the conclusion that in the blind
there are fairly distinct topographic representations ; consequently ,
these representations can be formed without the participation of visual
images . Motor components enter into the composition of topographic
representations as the basic link . In the seeing the visual images
are one of the basic structural elements here . However , they do not
have a decisive significance for the reflection of actuality . The com
parative study of spatial representations in the blind and the seeing
carried out by F. N. Shemyakin has great theoretical significance for
special and general psychology .
Researches on the study of spatial representations in the blind
were continued under the direction of F. N. Shemyakin , N. G. Khopreni
nova , who on the basis of the experimental material collected by her ,
confirmed the postulate on the possibility of the formation of complex
spatial presentations without the presence of visual perception /88 ,
897. In this regard , the study of the orientation of the blind during
walking and perception of objects at a distance deserves special atten
tion .
The possibility of the formation of complex images which reflect
actuality during the absence of vision was persuasively shown by I. A.
Sokolyanskiy 1837 and A. V. Yarmolenko /98 , 99 , 102 , 1037. Their stud
ies were remarkable for the fact that they uncovered enormous poten
tials for the formation of images reflecting spatial and temporal re
lationships between objects even during the absence of vision and hear
ing in man , that is , on a very limited sensory basis .
From very ancient times the question of perception at a distance
by the blind of objects which do not emit sounds or odors has inter
ested many researchers . Some foreign authors have considered that this
capability in the blind is a qualitative new formation peculiar only
to the blind , and have called it a sixth sense . Concerning the nature
of this sense they expressed very many contradictory propositions.
Some of them considered that in the perception of obstacles by the
blind a synthesis of various sensations is of significance . Others
assumed that this property arises by way of a sharpening of separate ,
isolated sensations : temperature_ ( A . Krogius 1471 ) , touch ( M. Kunts
( 1047 ) , hearing ( L. Trushel ' / 105 / ) , and others . All these authors
directed attention to the fact that during the orientation of the blind
in space it is only the separate sensations in the blind which have
decisive significance .
In recent times it has been shown by the studies of V. S. Sver
lov 1757 on the basis of an extensive experimental material that the
sensation of obstacles is not a qualitative peculiarity of the blind ;
under certain conditions they can also occur in the seeing . However ,
in consequence of the fact that the blind are constantly in need of the
use of this sense , in them it achieves high proficiency . In the condi
tions of organized training this process is realized significantly

- 794 -
faster . V. S. Sverlov has shown that, in the perception of obstacles
at a distance , there participate_audio , kinetic , tactile , temperature ,
and other sensations /74 , 75 , 761. Auditory perception has a leading
role in this as does auditory attention . The blind person in the
process of orientation catches the least change of frequency , inten
sity , or tone of the sound which guarantees a subtle differentiation
of sounds according to tone , timber , loudness , and direction .
In the light of modern scientific notions these studies have
great scientific significance . They show that the orientation of the
blind is guaranteed on the basis of the development of a complex dy
namic system of connections under the influence of complex stimuli
which the blind person uses as signals permitting him to compose an
image a picture of the locality . Undoubtedly the leading signifi
cance in the complex synthesis of different influences belongs to the
auditory perception which secures the possibility of the differentia
tion " in depth " of objects .
The predominant significance of auditory perception in the ori
entation of the blind person under special conditions can be lost , while
the capability for the perception of obstacles at a distance is main
tained and secured by means of afferentation from other analyzers.
The question has more than once been raised by Soviet and foreign
authors as to how and to what degree touch can replace vision for the
blind person during the perception of objects and phenomena of actu
ality . The work of the blind in technical modeling , relief drawing ,
and sketching easily shows that spatial representations in the blind
and in the seeing are according to their content equivalent. With the
aid of touch in the same was as with vision , during perception the vari
ous marks of the object are singled out ( structure , shape , size , the
various physical properties , and the like ) . All of these are synthe
sized , and as a result the broken down image of the object is shaped .
This was shown by I. M. Sechenov .
The interaction of the visual and motor analyzers has a great
significance for the perception of objects . This was shown by the
studies of L. Aran on the seeing and Yu . A. Kulagin on the blind . The

origin of illusions of heaviness , according to their studies , is based

on the development of systemic inter -analyzer connections during the
perception of the weight of objects and volume / 507 . Yu . A. Kulagin
carried out an investigation in the study of illusions in 17 blind
children of various ages . He presented to them two parallelepiped s
prepared from plywood , of the same weight ( 145 g ) , but differing in
volume ( the volume of one was 450 cubic centimeters , of the other --
180 cubic centimeters ) . During the perception by blind students of
the two parallelepipeds of the same weight it was discovered that the
smaller parallelepiped was perceived by the blind as well as the see
ing as being the heavier .
The illusion of heaviness is a witness to the fact that in the
blind connections have been consolidated , in the course of their real
life experience , which reflect the relationship between the weight and

. 795 -
volume of an object . In the perception of the object the sensations
of weight act more weakly than the reproduction of the vestigial sys
temic connections . This process in principle occurs in the same way
in the blind and in the seeing . The difference is only in the means
of perception . The seeing perceive the weight with the aid of the
muscular sense and the volume with the aid of vision whereas the blind
person perceives both the weight and the volume with the aid of the
muscular sense . The blind as well as the seeing react in perception
not to the separate , isolated stimuli , but to their relationships which
have been reinforced in their experience . The object of the greater
volume seems lighter in comparison with the object of lesser volume .
The signal significance of the volume feature is of vital significance
in stereognosis ( the tactile recognition of three -dimensional objects ) .
The studies of V. S. Sverlov / 76a / are of great interest in this
regard . The author presented ( to persons blind from birth and ones
who became blind ) for recognition the sculptured portraits of persons .
The results of these studies showed that the visual perceptions are not
the only source of the formation of complex images. Those among the
experimental subjects who had been blind from birth and had never had
the use of sight, as a result of tactile perception of the sculpture
and subsequent verbal reproduction of an image correctly evaluated the
general shape of face , nose and mouth , a posture expressive of move
ment , the significance of genture , and determined the features of the
portrait likeness , and so forth . In the investigation of the sculpture
the blind children and adults exhibited vividly pronounced emotions ( a
smile , an exclamation , delight , and the like ) . Certainly , the blind ,
notes V. S. Sverlov , could not with the aid of touch evaluate the ex
position ( the play of light and dark conditioning the expressiveness ) ,
but on the other hand they could more delicately evaluate the shape and
characteristic details 176a /. The image in the blind person is more
meager than in the seeing person , but it reflects actuality . A sculp
ture , bas - relief , and a relief drawing can replace a picture for the
blind to a certain degree . This has especially great significance for
those who have become blind and who , since they dispose of visual rep
resentations , can during tactile investigation of sculpture form the
correct image . This image becomes richer , fuller , and more exact in
the case when a verbal description of the sculptured work precedes the
tactile inspection of it .
The statement of many authors (P. Villey 1157, and others ) , to
the effect that the perception of sculpture is hard to come by in the
absence of sight , is disproved . It is known that many blind persons
have created wonderful works of sculpture . This has been repeatedly
noted in literature ( s . L. Rubinshteyn / 71/ , 0. I. Skorokhodova /80/ ,
I. A. Sokolyanskiy , and others ) . The blind sculptor , L. M. Po , who
lost her vision in later life , achieved an especially high perfection
in the field of sculptural art . In her sculpture L. M. Po delicately
transmits human experiences , emotion , movements , shapes , proportions,
rhythm , and elegance in the construction of the human body . The many

- 796 -
works created by her characterize the deep social relationships between
people during the Second World War ( " Exploit of the Warrior," " Parti
san , " " In Fascist Slavery , " and others ) . In some sculptural works she
extremely successfully expressed the dynamic phenomena of nature
( " Storm " ) .
The thought and speech of the blind person which permits him
on a limited sensory basis to re - create the forms of objects and phe
nomena never perceived directly in such form has a decisive signifi
cance in the formation of spatial representations . All of this is a
powerful means of compensation and overcoming the consequences of
blindness , especially in children who se sense experience is limited .
During the course of many years the attention of a whole series
of researchers has been drawn to the study of the development of spa
tial representations , speech , the thought of blind children , the paths,
and means of pedagogic influence in the formation of perceptional capa -
bilities in students .
It is known that the limitation of sense experience is a signifi
cant influence on the formation of graphic cognition and on spatial
representations in blind children . This leads to a certain dispropor
tion in the development of verbal systems of communication on the one
hand , and visual - sense experience on the other . However , if the cor
rect techniques and methods of training be used it is possible to over
come the problems of the sensory cognition of actuality in blind child
ren , and to secure the conditions for the all -around development of the
students .
Comparative studies of the formation of perception and spatial
representations in children of junior school age have shown that no
sort of qualitative changes in the perceptional activity of the blind
in comparison with seeing children was discovered . The difficulties
arising in blind children in connection with the formation of the images
of objects were conditioned in the first instance by developmental pe
culiarities which in the blind children were more sharply expressed
than in the seeing children .
In connection with the absence of vision in the blind children
there arise great difficulties in cognition of the spatial properties
of objects : shapes , sizes , directions , positions , and the like . This
makes itself felt upon the assimilation of knowledge , in particular , of
geometric material by the students . From the studies carried out by
N. V. Klushina ( 37a / it emerged that it was easier for students of the
primary classes of the school for the blind to recall numerical ex
pressions of linear measurement , and to discover comparative relation
ships of extension between objects than to give specific lengths ,
widths , and heights in linear mea surements .
The mistakes of blind children in the estimation of the measure
ments of length are explainable not so much by the fact that they have
not perceived these measurements visually , as by the fact that the
verbal techniques of training have not permitted them to form proper
concepts of a specific measure as a unit of measurement . From the

- 797 -
teacher they discovered the name of the measure ; they became acquainted
with these measures through touch , but practical measurements were lit
tle practiced . Therefore, the connections formed by them between the
tactile -motor image reflecting the linear extension and the word desig
nating the numerical expression of measurement was not reinforced in
the process of practical activity ; the necessary correlation of image ,
word , and action was not achieved in them .
The formation of representations concerning measures depends
upon how often the students under various changing conditions make prac
tical use of the measurements of the different distances between ob
jects .
Studies carried out by D. I. Zorichev 132, 337, N. A. Semevskiy
7787, and others have shown that the students under certain conditions
and presupposing a correct methodology of training can form accurate
representations of measures as a unit of measurement of space , and can
master these measures in practice . Together with the mastery by them
of knowledge and practical skills , their spatial representations are
enriched . They learn to separate and to synthesize the symbols which
are characteristic of the spatial properties of objects and their re
lationship . The presence of concrete images permits the student cor
rectly to correlate them with the verbal definitions . The reproduction
by blind children of objects in modeling and their verbal definition
of these objects can serve as proof of this .
As a result of training blind children can with a fair degree
of accurateness learn to correlate words and images of objects . The
inability of some students authentically to transfer into modeling the
image of the object is explainable to a considerable extent by the fact
that they have not mastered the practical techniques of modeling , and
make mistakes ( the deformation of angles , borders , the disruption of
proportions , and the like ) which distorts the shape of the object . How
ever , this is still not proof of the fact that no distinct image has
been formed in them . Upon presentation to them of natural objects they
easily recognize these objects .
Previous visual images on which they can rely during the recog
nition of objects has great significance in the perception of objects
by blind children . The visual representations of shapes, lengths , po
sitions , and directions also helps the blind to recognize objects . How
ever , in the blind children of younger ages visual presentation are not
sufficiently persistent and can be destroyed if they do not receive re
inforcement . The image becomes unclear and diffused . This is distinctly
observable in the flat writing of children who have become blind .
Our studies have shown that during the writing of the usual flat
letters the blind children , who know how to write , attempt to lean upon
visual representations . Producing a movement with the pencil on the
paper , they mentally break down the graphic outline of the letter into
its component parts and unite them into an integral composition . Be
cause the process of writing in them is performed in the absence of
visual control the outline of the letter is inexact . Some children

- 798 -
arbitrarily change the place of the letters in space , they arrange them
in the most diverse positions , they mix them up and turn them a round
sometimes to an angle of 1800 , that is , they do mirror writing ( this
is not infrequently observed even in first grade children with sight ) .
Sometimes one letter is replaced by another owing to the resemblance
of some component elements . The students mix up the spatial positions
of the graphic elements composing the letters ; they forget the way some
of them are supposed to be written ; they confuse similar letters . The
visual images of the spatial marks of a letter and the relationships
between their elements are obliterated in these students . In connection
with this they are poor at differentiating the size , the proportionality
of the elements , and the shape ; they confuse some spatial marks of let
ters ( direction , position of the graphic elements , and their location
in regard to one another ) .
The visual image does not disintegrate immediately , but is sub
jected to gradual change . The separate elements of the visual image
do not fade at the same rate . The representation of the position of
the letters in space , of the proportional relationships between the
separate elements , the size of the letter as a whole disintegrate first ,
but the representation of the shape and composition of the letter is
still maintained for a long time , although individual elements may drop
out of the general composition .
Adult blind persons do not lose the habits of writing of letters
in flat script . This is explainable by the fact that in the period of
the use of vision they were in perfect possession of the habits of
graphic linear writing , and use them without special effort without
the presence of visual self - checking , with the individual handwriting
peculiarities being maintained . As a result of lengthy practice in
writing a stable connection between the visual and other analyzers has
been formed . This permits them to retain the image of the letter some
times throughout their whole lifetime , and to use the habits of graphic
linear writing . We encountered blind people , who after 50-60 years
after the loss of vision , still retained the faculty of writing in
ordinary script .
The substitutional role of tactile - motor perception distinctly
emerges during the training of the blind for special graphics which
have an enormous significance in the business of the formation of ob
jective and spatial representations in the blind . It is no accident
that this problem has been given much attention for a long time by
psychologists , educators , and engineers working with the blind ( the
works of 0. I. Georgiyevskaya /187 , s . I. Gibor 1201 , D. I. Zorichev
321 , M. I. Zemt sova 1261 , B. I. Kovalenko 1397 , Yu . A. _Kulagin , G. N.
Roganov /69 701 , V. S. Sverlov 1771 , N. A. Semevskiy 1787 , M. I.
Tolozov /86 / , and others ) .
Relief drawing in schools for the blind has been reduced to
sketching on the demonstration board with the aid of a joint - pin , cord ,
or elastic of two - dimensional plastometric drawings .

- 799 -
 At the present time the training of the blind in graphics has
acquired enormous significance , especially since the time when a
teacher at the Moscow School for the Blind , N. A. Semevskiy 1787 de
veloped a special mastic instrument for relief drawing and found simple
means for the preparation of relief drawings. On the basis of more
than twelve years of experience N. A. Semevskiy developed a method of
training the students at the school for the blind in special graphics.
The urgency of the training of the blind in graphics is growing in con
nection with the introduction of polytechnic education in our country
and with the transfer of the schools for the blind to intermediate edu
cation . The use of graphic instruments is of great significance for
the preparation of the students for practical activity . Therefore , it
is no accident that the problem of the training of the blind for tech
nical drawing has been widely attacked by specialists occupied in the
professional - labor training of the blind .
G. N. Roganov 169 , 701 , has made a great contribution to this
business . A system of training the blind in relief graphics and an
album of technical drawings was developed by him . The blind trained
by him could easily read complex technical drafts and plans for the
construction of machines , appliances , and instruments .
In connection with the introduction into the practice of the
schools for the blind of relief drawing many problems have arisen which
demand scientific solutions . First of all , there was the question of
whether it was possible in the absence of visual perception authenti
cally to transmit in a relief drawing and draft the image of an object .
How can a solid three -dimensional object be transmitted in a likeness
in two - dimensional space , in such a way that the blind person shall be
able , by the use of tactile perception , freely to reconstruct according
to this likeness an image of the object ? Can the blind person on a
narrow sensory basis , using graphic means , re - create the image of an
object as an objective reality via verbal description? Is it possible
for a blind person to perceive a stereometric , tri - dimensional drawing ,
and can he re - create according to such a drawing a complex object ?
The experimental studies carried out by us in the training of
the blind in relief drawing has made it possible for some of these
questions to be answered in the affirmative . It has been established
that the blind as a result of training can correctly correlate the
image of the object and the image of the drawing , and can find a simi -
larity between the object and its depiction . In the perception of a
relief drawing the image of the object is more easily re - created in
persons who have earlier had the use of sight . During the tactile in
vestigation of the contour of the drawing, the gaze in the blind seems
to follow the movement of the hand , with the eyes always moving as in
visual perception .
In some blind persons , who have earlier known how to draw , it
has been observed that there is a pose , position of the head , " focus
ing " of the eyes which are typical of tho se encountered in persons who
can see , that is , there are reproduced the entire stereotype of connec
tions between the kinetic sensation of the hand and the kinethsesis

• 800 -
from the muscles of the eye which has developed during the life of the
individual . And the visual image arises without any sort of influence
from the retina of the eyes whatsoever .
In the execution of a drawing the blind person seemingly sees
the object and its depiction . Having produced a sketch of lines trans
mitting the definite projectional relationship in the drawing , he visu
ally presents the image of the depicted object and the image of the
drawing distinctly , which representation is supported by the verbal
descriptions of the students .
The reproduction of the visual - kinetic connections in the blind
can be discovered , as has been shown by our studies carried out to
gether with L. A. Novikova , by means of the objective recording of the
motion_of the eyes and the hands during the execution of relief draw
ings /261 . The electrographic method allows the uncovering by objec
tive means of the complex processes of the interaction between the
visual and motor analyzers during the perception and the reproduction
of the drawing . The results of the studies carried out by us have
shown that during the drawing of various objects in two dimensions and
during the reading of relief drawings the movement of the eyes was re
corded simultaneously with the movement of the hands . This could be
seen quite clearly on the electromyogram and the oculogram of the blind .
During the execution of more complex tasks the arrival of impulses from
the muscles of the eyes increased . This bears witness to the presence
in the experience of those who became blind , as differentiated from
those who were born blind , of visual - kinetic connections which lie at
the basis of the visual image .
The participation of the visual -kinetic connections is more
vividly revealed in the relief drawing of the blind .
During the drawing there is observed a recording of high ampli
tude oscillation from the eye and the hand simultaneously . As soon as
the process of drawing ceases the curve resumes its initial form . In
connection with the cessation of the kinetic impulses from the muscles
of the hand the kinetic impulses from the muscles of the eye disappear .
The disappearance of impulsation from the muscles of the hand
and of the eye during tactile perception of the drawing and during the
drawing do not occur at the same point . First disappear the kinetic
impulses from the muscles of the hand , and then those from the muscles
of the eye . The blind person seemingly continues mentally to survey
the picture . In this the cooperative functioning of the hand and the
eye has been shown in the experimental studies of a series of authors
which explain the role of the visual -kinetic connections in the visual
survey of objects by_the seeing ( V. P. Zinchenko /30 , 31 / , B. F. Lomov
1317, A. L. Yarbus 196, 977 , and others ) . In principle the mechanism
of action of the visual - kinetic connections is maintained even after
the loss of vision .
The tactile investigation of natural objects has a great sig
nificance for the recreation of the image in a drawing .

• 801 -
 During the investigation of natural objects the fingers of the
blind embrace the surface of the object from various sides , they choose
the necessary orientation points and distinctive marks, and they meas
ure the size , direction , and the like . The movements of the palm and
the fingers of the blind permit a fairly full and exact evaluation of
the shape , size , convexity , concavity , topographic connections and re
lationships which forms in him a correct image of the object . The
tactile sensations of the hands of the blind as well as the visual
sensations of the eyes of the seeing person who perceives an object
are correlated by the cortex of the great hemispheres of the brain as
a result of which is secured the understanding of the perceived object
and of a likeness of it .
During the visual perception of the object the volumetric form
is perceived by means of the alternation of several basic points from
which the object is surveyed . In tactile perception the object is in
vestigated from various points simultaneously by means of an embracing
of it by the palms of the hands, or the fingers of one hard .
Great difficulties arise in the blind during the transfer of a
volumetric object into a flat likeness . The depictive means and tech
niques of transfer of a volumetric , tri - dimensional body into a flat ,
two - dimensional depiction in the blind are different from those in the
seeing person . In the seeing person this process is facilitated by the
presence of a full and enriched visual image of the object and of the
picture ; by the capacity for correlating the volumetric object and the
flat depiction on paper , inasmuch as seeing children from early years
learn to recognize and understand drawings and have the possibility of
imitating in depictive means the teacher and the adults around them .
The possibility on principle of the perception of a tri -dimen
sional drawing has been proven by the long , experimental experience in
the training of the blind in drawing and sketching at the Moscow and
other schools for the blind and by experimental researches . The scien
tific basis of this problem lies in the theory of the perception of
the object and the drawing . It has been shown by N. N. Volkov and
others that the laws of linear perspective do not depend on the laws
of visual perception . The theory of linear perspective is based on
projectional geometry . Although the seeing person directly perceives
the perspective changes of shape with his eyes , the understanding of
the sense of the depiction is of prime significance .
The cortex of the great hemispheres of the brain , notes N. N.
Volkov , fulfills the regulating role in visual perception , by exerting
an influence on the peripheral visual instrument . The impressions of
the objects of the exterior world make a comparatively reduced picture
on the retina of the eye , but thanks to the regulation of the nerve
cells of the occipital region of the cortex we see the objects as they
exist in reality . It is possible with the aid of training to achieve
a reverse perception of objects . If the cortical nerve cells of the
occipital region are damaged the recognition of well -known objects be
comes impossible psychic blindness occurs .

- 802 -
 Visual perception is an extremely complex and delicately dif
ferentiated process in which there is the participation of optical and
muscular systems , the peripheral and central terminals of the visual
analyzer , and also the intermediate visual nerve centers of a lower
order through which pass the fibers of the optic nerve . The regulatory
role of the cortex emerges most clearly during tactile perception of
an object by the blind . The blind who have visual representations
make use of a system of tactually perceived linear orientation points
and rely not only on the direct signals from the fingers of the hands ,
but also on the visual images hereby arising , on the knowledge of the
laws and rules of perspective changes , and on the calculations and
knowledge of geometric figures . This allows them fairly accurately to
perceive and to transfer the projectional relationships in the relief
pictures .
A true perspective outline of a tri -dimensional shape , as is
known , permits of the transfer of volume with the aid of a system of
lines without the use of chiaroscuro elements . In students who ear
lier had the use of sight the visual representation of the light rela
tionships , of the foreshortening in function of the depth distance of
the object , and so forth are appended to the direct perception of re
lief lines . The perception of volumetric forms by the blind in a flat ,
linear picture is achieved by means of the understanding of the idea of
the picture , by means of the use of various methods of tactile percep
tion , and of the reproduction of the elements of past experience . This
allows the transmission in a drawing of the basic marks of the object
in the absence of vision . The drawings of blind children executed from
nature are extremely imperfect , but in them the students attempt to
transfer the basic marks and projectional relationships which charac
terize the object . It is known that the projectional relationships are
not constructed with the aid of vision , but exist as objective reality ,
and can be perceived not only by the eye , but also with the aid of
touch and hearing by means of the recreation of the image with the aid
of the creative imagination .
The experimental studies carried out by R. S. Muratov 1607 on
the perception by the blind of objects distant in depth with the aid
of an audio - optical instrument suggested by the author showed that the
blind can with relative correctness estimate the perspective foreshort
ening of an object receding in depth according to sounds converted from
light signals . The dimensions of the object receding in depth to a
determined distance are perceived as more reduced than the dimensions
of the same object placed close . Consequently , the perception of per
spective can be secured not only by the action of the visual analyzer ,
but also by the action of the audio and other analyzers . And yet many
foreign authors consider that the perception of perspective depends ex
clusively on vision , and therefore , it is completely inaccessible for
the blind . In connection with this it was indicated that it was useless
to teach the blind the perception of depictions of tri -dimensional pic
tures . Experiences in the teaching of drawing to the blind have shown

• 803 -
that even those born blind , as well as those who become blind later ,
can learn to understand perspective depiction . From_this point of
view the experiments carried out by Yu . A. Kulagin / 51 / are interest
ing . They showed that in blind children under special training a tac
tile perception of perspective changes of the dimensions of geometric
figures, shown under different angles of turn in relief pictures can
be developed with the use of non - uniform point filling .
The verbal delineation of natural objects is of great signifi
cance for the formation of an image . However , it can give an incom
plete , sometimes distorted representation in the blind unless backed
up by the sense perception of an object . The method of transmission
of the image of the object through a word without the back - up of a
sense experience is based on the formation in the blind of connections
between the word and the image of the picture , whereas the chief task
lies in the formation , on the basis of a direct perception accompanied
by a verbal delineation of the object , of a connection in the blind be
tween the word and image of the object and the image of the picture dur
ing its execution . On this condition the blind can independently use
the picture as a means of imaginative visualization and as a means for
the abstraction of the essential marks of the object and the general
ization of their knowledge .
The principles of the construction of a relief drawing are the
same as those of the usual line contour , realistic drawing insofar as
both transmit the outlines of the object as an objective reality . How
ever , the means of drawing by the blind and the seeing are different .
The relief drawings are more schematic . There are not many details in
them . These drawings are extremely incomplete , but nevertheless the
basic parts of the object are transmitted in them . Even in extremely
incomplete pictures the students can recognize the objects which they
are drawing .
In the execution of a drawing by pencil on paper children who
have gone blind restructure their drawing activity in proportion as
the image of the object of the drawing becomes more precise in them .
Sometimes they make several trial attempts , whereby they reproduce the
picture every time from the beginning , improving it with a larger quan
tity of symbols and details .
It would be incorrect to consider that the primitive drawings
of the blind are a proof that the image of the object is imperfect in
them . It would be better to blame this on the poverty of the descrip
tive means of which the blind dispose . In the picture the children at
tempt to extract the most practical and significant ( for them ) symbols
of the objects described and of what they had in their hands , whereby
they neglect the accuracy of transmission of the spatial properties
( the shape of the object , the value of the proportional relationships ,
the position , and the direction ) . They attempt to isolate the marks
which for them have practical significance of one sort or another in
the use of the objects which they are depicting . This is observed with
special distinctness when blind children have left up to them what they

- 804 -
shall draw . As students master descriptive methods they more accurately
transmit the shape of objects . Using descriptive means , the students
of advanced classes solve fairly complex problems in construction , and
learn to use the techniques and methods of projectional drawing , operat
ing in the process with a complex system of linear and plane relation
ships ( the works of P. V. Likhachev / 561, M. I. Tolozov 1861, N. A.
Semevskiy , and others ) .
On this plane the experiment of N. A. Semevskiy , who trained
blind children in relief projectional drawing, deserves special atten
tion / 781 . As a result of his training his students with irreproachable
exactness reproduced the image of the object in a relief , two - dimen
sional drawing , and re - created it with the aid of modeling plastic in
the form of a tri - dimensional model, and conversely , they re - created
without difficulty according to a tri - dimensional model the images of
the picture and transmitted them in a draft in an orthogonal projection .
The transition from the model to the picture and from the picture to
the model attests to the high degree of break - down of the image of the
object and the image of the picture , and to the ability to use drawing
techniques . The students correctly contrasted the lines of the object
pictured and the lines of the contour of the two - dimensional drawing.
In the relief drawing everything superfluous or fortuitous was screened ;
the most essential and typical symbols were transferred which charac
terize the shape and structure of the object , and the like .
The use of drawing as the means of the formation of graphic per
ception in children and of the development in them of spatial thinking
has a tremendous significance . Drawing , modeling , various sorts of
practical work , and modeling in schools for the blind equip the child
ren with the means for the perception of reality . Having mastered the
means of reading and of the execution of drawing, blind children can
more richly and more diversely express their representations and knowl
edge in the process of learning the fundamentals of the sciences . This
permits the teacher to evaluate not only their verbal knowledge , but
also the concrete objective representations of reality .
Training in drawing and reading of drawings enables the develop
ment in blind children of graphic perception of reality and the forma
tion of objective and spatial representations . It helps in noting and
sorting out the essential symbols , in synthesizing them , in abstracting
them from the accidental ones and in properly transmitting in the draw
ing the image of the object . The formation of graphic perception in
the blind is accomplished on the basis of analysis and synthesis which
are expressions of the basic content of the intellectual activity as a
reflection of objective reality . The formation of the processes of
analysis and synthesis depends on the didactic techniques of teaching .
The processes of analysis and synthesis , as our studies have
shown , are facilitated in the case when a problem is placed before the
students which gives a direction to their intellectual activity , and
when the objects are directly studied in the practical activity of the
children . In the reproduction of objects in modeling the students more

• 805 -
delicately perceive their shape , structure , size , and so forth . In
modeling it is easy to discover the problems in the representations of
the blind child . This forces him each time to resort to a more subtle
analysis of the volumetric form of the object .
The cutting - out of silhouettes with scissors has great signifi
cance for the correct understanding of a drawing . It helps the students
better to represent to themselves a one -dimensional shape and leads them
to an understanding of projectional relationships . During the cutting
out of the silhouettes the students seemingly outline the linear con
tours of the objects .
The processes of the formation of an image are facilitated if
that which is perceived has a practical , everyday significance for the
blind person , and if it arouses interest in him . The studies of N. S.
Kostyuchek 142, 43 , 457 have shown that the distinction of marks in the
recognition of objects are developed better on those objects which the
children used in practical, play , or work activities . Direct percep
tion is always carried out by drawing on acquired knowledge and the past
experience of the children . Of enormous significance in this regard is
social practice which permits children in the process of their associa
tion with adults and with their seeing classmates widely to employ not
only their own , but also the experience of others .
For the formation of an exactly perceived image of an object in
blind children there is required the directing and organizing word of
the teacher . The explanations of the teacher uncover diverse concrete
symbols of the object , and help the students to extract the chief and
characteristic ones . In the explanation , the attention of the students
is turned to the structure and spatial properties of the objects .
The studies of N. S. Kostyuchëk 2447 have shown that in blind
children the correct correlation of the word and the image does not al
ways occur . This often happens when the pedagogue does not direct due
attention to the development of graphic thinking in blind children , but
is satisfied with the verbal knowledge of the students . A disparity
between the concrete presentations and the abstract concept is sometimes
met with not only in young children of early school age , but even in
children of the senior classes in the schools for the blind ( the studies
of I. M. Kra snyanskaya 146 / , M. I. Tolozov / 86 / , and others ) .
The impoverishment of graphic thinking and the limitation of the
possibilities for observation bring about difficulties in generalization
in blind children . The graphic , visual image of the object is a crucial
element in the classification of this or that object into a definite
group on the part of children having vision , whereas in blind children
as a consequence of the restricted sensory basis the classification of
little - known objects into a certain group is carried out on the basis
of predominantly social representations. In connection with this , as
the studies of N , S. Kostyuchek 1447 have shown , the correlation of the
verbal designations of objects and their images is disturbed in these
children . In seeing school - children this is less pronounced . In pro
portion to schooling , graphic thinking is more enriched in the seeing

- 806 .
than in the blind , while the vocabulary in blind children increases with
the years more quickly than in the seeing .
In the recognition of objects by blind children first those marks
are isolated about which the children have come to know from practical
life in the course of their use of these objects , and from their associ
ation with those around them .
In the absence of visual perception graphic thinking in blind
children becomes impoverished in connection with which there arise other
methods of generalization which are based in a number of cases only on
vocal connections . The generalization is accomplished on the basis of
the establishment of a community of represented symbols and verbal cor
relations with a former image . The graphic - vocal method of generaliza
tion is also encountered in seeing children of junior school age . This
is explained by the limited store of representations of surrounding ob
jects . If the objects are familiar to the children from practical life ,
then the children rely on graphic images during the formation of con
cepts . Thus, in the studies of N. S. Kostyuchek 144 , it was conclu
sively shown that during the operation with concepts relative to ob
jects well -known to blind children from daily life and from work ac
tivity ( to musical instruments , and the like ) there are no observable
disruptions in the correlations between the verbal designations and the
image of the objects in blind children .
The formation of the methods of generalization in blind children ,
as in the seeing, depends on the methodological teaching techniques , on
the reserve of knowledge , and on the state of the general level of de
ve lopment . Presupposing proper teaching methods the students form more
distinct representations and more correct concepts in proportion to
their accumulation of knowledge and their use of it in practical life .
Simultaneously they perfect their methods of differentiation and gen
eralization . The children begin to abstract and generalize the more
essential features and together with this they begin to represent the
object more adequately in its diversity of concrete features . This en
ables them more correctly to correlate the image of the object with
the verbal designation . The perfection of the methods of generaliza
tion results in the improvement of the tactile perception of objects
and likenesses of them .
In proportion to the growth of the formative level the tactile
recognition improves .
Oral and written speech play an enormous role in the processes
of compensation and in the cognitive activities of blind children .
Through the instrumentality of language the blind child consolidates
his knowledge and communicates with those around him . This signifi
cantly enriches the intellectual development of the students and
broadens the possibilities of a conscious reflection of the surround
ing world ( the works of I. K. Smirnov 181 , 821 and others ) . The cor
relation of the sensory and the verbal does not remain unchanged . In
the process of schooling , in proportion to the enrichment with accom
plishments and practical experience complex interactions of the graphic
image and word reveal themselves .

- 807
 The role of the image qualitatively changes in the different
stages of schooling .
The creative imagination , one of the forms of reflection of
objective reality , has an important role in the processes of percep
tion in the blind . In the absence of a visual perception of reality
the role of the creative imagination is enhanced . With its help the
gaps are filled in the sensory image present in the blind . However ,
if no preliminary work has been done at familiarizing the blind child
ren in some palpable fashion with the objects and phenomena of surround
ing reality , then the creative image may reflect surrounding phenomena
incorrectly .
It is especially difficult for blind children to re - create an
image on the basis of a description of dynamic phenomena of nature or
a description of landscapes . It is usual in such cases for students
in their accounts , stories , and tales to transmit the logical aspect
of the text , rather than the concrete images . Sometimes the students
use words and figurative expressions without the necessary reliance on
concrete and graphic images. It should be noted that in seeing child
ren likewise the re - creation of an image , with a view to a description
of the phenomena of nature transpires in a manner which involves con
siderably more difficulty than does the narration of the semantic mean
ing of the text .
Very often blind children introduce into their tales , stories ,
and accounts new elements, drawing on the reproduction of verbal sys
tems of communications which they have in their experience or some
emotionally embellished recollections of happenings from their personal
lives . If the students in daily life or in a specially organized class
room context have observed that which is described in the various works
of literature they re - create the image on the basis of immediately
sensory connections . This image is considerably more lively , richer ,
and fuller . Such images live for a long time in the consciousness of
the blind child and are a trusty basis for their further enrichment ,
restructuring , and transformation under the influences of the knowledge
which the students receive from books and from the tales of their see
ing contemporaries and adults .
The means for the re - creation of the image are various . In some
cases the blind rely on the directly sensory elements ( the audio , tac
tile , and kinetic influences from without ) . Under the influence of the
exterior influences there occurs ananimation of the audio , tactile
motor , and other representations contained in the experience of the
blind person . Thus , the blind woman , Sh . , perceiving from a generator
by a radio reception the audio melodies of letters , creates under their
influence complex musical images. The blind man , G. , under the influ
ences of the same audio melodies re - creates the visual images of graphic
signs of the Morse alphabet , which he first encountered in a physics
course studied in school while he could still see . The blind man , N. ,
under the influences of audio signals re - created visual images of
printed letters and so forth . Thus, various associative connections

- 808 -
between different components are revived in various individuals by the
same stimuli, depending on the experience accumulated in the individual
in the course of his life .
The re- creation of images in adult blind persons can occur with
a limited reliance on immediately sensory elements and without reliance
on them ( the direct sense perception of reality , was, of course , the
initial source of the origin of the image at some point in the past ) .
In this respect the data adduced inthe book by_0 . I. Skorokhodova , How
I Perceive the World , is of great interest / 80 !.
We will present an excerpt from one of her essays on the theme ,
" How I picture what is going on on the stage . " The author notes that
a strong impression is made on her not only by the verbal description
of that which is going on on the stage , but also by the emergence of a
directly graphic image . Describing the national dance of a Cossack ,
she notes , " He seemed to me of medium size (although I was not told
what size he was ) with laughing face , with quick and sure movements .
I could not visualize the upper part of the costume, but it did seem
to me that there were wide sleeves which billowed out during the dance ;
I visualized the lower part of the costume as wide bell -bottomed trous
ers . As a result of sensing the sounds of the music ( a piano ) and the
pounding of the feet I visualized how fast and with what enthusiasm
the Cossack was dancing . His 'fire ' dance , it seemed to me , infected
me ; I myself was so electrified and was ready to swear that I saw the
dancer , that I was feeling with my hands his face , his blouse with the
bíllowing sleeves , his face inflamed with the dance , and it seemed to
me that he was not tired at all , but , on the contrary , wore a broad
smile , showing strong , well - formed teeth . The image of the dancing
artist arose in my imagination only because I sensed_the vibrations of
the gay music and the feel of the brisk footfalls" / 80 , 2461 .
We see how vividly she transmits a unique , graphic image of a
dancer even though considerable limitations are imposed on her percep
tion .
In order to show what perfection a person can achieve , who does
not have vision , in the formation of an image with the aid of a creative
imagination we conducted a series of individual experiments in the study
of design thinking in blind engineers and technicians . With this goal
in mind we suggested that they develop the design of some original proj
ect in a special area familiar to them , and dictate it to a draftsman
so that the latter could execute a sketch from their words . The pre
liminary planning of the project and the dictation to the draftsman
presupposes a complex intellectual labor and a highly developed spatial
imagination in the blind who were relying on a disarticulate image .
The process of dictation of the project consisted in the fact
that the blind , using their knowledge of the rules of projectional draw
ing , transmitted through words a system of successive judgments, and
calculations reflecting the structural solution of the problem . In the
dictation they operated with a complex system of conceptions , relying
in the process on graphic - spatial images of parts , assemblies , operating

. 809 -
mechanisms , and the like . Making broad use of their previous experi
ence , they isolated from complex images the individual fragments, and
established between them connections , relationships , and dependences
on the basis of mathematical calculations . Clearly representing to
themselves the relative positions of the operating mechanisms , they
mentally changed the positions of the parts in space , reformed the
separate assemblies , and united them into complex mechanisms.
Sometimes their speech was accompanied by descriptive movements,
the encircling of the contour of the details by the finger on the table
and in the air , the execution of graphic "models " with the aid of bent
paper , and so forth . This helped them more distinctly to represent in
space the operating mechanisms and the relative position of the parts .
For self - checking and the evaluation of how correctly their de
sign solution is correlated with the objective technical requirements
and the potentials of practical application they asked the draftsman
several control questions .
In the process of dictation there are reconstructed in the blind ,
new images, which are rearranged and altered in function of the design
solution , the variation of details , and dimensions , the choice of the
principles of connection , the interlocking of parts , and the like .
Using the word , the blind practically embodied their creative
thoughts in a sketch technically executed by another person . Gradually
in the process of the actual realization of the initial creative idea
the word is enriched and supported by practical actions (drawing with
the finger on the table , in the air , and the like ) . This enlivens the
associative connections which are present in their experience and serves
as an impetus for the further work of thinking.
The richer the knowledge and practical experience of the blind
in this or that area , the wider are the possibilities for the creation
and enrichment of the image of the design . We see that the creative
imagination is a powerful means in the reconstruction of complex visual
kinetic , visual -audio , and other images. However , it is necessary to
account the fact that the imagination represents a certain
departure and withdrawal from reality . Therefore , not all that is in
the imagination of man correctly reflects the objective phenomena of
reality . In the absence of visual perception , with the sensory basis
of the imagination restricted , there is the danger of a retreat into
bald abstraction . In this event , the images may be created without due
reliance on the concrete diversity of reality . The reflection in this
case may be incomplete , sometimes even incorrect and distorted .
The images in the blind can be fantastic , even though these images
in a certain degree always reflect objective reality . In order to avoid
the distortion of images it is necessary for the blind person to create
the conditions under which they can realize their representations in
practical activity . In this regard , exceptional significance in the
schools of the blind accrues to technical modeling, relief sketching ,
relief drawing , cut - outs , and other forms of practical work . The teach
ers of the special schools for the blind make use of such techniques

• 810 -
for the reconstruction of images in the blind . In the reconstruction
of the image the preliminary verbal sketch plays an enormous role . On
the basis of the perception and reconstruction of former representa
tions and verbal sketches of objects and phenomena there are created
in the children new images which do reflect reality . Relying on pre
vious experience and verbal description , they can represent a locality
in which they have never been , and create a distinct representation of
operating machines, the exterior form and structure of animals and
plants which they have never perceived in such form .
Thus , the blind inventor , T. , tells that when technical litera
ture is read to him he , according to the description of the construc
tion of the mechanisms, distinctly imagines the interaction of the
parts , the system of transmission , and the complex dynamic processes .
In this respect there sometimes arise in him thoughts concerning a new
design of this or that separate assembly or whole mechanism , a change
in the interaction of the parts , and the like . In the description of
technical details his mind seemingly " races" ahead , relying on the
knowledge of general laws , and the technical principles of mechanical
action . On the basis of a few initial data he can distinctly imagine
the whole complex , dynamic system of transmissions, the interactions
of the parts , the possible kinks, and the terminal result of the action
of the mechanism as a whole .
The creation of new images of objects and phenomena which the
blind inventor had never seen and the mental representation of complex
spatial-kinematic relationships attests to the fact that even in the
absence of visual presentations the means of the reflection of complex
spatial , dynamic relationships of reality , which would seem to be im
possible in the absence of visual perception , can be formed in the
process of labor activity .
Studies attest to the fact that in the absence of vision it is
possible to achieve a high proficiency in the formation of spatial rep
resentations and in the development of technical thinking in the blind .
In this respect the essential significance belongs to the knowledge of
the principles of mechanical action , and the knowledge of the rules of
projectional sketching. Special technical knowledge and ability helps
in the reconstruction of the concrete image . As was mentioned , relief
drawing, relief sketching , technical modeling , and the like , play an
enormous role in the formation of graphic perception in the blind . The
development of technical creativity in the blind is a powerful means of
compensation of the consequences of blindness . It has especially great
significance in the development of " object " and spatial presentations
in the blind , which enables the raising of the quality of training.
The role of the reconstructing imagination has a great signifi
cance in the mastery by the students of the fundamentals of the sciences
of physics, mathematics , geography , chemistry , biology , and drafting.
It has especially great significance in the mastery of skills in machine
control , electro - technology , radio - technology , and the like . With the
introduction , in many schools , of machine operation and production

- 811 -
training in the fields of metal processing , electro - technology , radio
technology , construction - assembly , and other work the reconstructing
imagination plays an exceptional role , since the above -mentioned disci
plines make greater demands on the intellectual activity of the blind
and on the formation in them of the modes and means of complex gen
eralizations which characterize the spatial properties and the spatial
relationships between the objects . Spatial thinking in the blind plays
an enormous role in the operating of mechanisms , in the making of meas
urements , and in the elimination of various sorts of malfunctioning.
It acquires special significance in the solution of technical questions ,
in the use of the different types of appliances and measuring instru
ments , in the study of the organization of machines , engines and in
struments , and in the reading of relief drawings, etc.
The studies carried out_by N. S. Kuzin 148 , 497 , I. B. Pesin
1657 and G. N. Poganov 269 , 70 / showed that the blind proficiency in
the formation of technical thinking and in the mastery of complex tech
nical abilities which permit them to run complex mechanisms , to make
calculations and measurements , and to solve kinematic problems, and the
like .
In foreign psychological literature these questions have hardly
been studied .
It should be noted that in the schools for the blind an excep
tionally important significance is given to the formation in the stu
dents of spatial representations and technical thinking as a powerful
means of compensation of lost sight .
In the inspection of the above material we saw that the filling
in of the gaps of sense experience in the blind can be realized only
by a proper use of the abilities of the students in labor activity .
In the period of training in a school for the blind great attention
should be devoted not only to the equipping of the students with the
knowledge , skill and habits necessary for their practical activity ,
but also to the development of thinking , speaking, and the creative
imagination This presupposes the formation in the students of the
ability to observe surrounding objects and phenomena , and the ability
to use clear images obtained from books , tales , and communication with
those around them .
The descriptions of the phenomena of nature , the pictures of
landscape art , the exterior view of animals and plants and the like
have an especially great significance. The development of musical and
literary creativity also has great significance . It assists in the
enrichment of graphic representations in children . Relief drawing ,
relief sketching , technical modeling, designing , work with contour
maps , etc. , occupy a special place in the system of training in schools
for the blind . A substantial alteration , directed at the establishment
of a greater liaison between the general education subjects and labor
training has been introduced into the content of the training for stu
dents in training workshops. In the studies in training workshops the
physical labor of the students is connected with the use of abilities

- 812 -
in general education subjects . The realization of the connection of
work assignments in training workshops with physics , mathematics,
chemistry , geography , the wide use of kinematic and technological
problems , and the use of calculations and computations connected with
practical work in training workshops enriches the intellectual de
velopment of the blind .
Image thinking and sense perception in the blind are enriched
also by the use of special technical means of compensation . Special
typhlo - instruments developed by various researchers serve as such
means ( the works of M. M. Germanov / 19/ , M. A. Verbuk / 13/ , R. S.
Muratov _601 , Ya . R. Fishlev 1871 , and others ) . These instruments
permit the replacement with the aid of technical means of visual per
ception of optical symbols by audio perception of objects , and eo ipso
enrich the representations of the blind concerning the surrounding
reality .
The instruments developed by the Sverdlovsk Typhlo - Technical
Laboratory of the Institute of Defectology permits the blind person
via audio signals on the basis of the use of the photo - effect to per
ceive many objects and phenomena of the surrounding world which are
characterized by optical properties ( the horizon , the silhouettes of
mountains , the perspective foreshortening upon withdrawal of objects ,
the changes of light relation ships , topographical pictures of a lo
cality , and the like ) .
For the broadening of the abilities of the blind through the
reading of books the technical means of compensation has an enormous
significance . The construction of devices permitting the blind to
read the usual flat - printed script has been carried out by Soviet au
thors . The transformation of flat- printed script into audio signals
with the help of the photo - effect has yielded positive results .
The experimental training of a group of blind persons carried
out_by the Sverdlovsk Typhlo - Technical Laboratory on a phonetic device
/ 14 / showed that the blind , after a period of training in using audio
signals , can read any text from an ordinary book with a speed of 300
400 signs a minute .
Positive results have been achieved by I. A. Sokolyanskiy and
Yu . A. Kulagin /83a / in the training of the blind in reading of ordi
nary script with the aid of a tactile device . In this case the usual
flat - printed script is transformed with the aid of the photo - effect
into sui generis signals which are perceived by the blind with the aid
of touch / 83a / . However , these devices are still in the stage of ex
perimental study . The efforts thus far made at broadening of the per
ceptional potentials of the blind with the aid of technical means are
still insufficient . The authors are making further efforts for the
perfection of these means . However , even at the present stage the
audio electro - indicators and reading machines show the possibility in
principle of their use for the facilitation of the orientation of the
blind and the broadening of their perceptional potentials .

• 813 -
 The technical means of compensation are of great significance
for the placement of the blind . The construction of special test in
struments , and appliances permitting the blind with the aid of touch
and hearing to determine readings with an exactness of up to 0.002 mm
( sliding_calipers, inside calipers , micrometers, measuring rules , and
others 169/2 have been developed by a whole series of authors ( G. N.
Roganov 1691 , and others ) .
A whole series of devices for physics which permits the blind
to use various measuring instruments in the execution of laboratory
work and practical studies in physics have been developed by a teacher
of the Moscow School for the Blind , M. I. Tolozov 1867. B. I. Kova
lenko developed a special set of drawing instruments for the blind
which permits them to make relief drawings on paper and so forth / 387.
N. A. Semevskiy has created an instrument for drawing and sketching in
a school for the blind 1787 .
All of this has an enormous significance for the broadening of
perceptional possibilities for the blind , for the raising of the
quality of training and the preparation of the students of the schools
for the blind for practical life and labor activity .
Socially useful labor is the most powerful factor of compensa -
tion and overcoming of the limitations connected with blindness .
Therefore , it is no accident that a large group of teachers , psycholo
gists , engineers , and other specialists are devoting great attention
to studies of the professions available for the blind , and the pros
pects of their efficient placement (the works of 0. I. Gandina /171 ,
V. G. Dmitriyev 1237 , M. S._Myakotin 61/ , N._S , Kuzin 1497 , I. B.
Pesin 1657, G. N. Roganov 1697 , A. Ts. Puni 2687, v. s . Potapov 1677,
and others ) .
The paths of compensation are opened in a most varied way in
the specific conditions of perceptional and social - labor activity .
Labor creates the possibilities for the development of spatial repre
sentations , the perfection of the processes of analysis and synthesis ,
and the development of thinking and speech in the blind .
Conscious , purposeful social- labor activity is a powerful in
strument in the formation of the processes of compensation and the
overcoming of the consequences of blindness . Therefore, the introduc
tion of intermediate education and polytechnical training in our coun
try has an enormous role, not only for the preparation of students for
practical life , but also for the development of the cognitive poten
tials and the formation of the personality of the blind person as a
whole .
The study of the processes of compensation and the peculiari
ties of the psychic activities of the blind has a great significance
for the raising of the quality of training, education , placement , and
health safeguards of the blind . Relying on the laws of compensation ,
it is possible , with the aid of scientifically based means and the
creation of the necessary conditions , to achieve the overcoming of the
difficulties caused by blindness , to attain an all -around development

- 814 .
of the intellectual and physical capabilities in the blind , and to
secure their preparation for active social - labor activity .
LITERATURE

1. V. I. Lenin , Materializm in empiriokrititsizm (Materialism and

Empiriocriticism ) , State Political Publishing House , Moscow ,
1947 , Works Vol . 14 , 4th Edition .
2. B. G. Anan'yev , L. M. Vekker , B. F. Lomov , and A , V. Yarmolenko ,
" Touch in the Process of Perception and Labor , " published in
Akademiya psikho logicheskikh nauk RSFSR ( Academy of Psychologi
cal Sciences ) , 1959 .
3. B. G. Anan'yev , " Labor as a Cardinal condition of the Development
of Sensitivity , " Voprosi psikhologii ( Questions of Psychology ) ,
No. 1 , 1955 .
4. B. G. Anan'yev , Prostranstvennoye razlicheniye ( Spatial Differ
entiation ) , Leningrad State University , Leningrad , 1955 .
5. B. G. Anan'yev , " Toward a Theory of the Sense of Touch , " Materialy
sove shchaniya po psikhologii (laterials of a Conference on Psy
chology ) , Publishing House of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences
of the RSFSR , 1957 .
6. P. K. Anokhin , " New Data on the Peculiarities of the Afferent
Apparatus of the Conditioned Reflex , " Tezisy dokladov na sove
shchanii po psikhologii 1-6 iyulya 1955 .. (Abstracts of Reports
at the Conference on Psychology , 1-6 July 1955 ) , Publishing
House of the Academy of Pedago gical Sciences of the RSFSR , 1957 .
7. P. K. Anokhin , " General Principles of the Compensation of Func
tions and Their Physiological Significance , " VIII Vsesoyuznyy
s'lyezd fiziologov . Tezisy dokladov ( 8th All - Union Congress of
Physiologists . Abstracts of Reports ) , Moscow , 1955 .
8. B. D. Asakhov , A. M. Zimkina , A. I. Stepanov , " On the Peculiari
ties of Orientational Reaction to Audio Stimulations in the
Blind , " Fiziologicheskiy zhurnal SSSR ( The USSR Journal of
Physiology ) , Vol . XLL ( sic /, No. 3 , 1955 .
9. E. A , Asratyan , Fiziologiya tsentral'noy nervnoy sistemy (Physi
ology of the Central Nervous System ) , Publishing House of the
Association of Medical Sciences of the USSR , 1953 .
10 . E. A. Asratyan , " Compensatory Adaptations of the Central Nervous
System in the Light of I. P. Pavlov's Theories , " Ucheniye I. P.
Pavlova o teoreticheskoy i prakticheskoy meditsine ( I. P. Pav
lov on Theoretical and Practical Medicine ), Issue 2 , Medgiz
( State Medical Publishing House ) , Moscow , 1953 .
11 . N. K. Bogolepov , Narusheniye dvigatel'nykh funktsiy pri sosu
distykh narushenniyakh mozga (Lesion of Motor Functions in the
Presence of Vascular Lesions of the Brain ) , Medgiz ( State Medi
cal Publishing House ) , Moscow , 1953 .
lla . I. G. Belyayev , " Toward the Question of the Role of Vision in
the Development of the Functions of the Motor Analyzer ,

- 815
 Anthology , Osobennosti poznavatel'noy deyatel'nosti slepykh
Peculiarities of the Cognitive Activity of the Blind ) , Pub
lishing House of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the
RSFSR , 1958 .
12 . A. Birilev , Tiflopedagogicheskaya tekhnika (Pedagogical Tech
niques for the Blind ) , Uchpedgiz ( State Teacher Training Pub
lishing House ) , Moscow , 1928 .
13 . M. A. Verbuk , " New Possibilities for Increasing Palpability in
Schools for the Blind, " Anthology , Uchebnovo snitatel 'naya
rabota v spetsial'nykh shkolakh ( Teaching and Training Work in
Special Schools ) , Issue 1 , Uchpedgiz ( State Teacher Training
Publishing House ) , Moscow , 1957 .
14 . M. A. Verbuk , " How the Blind Can Read a Printed Text by Means
of Pre - Arranged Phonic Signals, " Izvestiya APN RSFSR ( Journal
of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the RSFSR ) , No. 90 ,
1957 .
15 . P. Villey , Psikhologiya slepykh (per . s frants. ) ( Psychology of
the Blind ( translated from the French ) ) , Uchpedgiz ( State
Teacher Training Publishing House ) , Moscow- Leningrad , 1931 .
15a . N. N. Volkov , Vospriyatiye predmeta i risunka (Object - Percep
tion and Drawing ) , Publishing House of the Academy of Pedagogi
cal Sciences of the RSFSR , 1950 .
16 . L. C. Vygotskiy , Izbr. psikhologicheskiye issledovaniya ( Selected
Psychological Researches ) , Publishing House of the Academy of
Pedagogical Sciences of the RSFSR , 1956 .
17 . 0. I. Gandina , " Placement Procedures for Blind Workers in In
dustry , " Anthology , Trudovoye ustroystvo slepykh ( Blind Place
ment ) , edited by N. M. Obodin and 0. I. Gandina , Leningrad ,
1949 .
18 . 0. I. Geogieyevskaya , " The Use of Relief Drawings in Biology In
struction for the Blind , " Anthology , Iz opyta obucheniya slepykh
i slabovidyashchikh detey ( From the Experience of Instruction
to Blind and Weak - sighted Children ) , Publishing House of the
Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the RSFSR , 1954 .
19 . M , M. Germanov , " The Transformation of Typographical Symbols
Into Forms Perceptible to the Blind , " Izvestiya APN RSFSR
( Journal of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the RSFSR ) ,
No. 90 , 1957 .
20 . S. I. Gibor , Osobennosti obucheniya slepykh grafike ( Peculiari
ties of Teaching Drawing to the Blind ) , Uchpedgiz ( State Teacher
Training Publishing House ) , Moscow , 1935 .
21 . T. 0. Ginevskaya , " Development of Manual Motions in Touch , "
Izvestiya APN RSFSR ( News of the Academy of Pedagogical Sci
ences of the RSFSR ) , No. 14 , 1949 .
22 . N. K. Gusev , Oroli praktiki i degustatsii v razvitii vkusovoy
chuvstvitel'nosti (On the Role of Practice and Tasting in the
Development of the Gustatory Sense ) , edited by D. P. Osipov and
B. G. Anan'yev , 1940 .

- 816 -
23 . V. G. Dmitriyev , Proizvodstvo i professii , dostupnyye dlya
oslepshikh ( Work and Professions Available to the Blind ) , Pub
lishing House of the TSIETIN , Moscow , 1944 .
24 . s . G. Zhislin , " On a Special Type of Perception and Its Rela
tionship to the so - called Obstacle Sense of the Blind , " Vestnik
AMN SSSR (Herald of the AMN of the USSR ) , No. 4 , 1946 .
25 . 2. M. Zhukovskaya , " Research Into the Active Tactile Sense
Among Children of the Leningrad Institute for the Blind, "
Voprosy i zucheniya i vospitaniya lichnosti ( Questions of the
Study and Education of the Personality ) , Publishing House of
the Bekhterev Brain Institute , No. 1-2 , 1930 , pp . 86-99 .
25a . M. I. Zemt sova , L. A. Novikova , N. P. Paramonova , and Ye . N.
Sokolov , Anthology , Orientirovochnyy refleks i orientirovichno
issledovatel'skaya deya tel'nost ' ( The Orientational Reflex and
Orientational - Exploratory Activity ) , Publishing House of the
Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the RSFSR , 1958 .
26 . M. I. Zemtsova , Puti kompensatsii slepoty v usloviyakh poz
navatel'noy i trudovoy deyatel'nosti (Means of Compensation
Among the Blind in Cognitive and Labor Activity ) , Publishing
House of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the RSFSR , 1956 .
27 . A. M. Zimkina , O fiziologicheskikh osnovakh kompensatsii
narushlennykh funktsiy ( On the Physiological Bases of the
Compensation of Damaged Functions ) , Publishing House of the
Leningrad Scientific Research Institute for the Examination
of Working Capacity and Placement of Invalids , 1956 .
28 . A. M. Zimkina and A. I. Stepanov , " Concerning Certain Peculiari
ties of the Higher Neural Activity in the Blind , " Izvestiya
APN RSFSR ( News of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the
RSFSR ) , No. 90 , 1957 .
29 . A. M. Zimkina , " On the Orientational Reaction , " Materialy sove
shchaniya po psikhologii ( Materials of a Conference on Psy
chology ) , Publishing House of the Academy of Pedagogical Sci
ences of the RSFSR , 1957 .
30 . V. P. Zinchenko , " Movement of the Eyes in the Formation of an
Image , " Vopro sy psikhologii ( Questions of Psychology ) , No. 5 ,
1958 .
31 . V. P. Zinchenko and B. F. Lomov , " Comparative Analysis of the
Motions of Hand and Eye in the Process of Tactile and Visual
Perception , " Materialy nauchnogo soveshchaniya po probleme
vospriyatiya prostranstva i prostranstvennykh predstavlenyy
( Materials of a Scientific Conference on the Problem of the Per
ception of Space and of Spatial Representations ) , Leningrad,
1959 .
32 . D. I. Zorichev , Osobennosti obucheniya geografii v shkolakh
slepykh ( Teaching Geography in Schools for the Blind ) , Uchped
giz ( State Teacher Training Publishing House ) , Moscow , 1939 .
33 . D. I. Zorichev , " The Formation of Spatial Representations in
Studying a Relief Map in a School for Blind Children , " from

- 817 -
 the anthology under the editorship of M. I. Zemtsova , Iz opyta
obucheniya slepykh i slabovidya shchikh detey (From the Experi
ence of Teaching Blind and Weak - sighted Children ) , Publishing
House of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the RSFSR ,
1954 .
34 . K. Kh . Kekcheyev , Interoretseptsiya i prorioretseptsiya i ikh
znacheniya dlya kliniki (Interoception and Proprioception and
Their Significance for the Clinic ) , Medgiz ( State Medical Pub
lishing House ) , Moscow , 1946 .
35 . K. Kh . Kekcheyev , N. I. Kal ' , I. V. Pashukanis , " Accuracy of
Hand Motions in the Blind and the Seeing, " Fiziologicheskiy
zhurnal SSSR ( Physiological Journal of the USSR ) , Vol. XVII ,
No. 4 , 1934 .
36 . K. Kh . Kekcheyev and Ye . I. Kostina , " Toward the Question of
the Physiological Study of the Orientation of the Blind ,
Fiziologicheskiy zhurnal SSSR ( Physiological Journal of the
USSR ) , Vol . XX , No. 5 , 1936 .
37 . K. Kh . Kekcheyev , T. I. Belova , " On Developmental Alterations
of Sensory Proprioception , " Fiziologicheskiy zhurnal SSSR
( Physiological Journal of the USSR ) , Vol. XI , No. 1 , 1936 .
37a . N. V. Klushina , " Elementary Geometrical Concepts in Blind
Children , " Anthology , Osobennosti poznavatel'noy deyatel'nosti
slepykh (Peculiarities of Cognitive Activity in the Blind ) ,
Publishing House of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the
RSFSR , 1958 .
38 . B. I. Kovalenko , " Drawing Instruments for the Blind , " Uchenyye
zapiski LGPI im . A. I. Gertsena ( Scientific Notes of the A , I ,
Gertsen State Psychological Institute at Leningrad ) , Vol. 100 ,
Leningrad , 1955 .
39 . B. I. Kovalenko , Osnovy predmetnykh metodik v rabote so slepymi
( Principles of " Object " Methods in Work With the Blind ) , Uch
pedgiz ( State Teacher Training Publishing House ) , Moscow , 1934 .
40 . B. I. Kovalenko , " Speed and Accuracy in Writing Among Students
in Schools for the Blind , " Uchenyye zapiski LGPI im . A. I.
Gertsena ( Scientific Notes of the A. I. Gertsen State Psycho
logical Institute at Leningrad ) , Vol. 100 , Leningrad , 1955 .
41 . V. M. Kogan , " Principles of Placement and Rehabilitation of In
valids , " Anthology , Trudovoye ustroistvo invalidov ( Placement
and Rehabilitation for Invalids ) , Publishing House of the Cen
tral Scientific -Research Institute for Determination of Physi
cal Fitness for Labor and Placement of Invalids , Moscow , 1952 .
42 . N. S. Kostyuchek , " Vocabulary of Pupils in the First and Second
Grades in Schools for the Blind , " Anthology , Uchebno - vospitatel ' .
naya rabota v spetsial'nykh shkolakh ( Teaching and Educational
Work in Special Schools ) , Issue 2 , Uchpedgiz ( State Teacher
Training Publishing House ) , Moscow , 1955 .
43 . N. S. Kostyuchek , " Representations , Speech and Thought in Stu
dents of the First Through the Fourth Grades in Schools for the

• 818 -
 Blind , " Izvestiya APN RSFS ? ( News of the Academy of Pedagogical
Sciences of the RSFSR ) , Issue 96 , 1957 .
44 . N. S. Kostyuchek , " Comparative Investigation of Blind and Seeing
Children of Early School Age , " Anthology , Uchebno - vospitatel ' .
naya rabota v spetsial'nykh shkolakh ( Teaching and Educational
Work in Special Schools ) , No. 2 , Uchpedgiz ( State Teacher Train
ing Publishing House ), Moscow , 1956 .
45 . N. S. Kostyuchek , " Peculiarities of the Perception of Blind
Children of Early School Age , " Izvestiya APN RSFSR ( Journal
of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the RSFSR ), No. 90 ,
1957 .
46 . I. M. Krasnyanskaya , " Knowledge of Botany and Zoology Among
Children of Schools for the Blind , " Anthology , Uchebno
vospitatel'naya rabota v spetsial'nykh shkolakh ( Teaching and
Educational Work in Special Schools ) , No. 4 , Uchpedgiz ( State
Teacher Training Publishing House ) , Moscow , 1954 .
47 . A. A. Krogius , Psikhologiya slepykh i yeye znacheniye dlya
obshchey psikhologii i pedagogiki ( Psychology of the Blind and
Its Significance for General Psychology and Pedagogy ) , pub
lished by the author , Saratov , 1926 .
48 . N. S. Kuzin , " Accuracy of Work by the Blind at the Lathe in
Shaping Rotating Bodies , " Anthology , Pod gotovka ucha shchikhsya
shkol slepykh k trudovoy deyatel'nosti ( Preparation of Students
of Blind Schools for Production Activity ) , edited by M. I.
Zemtsova , Publishing House of the Academy of Pedagogical Sci
ences of the RSFSR , 1958 .
49 . N. S. Kuzin , " Teaching of Machine Operation to the Blind in
Connection with General Education in Middle Schools , " idem .
50 . Yu . A. Kulagin , " Concerning Certain Manifestations of the Neural
Mechanism in Tactile Perception in the Blind , " Izvestiya APN
RSFSR ( Journal of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the
RSFSR ) , No. 90 , 1957 .
51 . Yu . A. Kulagin , " The Development of Tactile Perception of Relief
Illustrations by Students of Schools for the Blind , " Doklady
APN RSFSR ( Reports of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of
the RSFSR ) , No. 1 , 1960 .
52 . Yu . A. Kulagin , " Tactile Perception and Visual Aids for Blind
Children , Tezisy nauchnoy sessii po vopro sam defektologii 3-6
yanvarya 1956 8. (Abstracts from a Scientific Session on Ques
tions of Defectology , 3-6 January 1956 ) , published by the
Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the RSFSR , 1955 .
53 . A. N. Leont'yev , " On the Systemic Nature of Psychic Functions, "
Tezisy filosof skogo fakul'teta ( Theses of the Philosophic
Faculty ) , Publishing House of the Moscow State University ,
Moscow , 1955 .
54 . A. N. Leont'yev and A. V. Zaporozhets , Vosstanovleniye dvizheniy
( Restoration of Movements ) , State Publishing House , Moscow ,
1945 .

- 819 -
55 . A. N. Leont'yev , " On the Mechanism of Sensory Reflection , "
Voprosy psikhologii ( Questions of Psychology ) , No. 2 , 1959 .
56 . P. V. Likhachev , " On the Use of Visual Methods in Teaching
Mathematics in Schools for the Blind , " Anthology , Uchebno
vospitatel'naya rabota v spetsial'nykh shkolakh ( Teaching and
Educational Work in Special Schools ) , Issue 4 , Uchpedgiz ( State
Teacher Training Publishing House ) , Moscow , 1954 .
57 . A , R. Luriya , " The Role of the Word in the Formation of Temporal
Connections in Man , " Voprosy psikhologii ( Questions of Psy
chology ) , No. 1 , 1955 .
58 . A. R. Luriya , Travmaticheskaya afaziya ( Traumatic Aphasia ) , Pub
lishing House of the USSR Academy of Sciences, Moscow - Lenin
grad , 1947 .
59 . M. R. Magendovich , " Localization of Sounds in Space by the Blind
and the Influence of Stimulation of the Vestibular Apparatus,"
from Sbornik rabot po trudoustroystvu slepykh ( Collection of
Works Dealing with the Placement of the Blind ) , State Publish
ing House for Light Industry , Leningrad , 1931 .
60 . R. S. Muratov , " Compensation of Blindness by Means of Special
Instruments for the Blind , " Izvestiya APN RSFSR ( Journal of
the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the RSFSR ) , Issue 90 ,
1957 .
61 . M. S. Myakotin , " The Organization of Vocational Training for the
Blind , " from the collection Obucheniye i vospitaniye slepykh
( Teaching and Training of the Blind ) , Uchpedgiz ( State Teacher
Training Publishing House ) , Moscow , 1956 .
62 . V. N. Myasi shchev , " The Problem of Personality and Relationships
in the Individual , " Materialy soveshchaniya po psikhologii
(Materials of a Conference on Psychology ) , Publishing House of
the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the RSFSR , 1957 .
63 . T. S. Murzayeva , " The Muscular Sense in the Blind , " Sbornik
rabot po trudoustroistvu slepykh ( Collection of Works Dealing
With the Placement of the Blind ) , State Publishing House for
Light Industry , Leningrad, 1935 .
64 . L. A. Novikova and M. I. Zemtsova , " Investigation of the Func
tional Condition of the Brain in the Blind by the Method of
Electroencephalography , " Tezisy dokladov na soveshchanii po
defektologii 3-6 yanvarya 1956 8. ( Abstracts of Reports at a
Conference on Defectology , 3-6 January 1956 ) , Publishing House
of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the RSFSR , 1956 .
65 . I. B. Pesin , " Noncurricular Activities in Radio - Technology in
Schools for the Blind , " Anthology , Uchebno - vospitatel'naya
rabota v spetsialnykh shkolakh ( Teaching and Training Work in
Special Schools ) , Issue 4 , Uchpedgiz ( State Teacher Training
Publishing House ) , Moscow , 1955 .
66 . N. P. Paramonova and Ye . N. Sokolov , " Toward the Question of the
Reactivity of the Auditory Analyzer in the Blind , Investigated
by the Method of Complex Recording , " Tezisy dokladov nauchnoy

- 820 -
 sessii po vopro sam defektologii 3-6 yanvarya 1956 8. ( Abstracts
of Reports at a Conference on Questions of Defectology , 3-6
January 1956 ) , Publishing House of the Academy of Pedagogical
Sciences of the RSFSR , 1956 .
67 . V. S. Potapov , " An Experiment at Setting up a Production Schedule
for Blind Students , " Sbornik rabot po trudo stroystvu invalidov
( Collection of Works Dealing with the Placement of Invalids ) ,
LITIN , Leningrad , 1933 .
68 . A. Ts . Puni , " Production Work and the Sense of Touch in the
Blind , " Sbornik rabot po trudoustroistvu slepykh ( Collection
of Works Dealing with the Placement of the Blind ) , State Pub
lishing House for Light Industry , Leningrad , 1935 .
69 . G. N. Roganov, Organizatsiya truda slepykh i ikh obucheniye
rabo te na metallorezhushchikh stankakh (Organizing Labor Among
the Blind and Instructing them in Work on the Metal - Cutting
Lathe ) , Uchpedgiz ( State Teacher Training Publishing House ) ,
Moscow , 1946 .
70 . G. N. Roganov , Metodika obucheniya slepykh chteniyu mashino
stroitel'nykh chertezhey , kinematiche skikh skhem i tekhni
cheskikh risunkov ( Methods of Instructing the Blind in Reading
Sketches for Machine Construction , Kinematic Schemes and Tech
nical Designs ) , with separate album , Uchped giz. ( State Teacher
Training Publishing House ) , Moscow , 1940 .
71 . S. L. Rubinshteyn , Osnovy obshchey psikhologii ( Principles of
General Psychology ) , Uchpedgiz (State Teacher Training Publish
ing House ) , Moscow , 1946 .
72 . A. I. Rudnik , " Influence of the Shape and Size of a Figure on
Accuracy and Speed of Discernment Among the Blind , " from the
collection Froblemy trudovogo ustroistva invalidov ( Problems
of Placement Among Invalids ) , No. 3 , Moscow , 1934 .
73 . L. B. Sambikin , Igry dlya slepykh detey (Games for Blind Child
ren ) , Uchpedgiz ( State Teacher Training Publishing House ) ,
Moscow , 1950 .
74 . V. S. Sverlov , Oriyentirovka slepykh ( Orientation of the Blind ) ,
Candidate's Dissertation , Moscow , 1955 .
75 . V. S. Sverlov , Oshchushcheniye prepyatstviya i yego rol' v
oriyentirovke slepykh (Obstacle Perception and Its Role in
Orientation Among the Blind ) , Uchpedgiz ( State Teacher Train
ing Publishing House ) , Moscow , 1949 .
76 . V. S. Sverlov , Prostranstvennaya oriyentirovka slepykh ( Spatial
Orientation of the Blind ) , Uchpedgiz ( State Teacher Training
Publishing House ) , Moscow , 1951 .
76a . V. S. Sverlov , " Perception of Sculpture Among the Blind ,"
Izvestiya APN RSFSR ( Proceedings of the Academy of Pedagogical
Sciences of the RSFSR ) , No. 90 , 1957 .
77 . V. S. Sverlov , V. S. Potapov and T. S. Murzayeva , " Experimental
Investigations of Perception of Relief Drawings Among the Blind ,
Sbornik rabot po trudoustroystvu slepykh ( Collection of Works

- 821 -
 Dealing with the Placement of the Blind ) , State Publishing House
for Light Industry , Leningrad , 1935 .
78 . N. A. Semevskiy , Obucheniye grafike v shkole slepykh ( The Teach
ing of Drawing in Schools for the Blind ) , Uchpedgiz ( State
Teacher Training Publishing House ) , Moscow , 1952 .
79 . I. M. Sechenov , Izbrannyye proizvedeniya ( Selected Works ) , Pub
lishing House of the USSR Academy of Sciences , Moscow - Leningrad ,
1952 .
80 . 0. I. Skorokhodova , Kak ya vosprinimayu i predstavlyu okruzha
yushchiy mir ( How I Perceive and Picture the World Around Me ) ,
Publishing House of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the
RSFSR , Moscow , 1956 .
81 . I. K. Smirnov , " A Brief Manual on Composition in the Senior
Grades of Middle Schools for the Blind , " Tiflopedagogika (Peda
gogy for the Blind ) , edited by B. I. Kovalenko , Publishing
House of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the RSFSR,
1956 .
82 . I. K. Smirnov , " Work on the Style of Compositions on Literature
in Senior Grades of Middle Schools for the Blind , " Tiflopeda
gogika ( Pedagogy for the Blind ) , edited by B. I. Kovalenko ,
Publishing House of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the
RSFSR , 1956 .
83 . I. A. Sokolyanskiy , " Some Observations on Deaf -Mutes, " preface
to the book of 0. I. Skorokhodova , Kak ya vosprinimayu i
predstavlyayu okruzhayushchiy mir (How I Perceive and Picture
the World Around Me ) , Publishing House of the Academy of Feda
gogical Sciences of the RSFSR , Moscow , 1954 .
83a . I. A. Sokolyanskiy and Yu . A. Kulagin , " Reading of Flat - Bed Print
ing by the Blind , " Voprosy psikhologii ( Questions of Psychology ),
No. 5 , 1956 .
84 . V. M. Sretenskaya , Osobennosti oslepshikh detey i uchebno
vospitatel'naya rabota s nimi ( Peculiarities of Blinded Child -
ren and Teaching and Educational Work With Them ) , Candidate's
Dissertation , Leningrad , 1953 .
85 . A. I. Skrebitskiy , Vospitaniye i obrazovaniye slepykh i ikh
prizreniye na Zapade ( Training and Education of the Blind and
Their Care in the West ) , St. Petersburg , 1903 .
86 . M , I. To lozov , Osobennosti prepodavaniya fiziki v shkole slepykh
( Teaching Physics in Schools for the Blind ) , Uchpedgiz ( State
Teacher Training Publishing House ) , Moscow , 1954 .
87 . Ya . R. Fishlev , Zameshcheniye zritel'nykh funktsiy pri obuchenii
slepykh detey s ispol'zovaniyem fotoelektricheskikh priborov
( Substituting for Visual Functions in the Education of Blind
Children by Use of Photoelectric Equipment ) , Candidate's Dis
sertation , Sverdlovsk , 1959 .
88 . N. G. Khopreninova , Issledovaniye prostranstvennykh predstavleniy
slepykh ( Investigation of Spatial Representations in the Blind ) ,
Candidate's Dissertation , Moscow , 1953 .

- 822 ..
 89 . N. G. Khopreninova , " Toward the Question of the Notion of Direc
tion Among the Blind , " Anthology , Osobennosti poznavatel'noy
deyatel'nosti slepykh ( Peculiarities of Cognitive Activity in
the Blind ) , edited by M. I. Zemtsova and Yu . A. Kulagina , Pub
lishing House of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the
RSFSR , 1958 .
90 . F. N. Shemyakin , " Toward the Psychology of Spatial Representa
tions , " Uchenyye zapiski instituta psikhologii ( Scientific Notes
of the Institute of Psychology ) , Vol . 1 , 1940 .
91 . F. N. Shemyakin , " Investigation of Topographic Representations, "
Izvestiya APN RSFSR ( News of the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical
Sciences ) , Issue 53 , 1954 .
92 . F. N. Shemyakin , " Toward the Question of Topographic Representa
tions in the Blind , Sovetskaya nevropsikhiatriya ( Soviet Neuro
psychiatry ) , Vol. VI , 1941.
93 . L. L. Shik , " I. M. Sechenov and the Physiology of Man's Working
Motions, " Zhurnal vysshey nervnoy deyatel'nosti ( Journal of
Higher Neural Activity ) , No. 1 , 1956 .
94 . L. A. Shifman , " Toward the Problem of the Tactile Perception of
Form ," Trudy instituta mozga im . Bekhtereva ( Froceedings of the
Bekhterev Brain Institute ) , Vol. XIII , Leningrad , 1940 .
95 . L , A. Shifman , " Toward the Question of the Tactile Perception of
Form , " idem .
96 . A. L. Yarbus , " Eye Motion in the Process of Changing Points of
Fixation , " Trudy instituta biologicheskoy fiziki ( Proceedings
of the Institute of Biological Physics ) , Vol. I , 1955 .
97 . A. L. Yarbus, " Investigation of the Patterns of Eye Motion in
the Process of Vision , " Doklady AN SSSR ( Reports of the USSR
Academy of Sciences ) , Vol. XVI , No. 4 , 1954 .
98 . A. V. Yarmolenko , " The Formation of Spatial Representations on
a Limited Sensory Basis , " Anthology , Problemy psikhologii (Prob .
lems of Psychology ) , Publishing House of Leningrad State Uni -
versity , Leningrad , 1948 .
99 . A. V. Yarmolenko , Vliyaniye usloviy vospriyatiya i predydushevo
opyta na obrazovaniye osyazatel'nykh predstavleniy ( The Influ
ence of Conditions of Perception and Earlier Experience on the
Formation of Tactile Representations ) , Leningrad , Publishing
House of the Brain Institute , 1947 .
100 . A , V. Ya rmolenko , " Forms of Speech When Hearing and Sight Are
Lost , " Trudy LGPI im . A. I. Gertsena ( Proceedings of the A. I.
Gertsen State Psychological Institute at Leningrad ) , Vol . LIII ,
1947 .
101 . A. V. Yarmolenko , " Development of Consciousness in the Presence
of Extremely Limited Sensory Capacity , " Problemy psikhologii
(Problems of Psychology ) , Publishing House of the Leningrad
State University , Leningrad , 1948 .
102 . A. V. Yarmolenko , " The Role of Motor Sensations in Sensory Cog
nition Upon Loss of Hearing and Sight , " Materialy soveshchaniya

- 823 -
 po psikhologii (Materials of a Conference on Psychology ) , Pub
lishing House of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the
RSFSR , Moscow , 1957 .
103 . A. V. Yarmolenko , " Interdependence of the First and Second Sig
nals Systems Upon Loss of Hearing and Sight , " Uchenyye zapiski
LGU ( Scientific Notes of the Leningrad State University ) , No.
147 , 1953 .
104 . M. Kunz, Zur Blindenpsychologie ( On Typhlopsychology) Lin
German / , 1902 .
105 . L. Truschel, " The Sixth Sense " /in German7, Experimentalische
Pedagogie ( Experimental Pedagogy ) , 1906 .

- 824 -
 WORKS OF SOVIET SCHOLARS IN THE FIELD
OF COMPARATIVE PSYCHOLOGY

By N. N. Ladygina- Kots

Fussian comparative psychology had its start in the first half

of the 19th century in the works of the progressive scientist of that
period , Professor of Zoology of Moscow University , K. F. Rullye ( 1814
1858) . He can be considered one of the first Russian evolutionists,
who for several years before the appearance of the remarkable book
" The Origin of Species [T147, by Charles Darwin joined in his views to
those of the French evolutionist St. Iler and advanced ideas close to
the revolutionary concepts of Darwin , introducing the historical element
in the analysis of the phenomena of animate nature . A great service of
Rul'ye's was his pointing out of the importance of the study of animal
psychology on a level with zoology . He wrote : " We are finally begin
ning to be able to obtain more complete and detailed information on the
animal by means of that neu element of its existence, namely its psy
chology . This step forward still remains to be taken by the champions
of science : awareness of its necessity hardly exists now [2427 .
The idea of historical development was presented by Rul'ye as
the basis of this theory on the origin of the psychological activity of
animals , particularly the origin and development of instincts, which were
considered the product of the effect of the external environment on the
organism . These materialist views on instinct ( in opposition to the
theological views on this phenomenon at that time) were advanced for that
day . And it was by no means a mere accident that I. M. Sechenov , influ
enced by the lectures of Rul'ye, became interested for the first time
in the study of the mind and neural activity .
Sechenov , who shared the evolutionary view on the development of
man , also pointed out the necessity of studying the simplest psychic
phenomena of animals as initial material for the clarification of the
more complex mental activity of man .
"It is possible , " wrote Sechenov , " that comparative psychology
will introduce a more natural system in the classification of different
species of feelings ( feelings in the narrow sense -- affect , passion )
and smooth over the gulf which separates for human consciousness reason
from instinct, thought-out action from involuntary action " [260]. It
is not surprising that the books of the leading Russian thinkers --
materialists as well as Charles Darwin's book " The Origin of Spe
cies , " published in 1859 , exercised a tremendous influence on the fol
lowing generation of leading Russian scholars, particularly on V. A.
Vagner ( 1849-1934 ) , Professor of Zoology and Comparative Psychology at
Leningrad State University .
Vagner was also one of those progressive Russian scientists who
were ardent adherents and followers of the theories of Darwin , sharing
the views of that great scientist on the evolutionary origin of organ
isms and creatively applying the basic principles of Darwin's theory in
their scientific researches .

• 825
 Having started his scientific activities with the study of
problems relating to morphology , systematics , and biology , Vagner
proceeded to the study of animal behavior and psychology , and for the
following 40 years worked fruitfully in this field . He wrote a number
of important monographs and articles [61] [627. [63] , [647, 165] ,[667,
[677 ,*[68] , [707 , [71] [72] [737 , and a two volume summary," Biologi
cal Principles of Comparative Psychology " [69]. The latter book is a
classic work which is permeated with the general idea of evolution .
It is directed toward the fight, on the one hand, with subjective
methods of research connected with anthropomorphism in the explana
tion of animal behavior , and on the other hand , with behaviorism and
mechanism defended by Zn . Leb and his followers .
In this summary , as in the subsequent " Studies on Comparative
Psychology " [737, Vagner creatively developed and explained the origin
and development of the mental capacities of the most various sorts of
animals in phylogenesis on the basis of his own numerous basic re
searches He discussed clearly and in detail the problems of the gen
esis and development of the psychic life , analyzing from the evolutionary
standpoint a vast amount of factual material relating to research in the
perceptions, instincts, emotions, memory , and habits of animals in con
nection with the evolutionary formation of their bodies and the degree
of development of their nervous systems.
Vagner's last monograph , " Comparative Psychology , Its Field of
Research and Problems" ( 1934 ), in manuscript, represents a singular
work of its kind in the 50 -year period of work in the field of compar
ative psychology , In its overall make- up , this monograph is constructed
on a historical principle in the understanding of the psychic life as
a developing faculty which can be cognized in its dynamic . No twith
standing the earlier accepted views on instinct as a stable , stereo
typic psychic phenomenon , Vagner in his last work defined instinct as a
concrete, plastic activity subject to changes under the influence of
external conditions. A very original effort is Vagner's examination of
certain forms of instinctive activity , e.g. , the building of nests by
spiders , as diagnostic signs. He included them in the system of spe
cific signs along with morphological signs, thereby confirming an or
ganic bond between behavioral elements and the entire complex of
specific signs of animals .
Analyzing instinctive phenomena more deeply , Vagner showed how
instincts originated " under the dictates of the environment and under
the control of natural selection , " thus knocking out the props from
under the platform for metaphysical and theological interpretations of
instinct .
The chapter on psychology in this work contains a new and fruito
ful attempt to outline the successive steps of the development of per
ception in animals ( perception , attention , memory ) , prompting a deeper
elaboration on the genetic plane of other perceptual processes which
are studied in comparative and general psychology .

- 826 -
 The evolution of the psychic life was elaborated in a small but
very meaty article, " Evolution and the Psychic Life " [2597 , by A. N.
Severtsov . The author outlined the course of the progressive evolution
of living organisms . Stressing the importance in this process of elab
orating morphologo anatomical, physiological, and biological adaptations
which take place under the influence of the external environment,
Severtsov directs special attention to adaptation by means of changes
in animals' behavior , which have decisive importance in the process of
rapid adaptation to changing conditions of life .
Severtsov pointed out that in the process of evolution the
highest degree of progressive development was found in animals that
were " inventors " of new modes of behavior . In this group of animals
the author included man , who acquired the capacity to adapt to any con
di tion of existence and created for himself an artificial environment
favorable to his survival .
Other efforts devoted to the development of the psychic life in
clude the works of V. M. Borovskiy , " Introduction to comparative Psy
chology " [ 38 ] and " Principles of Comparative Reflexology [407. He
also published a book which is most interesting in structure, " The
Psychic Activity of Animals" (457, presenting step by step a clear pic
ture of various forms of activity of animals at different levels of de
velopment: their perceptions and the roles of individual receptors,
group behavior and forms of interdependence of animals in the family
and herd , their cognitive faculties as biological premises for the ap
pearance of consciousness in man .
An exhaustive summary on the evolution of the mind was contri
buted by the eminent zoologist and ecologist, D. N. Kashkarov , in the
book_ " Contemporary Successes in Zoopsychology , " published in 1928
[T307. This book generalizes from the evolutionary aspect a tremendous
amount of material of Russian and foreign investigators on animal behav
ior . The development of the mind was extremely well elaborated by G.
2. Roginskiy in his book " Development of the Brain and Mental Processes"
[222] . The author gives a concise account and graphic illustration (in
an album consisting of 100 tables) of the principal stages of the evolu
tion of the psychic life and the nervous system of organisms.
A. N. Leontyev , in his book " Notes on the Development of the
Psychic Life [ 1607 , made an original attempt to disclose the genesis
of psychic processes and the causes of the appearance of qualitatively
new forms of reflection at different levels of the mental development
of animals ,
Á scientifically popular book , " The Development of the Psychic
Life in the Processof the Evolution of Organisms [15967 , by N. n .
Ladygina- Kots, was published in 1958. The author brings out the qual
itative singularity of the forms of reflection in basic types of inver
tebrate animals ( protozoans, coelentrates, worms, arthropods) and
representatives of principal classes of vertebrate animals ( fishes,
amphibians, reptiles, birds, mammals ), bringing out the specificity of
their behavior and the progressive development of levels of analytico
synthetic activity . Special attention is drawn to primates ,

. 827 -
particularly to the behavior of higher and lower apes , discussed on the
basis of the author's own observations and experiments . This author also
wrote the article " The Development of Forms of Reflective Thought in the
Process of the Evolution of organisms" [156 ] .
Every textbook on general psychology that has been published dur
ing the period of the Soviet regime has included a chapter treating the
development of the psychic life in more or less detail ( see textbooks
and manuals on psychology by the following_authors, in the chronological
order of publication : C. L. Rubinshteyn (2457, B. G. Anan'yev 1. k.
N. Kornilov,A. A. Smimov,B. M. Teploy 71327, T. G. Yegorov [7207, A.
V. Zaporozhets [ 7227, v . A. Artemov [127, B. M.Teplov [270 ], G. S.
Kostyuk [1347, P. I. Ivanov [1247, P. A. Rudik [246] , A. A. Smirnov,
A. N. Leontyev, S. L. Rubinshteyn, and B. M. Teplov (2677 ) .
Let us turn to works devoted to the analysis of basic forms of
animal behavior . A theoretical analysis of instinct in the light of I.
P. Pavlov's theories on higher neural activity was made by many Soviet
scholars who published a number of research works : G. A. Vasil'yev
[75 ] [76] , 1777 ; L.y. Krushinskiy[ 1407;A.A.Mashkovtsev[ 1807, Yu .
P. Frolov [289], [2907. These authors wrote a number of works, treat
ing the problem of instinct from various aspects . They made a natural
scientific analysis of instincts, bringing out the role of external and
internal factors in the formation of instinctive behavior , and dis
closed the physiological nature of instincts .
The problem of instincts was also discussed in a number of
theses : V. A. Kukushkina ( " The Problem of Instinct in the_Light of
the Teachings of I. P. Pavlov on Higher Neural Activity" [ 7447); s.
A. Person (" The Problem of Instinct in the Light of Michurin's Biol
ogy and the Physiological Teachings of I. P. Pavlov [ 1887 ); V. A.
Kosobutskiy's dissertation which contained an analysis of the individ
ual development of the_hunting - food instinct of carnivorous mammals and
carnivorous birds [733] .
All these works, differing with respect to particular questions
connected with instincts , agree on the basic point: in the understand
ing of instinct as a product of prolonged historic development , as a
natural response of the organism to simuli of the external and internal
environment, as the result of the interdependence of native and ac
quired forms of behavior . In its physiological mechanisms, instinct
is considered a most complex native unconditioned - reflex activity , ac
cumulating to a greater or lesser degree in the process of ontogenesis
( particularly in vertebrate animals) conditioned - reflex components.
This leads to the understanding of instinctive activity as a plastic
process which can undergo directed alteration by man . This conclusion
opened up the richest possibilities for training and re - training the
instincts of animals for practical purposes, by directing the attention
of researchers to the analysis of the alteration of instincts.
The_works of a number of scholars (A. Gubin [113], M. Ye.
Lobashev (1627, I , Khalifman [298], A. K. Voskresenskaya and N. G.
Lopatina [108 ] [ 109] [1107 ,B.N. Shvanvich (3147 , ( 3157,Ye. v.

- 828
Puzanova -Malysheva [210], [211] ) have direct significance for agricul
ture . For example, the directed alteration of the instincts of bees
made it possible to increase the output of honey or increase the pol
lination of valuable plants by bees . Directed alteratior. of the in
stinctive behavior of beneficial insectivorous birds has great
significance for their migration to afforestation areas for purposes
of combatting harmful insects (K. N. Blagosklonov (3727, [ 3707, Yu.
A. Isakov [125a ], I. D. Shcherbakov 13307 ).
The new understanding of instinct and its possible re - training
has great significance in the alteration of sex instincts in mammals .
In this respect we should mention the works_of_A. A. Mashkovtsev ( 1797,
Ye . P. Panfilova (1877 ,Ye. F. Polikarpov /1907, N. P. Tretlyakov [22]
and others .
By educating the instincts of valuable fur -bearing animals , e.g. ,
sables bred on state animal farms , it was possible to create , consoli .
date , or increase the polygamy of these animals and thereby step up
their reproduction in captivity ( P. A. Manteyfell [178], [178a7, Ye.
D. Illina (1257 ).
The works of Soviet scientists concerning the directed altera
tion of the instinctive behavior of animals are also connected with
training. This connection is of a double type. Some works deal with
analysis of the theoretical scientific bases of training and reveal the
physiological mechanisms of training practices(L. G.Voronin (1007,
[ 1037, M. A. Gerd [111] [1127, A. P.Orlov(1807 ); otherresearches
have a completely practical significance , dealing with methods of
training police dogs for guard duty, game hunting, watch dog, shep
herd, messenger, draught, tracking, and defense_work (v. Bocharov and
A. Orlov /49a7, E. I. Shereshevskiy (3127 , 3187, M. I, Vani chev , v.
V. Rylov , N. A. Sakharov[ 747, v . L.Dirov [ 118 ] [1197).
The specifics of various forms of instinctive behavior of dif
ferent vertebrate animals , often in connection with their ecology ,
have been discussed in the works of physiologists, biologists, and
psychologists: B. I. Bayandurov (167 , (177 , 1787 , [19].[ 207, N. I.
Kalabukhov [126] . [1277. Ye. V. Lukina 71657. G. A. Skrebitskiy [262 ],
A ,N , Promptov /1957,1197, [1977 , [198],[ 192], [200],[ 201], [202],
[203] . [ 2047, [203], 2007_G . z . Roginskiy [213], [ 215], 5. 1. Sokolov
T26747,Ye . N. Derim 711467 .
A physiologico -biological analysis of instincts , with considera
tion given to the ecological condtions of the natural existence of ani
mals was carried out by D. A. Biryukov and other workers of the
Institute of Experimental Medicine . Their works were published in the
collection " Experience in the Study of the Regulation of Physiological
Functions" [258 ] and in the anthology " Problems of the Comparative
Physiology and Pathology of Higher Neural Activity" [2577. Analogous
problems_were also_undertaken_by_K . M. Bykov , A. T. Pshonik , and A. D.
Slonim [ 2637. [2647,[265] , [ 266].

- 829
 Research in the evolution of instincts in the phylogenesis of
certain classes of insects was conducted by entomologist s . I.
Malyshev ( 174), Z173) . Highly important work in comparative evolu
tionary physiology was carried out by workers at the Institute of
Physiology imeni I. P. Pavlov ( which published their work in the
" Works , " of the same institute, _in 1947 and 1952-1955 ), and L. G.
Voronin and his co -workers [101] , [103] [106 ] [ 106a7.
Many of the works of Soviet scientists were connected with
the experimental study of the strictly cognitive processes of ver
tebrate animals ( sensory differentiation , sensation , perception ,
imagination , memory, thinking, analysis of the formation of habits,
and the capacities of animals for imitation ) .
I. P. Pavlov and his many co - workers , using the method of de
veloping salivary and motor conditioned reflexes to different consec
utively applied signal stimuli color, light , sound, smell , touch ,
etc.) , studied the visual , audi tory , olfactory , and cutaneous recep
tions of animals at different levels of organization . The receptions
of fishes were studied by Yu . P. Frolov [ 2937 , the receptions of_rep
tiles by E. A. Asratyan andA. Alexsanyan [137, K. L. Polyakov /1917;
the receptions of birds by B. I. Bayandurov and Ye . F. Larin [21] , B.
I. Bayandurov and P. B. Teterin [22] [23], N. A. Popov and A. M.
Chernakov [7937; the receptions of mammals, particularly dogs , by L.
A. Andreyev 8, V. K. Shepelyayeva [ 319] ,Ya. P. Frolov [2927, A. I.
Bronshteyn [597. These researches established the degree of exactness
of the differentiation by various animals of stimuli of different
modalities . In particular were established the very subtle differentia
tion by dogs of sounds and smells, their capacity to distinguish color
and form , and their ability to imitate .
N. N. Ladygina-Kots, by developing motor conditioned reflexes
with the simultaneous introduction of two or several stimuli , analyzed
(1919-1920) the perception of chromatic colors by parrots of seven
different species . She established the capacity of these birds not
only for distinguishing the four basic chromatic colors of the spec
trum (red , yellow , green, blue ), but also combinations of colors and
figures . This work was published in part in 1921 [ 146]. The above
author carried out research on individual variation of reactions to
visual stimuli in 10 dogs from one litter and 5 young wolves from one
litter . On the basis of 30,000 experiments ( 1921-1923) devoted to an
analysis of the experimental animals capacity to distinguish color ,
light, shapes , sizes, and figures, the author arrived at the conclusion
that dogs could distinguish the red and blue colors of the spectrum ,
plane geometric figures ( circle, square , triangle ), and circies of var
ious sizes . The dogs distinguished 1 , 3, 5 , 8, black spots against a
white background; but in the last case they differentiated the configura
tion and not the number of spots , since upon alteration the arrangement
of the same number of spots the accuracy of differentiation was de
creased . Individual reaction variations in the differentiation of
achromatic colors ( black and white ) were greater in the domesticated

- 830 -
animals ( dogs) than in wild animals (wolves ) . The results of this re
search were published in part by V. A. Vagner (" Studies of the Theory of
Evolution , " No. 7, [737 ) .
Let us turn to works dealing with analysis of the habits of ani .
mals . B. M. Borovskiy , working in the laboratory of comparative psy
chology at the Institute of Psychology in Moscow , investigated the
forming of habits in animals under various experimental conditions.
He investigated the role of rhythm in the formation of habits (427,
the role of the time schedule in the elaboration of habits [477 ,
generality and lability of habits [43], visual habits of white rats
( 46) , capacity for transposition in birds (447, transposition and
abstraction in rats (417 . The joint research of B. M. Borovskiy and
L. S. Kobozeva concerned the interaction of vision and kinesthesia in
the formation of habits [48] . There is a voluminous monograph in manu
script by Borovskiy , " The Capacity of Animals for Learning, and Its
Biological Bases " ( 1947 ) . This monograph is an exceptionally valuable
and many - sided report of the problem of habits from the physiologico
biological standpoint, containing a great amount of material of Soviet
and particularly foreign scientists, who have done research on the cam
pacity of the most various animals for training . In the same laboratory
at the Institute of Psychology , under the direction of V. M. Borovskiy ,
research was carried out by N. Ye . Akimov on the significance of var
ious factors in the forming of habits in animals 47, 5, 6, and N.
A. Tikh ( in collaboration with Borobskiy ) , clarifying the effect of
medicinal substances on the delaying of reactions(497. N. A. Rikh
also studied the phenomenon of reminiscence in animals.
In the same laboratory , N. Yu . Voytonis, a student of Vagner's,
studied delayed reactions in birds, rats , cats , dogs , and monkeys.
He obtained a wealth of material on the memory of animals and on their
mental representations [82], 1907, 017, 027. He devoted a number of
works to analyzing the motivation of the behaviorofanimals [ 847, [88],
[ 897, 197.
A comparative psychological study of the forming of habits in
rats , squirrels, dogs, bears , and lower apes of various breeds was con
tributed by G. 2. Roginskiy . The author showed how the formation of
habits was conditioned by the biological peculiarities of animals, show
ing the qualitative complication of their mental activity at higher
levels of evolution ( " Works of the Institute of the_Brain imeni
Bekhterev, * Vol. IX, XI , and XV ) [21 ] , [217] . [2277 .
Along the line of discovering the progressive psychological
features of animal behavior it was highly important to analyze the
phenomenon of imitation in animals of various classification groups .
Experimental research was conducted on the capacity for imitation in
birds , dogs, reindeer , rams , and lower apes . These works were published
in various scientific journals . Mention should be made of the works of
G. D. Aronovich and B. I. Khotin (107. B. I._Khotin [3087 [ 3097 , B , I.
Bayandurov [177, v. Ya. Kryazhev 11427,1431,G.2.Roginskiy- [221),
A. N. Promptov (2047 ,and L. G. Voronin 1101].

- 831 -
 Kho tin carried out a number of researches connected with the
analysis of the genesis of imitation in the onto- and phylogenesis
of various animals: fishes, birds, mammalian rodents ( rats ) , and
carnivores (dogs) [ 3087, [309] .
Several experimental works have been devoted to hereditary
forms of animal behavior .
M. P. Sadovnikova - Kol'tsova conducted experiments on rats
[ 2517, 22527, [253] , [2547, 1255],[256];L. v. Krushinskiy exper
imented on dogs ( 1377 , 77387 , [ 139 .
Researches connected with anthropogenesis have been contri
buted by many Soviet scientists who conducted experiments with lower
and higher apes which were kept in the laboratory of the State
Darwinian Museum at the Moscow , Leningrad , and Kiev Zoological Parks,
on the Sukhumi. monkey - breeding farm , and at the Institute imeni Aca
demician I. P. Pavlov in Koltushi .
The earliest observations of the behavior of monkeys and the
study of their mental processes were begin by Ladygina -Kots at the
laboratory of the Darwinian Museum ( 1913) . This work was published as
an article, "A Page of Observations from the Life of Monkeys , " in the
book " The Life of Animals" [1457 by A. F. Kots .
A number of psychological problems were posed and solved by
various methods of research ( " selection against a model , " " problem
cages , " " multiple choice , " the use of implements for obtaining a lure
placed inside a pipe ).
Using the method of " selection against a model , " Ladygina
Kots was able to establish the capacity of the chimpanzee for distin
guishing achromatic and chromatic colors, shapes , sizes of objects
( length , width , thickness , height, volume ) . The chimpanzee proved
capable of distinguishing color combinations, pictures of objects .
These experiments revealed that the chimpanzee could carry out the
process of identifying objects , elementary abstraction of signs of
objects, the process of abstraction being performed considerably less
well than the process of identification , This research was published
in the form of a monograph [ 147 , entitled " Research in the cognitive
Capacities of the Chimpanzee ,"and in the form of articles in the Rus
sian [1487 and French languages [1507 .
By means of " problem cages " in working with lower monkeys -
macaque it was established that this monkey was capable of unlock
ing the most diverse mechanisms, e.g. , hooks, latches, bolts , etc. , be
ing able to perform various movements of the fingers ( taking off,
sliding, turning , etc. ) . It appeared that in solving these problems
the kinesthetic perceptions of the moneky played a more important role
than the visual . This work was published in 1929 , under the title
" Adaptive Motor Habits of the Macaque Under Experimental Conditions"
[ 149] .
Analogous experiments were conducted on a comparative plane
with mentally deficient children 6-7 years of age, who were not cap
able of articulate speech and had difficulty in understanding words

- 832 -
spoken to them , and normal children . The experiments revealed that the
unlocking of mechanisms was performed better by the deficient children
( not to mention the normal children ) than by the monkeys . The work was
published in the form of an article in a psychological journal in France
[151 ].
This same author conducted research in instincts , emotions, play ,
habits , and expressive movements of the young chimpanzee ( 12-4 years of
age ) and a human child of the same age . A detailed comparison was made
of their mental similarities and differences in the abovementioned forms
of behavior . The research work was published [1527 in the form of a
voluminous monograph illustrated with 100 photo- tables , and in the form
of an article in the French language [1537.
In 1945 , the same author analyzed the problem of the chimpanzee's
capacity for distinguishing quantity. By means of a special method ( the
imitative removal of objects from a bag by feeling ) it was established
that this animal was capable of distinguishing quantity within the lim
its of 3 units . Experimentation was discontinued because of the unex
pected death of the chimpanzee . The experimental results were included
in a monograph " The Distinguishing of Quantity by Animals , " and pub
lished in the form of an article, entitled " The Distinguishing of Quan
tity by the Chimpanzee , " in the collection " Psychology , " published by
the Georgian Academy of Sciences [T547.
In 1945-1950 , N. N. Ladygina -Kots conducted a large number of
experiments with a 15 -year - old chimpanzee at the Moscow Zoological
Park . The author analyzed the free constructive and " implemental " ac
tivity of the animal in its handling of qualitatively diverse objects .
A study was made of the animal's capacity for establishing contacts
between objects by using a subsidiary object an implement , as " proc
essed " and " structured " in the experimental situation to remove a
lure placed inside a narrow pipe . The central problem of this research
was to establish the peculiarities of the intellect of an anthropoid .
The completed work was published as a monograph , entitled " The Construc
tive and Implemental Activity of Higher Apes (Chimpanzee)" (1959) [T5907 .
The principal conclusions of this work were published in " Materials of
a_conference on Psychology" [ 758],in articles in the French [1597,
[159 ] and English languages [T5907 .
On a comparative plane , this same subject was investigated by
N. F. Levykina [75917 of the State Darwinian Museum , using two young
chimpanzees and 46 lower apes ( 12 species ) . The author discovered ways
of developing the first rudiments of the use of implements , and found
that it was difficult for lower apes independently to establish con
tacts between objects by means of subsidiary objects implements .
The results of this work went into an article by Ladygina-Kots [ 758],
[15967 , and [ 15997. A study ofthehabits and intellect of thechim
panzee was made by S. L. Novoselova [T8007, [ 1801] , [780g) .
A. Ya . Markova investigated the selective capacity of lower apes
(macaques) in the free choosing of objects that had diverse signs ( 1945
1950 , unpublished research ). On the basis of numerous experiments ,

- 833 -
Markova [178c] established that when the monkeys were operating with
chromatic colors there was a preferred selection of short- wave colors ;
when they were operating with planimetric and stereometric figures
the monkeys preferred the selection of a circle or sphere; when they
were operating with objects of the same shape and color , but differing
in size , the larger sizes were preferred . An analysis of the handling
of objects by lower apes was also made by K. E. Fabri [283], [2847.
Research on the behavior of lower and higher apes of the Moscow
and Leningrad Zoological Parks was conducted by G._Roginskiy [2147,
2167 ,[2177 , [218 ],[219],[ 220], [221], [2227, 2237 , 2247, 2257 ,
T2201 7227, 2281 2301, 1231] [232] [233] [234 T2357 72367,
[237 ] [238 ], [239 ], [ 240]. By various methods of research (drawing
the lure by a thread , using roundabout ways for obtaining the lure,
using implements such as sticks, selecting a lure hidden behind a
screen , deliberate delays in the reactions of the monkeys) Roginskiy
was able to pose and solve a series of interesting problems relating
to comparative psychology . He analyzed the perceptions, representa
tions , and habits of monkeys, the peculiarities of their intellect,
and their capacity for imitation . Very interesting from the evolu
tionary standpoint was his condusion that the intellect of the chim
panzee was qualitatively distinct from the human intellect and varied
greatly in different individuals . Set up on the plane of comparative
psychology , these experiments with higher apes , shaded by experiments
with 25 lower apes , as well as bears , dogs, cats , squirrels, and rats,
brought Roginskiy to the conclusion that a direct dependence existed
between the height of the intellectual level of animals and their his
torical position in the system of organisms . The degree of success in
forming habits in the chimpanzee and in his other experimental animals
was determined by their biological peculiarities . Roginskiy's numerous
works were published in the form of a monograph and journal articles .
At the Sukhumi monkey - breeding farm , a number of researches were
conducted by N. Yu . Voytonis on the behavior of representatives of the
main species of_the_lower_apes of_the_old World , of_different ages and
sexes[ 897 1907 , [ 1] ,1927, 1937, 1947 , 1957 , 1967 , 1977. Observa
tions were conducted both under conditions of semi -natural confinement
in a monkey house and under experimental conditions .
Some of Voytonis' works were conducted on the comparative
psychological plane ; his conclusions were enriched by his comparison
of similar forms of the behavior of primates and carnivores ( foxes,
jackals, and bear cubs ).
His large monograph " The Prehistory of the Intellect, " 1997 ,
includes four central internally connected problems:
1 ) investigation of the worientational - exploratoryn activity
characteristic for monkeys ;
2) study of the bias sets that condition the motivation of the
behavior of a type of habit;
3) analysis of the capacity of monkeys for using implements;
4) revelation of the structural peculiarities of a flock of mon
keys and the nature of the interrelation of its individuals .

- 834 -
 Voytonist work poses and solves a number of fundamentally import
ant and urgent subjects connected with the concrete clarification of
problems of anthropogenesis ; in part, relating to the prehistory of the
human intellect and the first steps toward the use of implements . This
work has been translated into the French and Polish languages .
Voytonis. co - worker N. A. Tikh , also working in the laboratory
of comparative psychology at the Sukhumi bio - station , wrote a large
monograph on the basis of her observations of monkeys, " The Gregar
ious Life of Monkeys, and Means of their Intercourse in the Light of
Anthropogenesis" (manuscript, 1950) [275]. Analyzing the various
factors contributing to the banding together of monkeys, Tikh also fol
lowed the development of gregarious behavior in the ontogenesis of the
individual .
The author did not conduct special experiments on perception ,
memory , capacity for imitation . Still in her works these problems are
also treated .
The work is supplemented by an atlas which is unique in its
wealth of illustrations and photographic content, representing valuable
scientific material documenting data obtained from observation and ex
periments .
This work supplies a concrete basis for judging the sources of
origin of the more highly developed forms of the gregarious instinct .
Besides this, tikh has written a number of works_pertaining to the on
togenesis of the behavior of monkeys [273] [2797, toresearch into
associations to the spatial relationsofstimuli in children and lower
apes [276] , and to the genesis ofthe perception of space[278] .
A. I. Kats , another co - worker of Voytonis ', carried out work at
the Sukhumi monkey -breeding farm . On the basis of experimentation with
lower apes , he wrote a large monograph " Elements of Complex Synthetic
Activity in Lower Apes in Their Use of Various Means of Obtaining a
Lure (manuscript, 1950 ) .
Particularly interesting and novel in method were the experiments
of Kats connected with the directed hurling of stones by monkeys at a
target . As the result of numerous experiments , hamadryads learned to
land the stone on target 88 / 50 cm in size from a distance of 500 cam .
Later , these same experimental apes elaborated more complex chains of
motor habits when they carried out long series of consecutively per
formed actions .
These experiments demonstrated that by elaborating conditioned
reflexes, underlying the teaching of apes , it was possible even in lower
apes to form complex motor habits by the synthesis of simpler habits
that have been strengthened through practice . This large monograph makes
it possible to judge the sharpness of the visual perceptions of apes ,
the role and correlation of the visual and kinesthetic analyzers in the
elaboration of habits . This work also permits a conclusion regarding
the lability of the habits of apes and the conditions of their restrua
turing , bringing out the progressive features of the psychic processes
of apes, erasing the sharp line of demarcation drawn by certain foreign
scientists between the intellect of lower and higher apes .

- 835 -
 A physiological analysis of the habits and intellect of pri
mates was made at the I. P. Pavlov Laboratory in Koltushi and at the
Kharkov Psychoneurological Institute in the Ukraine ,
During Pavlov's lifetime, research was conducted under his direc
tion by his co - workers A. 0. Dolin , P. Ki Denisov , N. A. Podkopayev,
F. P. Mayorov , D. S. Fursikov, G. V. Skipin , and others , on the intel
lect of anthropoid apes . These works were published in " Pavlovian
Wednesdays " [T8607, wworks of the_Institute of Evolutionary Physiology
imeni Academician I. P. Pavlov [280 ], and mWorks of the Institute of
Physiology imeni I. P. Pavlova [2817. On the basis of an analysis of
the experiments performed with anthropoid apes, Pavlov contributed a
new conception of the formation of the process of thought. In opposi
tion to certain foreign scientists (v. Koehler ) , Pavlov proved that
thinking in animals was carried out in the process of their exploratory
actions which forms the basis of their consciousness, their elementary
concrete thought. L. I. Antsyferova of the Chair of Psychology at Mos
cow State University elaborated a similar concept of the process of
thought in her candidate's thesis " The Theory of I. P. Pavlov on Higher
Neural Activity and the Problem of Thought 0. This concept was also
reflected in an article by N. N. Ladygina- Kots, " Peculiarities of the
Elementary Thought of Animals" [1557.
Notoworthy experiments with anthropoids quartered in Koltushi
were analyzed and published by E. G. Vatsuro in his monograph " Research
on the Higher Neural Activity of Anthropoids ( Chimpanzee )" [78] .
Vatsuro used the classic method of developing conditioned
reflex motor connections, employing diverse experimental techniques and
various stimuli ( color , sound, weight, temperature ), to establish the
capacity of the experimental chimpanzee for differentiating achromatic
( black and white ) and chromatic ( red and blue) colors, temperatures,
and weights . He proved conclusively that it was easier for the ape to
differentiate the weight and position of the object than its color .
Forming diverse visual -motor and audi tory -motor habits in his
test chimpanzee, Vatsuro discovered that the kinesthetic perceptions of
the ape played a greater role in the development and retention of these
habits than did the visual and auditory ones .
The author subjected to experimental analysis the concept of " in
sight, " i.e. , the so - called intellectual forms by which apes solve prob
lems . On the basis of his own tests of the experimental data of V.
Koehler , Vatsuro made substantial corrections in Koehler's conclusions
relating to the qualification of the character of the intellect of an
thropoids .
No less interesting were the researches of M. P. Shtodin of the
Koltushakh laboratory [ 320],[327], [328], [329], who conducted excep
tionally valuable experiments in testing the understanding by apes
( chimpanzees) of the semantic content of problems assigned them and the
capacity of these apes to execute systematically connected actions .

- 836 -
 Using a number of original experimental set - ups in the form of
a device containing bait, the obtaining of which required the extinguish
ing of a fire which blocked the path to the bait, Shtodin , by cleverly
varying the experimental conditions, arrived at the conclusion that
apes lacked the ability to grasp the semantic content of the tasks they
fulfilled . Highly important was this author's conclusion underlining
the inability of the chimpanzee independently to unite developed habits
into a system of successively connected actions.
Shtodin and, later , L. G. Voronin conducted special research in
the capacity of apes for imitation . They came to the conclusion that
in adult and young apes in a flock and in a group , imitation played
an essential role in the elaboration of temporary connections .
As Voronin emphasized , by imitation apes can easily overcome a
negative relation to a new experimental situation and can quickly re
store faded conditioned and orientational - exploratory reflexes .
In opposition to the view of G. D. Aronovich and B. I. Kho tin
[ 10 ] that the apels capacity for imitation was poorly developed ,
Voronin , like Shotdin , came to the conclusion that lower apos possessed
a strongly developed capacity for imitation [ 101] .
After the death of Pavlov , the study of the behavior of the apes
kept at Koltushi_was_continued by L._G . Voronin , F. P. Mayorov, L. A.
Firsov [285a7,[28507, [285 ] , [285 ], [285e7, andothers, who pub
lished their researchesin * The Works of the Institute of Physiology
imeni I. P. Pavlov [2587. A number of the researches of Voronin were
included in his monograph " Analysis and Synthesis of Complex Stimuli
in Higher Animals” [1047.
The experimental researches in animal behavior conducted by
Ukrainain scientists- physiologists, V. P. Protopopov in particular ,
concerned the formation of motor habits ( by the " stimulus- obstacles
method ), analysis of the process of differentiation , abstraction , and
generalization .
P. V. Biryukovich ,, M. I. Likhtarev , s . D. Rasin , Ye . A. Rushkevich ,
L. I. Ulanova , and A. Ye . Khil ' chenko , co - workers of Protopopov, carried
out a series of original comparative- psychological researches on the
most diversified complex habits in various animals , particularly in
higher and lower apes , and dogs .
Pro topopov made a special investigation of the mechanisms of
the formation of animal habits , the conditions of the development of
these habits , their neuro -physiological basis, and their specific pe
culiarities .
The anthology published by Protopopov [ 208] contains a number
of interesting articles dealing with analysis of the initial stages of
the process of habit formation , analysis of the exploratory decisions
made by apes to solve problems ( article by M. I. Lihtarev) [761 ]
A very originalarticle was written by L. I. Ulanova [2827 who
taught the M. rhesus monkey to give conditioned signs with the hand ,
signaling this monkey's demand for one or another kind of food ,

- 837 -
 A. Ye . Khil'chenko wrote an article explaining the role of an
artificial stimulus in the process of the formation of a motor habit
304 .
P. V. Biryukovich investigated the laws governing the develop
ment of a complex habit , connected with the transfer of experience from
one situation to another [327 .
The work of Ye . A. Rushkevich includes an analysis of the same
problem the transfer to a new situation the experience of the use of
implements by lower apes [ 248].
of special interest among the series of reports by the Ukrain
ian scientists were the works directed toward the development of condi
tioned reactions to relative signs in zxperimental animals [208] (dogs
and lower apes ) by Protopopov, P. V. Biryukovich , s . D Rasin , and A.
Ye . Khil'chenko .
The researches of Khil'chenko and I. G. Novenko compared the
motor habits of animals and children ofpre- school age [ 303].
Khil'chenko wrote a special nonograph , "Research in the Higher
Neural Activity of Anthropoids ( Chimpanzee)" [ 3077 , outlining the gen
eric and specific features of the higher neural activity of anthropoids
in comparison with man on the one hand and other higher animals on the
other .
In the Georgian SSR , research was conducted on the physiological
mechanisms of animal behavior , with the most diversified vertebrate ani.
mals , at the Institute of Physiology imeni Academician I. S.
Beritashvili , by Beritshvili alone and in collaboration with many co
workers under his direction . The bibliography contains the most import
ant of these researches published in the fundamental " Works of the
Institute of Physiology" in the division_ " Animal_Behavior”_267, [27],
[ 28], [ 29],1307,L30a), 13067, 1307, 1317, 1327,137,1347.
At the Georgian Institute of Psychology of the Academy of Sci
ences , work in comparative psychology was carried out by N. G. Adama
shvili ( " The Effect of a Fixed Set in Relation to certain Definite Kinds
of Feed in Lower Apes" ) 3 and N. v . Chrelashvili ( " The Essence of De
layed Reactions ) [313] .
Thus, we must agree that the subjects of the comparative
psychological researches conducted in the USSR have been fairly diver
sified , embracing all forms of the psychic activity of animals :
instincts, emotions, imitation, cognitive processes ( perception, rep
resentation , intellect ), habits of the most diverse types, orders , and
classes of animals .
Many works included an analysis of the physiological mechanisms
underlying animal behavior .
Highly diversified were the methods used in the experimental .
psychological study of animals . The researches in animal behavior have
had great theoretical significance ; certain works on the alteration
of instincts and the development of habits of animals which are neces
sary to man have been of importance for the practical application of
the conclusions of these works .

- 838 -
 The researches on the development of psychic processes and on
anthropogenesis were especially important from the ideological stand
point. These works, in opposition to analogous works by certain foreign
scientists, made it possible to understand from dialectic-materialist
positions the genesis of mental activity and the pre- history of the
human intellect , which , though qualitatively distinct from the mental
activity of animals, nonetheless had its origin in the latter .

- 839 -
 LITERATURE

1. K. S. Abuladze , " Analytical Function of the Brain of a Pigeon

With Respect to Different colors , " Russkiy fiziologicheskiy
zhurnal ( Russian Physiological Journal) , Vol. XII , No. 1 , 1929 .
2. N. G. Adamashvili , " The Effect of a Fixed Set With Respect to
Definite Kinds of Feed in Lower Apes , " Trudy instituta psikholo
gii, AN Gruz SSR (Works of the Institute of Psychology , Academy
of Sciences Georgian SSR ) , Vol. VII , 1950 .
3. N. G. Adamshvili , " Certain Factors in the Development of a Fixed
Set in Visual Perception , " Soobshcheniya AN Gruz SSR (Reports
of the Academy of Sciences Georgian SSR) , Vol. XIV , No. 7 , 1953 .
3a . E. Sh . Ayrapet ' yants , " The General Biological Significance of the
Principle of Temporary Connections, " Zhurnal obshchey biologii
( Journal of General Biology ) , Vol . X , No. 5 , 1949 .
3b . E. Sh . Ayrapet ' yants, " The Functional Structure of the Spatial
Analyzer , " Materials of a Scientific Conference on the Percep
tion of Space and Spatial Representations , Leningrad , 1959 .
N. Ye . Akimov , " The Significance of Sexual Differentiation in
the Acquiring of Habits by White Rats , " Problemy. sovremennoy
psikhologii (Problems of Modern Psychology ) , Vol. III , Moscow ,
1928 .
5. N. Ye . Akimov , " The Significance of Sexual Differentiation in
the Acquring of Habits by Rats , " Anthology , Problems of Modern
Psychology , Vol . VI , Moscow - Leningrad , State Publishing House ,
1930 .
6. N. Ye . Akimov , " The Role of Stimulation in the Development of
Habits in Animals , " from the collected Works of the Institute
of Psychology , Sotsek giz ( State Publishing House of Social and
Economic Literature ) , Moscow , 1936 .
7. B. G. Anan'yev , Ocherki psikho logii , AN SSSR ( Outline of Psy
chology , Academy of Sciences USSR ) , Publishing House of the
Institute of Philosophy , Leningrad , 1945 .
8. L. A. Andreyev , " The Upper Limits of Hearing in Dogs , " Russkiy
fiziologiche skiy zhurnal ( Russian Physiological Journal ) , Vol.
XI , No. 3 , 1928 .
9. L. I. Antsyferova , " Theories of Academician I. P. Pavlov on
Higher Neural Activity and the Problem of Thinking , " Author's
Abstract of Candidate's Thesis , Moscow , 1952 .
10 . G. S. Aronovich and B. I. Khotin , " Imitation in Monkeys (M.
Rhesus ) , " New Information on the Reflexology and Physiology of
the Nervous System , Anthology 3 , State Publishing House , 1929 .
11 . Kh . T. Arskiy , " Conditioned Motor Reflexes of Horses ," 7th All
Union Congress of Physiologists , Biochemists and Pharmacolo
gists , Summary of Reports, Moscow , 1947 .
12 . V. A. Artemov , Ocherki psíkho logii ( Outlines of Psychology ) ,
Scientific Pedagogic State Publishing House , Moscow , 1954 .

- 840
13 . E. A. Asratyan and A. Aleksanyan , "Materials on Conditioned Re
flexes in Turtles , " Fiziologicheskiy zhurnal SSSR im . 1. M.
Sechenova ( Physiological Journal of the USSR imeni I. M.
Sechenov ) , Vol . XVI , No. 3 , 1933 .
14 . M. N. Akhmeteli , " The Study of Imitation in Pigeons , Trudy
instituta fiziologii Tbilisskogo universiteta (Works of the
Institute of Psychology of the Tbilisi University ) , Vol. IV ,
Tbilisi , 1941 .
15 . A. V. Baru , " Conditioned Inhibition in Fowl ( Hens and Ducks ) "
Trudy instituta fiziologii im . I. P. Pavlova ( Works of the
Institute of Physiology imeni I. P. Pavlov ) , Vol . II , Pub
lishing House of the Academy of Sciences USSR , Moscow -Lenin
grad , 1953 .
15a . A. v . Baru , " Temporary Connections in Cyclostoma tous Fish ,"
Voprosy sravnitel'noy fiziologii i patologii VIR ( Problems
of Comparative Physiology and Pathology of the All - Union In
stitute of Plant Growing ) , Moscow - Leningrad , 1955 .
16 . B. I. Bayandurov , " The Physiology of Conditioned Inhibition in
Birds , " Zhurnal eksperimental'noy biologii i meditsiny ( Journal
of Experimental Biology and Medicine ) , Vol. IV , No. 10-11 , 1926 .
17 . B. I. Bayandurov, " Conditioned Reflexes in Birds, " Anthology,
Trudy kafedry normal'noy fiziologii Tomsko go meditsinskogo in
stituta ( Works of the Chair of Normal Physiology of the Tomsk
Medical Institute ) , Vol . V , 1937 .
18 . B. I. Bayandurov , " conditioned Reflexes in Singing Birds, " An
thology , Trudy kafedry normal'noy fiziologii Tomskogo meditsin
sko go instituta (Works of the Chairof Normal Physiology of the
Tomsk Medical Institute ) , No. 5 , 1945 .
19 . B. I. Bayandurov , " Induced Defensive Conditioned Reflexes in
Birds, " Byulleten eksperimental'noy biologii i meditsiny ( Bul
letin of Experimental Biology and Medicine ) , Vol. XXI, No. 4 ,
1946 .
20 . B. I. Bayandurov , " Twenty Years of Experience in the Study of
the Higher Neural Activity of Birds, " Trudy Tomskogo meditsin
skogo instituta ( Works of the Tomsk Medical Institute ) , Vol . XV ,
1949 .
21 . B. I. Bayandurov and Ye . F. Larin , " The Physiology of the 01-
factory Analyzer of Birds , " Sbornik kafedry normal'noy fiziologii
Tomsko go meditsinskogo instituta ( Collected Works of the Chair
of Normal Physiology of the Tomsk Medical Institute ) , Vol. II ,
1935 .
22 . B. I. Bayandurov and P. B. Teterin , " The Physiology of the Cutane
ous Temperature Analyzer of Birds , " Trudy kafedry normal'noy
fiziologii Tomskogo meditsinsko go instituta ( Works of the Chair
of Normal Physiology of Tomsk Medical Institute ) , Vol. X , No. 2 ,
1938 .
23 . B. I. Bayandurov and P. B. Teterin , " The Distinguishing by Birds
of Colors of Different and Identical Intensity , " Sbornik trudov

. 841 -
 kafedry normal'noy fiziologii Tomskogo meditsinsko go instituta
( Collected Works of the Chair of Normal Physiology of Tomsk Medi
cal Institute ) , Vol. XII , No. 4 , 1944 .
24 . N. Beburshvili and N. M. Chichinadze , " The Development of Indi
vidual Behavior in Frogs, " Trudy TGU ( Works of Tbilisi State Uni
versity ) , Vol. II , 1936 .
25 . N. Beburshvili , " The Effect of Optic and Acoustic Stimuli on the
Motor Reaction in Frogs , " Trudy instituta fiziologii TGU ( Works
of the Institute of Physiology of Tbilisi State University ) ,
No. 3 , 1937 .
26 . J. S. Beritov , " The Science of Behavior as the Study of Reflexes ,"
Uspekhi eksperimental'noy biologii ( Successes of Experimental
Biology ), Series B ( Cyrillic alphabet ) , No. 3 , 1927 .
27 . J. S. Beritashvili , " A Comparative Study of the Individual Be
havior of Higher Vertebrates, " Vestnik AN SSSR ( Herald of the
Academy of Sciences USSR ) , Publishing House of Academy of Sci
ences USSR , No. 10 , 1939 .
28 . J. S. Beritov , Ob osnovnykh formakh nervnoy i psikho - nervnoy
deyatel ' nosti ( The Basic Forms of Neural and Psychoneural Ac
tivity ) , Publishing House of Academy of Sciences USSR , Moscow
Leningrad , 1947 .
29. J. S. Beritashvili , " The Role of Vestibular and Kinesthetic
Stimuli in the Orientation of the Animal in Its Surrounding
Environment ," Trudy instituta fiziologii AN Gruz SSR (Works of
the Institute of Physiology , Academy of Sciences Georgian SSR ) ,
Vol . IX , Tbilisi , 1953 .
30 . J. S. Beritov , " Spatial Projection of Perceived Objects in the
External Environment by the Labyrinthine Receptors ," Fiziologi
cheskiy zhurnal SSSR im . I. M. Sechenova ( Physiological Journal
USSR imeni I. M. Sechenov ) , Vol . X , No. 7 , 1957 .
30a . J. S. Beritov , O fiziologicheskikh mekhanizmakh povedeniya vysshikh
pozvonochnykh zhivotnykh ( The Physiological Mechanism of the Be
havior of Higher Vertebrate Animals ) , Publishing House of Academy
of Sciences USSR , Moscow - Leningrad , 1957 .
30b . I. S. Beritov , Ob oshchushchenii predmetov na rasstoyanii u
vysshikh pozvonochnykh zhivotnykh ( The Sensing of Objects From
a Distance in Higher Vertebrates ) , Publishing House of Academy
of Sciences USSR , Moscow - Leningrad , 1958 .
300. I. S. Beritshavili , o nervnykh mekhani zmakh prostranstvennoy
oriyentatsii vysshikh pozvonochnykh zhivotnykh ( The Neural
Mechanism of the Spatial Orientation of Higher Vertebrates ) ,
Publishing House of the Academy of Sciences Georgian SSR ,
Tbilisi , 1959 .
31 . I. S. Beritov and M. N. Akhmeteli , " The Role of the External Ap
pearance of Food in the Individual Behavior of Pigeons , " Trudy
instituta fiziologii TGU ( Works of the Institute of Physiology
of Tbilisi State University ) , Vol . III , Tbilisi , 1937 .

. 842 -
32 . I. S. Beritov and M. N. Akhmeteli , " The Behavior of Pigeons in
Overcoming Obstacles , " Trudy instituta fiziologii TGU (Works of
the Institute of Physiology , Tbilisi State University ) , Vol . IV ,
1941 .
33 . I. S. Beritov , M. Tsereteli , M. N. Akhmeteli , " Research in the In
dividual Behavior of Dogs , " Fiziologicheskiy zhurnal SSSR
( Physiological Journal of the USSR ) , Vol. XVII, No. 3 , 1934 .
34 . I. S. Beritov and N. M. Chichinadze , " The Reaction of Hens to
Achromatic Color Stimuli, " Trudy biologicheskogo sektora Gruzin
sko go otdeleniya AN Gruz SSR Works of the Biological Sector of
the Georgian Section of the Academy of Sciences Georgian SSR ) ,
Vol. I , 1934 .
34a . V. L. Bianki, " Comparative Study of Differentiating Inhibition
of Fishes , Turtles , Rabbits and Dogs , " 18 - e soveshchaniye po
problemam vysshey nervnoy deyatel'nosti. Tezisy i referaty
dokladov ( 18th Conference on Higher Neural Activity . Abstract
Papers and Abstracts of Reports ) , third edition , Leningrad, 1958 .
34b . D. A. Biryukov , " Evolutional - Biological Aspects of I. P. Pavlov's
Theories on Higher Neural Activity , " Sb . novosti meditsiny (An
thology of New Data of Medicine ) , 14th edition , 1949 .
35 . D. A. Biryukov , " Materials on the Comparative Physiology of In
hibition , " Zhurnal vysshey nervnoy deyatel'nosti im . I. P. Pav
lova ( Journal of Higher Neural Activity imeni I. P. Pavlov ) ,
Vol . V , No. 5 , 1955 .
36 . P. V. Biryukovich , " The Complex Motor Habit in Dogs , " Sb . issledo
vaniye vysshey nervnoy deyatel'nosti v yestestvennom eksperimente
( Anthology Research on Higher Neural Activity in Natural Ex
perimentation ) , Go smedizdat ( State Publishing House of Medical
Literature ) , Kiev, Ukrainian SSR , 1950 .
37. P. V. Biryukovich , " The Development of Conditioned Reactions to
Relative Signs in Lower Apes, " Anthology , Research on Higher
Neural Activity in Natural Experimentation , Go smedizdat ( State
Publishing House of Medical Literature ) , Kiev , Ukrainian SSR ,
1950 .
37a . K. N. Blago sklonov , Okhrana i privlecheniye ptits, poleznykh v
sel'skom khozyaystve ( The Conservation and Attraction of Birds
Which Are Useful in Agriculture ) , State Scientific Publishing
House , Moscow , 1955 .
37b . K. N. Blagosk lonov , " The Nesting Reflexes of Birds in the Trans
fer of Nestlings With Foster - Dams, " Anthology , Puti i metody
ispol'zovaniya ptits v bor'be s vrednymi na sikomymi (Ways and
Methods of Using Birds in the Campaign Against Harmful Insects ) ,
Sel ' khozgiz ( State Publishing House of Agricultural Literature ) ,
Moscow , 1956 .
37c . Ye . N. Bogomolova , S. A. Sdakyan , L. V. Kazarovitskiy , " Imitative
Conditioned Reflexes of Fish , " Tezisy doklada soveshchaniya po
fiziologii ryb ( Summary Reports of the Conference on the Physi
ology of Fish ) , Publishing House of the Academy of Sciences USSR ,
Moscow - Leningrad , 1958 .

- 843
38 . V. M. Borovskiy , Vvedeniye v sravnitel 'nuyu psikhologiyu ( Intro
duction to Comparative Psychology ) , Rabotnik prosveshcheniya
( Educational Worker Publishing House ) , Moscow , 1927 .
39 . V. M. Borovskiy , " Conditioned Reflexes From the Standpoint of
Comparative Psychology , " Problemy sovremennoy psikhologii
( Problems of Modern Psychology ) , Vol. III , Moscow , 1927 .
40 . V. M. Borovskiy , Osnovy sravnitel'noy refleksologii ( Principles
of Comparative Reflexology ) , State Publishing House, Moscow
Leningrad , 1929 .
41 . V. M. Borovskiy , " Transposition and Abstraction in Rats ,
Sbornik instituta psikhologii ( Collected Works of the Insti
tute of Psychology ) , Vol . I : Instinkti , navyki ( Instincts ,
Habits ) , Ogiz ( Union of State Publishing Houses of RSFSR ) ,
Sotsekgiz ( State Publishing House of Social - Economic Litera
ture ) , Moscow - Leningrad , 1935 .
42 . V. M. Borovskiy , " The Role of Rhythm in the Development of
Habits , " Collected Works of the Institute of Psychology , Vol . I :
Instincts , Habits , Union of State Publishing Houses of RSFSR ,
State Publishing House of Social - Economic Literature , Moscow
Leningrad , 1935 .
43 . V. M. Borovskiy , " Generality and Lability in Experiments With
Rats, " Collected Works of the Institute of Psychology , Vol . II :
Refleksy , instinkty , navyki ( Reflexes , Instincts and Habits) ,
Union of State Publishing Houses of RSFSR , State Publishing
House of Social - Economic Literature , Moscow , 1936 .
44 . V. M. Borovskiy , " The Transposition of Birds , " Collected works
of the Institute of Psychology , Vol. II : Reflexes , Instincts
and Habits , Union of State Publishing Houses of RSFSR , State
Publishing House of Social- Economic Literature , Moscow , 1936 .
45 . V. M. Borovskiy , " The Mental Activity of Animals , " Biomedgi z
( State Publishing House of Biological- Medical Literature ) ,
Moscow-Leningrad , 1936 .
46 . V. M. Borovskiy , " Exploratory Behavior of the White Rat, " Col
lected Works of the Institute of Psychology , Vol . II : Reflexes ,
Instincts , Habits , Union of State Publishing Houses of RSFSR ,
State Publishing House of Social - Economic Literature , Moscow ,
1936 .
47 . V. M. Borovskiy and L. S. Kobozeva , " The Role of the Time Element
in the Development of Habits , " Collected Works of the Institute
of Psychology , Vol. 1: Instincts , Habits , Union of State Pub
lishing Houses of RSFSR , State Publishing House of Social
Economic Literature , Moscow - Leningrad , 1935 .
48 . V. M. Borovskiy and L , S. Kobozeva , " Visual-Motor Habits in White
Rats , " Collected Works of the Institute of Psychology , Vol. II :
Reflexes , Instincts , Habits , Union of State Publishing Houses
of RSFSR , State Publishing House of Social - Economic Literature ,
Moscow , 1936 .

844 -
49 . V. M. Borovskiy and N. A. Tikh , " The Effect of Adrenalin on De
layed Reactions , " Works of the Institute of Psychology , Vol. II :
Reflexes, Instincts , Habits , Union of State Publishing Houses
of RSFSR , State Publishing House of Social - Economic Literature ,
Moscow , 1936 .
49a . V. Bocharov , A. Orlov , Dressirovka sluzhebnykh sobak ( Training
of Service Dogs ) , Izd - vo DOSAAF ( Publishing House of the Volun
tary Society of Assistance of the Army, Aviation and Navy ) ,
Moscow , 1957 .
49b . S. N. Braynes and s . L. Novoselova , " Research in the Elementary
Thinking of the Chimpanzee (Preliminary Data ) , " Sovetskaya an
tropologiya ( Soviet Anthropology ) , No. 1 , 1959 .
50 . A. N. Bregadze, " The Comparative Physiology of Animal Behavior , '
Trudy instituta eksperimental'noy biologii pri TGU ( Works of
the Institute of Experimental Biology , Tbilisi State University ) ,
Vol . I , 1935 .
51 . A. N. Bregadze, " The Individual Reaction of the Dog to Ordinal
Numbers, " Anthology , Problems of Neural Physiology and Behavior
Dedicated to the 25th Anniversary of the Scientific , Pedagogic
and Public Activity of Professor J. S. Beritashvili , Publishing
House of the Georgian Branch of the Academy of Sciences USSR ,
Tbilisi , 1936 .
52 . A. N. Bregadze , " Development of an Individual Reaction of the Dog
to Complicated Ordinal Numeration , " Works of the Institute of
Physiology of the Tbilisi State University , No. 3 , 1937 .
53 . A. N. Bregadze, " Individual Reaction of Rabbits to Ordinal Numera
tion by Ones , " Works of the Institute of Physiology of Tbilisi
State University , Vol . IV , 1941 .
54 . A. N. Bregadze , " Research on the Individual Behavior of Cats ,
Soobshcheniya AN Gruz SSR ( Reports of the Academy of Sciences
Georgian SSR ) , Vol . VII, No. 7 , 1946 .
55 . A. N. Bregadze , " A Comparative Study of the Individual Behavior
of Cats, " Reports of the Academy of Sciences Georgian SSR , Vol .
VII, No. 8 , 1946 .
56 . A. N. Bregadze and M. N. Akhmetili , " Development of the Defensive
Reflex in Guinea Pigs , " Works of the Institute of Physiology ,
Academy of Sciences Georgian SSR , Vol . IX , 1953 .
57 . A. N. Bregadze , " Development of the Defensive Reflex in Dogs , "
Works of the Institute of Physiology , Academy of Sciences
Georgian SSR , Vol . IX , 1953 .
58 . A. N. Bregadze , " Development of Temporary Connections to Undif
ferentiated Stimuli in Dogs, " Problemy sovremennoy fiziologii
nervnoy i myshechnoy sistemy (Problems of Modern Physiology of
the Nervous and Muscular Systems ) , Publishing House of the
Academy of Sciences Georgian SSR , Tbilisi , 1956 .
59 . A. J. Bronshteyn , Vkus i obonyaniye ( Taste and Smell ) , Publish
ing House of the Academy of Sciences USSR , Moscow -Leningrad ,
1950 .

• 845 -
59a . V. V. Bunak , " Darwin's Theory on Expressive Movements in Modern
Interpretation , " Summary Reports of the First Congress of the
Society of Psychologists , 2nd edition , Moscow , 1959 .
59b . K. M. Bykov and A. T. Pshonik , " The Nature of the Conditioned
Reflex , " Fiziologicheskiy zhurnal SSSR ( Physiological Journal
of the USSR ) , Vol . XXXV , No. 5 , 1949 .
60 . K. M. Bykov and A. D. Slonim , " The Habitats and Physiological
Functions of Mammals, " Herald of the Academy of Sciences USSR ,
Moscow - Leningrad , 1949 .
61 . V. A. Vagner , K vopro su ob oplodotvorenii u paukov ( Fecundation
in Spiders ) , Vol. XXXVII, No. 1 , Publishing House of the Society
of Lovers of Natural History , 1880 .
62 . V. A. Vagner , " Observations of Araneina , " Trudy_spb . obshchestva
yestestvoispytateley (Works of the St. Petersburg Society of
Naturalists ) , Vol. XXI, 1890 .
63 . V. A. Vagner , " Industrie des Araneina " ( Industry in Spiders ) ,
Memoires de l'Academie des Sciences de St. - Petersbourg (Memoirs
of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences ) , Vol . XVII , No. 2 ,
Series 7 , 1894 .
64 . V. A. Vagner , Vodyanoy pauk (Argyroneta aquatica ), yego industriya
i zhizn ' kak material dlya sravnitel'noy psikhologii ( The Water
Spider ( Argyroneta aquatica ) , Its Industry and Life as Material
for Comparative Psychology ) , Moscow , 1900 .
65 . V. A. Vagner , " The House Marten , Its Industry and Life as Material
for Comparative Psychology , " Zapiski imper . akademii nauk (Re
ports of the Imperial Academy of Sciences ) , Vol. V , No. 6 , St.
Petersburg , 1900 .
66 . V. A. Vagner , " The Biological Method in Zoopsychology , " Works
of the St. Petersburg Society of Naturalists , Section of Zoology
and Physiology , Vol. XXXIII , No. 2 , St. Petersburg , 1901 .
67 . V. A. Vagner , Psikhologiya zhivotnykh ( Animal Psychology ) , Moscow,
1901 .
68 . V. A. Vagner , Psycho - biologische Untersuchungen an Hummeln mit
Bezugnahme auf die Frage der Geselligkeit im Tierreiche ( Psycho
biological Investigations on Bumble - bees With Reference to the
Gregarious Instinct in the Animal Kingdom ) , ( in German ) , Her
ausgegeben von Prof. Dr. Carl Chum in Leipzig ( Published by
Prof. Dr. Carl Chum ) , No. 46 , 1907 .
69 . V. A. Vagner , Biologicheskiye osnovaniya sravnitel'noy psikhologii
(biopsikho logiya ) (Biological Principles of Comparative Psychology
(Biopsychology ) ) , Vol . I , St. Petersburg -Moscow , Published by
M , 0. Vol'f , 1910 ; Vol . II , 1913 .
70 . V. A. Vagner, " Physiology and Biology in the Solving of Psycho
logical Problems, " Biopsikho logiya . Novyye idei v biologii
( Biopsychology . New Ideas in Biology ) , Anthology 6 , izd .
Obrazovaniye ( published by Development ) , 1914 .
71 . V. A. Vagner , " Segmentary Psychology , " Biopsikho logiya . Novyye
idei v biologii ( Biopsychology . New Ideas in Biology ) , An
thology 6 , izd . Obrazovaniye ( published by " Education" ) , 1914 .

• 846 -
72 . V. A. Vagner , Biopsikhologiya i smezhnyye nauki ( Biopsychology
and Related Sciences ), Vol . II , published by " Education, " 1923 .
73 . V. A. Vagner, Vozniknoveniye i razvitiye psikhicheskikh sposob
nostey . Etyudy po sravnitel'noy psikhologii ( The Origin and
Development of the Psychic Faculties . Studies of Comparative
Psychology ) , 9 issues , published by Tov - va nachatki znaniya
( Society of the Rudiments of Knowledge ) , Leningrad , 1925-1929 .
74 . M. J. Vanichev, V. V. Rylov , N. A. Sakharov , " The Training of
Service Dogs , " Gl. v kn .: sluzhebnaya sobaka ( Chapter in the
book : The Service Dog ) , Sel'khozgiz ( State Publishing House of
Agricultural Literature ) , Moscow , 1952 .
75 . G. A. Vasil'yev, Analiz neko torykh form ptent sovogo_povedeniya
( Analysis of Certain Forms of Fledgling Behavior ) , Author's
Abstract of Candidate's Dissertation , Moscow , 1941 .
76 . G. A. Vasil'yev , " Physiological Analysis of Certain Forms of
Fledgling Behavior, " Papers on Scientific Works of the Depart
ments of the Section of Biological Sciences , Academy of Sci
ences USSR , from 1941-1943 , Moscow -Leningrad , 1945 .
77 . G. A. Vasil'yev , " Peculiarities of the Higher Neural Activity of
Horses, " Physiological Journal of the USSR , imeni I , M. Sechenov ,
No. 5 , 1949 .
77a . G. A. Vasil'yev , " Method of the Obstacle Race , " 18th Conference
on Higher Neural Activity , Papers and Abstracts of Reports , 3rd
issue , Leningrad , 1958 .
78 . E. G. Vatsuro , Issledovaniye vysshey nervnoy deyatel'nosti an
tropoida ( shimpanze ) ( Research on the Higher Neural Activity of
Anthropoids (Chimpanzee) ) , State Medical Publishing House ,
Moscow , 1948 .
79 . E. G. Vatsuro , " The Development and Retention of Certain Habits
in Lower Apes , " Trudy fiziologicheskikh laboratoriy im . Pavlova
( Works of the Physiological Laboratories imeni Pavlov ) , Vol .
XIV , 1948 .
80 . E. G. Vatsuro , " Materials on the Mechanism of the Development and
Alteration of the Motor Habits of Lower Apes, " Report No. 1 of
the Works of the Physiological Laboratories imeni Pavlov , Vol.
XIV , 1948 .
81 . E. G. Vatsuro , " Physiological Analysis of Certain Complex Forms
of the Behavior of Lower Apes , " Works of the Physiological
Laboratories imení Pavlov , Vol . XIII , 1945 .
82 . E. G. Vatsuro , " Research by the Method of Delayed Reactions on
the Capacity of Lower Apes for the Retention of the Vestiges of
Visual Stimuli , " Works of the Physiological Laboratories imeni
I. P. Pavlov , Vol. XIV , 1948 .
83 . E : G. Vatsuro , Ucheniye I. P. Pavlova o vysshey nervnoy deyatel ' .
nosti ( The Teachings of I , P. Pavlov on Higher Neural Activity ) ,
State Scientific -Pedagogic Publishing House , Moscow , 1955 .
83a . E. G. Vatsuro , " The Evolution of the Orientational Reflex and Its
Role in the Adaption of Behavior , " Abstracts of Reports of the

. 847
 First Congress of the Society of Psychologists , No. 2 , Moscow ,
1959 .
84 . N. Yu . Voytonis , " The Problem of ' Motives ' of Behavior and Its
Study , " Psikho logiya (Psychology ) , Vol. II , No. 1 , 1929 .
85 . N. Yu . Voy tonis , " The Methods and Results of Experimentation
With a Labyrinth , " Scientific Reports of the Moscow Institute
of Experimental Psychology , Gosizdat ( State Publishing House ) ,
Moscow - Leningrad , 1930 .
86 . N. Yu . Voytonis , " Motivation of Behavior in Comparative -Psycho
logical Interpretation and Experimental Research , " Sb . psikho
nevrologicheskiye nauki v SSSR ( Anthology . Psychoneurological
Sciences in USSR ) , State Medical Publishing House , Moscow
Leningrad , 1930 .
87 . N. Yu . Voytonis and A. V. Kreknina , "Materials on the Comparative
Psychological Study of Memory , " Sb . instituta psikhologii ( Col.
lected Works of the Institute of Psychology ) , Vol . 1 : Instincts
and Habits , Union of State Publishing Houses of RSFSR , State
Publishing House of Social - Economic Literature , Moscow- Leningrad ,
1935 .
88 . N. Yu . Voytonis, " Experimental Study of the Genetic Primary Forms
of Motivation of Behavior , " Part 1 , Collected Works of the In
stitute of Psychology , Vol. I : Instincts and Habits , Union of
State Publishing Houses of RSFSR , State Publishing House of
Social-Economic Literature , Moscow - Leningrad , 1935 .
89 . N. Yu . Voytonis, " The Experimental Study of the Genetic Primary
Forms of Motivation of Behavior , " Part 2 , Collected Works of
the Institute of Psychology , Vol . II : Reflexes , Instincts ,
Habits , Union of State Publishing Houses of RSFSR , State Pub
lishing House of Social - Economic Literature , Moscow , 1936 .
90 . N. Yu . Voytonis , " Data on the Genesis of the Intellect , " Col
lected Works of the Institute of Psychology , Vol. II : Reflexes,
Instincts , Habits, Union of State Publishing Houses of RSFSR ,
State Publishing House of Social- Economic Literature , Moscow ,
1936 .
91 . N. Yu . Voytonis, " Comparative - Psychological Study of the Memory
by the Method of Delayed Reactions , " Ibid . , 1936 .
92 . N. Yu . Voytonis, " Characteristic Peculiarities of the Behavior
of Apes , " Antropologicheskiy_zhurnal ( Anthropological Journal ) ,
No. 4 , 1936 .
93 . N. Yu . Voytonis, " The Behavior of. Apes From the Viewpoint of Com
parative Psychology , " Front nauki i tekhniki ( Scientific and
Technical Front ) , No. 4 , 1937 .
94 . N. Yu . Voytonis , Povedeniye oblez'yan i problema antropogeneza
( The Behavior of Apes and the Problem of Anthropogenesis ) , Doc
toral Thesis , Moscow , 1940 .
95 . N. Yu . Voytonis, " The Behavior of Apes From the Viewpoint of An
thropogenesis, " Pod znamenem marksizma ( Under the Banner of
Marxism ) , No. 9 , 1940 .

- 848 -
 96 . N. Yu . Voytonis , " Forms of Manifestation of Sets in Animals and
Particularly in Apes , Sb . psikhologiya ( Anthology . Psychology ) ,
Publishing House of Academy of Sciences Georgian SSR , 1945 .
97 . N. Yu . Voytonis , " The Behavior of Apes and the Inception of Work
Activity in Man , " Priroda ( Nature ) , No. 6 , 1948 .
98 . N. Yu . Voytonis and N. A. Tikh , " The Ontogenesis of the Behavior
of Apes . Results of the First Two Years of Observations , "
Trudy sukhumskoy biologicheskoy stantsii AMN SSSR (Works of
the Sukhumi Biological Station of the AMS, USSR ) , Publishing
House of the ANS , USSR , Moscow , 1949 .
99 . N. Yu . Voytonis, Predystoriya intellekta ( The Prehistory of the
Intellect ) , Publishing House of the AMS, USSR , Moscow - Leningrad ,
1949 .
99a . A. A. Volokhov , Zakonomernosti ontogeneza nervnoy deyatel'nosti
v svete evolyutsionnogo ucheniya ( Laws Governing the Ontogenesis
of Neural Activity in the Light of the Theory of Evolution ) ,
Publishing House of Academy of Sciences USSR , Moscow - Leningrad ,
1951 .
100 . L. G. Voronin , " Motor Conditioned Reflexes Developed by the So
called Method of Mechanical Training , " Trudy instituta evo
lyutsionnoy fiziologii i patologii vysshey nervnoy deyatel'nosti
( Works of the Institute of Evolutionary Physiology and Pathology
of Higher Neural Activity ) , Vol. I , 1947 .
101 . L. G. Voronin , " The Imitative Capacities of Lower Apes , " Physio
logical Journal of USSR imeni I , M. Sechenov , Vol . XXXIII , No. 3 ,
1947 .
102 . L. G. Voronin , " Some Results of the Study of the Higher Neural
Activity of Lower Apes , " Journal of Higher Neural Activity imeni
I. P. Pavlov , Vol . II , No. 1 , 1952 .
103 . L. G. Voronin , " The Mechanisms of Chain Temporary Connections, "
Journal of Higher Neural Activity imeni I. P. Pavlov , Vol . II ,
No. 4 , 1952 .
104 . L. G. Voronin , Analiz i sintez slozhnykh razdra zhiteley u vysshikh
zhivotnykh ( Analysis and Synthesis of Complex Stimuli in Higher
Animals ) , State Medical Publishing House , Leningrad Section ,
1952 .
105 . L. G. Voronin , " The Conditioned Reflex Common Adaptive Phe
nomenon in the Animal World , " Znaniye ( Knowledge ) , Moscow , 1954 .
106 . L , G. Voronin , " Results of a comparative -Physiological Study of
Higher Neural Activity, " Herald of the Academy of Sciences USSR ,
( Biological Series ) , No. 5 , 1954 .
106a . L. G. Voronin , Sravnitel'naya fiziologiya vysshey nervnoy deyatel' .
nosti ( The Comparative Physiology of Higher Neural Activity ),
Publishing House of Moscow State University , 1957 .
107 . L. G. Voronin and G. I. Shirkova , " The Effect of Prolonged Inter
ruption of Work on the Motor Conditioned Reflexes of the M.
Rhesus Monkey , " Works of the Sukhumi Biological Station of the
AMS, USSR , Vol. I , 1948 .

• 849 -
107a . A. K. Voskresenskaya , " Conditioned Reflex Action of the Honey Bee
to Color Stimuli , " Herald of the Academy of Sciences USSR , (Bio
logical Series ) , 1955 .
108 . A. K. Voskresenskaya and N. G. Lopatina , " Differentiation by Bees
of Conditioned Stimuli According to Color and Smell, " Works of
the Institute of Physiology imeni I. P. Pavlov , Vol. I , Publish
ing House of the Academy of Sciences USSR, Moscow- Leningrad ,
1952 .
109 . A. K. Voskresenskaya and N. G. Lopatina , " The Development and
Extinction of Conditioned Reflexes in Bees, " Zhurnal obshchey
biologii ( Journal of General Biology ) , Vol. XIII , No. 6 , 1952 .
110 . A. K. Voskresenskaya and N. G. Lopatina , " The Interaction of
Food and Defensive Conditioned Reflexes of Bees in the Con
trolling of Their Summer Activity ," Works of the Institute of
Physiology imeni I. P. Pavlov , Vol. II , Publishing House of the
Academy of Sciences USSR , Moscow - Leningrad , 1953 .
111 . M. A. Gerd , " The Scientific Bases of Methods of Training Animals, "
Pri roda ( Nature ) , No. 1 , 1955 .
112 . M. A. Gerd , Analiz protsessa dressirovki ( Analysis of the Process
of Training ) , Author's Abstract of Candidate's Thesis , Moscow ,
1958 .
112a . M. A. Gerd , " The Role of Orientational Reflexes in Training, "
Orientirovochnyy refleks ( Orientational Reflex ) , Publishing
House of the APS ( Academy of Pedagogic Sciences ) , RSFSR , 1958 .
112b . M. A. Gerd , " Experience in the Analysis of the Training of Sea
Lions, " Voprosy psikho logii ( Problems of Psychology ) , No. 4 ,
1957 .
112c . M. A. Gerd , " Analysis of the Process of Training, " Materials of
the Conference on Psychology of 1-6 July 1955 , Publishing House
of the APS , RSFSR , 1957 .
112d . M. A. Gerd , N. M. In'kov , A. P. Mazover , V. P. Nazarov , A. P.
Orlov , N. A. Sakharov , Osnovy shuzhebnogo sobakovodstva (Prin
ciples of Service Dog Breeding ) , State Agricultural Publishing
House , Moscow , 1958 .
112e . A. B. Getsova and L. K. Lozina - Lozinskiy , " The Role of the Be
havior of Insects in the Process of Their Adaptation to Plant
Food , " Zoologicheskiy zhurnal ( Zoological Journal ) , Vol.
XXXIV , No. 5 , 1955 .
112f . M. S. Gilyarov , " Hereditary Alteration of Instincts of Insects,
Agrobiologiya ( Agrobiology ) , Moscow , 1949 .
113 . A. F. Gubin , Medonosnyy pchely i opyleniye krasnogo klevera
( Honey Bees and the Pollination of Red Clover ) , Union of State
Publishing Houses of RSFSR , State Agricultural Publishing House ,
Moscow , 1947 .
113a . A. F. Gubin and I. Khalifman , Tsvety i pchely (pchely i ikh
znacheniye v povyshenii urozhayev sel'skokhozyaystvennykh
kul'tur ) ( Colors and Bees ( Bees and Their Importance in In
creasing Harvests of Agricultural Crops ) ) , Moskovskiy rabochiy
( Moscow Worker Publishing House ) , Moscow , 1958 .

- 850 -
114 . Charlz Darvin ( Charles Darwin ) , " The Origin of Species by Means
of Natural Selection , " published by Lepkovska, 1907 .
114a . Ya . Dembovskiy , Psikhologiya zhivotnykh ( Animal Psychology ) ,
edited and foreword by Prof. D. A , Biryukov , Foreign Literature
Press , Moscow , 1959 .
114b . Ye . N. Derim , " Experiments and Observations Conducted With Cer
tain Forest Birds During the Hatching Period ," Orekhovo
Zuyevskiy pedinstitut ( Orekhovo - Zuyevskiy Pedagogic Institute ) ,
Anthology on the Ecology and Classification of Animals , Moscow ,
1959 .
114c . M. N. Denisova , " The Probable Ways of the Emergence of Nesting
Parasitism in the Cuckoo , " Uchenyye zapiski MGPI im . V. P.
Potemkina ( Scientific Reports of the Moscow State Pedagogic
Institute imeni V. P. Potemkin ) , Vol . LXXXIV, No. 7 , Moscow ,
1958 .
115 . A. 0. Dolin and S. A. Palatnik , " Physiological Analysis of Sim
ple and Complex Habits of Monkeys in Group Experiments , " Arkhiv
biologicheskikh nauk ( Archives of Biological Sciences ) , Vol .
XXXVII , No. 1 , 1935 .
116 . P. K. Denisov , " The Analyzing and Synthetic Function of the
Cerebral Hemispheres of the Chimpanzee ," Physiological Journal
of the USSR , imeni I. M. Sechenov , Vol . XXI, No. 5-6 , 1936 .
117 . P. K. Denisov , " Further Materials on the Study of Higher Neural
Activity in the Chimpanzee , " Summary of Reports of the Confer
ence on Higher Neural Activity , convened in connection with
the First Anniversary of the death of Academician I. P. Pavlov ,
Publishing House of Academy of Sciences USSR , Moscow - Leningrad ,
1937 .
118 . V. L. Durov , Dressirovka zhivotnykh ( The Training of Animals ) ,
Universal Publishing House , Moscow , 1924 .
119 . V. L. Durov , Nauchnaya dressirovka promyslogo -okhotnich'ikh
sobak ( Scientific Training of Professional Hunting Dogs ) , All
Union Cooperative United Publishing House , Moscow - Leningrad ,
1933 .
120 . T. G. Yegorov , Psikhologiya (Psychology ) , Voyenizdat voyenno go
ministerstva soyuza SSR ( Military Publishing House of the War
Ministry of the USSR ) , Moscow , 1955 .
121 . P. A. Zavodchikiv , Sluzhebnaya sobaka v sel'skom khozyaystve
( The Service Dog in Agriculture ) , State Agricultural Publish
ing House , Moscow - Leningrad , 1955 .
122 . A. V. Zaporozhets, Psikhologiya ( Psychology ) , State Publishing
House of Scientific - Pedagogic Literature , Moscow , 1953 .
122a . M. D. Zverev , " The Study of the Feeding of Birds by Means of
Experimentation and Direct Observations, " Privlecheniye i
pereseleniye poleznykh ptits v lesona sa zhdeniya ( Abstraction
and Resettling of Beneficial Birds in Afforestation Areas ) ,
Main Administration of Hunting Preserves , Moscow , 1954 .

- 851 -
123 . G. P. Zelenyy , " The Reaction of Cats to Current Stimuli , " So
obshcheniye AN Gruz SSR ( Reports of the Academy of Sciences
Georgian SSR ) , Vol. VIII , 1947 .
123a . S. G , Zusser , " Daily Vertical Migration of Pelagic Fishes, "
Trudy VNIRO (Works of the All - Union Scientific Research In
stitute of Fishery and Oceanography ) , Vol . XXXII , 1958 .
123b . S. G. Zusser , " A Study of the Causes of the Daily Vertical Mi
grations of Fishes , " Trudy soveshchaniya ikhtiologicheskoy
komissii AN SSSR (Works of the Conference of the Ichthyologi
cal Commission of the Academy of Sciences USSR ) , Vol. VIII ;
Trudy soveshchaniya po fiziologii ryb ( Works of the Confer
ence on the Physiology of Fishes ) , Moscow , 1958 .
124 . P. I. Ivanov, Psikhologiya ( Psychology ) , No. 2 , State Publish
ing House of Scientific -Pedagogic Literature , Moscow , 1956 .
125 . Ye . D. Il'ina , Zverovod stvo ( Fur Farming ) , Za gotizdat (Publish
ing House of State Purchases ) , Moscow , 1952 .
125a . Yu . A. Isakov , " Possible Alterations of Certain Forms of the Be
havior of Birds , " Sb . puti i metody i spol'zovaniya ptits v
bor'be s vrednymi na sekomymi ( Collection . Ways and Method of
Using Birds in Combatting Harmful Insects ) , Administration for
Hunting Preserves , State Agricultural Publishing House , Moscow ,
1956 .
126 . N. I. Kalabukhov , Spyachka zhivotnykh ( The Hibernation of Ani
mals ) , Soviet Science Publishing House , Moscow , 1946 .
127 . N. I. Kalabukhov, Ek logo - fiziologicheskiye osobenností zhivotnykh
i usloviya sredy ( The Ecologico -Physiological Peculiarities of
Animals and Environmental Condition ) , Kharkov , 1950 .
127a . A. Ya . Karayev , " Temporary Connections of Invertebrates , " The 17th
Conference on Higher Neural Activity , Summary of Reports, Moscow
Leningrad , 1956 .
127b . A. L. Karas ' and L. N. Seregina , " A Study of the Analytico
Synthetic Function of the Black Sea Crab , " Papers and Abstracts
of Reports of the 18th Conference on Higher Neural Activity ,
No. 3 , Leningrad , 1958 .
128 . D. N. Ka shkarov , " The American School of Experimental Zoopsy
chology , " Turkestanskiy meditsinskiy zhurnal ( Turkestan Medical
Journal) , Vol . I , No. 3 , 1922 .
129 . D. N. Kashkarov , " What Is Zoopsychology, And Is It Feasible ? "
Turkestan Medical Journal , Vol . ' I , No. 7 , 1922 .
130 . D. N. Ka shkarov , Sovremennyye uspekhi zoopsikho logii (Modern
Progress of Zoopsychology ) , State Publishing House , Moscow
Leningrad , 1928 .
131 . A. B. Kogan , " Comparative Development of the Analyzers of Ani
mals , " Uchenyye zapiski Rostovskogo n / d universiteta ( Scien
tific Reports of the Rostov - on - the -Don University ) , Vol. XXVI ,
1956 .
131a . L. B. Koza rovitskiy , " Imitative Conditioned Reflexes in the Chim
panzee , " Summary of Reports of the 17th Conference on Higher
Neural Activity , Moscow - Leningrad, 1956 .

- 852 -
131b . Yu . G. Kologrivova , " Development of the Defensive Conditioned
Reflex in Lower Apes, " Works of the Institute of Physiology
imeni I. P. Pavlov , Vol. II , 1953 .
132 . K. N. Kornilov , A. A. Smirnov , B. M. Teplov , Psikhologiya (Psy
chology ) , 3rd edition , State Publishing House of Scientific
Pedagogic Literature , Moscow , 1948 .
133 . V. A , Kosobutskiy , " The Individual Development of the Hunting
Food Instinct of Carnivorous Mammals and Carnivorous Birds ,
Author's Abstract of Candidate's Dissertation , Moscow , 1950 .
134 . G. S. Kostyuk , " Psychology , " Naukovo - doslidniy institut psi
khologii . Derzhavne uchbovo -pedagogichne vydavnitstvo ( Sci
entific Research Institute of Psychology . State Pedagogical
Publishing House ) , Glava 3 . Vinikneniya i razvitok psikhiki .
Radyans'ka shkola ( Chapter 3 . Emergence and Developments of
the Psychic Life . Soviet School ) , Kiev , 1955 .
135 . L. V. Krushinskiy , " The Interrelation Between Activity and Pas
sively Defensive Reactions of Dogs, " News of the Academy of
Sciences USSR , No. 1 , 1945 .
136 . L. V. Krushinskiy , " Heredity of the Properties of Animal Be
havior , " Uspekhi sovremennoy biologii ( Successes of Modern
Biology ) , Vol . XXII , No. 1 , 1946 .
137. L. V. Krushinskiy , " The Role of Heredity and Training Conditions
in the Manifestations and Expression of Signs of Behavior in
Dogs, " Herald of the Academy of Sciences USSR , Biological
Series , No. 1 , 1946 .
138 . L. V. Krushinskiy , " Sexual Distinction in the Behavior of Dogs, "
Journal of General Biology , Vol. VII, No. 2 , 1946 .
139 . L. V. Krushinskiy , " The Interrelationship of Hereditary and In
dividually Acquired Components in the Forming of Animal Be
havior , " 7th All - Union Congress of Physiologists , Biochemists
and Pharmacologists, Moscow , 1947 .
140 . L. V. Krushinskiy , " Certain Stages in the Integration and Forma
tion of Animal Behavior , " Successes of Modern Biology , Vol .
XXVI , No. 2 , 1948 .
141 . L. V. Krushinskiy , Ye . K. Merkur'yeva , I. Ye . Izrailevich ,
S. A. Il'inskiy , N. M. Inakov , K. S. Stogov , M. I. Vanichev ,
A. P. Mazover , A. P. Orlov , V. V. Rylov , N. A. Sakharov , " The
Service Dog ," Rukovodstvo po pod gotovke spetsialistov sluzheb
nogo sobakovodstva ( Handbook on the Training of Specialists in
Service Dog Breeding ) , State Agricultural Publishing House ,
Moscow , 1952 .
14la . L. V. Krushinskiy , " The Biological Significance of Extrapolative
Reflexes of Animals, " Journal of General Biology , Vol. XIX ,
No. 6 , 1958 .
141b . L. V. Krushinskiy , " Extrapolative Reflexes as an Elementary Basis
of the Reasoning Activity of Animals , " Doklady AN SSSR (Reports
of the Academy of Sciences USSR ) , Vol. CXXI , No. 4 , 1958 .

- 853 -
141c . L. V. Krushinskiy , Formí rovaniye povedeniya zhivotnykh v norme
i patologii ( The Formation of Animal Behavior, Normal and Patho
logical ) , Publishing House of Moscow State University , 1960 .
141d . L. V. Krushinskiy , " The Study of Extrapolative Reflexes in Ani -
mals , " Problemy kibernetiki ( Problems of Cybernetics ) , No. 2 ,
Fizmatgiz ( State Publishing House of the Physico -Mathematical
Faculty ) , Moscow , 1959 .
142 . V. Ya . Kryazhev , " Objective Study of Higher Neural Activity by
Collective Experimentation , " Sb . instituta vysshey nervnoy
deyatel'nosti ( Anthology of the Institute of Higher Neural
Activity ) , edited by Fursikov , Moscow , 1929 .
143 . V. Ya . Kryazhev , " Food Reflexes of 'Herd ' Character , " Physio
logical Journal of the USSR imeni I. M. Sechenov , Vol . XVIII,
No. 4 , 1935 .
143a . V. Ya . Kryazhev , Vysshaya nervna ya deyatel'nost ' zhivotnykh v
usloviyakh obshchezhitiya ( Higher Neural Activity of Animals
Under Communal Living Conditions ) , State Medical Publishing
House , Moscow , 1955 .
144 . V. A. Kukushkina , Problema instinkta v svete ucheniya I. P.
Pavlova o vysshey nervnoy deyatel'nosti ( Instinct in the Light
of I. P. Pavlov's Teachings on Higher Neural Activity ) , Author's
Abstract of Candidate's Dissertation , Moscow , 1950 .
144a . Yu . A. Labas, " The Significance of Natural Signs of Food in the
Feeding of Young Salmon and Trout , " Rybn . khoz . ( The Fish In
dustry ) , No. 6 , 1959 .
145 . N. N. Ladygina -Kots, " A Page of Observations From the Life of
Monkeys , " in the book by A. F. Kots Zhizn ' zhivotnykh v
fotografiyakh , risunkakh i biologicheskikh nabro skakh ( Animal
Life in Photographs , Illustrations , and Biological Outlines ) ,
Publishing House of the Russian Society of Acclimatization ,
Moscow , 1917 .
146 . N. N. Ladygina -Kots, Otchet o deyatel'nosti zoopsikhologicheskoy
laboratorii pri Gos. Darvinov - skom muzeye (Report of the Ac
tivity of the Zoopsychological Laboratory Affiliated with the
Darwin State Museum ) , Giz ( State Publishing House ) , Moscow ,
1921 .
147 . N. N. Ladygina -Kots, Issledovaniye poznavatel'nykh sposobnostey
shimpanze ( Research on the Cognitive Capacities of the Chim
panzee ) , State Publishing House , Moscow , 1923 .
148 . N. N. Ladygina - Kots, " Cognitive Capacities of the Chimpanzee ,
Article in the book by A. Brem , Chelovekoobraznyye obez'yany
( Anthropoid Apes ) , Publishing House Zemlya i fabrika ( Soil and
Factory ) , Moscow -Leningrad , 1924 .
149 . N. N. Ladygina - Kots, Pri spo sobitel'nyye motornyye navyki makaka
v usloviyakh eksperimanta . K voprosy o " trudovykh " protsessakh
nizshikh obez'yan ( Adaptive Motor Habits of the Macaque Under
Experimental Conditions. The " Work " Processes of Lower Apes ) ,
Publishing House of the Darwin State Museum , Moscow , 1928 .

- 854 -
150 . N. N. Ladygina - Kots, Recherche sur l'intelligence du chimpanze
par la methode du choix d'apres modele ( Research on the Chim
panzee by the Method of Selection Against a Model ) , Lin French7,
Journal de psychologie ( Psychology Journal ) , No. 3 , Paris
Libraire , Felix Alcan , 1928 .
151 . N. N. Ladygina -Kohts , Les aptitudes motrices adaptives du Singe
inferieur ( Adaptive Motor Habits of the Lower Ape ) , Journal de
psychologie (Psychology Journal ) , No. 5-6 , Paris Libraire ,
Felix Alcan , 1930 .
152 . N. N. Ladygina -Kots , Ditya shimpanze i ditya cheloveka v ikh
instinktakh, emotsiakh , igrakh , privychkakh i vyrazitel'nykh
dvizheniyakh ( Baby Chimpanzee and Human Baby in Their Instincts,
Emotions , Play , Habits and Expressive Movements ) , Jubilee Publi
cation of the Darwin State Museum , Moscow , 1935 .
153 . N. N. Ladygina -Kohts, La conduite du petite du chimpanze et de
l'enfant de l'homme ( The Behavior of the Baby Chimpanzee and of
the Human Baby ) , Journal de psychologie (Psychology Journal ) ,
No. 5-8 , Paris , Felix Alcan , 1937 .
154 . N. N. Ladygina - Kots, " The Distinguishing of Quantity by the
Chimpanzee ," Sb . po svya shchennyy D. N. Uznadze ( Anthology
Dedicated to D. N. Uznadze ) , Publishing House of Academy of
Sciences Georgian SSR , 1945 .
155 . N. N. Ladygina -Kots , " Elementary Thinking in Animals , " Problems
of Psychology , No. 3 , 1955 .
156 . N. N. Ladygina -Kots, " Development of Forms of Reflection in the
Process of the Evolution of Organisms , " Voprosy filosofii (Prob
lems of Philosophy ) , No. 4 , 1956 .
157 . N. N. Ladygi na - Kohts , Die Entwicklung der Wiederspiegelungsformen
im Evolutionsprozess der Organismen (Development of the Forms
of Reflection in the Process of the Evolution of Organi sms) ,
Naturwissenschaftliche Beitraege ( Natural Science Essays ) ,
No. 2 , Berlin , 1957 .
158. N. N. Ladygina -Kots, " Peculiarities of the Thinking of Anthro
poids , " Materialy soveshchaniya po psikhologii (Papers of a
Conference on Psychology ) , Publishing House of APS , RSFSR , 1957 .
159 . N. N. Ladygina -Kohts, Les caracteres specifiques de l'intelli
gence des anthropoides (du chimpanze ) ( The Specific character
istics of the Intelligence of Anthropoids ( of the Chimpanzee ) ) ,
Report - article published by ASP , RSFSR , for the International
Psychological Congress in Brussels , 1957 .
159a . N. N. Ladygina -Kots, Idem . Reprinted in the Journal Pedagogic
et Psychologie en URSS (Pedagogy and Psychology in the USSR ) ,
Bulletin No. 6 , Brussels , 1958 .
159b . N. N. Ladygina - Kots, Razvitiye psikhiki v protsesse evolyutsii
organizmov ( Development of the Psychic Life in the Process of
the Evolution of Organisms ) , Soviet Sciences , Moscow , 1958 .
159c . Nadiejda Kohts , " The Handling of Objects by Primates ( Apes and
Monkeys) in the Light of Anthropogenesis , " / Title given in

. 855 -
 English in origina 17 , Report -article published in " Proceedings
of the 15th International Congress of Zoology " ( London , 16-23
July 1958 ) , London , 1959 .
1590. Nadiejda Kohts, " Individual Variation in the Development of Habits
of Dogs in Their Differentiation of Visual ( Color ) Stimuli ,
Summary of Reports of the 1st Congress of the Society of Psy
chologists , No. 2 , Moscow , 1959 .
159e . Nadiejda Kohts , Konstruktivnaya i orudiynaya deyatel'nost '
vysshikh obez'yan (shimpanze ) ( Constructive and Implemental Ac
tivity of Higher Primates ( Chimpanzee ) ) , Publishing House of
Academy of Sciences USSR , 1959 .
159f . N. F. Levykina , " Peculiarities of Activity With Objects in Lower
Primates, " Summary of Reports of the 1st Congress of the Society
of Psychologists , No. 2 , Moscow , 1959 .
160 . A. N. Leont'yev , " Outline of the Development of the Psychic Life , "
in the book Problemy razvitiya psikhiki ( Problems of the De
velopment of the Psychic Life ) , Publishing House of APS , RSFSR ,
1959 .
160a . A. N. Leont'yev , " An Historical Approach in the Study of the
Psychic Life of Man , " Sb . psikhologicheskaya nauka v SSSR ( An
thology Psychological Science in USSR ) , Vol. I , Publishing House
of APS , RSFSR , 1959 .
161 . M. I. Likhtarev , " Are Trial Efforts Fortuitous? " Sb . issledo
vani ye vysshey nervnoy deyatel'nosti v yestestvennom ek speri
mente (Anthology : Research on Higher Neural Activity in Natural
Experimentation ) , State Publishing House , Ukrainian SSR , Kiev ,
1950 .
16la . M. Ye . Lobashev , N. G. Lopatina , I. M. Nikitina , Ye . G. Chesno
kova , " Chain and Vestigial Reflexes of the Honey Bee , " Summary
of Reports of the 18th Conference on Higher Neural Activity ,
No. 3 , Leningrad , 1958 .
162 . M. Ye . Loba shev, " Objective Method of Studying Insect Behavior
(Silkworms ) , " Journal of General Biology, Vol . II , No. 1 , 1951 .
163 . M. Ye . Loba shev, " Principle of Tempo ra ry Connections in the Be
havior of Invertebrate Animals, " Successes of Modern Biology ,
Vol . XXXI , No. 1 , 1951 .
164 . Ye . V. Lukina , " The Interaction of Native and Acquired Reactions
in the Vital Activity of Birds, " Works of the Institute of
Physiology imeni I. P. Pavlov , Vol. II , Publishing House of
Academy of Sciences USSR , Moscow - Leningrad , 1953 .
165 . Ye . V. Lukina , " The Variability of Certain Instinctive Reactions
of Birds, " Nature , No. 7 , 1953 .
165a . A. I. Lyubitskaya , " Observations and Experiments on the Effect
of Light on the Behavior of Fishes, " Izvestiya APN RSFSR (Herald
of APS RSFSR ) , No. 85 , 1957 .
165b . A. I. Lyubitskaya , " Method of Developing Temporary Connections
in Fishes, " Ibid . , 1957 .

. 856 -
166 . A. P. Ma zover , Sluzhebnoye sobakovodstvo v kolkhozakh i sovkho zakh
( The Breeding of Service Dogs on Kolkhozes and Sovkhozes ) , Kogiz
( Book - Trade Union of State Publishing Houses) , Moscow , 1939 .
166a . G. A. Ma zokhin - Porshnyakov , " The Distinguishing by Bees of Green ,
Yellow , and Orange Colors, " Biofizika ( Biophysics), Vol. IV ,
No. 1 , Leningrad , 1959 .
167 . F. P. Mayorov , " Conditioned Vestigial Reflexes of Rhesus and
Lapunder Monkeys , " Arkhiv biologiche skikh nauk (Archives of
Biological Sciences ) , Vol. XXXIII, No. 5-6 , 1933 .
168 . F. P. Mayorov, " Materials on the Comparative Study of Higher
and Lower Primates, " Physiological Jou'rnal of USSR imeni I , M.
Sechenov , Vol. XIX , No. 4 , 1935 .
169. F. P. Mayorov and L. A. Firsov , " Experimental Research on Right
handedness of the Chimpanzee , " Doklady_AN SSSR ( Reports of the
Academy of Sciences USSR ) , Vol. CIX , No. 5 , 1956 .
170 . F. P. Mayorov and L. A. Firsov , " Study of the Dynamics of Sleep
in the Chimpanzee , Reports of the Academy of Sciences USSR ,
Vol. CIX , No. 1 , 1956 .
170a . F. P. Mayorov and L. A. Firsov , " Dynamic Stereotypy in Anthropoid
Apes (Chimpanzee ) , " Journal of Higher Neural Activity imeni
I. P. Pavlov , Vol. VI , No. 1 , 1956 .
171 . S. I. Malyshev , "The Origin of Maternal Instincts in Bees , " Trudy
1 vserossiyskogo s'ezda zoologov , anatomov i gistologov (Pro
ceedings of the 1st A11 - RSFSR Congress of Zoologists, Anatomists
and Histologists ) , Vol . II , 1923 .
172 . S. I. Malyshev , " The Domestication of Bumblebees, " Pchelovodnoye
delo ( Apiculture ) , No. 7 , 1928 .
173 . S. I. Malyshev , " Selection of Material for the Study of In
stincts , " Herald of the Academy of Sciences USSR , ( Biological
Series ) , No. 1 , 1946 .
174 . S. I. Malyshev , " Ways and Conditions of the Evolution of the In
stincts of Lower Hymenopters ( Symphyta and Terebratia ) , " General
Biology , Vol . X , No. 1 , 1949 .
175 . S. I. Malyshev , " Ways and Conditions of the Evolution of the In
stincts of Vespoid Hymenopters ( Vespoidea and Sphecoidea ) , "
Reports of the Academy of Sciences USSR , Vol. LXV , No. 4 , 1949 .
176 . S. I. Malyshev , " Ways and Conditions of the Origin of Apoids
( Hymenoptera , apoidea ) , " Reports of the Academy of Sciences
USSR , Vol. LXXII , No. 5 , 1950 .
177 . A. S. Mal'chevskiy , Gnezdovaya zhi zn ' pevchikh ptits ( Nesting
Life of Songbirds) , Publishing House of Leningrad State Uni
versity , 1959 .
177a . I. D. Manakov, Uslovnyye refleksy i tipy nervnoy sistemy u
loshadey ( Conditioned Reflexes and Types of Nervous System in
Horses ) , Published by Kharkov University , 1956 .
178 . P. A. Manteyfel ' , Zhizn pushnykh zverey ( The Life of Fur - Bearing
Animals ) , State Publishing House of Cultural Education , 1947 .

• 857 -
178. P. A. Manteyfel ', " Adaptive Significance of the Periodic Migra
tions of Aquatic Organi sms , " Voprosy ikhtiologii ( Problems of
Ichthiology ) , No. 13 , 1959 .
178b . P. I. Marikovskiy , " Signalling in Ants , " Entomologicheskoye
obozreniye ( Entomological Review ) , Vol . XXXVII, No. 3 , 1958 ,
page 5 .
178c . A. Ya . Markova , " Analysis and Synthesis in Lower Primates ( The
Perception of the Properties of Objects), " Summary of Reports
of the 1st Congress of the Society of Psychologists, No. 2 ,
Moscow , 1959 .
179 . A. Mashkovtsev , M. Rozanov , N. Tret'yakov and Yu . Milanovskiy ,
" Combatting Barrenness of Cattle , " Referaty nauchno - issledo
vatel'skikh rabot za 1944 (Papers on Scientific Research Works
in 1944 ), Section of Biological Sciences , Academy of Sciences
USSR .
180 . A. A. Mashkovtsev , " The Significance for Biology of the Teachings
of I. P. Pavlov on Higher Neural Activity , " Successes of Modern
Biology , Vol . XXVIII , No. 4 , 1949 .
180a . N. v . Medvedev , " The Marxist - Leninist Theory of Reflection and
the Teachings of I. P. Pavlov on Higher Neural Activity , "
Gospolitizdat ( State Publishing House of Political Literature ),
Moscow , 1954 .
180b . L. N. Mogilev , " The Development of Kinesthetic Habits in Animals, "
Papers and Abstracts of Reports at the 18th Conference on Higher
Neural Activity , No. 3 , 1958 .
180c . A. V. Napalkov , " Physiological Mechanisms Underlying the Forma
tion of Chains of Conditioned Motor Reflexes , " Nauchnyye doklady
vys shey shkoly (biologicheskoy nauki) ( Scientific Reports of
the University ( of Biological Science ) ) , No. 2 , 1958 .
180d . A. V. Napalkov , " A Study of Laws Governing the Development of
Complex Systems of Conditioned Reflexes, " Vestnik MGU (Herald
of Moscow State University ) , No. 2 , 1958 .
180e . S. L. Novoselova , " The Formation of Habits in the Chimpanzee ,'
Abstracts of Reports of the 1st Congress of the Society of
Psychologists , No. 1 , Moscow , 1959 .
180f . S. L. Novoselova, " The Formation and Interaction of the Systems
of Motor Reactions in the Chimpanzee, " Sb . voprosy eksperi
mental'noy psikhiatrii ( Anthology : Questions of Experimental
Psychiatry ) , Moscow , 1959 .
180g . S. L. Novoselova , " Research on the Elementary Thinking of the
Chimpanzee , " Ibid .
180h . S. L. Novoselova , " Developing the Habit of Use of a Stick by the
Chimpanzee , " Sovetskaya antropologiya ( Soviet Anthropology ) ,
No. 4 , 1959 .
181 . L. N. Norkina , " Variability of the Motor Reflex in Dogs and
Lower Apes , " Abstracts of Reports and Papers of the 9th Con
ference of the Branch of Southeast RSFSR , Dedicated to the 100th
Anniversary of the Birth of I. P. Pavlov , Rostov -on - the - Don , 1949 .

- 858 -
182 . L. N. Norkina , " A Comparative Study of Conditioned Reflexes in
Apes and Dogs , Byulleten ' eksperimental'noy biologii i meditsiny
( Bulletin of Experimental Biology and Medicine ) , No. 6 , 1951 .
183 . L. N. Norkina , " Chain Conditioned Motor Reflexes in Dogs and
Apes , " Journal of Higher Neural Activity imeni I. P. Pavlov ,
Vol. I , No. 3 , 1951 .
184 . L. N. Norkina , " The Inhibition of Complex Conditioned Motor Re
flexes in Lower Apes , " Journal of Higher Neural Activity imeni
I. P. Pavlov , Vol . II , No. 1 , 1952 .
185 . B. A. Ok senov , " Behavior of the Deporans Betulae 2. Under Experi
mental Conditions, " Academy of Sciences USSR Gazette ( Biological
Series ) , No. 1 , 1946 .
185a . L. A. Orbeli , " Physiology and Psychology , " Physiological Journal
of USSR imeni I. M. Sechenov , Vol. XXII , No. 1 , 1946 .
185b . L. A. Orbeli , " Theory of Higher Neural Activity ," Anthology :
Uspekhi biologicheskikh nauk v SSSR za 25 let ( The Progress of
Biological Sciences in USSR in 25 Years ) , Moscow - Leningrad ,
1945 .
186 . A. P. Orlov , Teoreticheskiye osnovy dressirovki. Sluzhebnaya
so baka ( Theoretical Principles of Animal Training . The Service
Dog ) , State Agricultural Publishing House , Moscow , 1952 .
186a . I. V. Orlov , " Imitative Reflexes in Fishes, " Uchenyye zapiski LGU .
Seriya biologicheskikh nauk ( Academic Reports of Leningrad State
University . Biological Scientific Series ) , No. 101 , 1958 .
186b . V. G. Osipova , " Conditioned Reflexes of Domesticated and Wild
Ducks , " Voprosy sravnitel'noy fiziologii i patologii vysshey
nervnoy deyatel'nosti ( Problems of the Comparative Physiology
and Pathology of Higher Neural Activity ) , State Publishing House
of Medical Literature , Moscow - Leningrad, 1955 .
186c . Pavlovskiye sredy ( Pavlov's Wednesdays ) , Vol. I - III , Publishing
House of Academy of Sciences USSR , Moscow -Leningrad , 1951 .
186d . I. P. Pavlov , Sobr . soch . ( Collected Works ) , Vol. I - III , Pub
lishing House of Academy of Sciences USSR, Moscow - Leningrad ,
1951 .
186e . I. P. Pavlov , Razdrazhimost ' i forma yeye proyavleniya ( Irrita
bility and Its Form of Manifestation ) , Soviet Science Publishing
House , Moscow , 1954 .
187 . Ye . N. Panfilova , " The Role of External factors in the Fall Rut
ting Cycle of Female Karakuls, " Karakulevodstvo i zverovostvo
( Karakul Breeding and Fur Farming ) , No. 5 , 1948 .
188 . S. A. Person , Problema instinkta v svete michurinskoy biologii
i fiziologicheskogo ucheniya akad . I. P. Pavlova ( Instinct in
the Light of Michurin Biology and the Physiological Theories
of Academician I. P. Pavlov ) , Author's Abstract of his Candi
date's Dissertation , Leningrad , 1954 .
188a . V. A. Pestova , " The Analysis and Synthesis of Complex Stimuli in
Fishes and Rabbits, " Abstracts of Reports of the 18th Conference
on Higher Neural Activity , No. 3 , Leningrad , 1958 .

859 -
189 . N. A, Podkopayev , Metodika izucheniya uslovnykh refleksov (Methods
of Studying Conditioned Reflexes ) , Publishing House of Academy
of Sciences USSR , Moscow - Leningrad , 1952 .
189a . V , G. Polezhayev , " A Study of the Behavior of the Hooded Rat in
Function of External Environmental Factors , " Trudy instituta
dezinfektsii ( Works of the Institute of Disinfection ) , No. 6 ,
1950 .
190 . Ye . F. Polikarpov , " The Effect of External factors on the Matura
tion of Ovicells on Sows ," Referaty rabot otdela biologicheskikh
nauk AN , SSSR ( Abstracts of Works of the Biological Scientific
Section of Academy of Sciences USSR ) , Moscow - Leningrad , 1944 .
191 . K. L. Polyakov , " The Physiology of the olfactory and Auditory
Analyzers of Tortoises , " Russian Physiological Journal, Vol.
XIII , No. 2 , 1930 .
192 . V. A. Ponurova , " The Mobility of the Neural Process of Rabbits,
Dogs and Lower Apes , " Works of the Institute of Physiology imeni
I. P. Pavlov , Vol . II , Moscow - Leningrad , 1953 .
193 . N. A. Popov and A. M. Chernakov , " The Differentiation of Uncondi
tioned Stimuli by Birds , " Arkhiv teoreticheskoy i praktiche skoy
meditsiny ( Archives of Theoretical and Practical Medicine ) , Vol.
I , Nos . 1-2 , 1923 .
194 . N. A. Popov , " The Mechanism of the Imitative Reflex , " Sb . arkhiv
teoreticheskoy i klinicheskoy meditsiny ( Anthology : Archives
of Theoretical and Clinical Medicine ) , Vol. II , Tomsk , 1927 .
194a . N. v . Prazdnikova , " Vestigial Motor Reflexes of Goldfish , " Ab
stracts of the 18th Conference on Higher Neural Activity , No. 3 ,
Leningrad , 1958 .
195 . A. N. Promptov , " The Evolutionary Significance of the Migration
of Birds, " Zoological Journal, Vol . XIII , No. 3 , 1934 .
196 . A. N. Promptov , " The Nest - Building Instinct of Swallows , "
Byulleten ' Moskovskogo obshchestva ispytateley prirody (otdel
biologii ) ( Bulletin of the Moscow Society of Natural Scientists
( Biological Section ) ) , Vol. XLIX , No. 1 , 1940 .
197 . A. N. Promptov , " Specific Stereotype of Behavior and Its Formation
in Wild Fowl, " Reports of the Academy of Sciences USSR , Vol.
XXVII , No. 2 , 1940 .
198 . A. N. Promptov , Sezonnyye migratsii ptits ( Seasonal Migrations
of Birds ) , Publishing House of the Academy of Sciences USSR ,
Moscow , 1941 .
199 . A. N. Promptov , " The Present Status of the Study of the Nesting
Parasitism of Birds, " Progress of Modern Biology , Vol. XIV ,
No. 1 , 1941 .
200 . A. N. Promptov , " Vocal Imitation in Birds as One of the Specific
Properties of Their Neural Activity, " Reports of the Academy of
Sciences USSR , Vol . XLV , No. 6 , 1944 .
201 . A. N. Promptov , " A Physiological Analysis of the Nest - Building
Instinct of Birds, " Gazette of the Academy of Sciences USSR
( Biological Series ) , No. 1 , 1945 .

- 860 -
202 . A. N. Promptov , " Conditioned - Reflex Components in the Instinctive
Behavior of Birds , " Physiological Journal of USSR , Vol. XXXII,
No. 1 , 1946 .
203 . A. N. Promptov , " Evolutional- Biological Peculiarities of the
Orientational Reaction in Certain Ecologically Specialized
Species of Birds , " Trudy instituta evolyutsionnoy fiziologii i
patologii vysshey nervnoy deyatel ' nosti imeni I. P. Pavlova
(Works of the Institute of the Evolutional Physiology and
Pathology of Higher Neural Activity imeni I. P. Pavlov ) , Vol . I ,
1947 .
204 . A. N. Promptov , " Experience in the Classification of Imitative
Phenomena Based on the Experimental Study of Bird Behavior , "
Physiological Journal of USSR , Vol . XXXIII , No. 5 , 1947 .
204a . A. N. Promptov , " Evolutional - Biological Peculiarities of the
Orientational Reaction in Birds With Different Ecological
Specialization , " Referaty naucho - issledovatel'skikh rabot za
1946 8. Mediko -biologicheskiye nauki ( Abstracts of Scientific
Research Works in 1946 . Medical - Biological Sciences ) , No. 1 ,
1947 , page 110 .
205 . A. N. Promptov , " Seasonal Migrations of Birds as a Biophysiologi
cal Problem , " Gazette of Academy of Sciences USSR ( Biological
Series ) , No. 1 , 1948 .
206 . A. N. Promptov , Ocherki po probleme biologicheskoy adaptatsii i
povedeniya vorob'inykh ptits ( Outline of the Biological Adapta
tion and Behavior of Passerine Birds ) , Posthumous Publication ,
Editor Academician L. A. Orbeli , Publishing House of Academy of
Sciences USSR , Moscow - Leningrad , 1956 .
207 . V. P. Protopopov , " conditions of the Development of Motor Habits
and Their Physiological Characteristics, " Published by the
Ukrainian Institute of Experimental Medicine and the Ukrainian
Psychoneurological Academy for the 15th International Congress
of Physiologists , State Publishing House of Medical Literature
of Ukrainian SSR , Kiev - Khar'kov , 1935 .
208 . V. P. Protopopov , " The Development of Motor Habits in Animals by
the ' Stimulus - Obstacle ' Method , " Issledovaniye vysshey nervnoy
deyatel'nosti v yestestvennom eksperimente ( Research on Higher
Neural Activity in Natural Experimentation ) , State Publishing
House of Medical Literature , Kiev , Ukrainian SSR , 1950 .
209 . V. P. Protopopov , " The Processes of Derivation and Generalization
( Abstraction ) in Animals and Man , " Ibid . , Kiev , Ukrainian SSR ,
1950 .
210 . Ye . V. Puzanova -Malysheva , " Ant Lions and Their Hunting Funnels , "
Works of the Institute of Evolutional Physiology and Pathology
of Higher Neural Activity imeni I. P. Pavlov , Publishing House
of Academy of Sciences USSR, 1947 .
211 . Ye . V. Puzanova -Malysheva , " The Life and Habits of Acanthelisis
baerica Ramb ( Neuroptera , Myrmeleonidae) in Natural and Arti
ficial Conditions , " Entomologicheskoye obozreniye (Entomologi -
cal Review) , Vol. XXXI , Nos . 1-2 , 1950 .

-861 -
211a . D. V. Radakov, " The Adaptive Significance of the Gregarious Be
havior of the Young Pollack ( Palachius virans ) , " Voprosy
ikhtiologii (Problems of Ichthyology ) , No. 11 , ( no date of
publication / .
212 . S. D. Rasin , " The Development of Conditioned Reactions in Dogs
to Auditory Stimuli , " Anthology : Research on Higher Neural
Activity in Natural Experimentation , State Publishing House of
Medical Literature, Kiev , Ukrainian SSR , 1950 .
213 . G. 2. Roginskiy, " A Comparative -Psychological Study of Sea shore
Colonies of Birds of Novaya Zemlya ," Sb . arkticheskiy institut
( Anthology : Arctic Institute ) , 1935 .
214 . G. 2. Roginskiy , " New Experimental Data on the Comparative
Psychology of Lower Apes , " Trudy instituta mozga im . V. M.
Bekhtereva ( Works of the Brain Institute imeni V. M. Bekhterev ),
Leningrad , 1938 .
215 . G. 2. Roginskiy , " A Study of the Instincts of Nurres in the Sea
shore Bird Colonies of Novaya Zemlya , " Idem . , Leningrad, 1939 .
216 . G. Z. Roginskiy , " The Development of Habits in Lower Apes , " Sb .
psikho logicheskiye issledovaniya instituta po izucheniyu mozga
im . V. M. Bekhtereva ( Anthology : Psychological Research Insti
tute for the Study of the Brain imeni V. M. Bekhterev ) , Vol. IX ,
Leningrad , 1939 .
217 . G. Z. Roginskiy , " The Comparative Psychology of Lower Apes,"
Works of the Brain Institute imeni V. M. Bekhterev , Vol . XI ,
Leningrad , 1939 .
218 . G. 2. Roginskiy , " The Correlation of various Receptors in the
Behavior of Apes , "
Sb . issledovaniya po probleme chuvstvitel '.
nosti ( Anthology :Research on the Problem of Sensitivity ) ,
Publishing House of the Brain Institute imeni V. M. Bekhterev ,
Leningrad , 1940 .
219 . G. Z. Roginskiy , " On the sense of Touch in Higher Apes (Chim
panzees ) , " Sb . po svya shchennyy_45 - letiyu nauchnoy deyatel'nosti
prof . V. P. Osipova ( Anthology Dedicated to the 45th Anniversary
of the Scientific Activity of Professor V. P. Osipov ) , Lenin
grad , 1941 .
220 . G. z . Roginskiy , " The ' Structuredness ' and Constancy of Visual
Perceptions at Various Stages of Phylogenesis, " Sb . referaty
nauchno - issledovatel'skikh rabot biologicheskogo otdela AN SSSR
za 1941-1943 gg . ( Anthology : Abstracts of the Scientific Re
search Works of the Biological Section of the Academy of Sci
ences USSR for 1941-1943 ) , Publishing House of Academy of Sci
ences USSR , Moscow- Leningrad , 1945 .
221 . G. Z. Roginskiy , " Imitation in Anthropoids, " Anthology : Ibid . ,
Moscow - Leningrad , 1945 .
222 . G. 2. Roginskiy , Psikhika chelovekoobraznykh obez'yan ( The Psychic
Life of Anthropoid Apes ) , News - Journal and Book Publishing House
of the Leningrad Soviet , 1945 .

- 862 -
223 . G. Z. Roginskiy , " Imitation in Anthropoids , " Abstracts of the
Scientific Research Works of the Academy of Sciences USSR ,
Section of Biological Sciences , Moscow - Leningrad , 1945 .
224 . G , Z. Roginskiy , " Habits and Rudiments of Intellectual Activity
in Anthropoids ( Chimpanzee ) , " Leningrad State University
Herald , No. 2 , 1946 .
225 . G. Z. Roginskiy , " Peculiarities of Touch in Lower Apes , " Ma
terialy universitetskoy psikhologicheskoy konferentsii
( Papers of the Psychological University Conference ) , Lenin
grad , 1947 .
226 . G. 2. Roginskiy , " General Problems of the Study of Animal Per
ception , " Works of the Brain Institute imeni V. M. Bekhterev ,
Vol . XV , Psychophysiological and Clinical Problems of Sensi
tivity , Leningrad , 1947 .
227 . G. 2. Roginskiy , " Mental Representation in the Chimpanzee ,
Works of the Brain Institute imeni V. M. Bekhterev , Vol. XVIII ,
Referaty nauchno -issledovatel'skikh rabot ( Abstracts of Scien
tific Research Works) , Leningrad , 1947 .
228 . G. Z. Roginskiy , " Structure and Constancy of the Visual Percep
tions of Size in Apes, " Works of the Brain Institute imeni
V. M. Bekhterev , Vol . XVIII , 1947 .
229 . G. Z. Roginskiy , Razvitiye mozga i psikhiki ( Development of the
Brain and of the Psychic Life ) , News- Journal and Book Publish
ing House of the Leningrad Soviet , 1948 .
230 . G. 2. Roginskiy , Navyki i zachatki intellektual'nykh deystviy u
antropoidov ( shimpanze ) ( The Habits and Rudiments of Intellectual
Activity in Anthropoids ( Chimpanzee ) ) , Publishing House of the
Leningrad State University , Leningrad , 1948 .
231 . G. Z. Roginskiy , " The Manifestation of the Habits and Intellect
of Anthropoids in Action With Sticks , " Sb . problemy psikhologii
( Anthology : Problems of Psychology ) , Publishing House of Lenin
grad State University , Leningrad , 1948 .
232 . G. 2. Roginskiy , " Visual Illusions in Lower Apes , " Uchenyye
zapiski LGU ( Scientific Reports of Leningrad State University ) ,
No. 109 , 1948 .
233 . G. 2. Roginskiy , " Peculiarities of Touch in Lower Apes ,
thology : Materials of the Psychological University Conference ,
Publishing House of Leningrad State University , Leningrad , 1949 ,
234 . G. 2. Roginskiy , " Conditioned Reflexes in Response to Relation
ships in Apes , " Sb . tezisy dokladov i soobshcheniy na kon
ferentsii fiziologov Yugo - Vostoka RSFSR ( Anthology : Abstracts
of Reports and Papers at the Conference of Physiologists of
Southeast RSFSR ) , Rostov - on - the -Don , 1949 .
235 . G. Z. Roginskiy , " Conjugate Functioning of the Cerebral Hemispheres
of Lower Apes , " Uchenyye zapiski LGPU im . A. I. Gertsena ( Scien
tific Reports of the Leningrad State Pedagogic Institute imeni
A. I. Gertsen ) , Vol . LXXXVIII , 1953 .

- 863 -
236. G. Z. Roginskiy , " The Higher Neural Activity of Anthropoid Apes , "
Nature , No. 2 , 1955 .
237 . G. Z. Rogin skiy , " Rudiments of Thinking in Reflexes of Apes in
Response to Relationships , " Trudy LGPU im . A. I. Gertsena ( Works
of the Leningrad State Pedagogic Institute imeni A. I. Gertsen ) ,
Leningrad , 1956 .
238 . G. 2. Roginskiy , " I. P. Pavlov's Experiments with the Chimpanzee ,"
Works of the Leningrad State Pedagogic Institute imeni A. I.
Gertsen , Leningrad , 1956 .
239 . G. 2. Roginskiy , " Reflexes in Response to Relationships in Phylo
genesis , " Tezisy vse soyuznoy konferentsii po evolyutsionnoy
fiziologii ( Abstracts of the A11 - Union Conference on Evolu
tionary Physiology ) , Moscow , 1955 .
240 . G. 2. Roginskiy and N. A. Tikh , " Detours of Animals, " Sb .
problemy sovremennoy fiziologii nervnoy i myshechnoy sistem
( Anthology : Problems of the Modern Physiology of the Nervous
and Muscular Systems ) , Dedicated to the 75th Birthday Anni
versary of I. S. Beritashvili , Publishing House of Academy of
Sciences Georgian SSR , 1956 .
241. G. 2. Roginskiy , " I. P. Pavlov's Experiments With Apes and Prob
lems of Psychology, " Sb . materialy soveshchaniya po psikhologii
1-6 iyulya 1955 % . ( Anthology : Papers of the Conference on
Psychology , 1-6 July 1955 ) , APS Publishing House , RSFSR , 1957 .
241a . G. 2. Roginskiy , " New Experiments with the Chimpanzee (Orienta
tional - Exploratory Reflex and Imitation ), " Tezi sy dokladov na
1 s'yezde obshchestva psikho logov ( Abstracts of Reports on the
1st Congress of the Society of Psychologists ) , No. 2 , lloscow ,
1959 .
242 . N. A. Roko tova , " Mobility of the Neural Processes of Anthropoids,"
Works of the Institute of Physiology imeni I. P. Pavlov , Vol.
II , Academy of Sciences USSR Publishing House , Moscow - Leningrad,
1953 .
243 . N. A. Rokotova , " Conditioned Exploratory Reflexes in the Chim
panzee , " Ibid . , 1953 .
244 . N. A. Rokotova , " Temporary Fixations to Indifferent Stimuli in
Anthropoids (Chimpanzee) , " Ibid . , 1953 .
245 . S. L. Rubinshteyn , Osnovy obshchey psikhologii ( Principles of Gen
eral Psychology ) , 2nd edition , State Scientific -Pedagogic Pub
lishing House , Moscow , 1946 .
246 . P. A. Rudik , Esikho logiya (Psychology ) , State Scientific -Pedagogic
Publishing House , Moscow , 1955 .
247 . K. F. Rul'ye , " Doubts About Zoology as a Science , " Izbr . biologi
cheskiye proizv . K. F. Rul'ye ( Selected Biological Works of
K. F. Rul'ye ) , Academy of Sciences USSR Publishing House , los
cow , 1954 .
248 . Ye . A. Rushkevich , " The Motor Habits of Lower Apes , " Research on
Higher Neural Activity in Natural Experimentation , Medical Pub
lishing House of Ukrainian SSR , Kiev , 1950 .

. 864 -
249 . M. P. Sadovnikova - Kol'tsova , (M. P. Sadownikowa ) , " A Study of the
Behavior of Birds i : the Maze," / Title in English in Original / ,
Journal of Comparative Psychology , Vol . III , No. 2 , 1922 .
250 . M. P. Sadovnikova -Kol'tsova , " A Study of the Behavior of Birds
by the Multiple Choice Method , " / Title in English in Originall ,
Journal of Comparative Psychology , Vol. III , No. 4 , 1923 .
251 . M. P. Sadovnikova -Kol'tsova , " A Genetic Analysis of the Psychic
Capacities of Rats , " Zhurnal eksperimental'noy biologii i
meditsiny ( Journal of Experimental Biology and Medicine ) , No. 1 ,
1925 .
252 . M. P. Sadovnikova - Kol'tsova , " A Genetic Analysis of the Psychic
Capacities of Rats , " Idem . , Series A , No. 1 ( Chapter IV) , 1928 .
253 . M. P. Sadovnikova - Kol'tsova , " A Genetic Analysis of the Psychic
Capacities of Rats , " Journal of Experimental Biology , Vol . VII ,
No. 3 , 1931 .
254 . M. P. Sadovnikova -Kol'tsova , " A Genetic Analysis of the Mental
Capacities of Rats, " Biological Journal , Vol . II , Nos . 2-3 , 1933 .
255 . M. P. Sadovnikova -Kol'tsova , " A Genetic Analysis of the Mental
Capacities of Rats , " Idem . , No. 4 , 1934 .
256 . M. P. Sadovnikova - Kol'tsova , " Analysis of the Temperament of Wild
Rats , " Biological Journal , Vol. VII, No. 3 , 1938 .
257 . " Questions of the Comparative Physiology and Pathology of Higher
Neural Activity , " Foreword and Introductory Article by D. A.
Biryukov , Sb . instituta eksperimental'noy meditsiny AMN SSSR
( Anthology of the Institute of Experimental Medicine , AMS,
USSR ) , Leningrad , 1955 .
258 . " Experience in the Study of the Regulations of Physiological
Functions Under the Natural Living Conditions of Organisms ,
Foreword by Academician K. M. Bykov ( ed . ) , Anthology of the In
stitute of Physiology imeni I. P. Pavlov , Academy of Sciences
USSR , Vol. I , Moscow - Leningrad , 1949 , and Vol. IV, 1953 .
259 . A. N. Severtsov , Evolyutsiya i psikhika ( Evolution and the Psychic
Life ) , Sabashnikovy Publishing House , Moscow , 1922 .
259a . Yu . I. Semenov , " Objective Logic of the Development of Higher
Neural Activity in Animals, " Scientific Reports , Vol . XII , No. 2 ,
Krasnoyarsk , 1958 .
260 . I. M. Sechenov , " How and By Whom to Elaborate Psychology , "' Izbr .
proiz . ( Selected Works ) , Academy of Sciences USSR Publishing
House , Moscow - Leningrad , 1952 .
261 . G. V. Skipin , " The Elaboration of Conditioned Motor Reflexes in
Response to a Visual Stimulus in Hamadryads , " Physiological
Journal of USSR, Vol . XVI, No. 6 , 1933 .
262 . G. A. Skrebitskiy , " The Attitude of the Sea Gull to Its Nest ,
Eggs , and Nestlings , " Anthology of Reflexes , Instincts and
Habits, Institute of Psychology , State Publishing House of
Socio - Economic Literature , 1936 .
263 . A. D. Slonim , " The Act of Eating and the Complex - Reflexive Regu
lation of Physiological Functions, " Tezisy X sessii Leningrad skogo

- 865 -
 stomatologicheskogo instituta ( Abstracts of the 10th Session of
the Leningrad Stomatological Institute ) , 1942 .
264 . A. D. Slonim , " The Daily and Seasonal Cycles of the Activity and
Thermoregulation of Bats , " Biological Series , No. 3 , Academy of
Sciences USSR Publishing House , 1945 .
265 . A. D. Slonim , " The Evolution of Complex Reflexive Acts in Higher
Organisms , " Tezisy dokladov XI sessii Leningradskogo stomato
logicheskogo instituta ( Abstracts of Reports of the 11th Session
of the Leningrad Stomatological Institute ) , 1950 .
266 . A. D. Slonim , " The Ecological Principle in the Physiology and
Study of the Instinctive Activity of Animals , " Anthology of the
Fapers of the Conference on Psychology of 1-6 July 1955 , APS ,
RSFSR Publishing House , Moscow , 1957 .
266a . A. D. Slonim , " Food Reflexes and Specialization of Mammals , "
Journal of General Biology , Vol . XIX , No. 6 , 1958 .
267 . A. A. Smirnov , A. N. Leont'yev , S. L. Rubinshteyn , B. M. Teplov ,
Psikhologiya ( Psychology ) , State Publishing House of Scientific
Pedagogic Literature , Moscow , 1956 .
267a . S. L. Sokolov, Ptitsy (materialy k izucheniyu pvoedeniya ptits )
( Birds (Materials for the Study of Bird Behavior ) ) , Academy of
Sciences USSR Publishing House , 1956 .
267b . Sh . K. Tagiyev, " Complex Conditioned Motor Reflexes in Response
to Chains of Stimuli in Fishes, " Trudy soveshchaniya ikhtiolo
gicheskoy komissii AN SSSR ( Works of the Conference of the
Ichthyological Commission of Academy of Sciences USSR ) , No. 81 ,
Academy of Sciences USSR Publishing House , 1958 .
268 . G. F. Taranov , " The Swarming Instinct in the Honey Bee Family ,
Progress of Modern Biology , Vol. XXVI , No. 2 ( 5 ) , 1948 .
269 . K. A. Tara sov , " A Study of the Instincts of Birds in the Sem '
ostrovov /Seven Islands/ Freserve , " Papers of the Biological
University Conference , Leningrad State University Publishing
House , Leningrad , 1949 .
270 . B. M. Teplov , Psikhologiya (Psychology ) , 8th edition , State Sci
entific - Pedagogic Publishing House , Moscow , 1954 .
271 . N. P. Tret'yakov , " Combatting Barrenness in Cattle , " Referat
sbornik naucho - issledovatel'skikh rabot AN SSSR ( Abstract
Anthology of Scientific Research Works of Academy of Sciences
USSR ) , 1945 .
272 . 0. V. Tret'yakova , " The Mobility of the Neural Processes of
Fishes , Tortoises and Birds , " Works of the Institute of Physi
ology imeni I. P. Pavlov , Vol . II , Academy of Sciences USSR
Publishing House , Moscow - Leningrad , 1953 .
273 . N. A. Tikh , " The Ontogenesis of the Behavior of Apes . The De
velopment of Clutching and Grasping Reflexes in Apes, " An
thology : Works of the Sukhumi Biological Station , AMS , USSR ,
AMS , USSR Publishing House , Moscow , 1949 .
274. N. A. Tikh , " Conditioned Vocal Reflexes of Apes ," Novosti
meditsiny (Medical News ) , No. 14 , 1949 .

- 866 -
275 . N. A. Tikh , " The Gregarious Life of Apes and Their Means of
Communication in the Light of Problems of Anthropogenesis,
Avtoreferat dokt. diss . ( Author's Abstract of His Doctoral
Dissertation ) , Leningrad , 1950 .
276 . N. A. Tikh , " Research on the Process of Association in Children
and Lower Apes , " Scientific Reports of Leningrad State University ,
No. 203 , 1955 .
277 . N. A. Tikh , " Phylogenesis of Man , " Scientific Reports of Lenin
grad State University , No. 214 , 1956 .
278 . N. A. Tikh , " The Genesis of Spatial Perception , " APS Herald ,
RSFSR , No. 86 , Moscow , 1956 .
279 . N. A. Tikh , " The Ontogenesis of Ape Behavior in the Light of
Problems of Anthropogenesis , " Anthology : Papers of the Con
ference on Psychology 1-6 July 1955 , APS Publishing House ,
RSFSR , Moscow , 1957 .
279a . N. A. Tikh , " The Role of Motor Activity in the Evolution of Or
ganisms and the Formation of Man , " Abstracts of Reports of the
1st Congress of the Society of Psychologists, No. 3 , Moscow ,
1959 .
279b . N. A. Tikh , " The Genesis of the Perception of Shape , " Materialy
nauchno go so veshchaniya po problemam vospriyatiya prostranstva
i prostranstvennykh predstavleniy (Papers of the Scientific
Conference on Spatial Perception and Spatial Mental Representa
tions ) , Leningrad , 1959 .
279c . N. A. Tikh , " Reflection of Spatial Relations and Reason , Ibid . ,
Leningrad , 1959 .
280 . " Works of the Institute of the Evolutional Physiology and
Pathology of Higher Neural Activity imeni I. P. Pavlov , "
Vol. I , Academy of Sciences USSR Publishing House, Moscow
Leningrad , 1947 .
281 . " Works of the Institute of Physiology imeni I. P. Pavlov,
I - II , Academy of Sciences USSR Publishing House , Moscow - Lenin
grad , 1952-1953 .
28la . M. A. Tulova , " Conditioned Reflexes in Fishes , " Scientific Re
ports of Leningrad State Pedagogic University imeni A. I ..
Gertsen , Vol . CLIII , 1958 .
281b . E. R. Uzhdavini, " Innate Food Reflexes in Puppies, " Sb . opyt
i zucheniya regulyatsii fiziologicheskikh funktsiy ( Anthology :
Experience in the Study of the Regulation of Physiological
Functions ) , Vol. IV , Moscow - Leningrad , 1958 .
281c . E. R. Uzhdavini, " The Development of Natural Food Reflexes in
the Early Ontogenesis of Dogs , " Ibid . , Moscow - Leningrad, 1958 .
282 . L. I. Ulanova , " The Formation in Apes of Conditioned Signs Ex
pressing the Need of Food , " Anthology : Research in Higher
Neural Activity in Natural Experimentation , Ukrainian SSR State
Medical Publishing House , Kiev , 1950 .
282a . M. A. Usiyevich , " Data on the Higher Neural Activity of Apes ,
Archives of Biological Sciences , Vol . XXXVIII , No. 2 , 1935 .

- 867 -
283. K. E. Fabri , " The Treatment of Objects by Lower Apes and the In
ception of Work Activity in Man , " Soviet Anthropology , No. 1 ,
1958 .
284 . K. E. Fabri , " The Effect of Living Conditions on the Attitude of
Lower Apes Toward Objects, " Tezisy doklada na 1 s'yezde ob
shchestva psikhologov ( Abstract of a Report at the 1st Congress
of the Society of Psychologists ) , No. 2 , Moscow , 1959 .
285 . B. K. Fenyuk , " The Homing Instinct of Rodents , " Nature , No. 3 ,
1941 .
285a . L. A. Firsov , " Conditioned Inhibition in Primates ," Soobshcheniya
1 - e . Osobennosti obrazovaniya i razlichiya uslovnykh tormozov
detenysha shimpanze ( First Paper . Peculiarities of the Develop
ment of and Differences in the conditioned Inhibitions of Young
Chimpanzees ) , Works of the Institute of Physiology imeni I. P.
Pavlov , Vol. II , Academy of Sciences USSR Publishing House ,
Moscow - Leningrad , 1953 .
285b . L. A. Firsov , " The Interrelation of Conditioned Food and Play
Reflex Activity of Young Chimpanzees ," Journal of Higher
Neural Activity imeni I. P. Pavlov , Vol. V , No. 6 , 1955 .
285c . L. A. Firsov , " Conditioned Motor Reflexes With a Chain of Stimuli
in Young Chimpanzees ," Journal of Higher Neural Activity imeni
I. P. Pavlov , Vol. V , No. 2 , 1955 .
285d . L. A. Firsov , " Vestigial Conditioned Reflexes in the Chimpanzee , "
Abstracts of Reports of the 18th Conference on Higher Neural Ac
tivity , Moscow - Leningrad , 1958 .
285e . L. A. Firsov , " Vestigial Imitation in Anthropomorphous Apes
(Chimpanzee ) , " Abstracts of Reports of the 1st Congress of the
Society of Psychologists , No. 2 , Moscow , 1959 .
285f . A. N. Formozov , " Migration of the Common Squirrel, " Trudy zoo
logicheskogo instituta AN SSSR (Works of the Zoological Insti
tute of Academy of Sciences USSR ) , 1936 .
286 . A. N. Formo zov , Sne zhnyy pokrov v zhizni mlekopitayushchikh i
ptits SSSR ( Snow Cover in the Life of Mammals and Birds of the
USSR ) , Publishing House of the Moscow Society of Natural Sci
entists , Moscow , 1946 .
287 . A. N. Formo zov , V. I. Osmolovskaya , K. N. Blago sklonov , Ptitsi
i vrediteli lesa ( Birds and Forest Pests ) , Published by the
Moscow Society of Natural Scientists , Moscow , 1950 .
288 . A. N. Formo zov, Sputnik sledopyta ( Tracker's Handbook ) , Published
by the Moscow Society of Natural Scientists , Moscow , 1952 .
289 . Yu . P. Frolov , " A Natural - Scientific Analysis of Instincts and
Their Interactions , " Trudy vserossiyskogo s'yezda zoologov ,
anatomov i gistologov (Works of the All - RSFSR Congress of Zoolo
gists , Anatomists , and Histologists ) , 1923 .
290 . Yu . P. Frolov , " The Physiological Nature of Instinct From the
Standpoint of Conditioned and Unconditioned Reflexes ," Vremya
( Time ) , 1925 .

- 868 -
291 . Yu . P. Frolov , " The Differentiation of Conditioned Light Stimuli
in Fishes , " Russkiy fiziologicheskiy_zhurnal ( Russian Physio
logical Journal) , Vol. IX , No. 1 , 1926 .
292 . Yu . P. Frolov , " The Comparative Physiology of Conditioned Re
flexes, " Progress of Modern Biology , Vol . VIII , No. 2 , 1938 .
293 . Yu . P. Frolov , " conditioned Motor Reflexes in Fresh - Water and
Salt -Water Fishes , " Works of the Physiological Laboratory imeni
Academician I. P. Pavlov , Vol. X , Publishing House of Academy
of Sciences USSR , Moscow -Leningrad , 1941 .
294 . Yu . P. Frolov , " Basic Problems of the Evolutionary Physiology of
Higher Neural Activity , " Byulleten ' Moskovskogo o - va ispytateley
prirody ( Bulletin of the Moscow Society of Natural Scientists ) ,
Biological Section , No. 5 , Publishing House of the Moscow So
ciety of Natural Scientists, Moscow , 1949 .
295 . Yu . P. Frolov , Ot instinkta do razuma (ocherki nauki o povedenii)
(From Instinct to Reason ( Outlines of a Behaviorology ) ) , Mili
tary Publishing House of the War Ministry , USSR , Moscow , 1952 .
296 . Yu . P. Frolov , Vysshaya nervnaya deyatel'nost ' (povedeniye )
zhivotnykh ( Higher Neural Activity ( Behavior ) of Animals ) , State
Scientific -Pedagogic Publishing House , Moscow , 1953 .
297 . D. S. Fursikov , " A Study of Behavior and the localization of
Functions of the Cerebral Cortex of Apes by the Conditioned
Reflex Method , " Trudy II vse soyuznogo s'yezda fiziologov ( Works
of the 2nd All - Union Congress of Physiologists ) , Leningrad , 1926 .
298 . I. Khalifman , " Bees, " Molodaya gvardiya ( Young Guard ) , 1953 .
299 . A. Ye . Khil'chenko , " The Development of Elementary and Complex
Habits in Lower Apes , " Anthology , Research on Higher Neural
Activity in Natural Experimentation , State Medical Publishing
House , Kiev , Ukrainian SSR , 1950 .
300 . A. Ye . Khil'chenko , " Development of the Conditioned Reflex to
Relative Signs in Dogs, " Anthology : Ibid . , Kiev , Ukrainian SSR ,
1950 .
301 . A. Ye . Khil'chenko , " The Treatment of Intensity of Color as a
Conditioned Stimulus , Ibid . , Kiev , Ukrainian SSR , 1950 .
302 . A. Ye . Khil'chenko , " The Development of Reactions to Relative
Signs in Lower Apes (Relation of Sizes ) , " Ibid . , Kiev , Ukrainian
SSR , 1950 .
303 . A. Ye . Khil'chenko and I. G. Novenko , " Qualitative Peculiarities
of Motor Habits in Children of Pre - School Age in Relation to
Developmental Capacity ," Ibid . , Kiev , Ukrainian SSR , 1950 .
304 . A. Ye . Khil'chenko , " Role of the Artificial Stimulus in the De
velopment of Motor Habits in Animals , " Ibid . , Kiev , Ukrainian
SSR , 1950 .
305 . A. Ye . Khil'chenko , " Research on the Higher Neural Activity of
the Chimpanzee , " Sb . voprosy fiziologii AN USSR ( Anthology :
Problems of Physiology , Academy of Sciences Ukrainian SSR ) ,
No. 4 , Publishing House of Academy of Sciences Ukrainian SSR,
Kiev , 1953 .

- 869
306 . A. Ye . Khil'chenko , " Conditioned Reflexes to a Relation , " Sb .
voprosy fiziologii AN USSR ( Anthology : Problems of Physiology ,
Academy of Sciences Ukrainian SSR ) , No. 9 , Publishing House of
Academy of Sciences Ukrainian SSR , Kiev , 1954 .
307 . A. Ye . Khil'chenko , Issledovaniye vysshey nervnoy deyatel'nosti
shimpanze (Research on the Higher Neural Activity of Anthro
poids ( Chimpanzee ) ) , Author's Abstract of his Doctoral Dis
sertation , Kiev , 1955 .
308 . B. I. Khotin , " The Genesis of Imitation in Animals, " Works of
the Brain Institute imeni V. M. Bekhterev , Vol . XV , Leningrad ,
1947 .
309 . B. I. Khotin , " The Phyloontogenesis of Imitation in Vertebrate
Animals , " Works of the Brain Institute imeni V. M. Bekhterev ,
Vol . XVIII , Leningrad , 1947 .
309a . K. P. Tsvetkova , " New Researches in the Behavior of Worker Bees , "
Trudy instituta pchelovodstva (Works of the Institute of Api
culture ) , State Agricultural Publishing House , Moscow , 1955 .
310 . M. Tsereteli , " A Study of Imitation in Dogs ," Trudy TGU (Works
of Tbilisi State University ) , Vol . XII , 1940 .
311 . N. Chichinadze , " The Origin and Development of Neural Activity
in the Chick Embryo ," Works of Tbilisi State University , Vol .
XXVI - a , 1944 .
312 . V. V. Chernomordikov , " Conditioned Inhibition in Tortoises, "
Works of the Institute of Physiology imeni I. P. Pavlov , Vol.
II , Publishing House of Academy of Sciences USSR , Moscow
Leningrad , 1953 .
313 . N. V. Chrelashvili , K voprosu o sushchnosti tak nazyvayemykh
otsrochennykh reaktsiy ( The Essence of the so - called Delayed
Reactions ) , Author's Abstract of his Candidate's Dissertation ,
Institute of Psychology , Academy of Sciences Georgian SSR ,
Tbilisi , 1949 .
313a . V. I. Chumak , " The Mechanism of the Reflex to the Relation of
Stimuli , " Reports and Abstracts of the 17th Conference on Higher
Neural Activity , Moscow - Leningrad , 1956 .
313b . V. I. Chumak , " Conditioned Reflexes of Fishes to the Relation
of Stimuli, " Anthology : Works of the Conference of the Ichthyo
logical Commission , Academy of Sciences USSR , No. 8 , Publishing
House of Academy of Sciences USSR , 1958 .
313c . N. G. Shapo shnikova , " The Negative Conditioned Food Reflex in
the Honey Bee , " Leningrad State University Herald , Biological
Series , Series IV , No. 21 , 1958 .
314 . B. N. Shvanvich , " New Data on Signalling in Bees , " Progress of
Modern Biology , Vol. XXIX , No. 1 , 1950 .
315 . B. N. Shvanvich , " The Mechanism of the Pollination of Red Clover
by the Honey Bee , " Doklady VASKENIL ( Reports of the A11- Union
Academy of Agricultural Sciences imeni Lenin ) , No. 8 , 1952 .
316 . N. R. Shenger - Krestovnikova , " The Differentiation of Visual
Stimuli and the Limits of Differentiation in the Optic Analyzer

- 870 -
 of the Dog , " Izvestiya Petrogradskogo nauchnogo instituta im .
P. F. Lesgafta ( Gazette of the St. Petersburg Scientific Insti
tute imeni P. F. Lesgaft ) , Vol . III , 1921 .
317 . E. I. Shereshevskiy , Na ta ska i nagonka okhotnich'ye - promyslovykh
sobak ( The Training of Hunting Dogs to Chase and Flush Game) ,
State Purchasing Publishing House , Moscow , 1949 .
318 . E. I. She re shevskiy , Nataska nagonka i pritravka promyslovykh
sobak ( Training of Hunting Dogs to Chase , Track and Flush Game ) ,
State Purchasing Publishing House , Moscow , 1952 .
318a , E. I. Shereshevskiy , " The Breeding of Hunting Dogs, " Biblioteka
nachinayushchego okhotnika (Library of the Novice Hunter ) , Fis
( Physical Culture and Sport ) , Moscow , 1957 .
319 . V. K. Shepelyayeva , " Some Functional Peculiarities of the Visual
Analyzer of the Polecat , " Reports of Academy of Sciences USSR ,
Vol . XCIII , No. 3 , 1953 .
320 . G. I. Shirkova , " Conditioned Motor Reflexes to Chains of Stimuli
in Lower Apes , " Bulletin of Experimental Biology and Medicine ,
No. 9 , 1949 .
321 . G. I. Shirkova , " Daily Fluctuations of the Conditioned -Reflex
Activity of Lower Apes , " Bulletin of Experimental Biology and
Medicine , No. 8 , 1949 .
322 . G. I. Shirkova , " Conditioned Motor Reflexes to a Simultaneous
Complex of Stimuli in Lower Apes , " Journal of Higher Neural
Activity imeni I. P. Pavlov , Vol. I , No. 5 , 1951 .
323 . G. I. Shrikova , " Alteration of Higher Neural Activity in Old Age
in Primates ( M. Rhesus ) , " Journal of Higher Neural Activity
imeni I. P. Pavlov , Vol. IV , No. 2 , 1954 .
324 . P. Yu . Shmidt , Dushevnaya zhi zn ' zhivotnykh ( The Mental Life of
Animals ) , Petrograd Publishing House , Leningrad -Moscow , 1925 .
325 . P. Yu . Shmidt, Migratsiya ryb ( The Migration of Fishes ) , Publish
ing House of Academy of Sciences USSR , 1947 .
326 . M. P. Shtodin , " Materials on the Higher Neural Activity of An
thropoid Apes ( Chimpanzee ) , " Works of the Institute of the Evo
lutional Physiology and Pathology of Higher Neural Activity
imeni I. P. Pavlov , Vol . I , Publishing House of Academy of Sci
ences USSR , 1947 .
327 . M. P. Shtodin , ' 'Materials on the Higher Neural Activity of An
thropoid Apes (Chimpanzee) , " Ibid . , 2nd Report , Publishing House
of Academy of Sciences USSR , 1947 .
328 . M. P. Shtodin , " Certain Forms of Behavior of Anthropoid Apes
( Chimpanzee ) Under Experimental Conditions, " Ibid . , Publishing
House of Academy of Sciences USSR , 1947 .
329 . M. P. Shtodin , " New Data on the Study of Higher Neural Activity
in Apes, " Ibid . , Publishing House of Academy of Sciences USSR ,
1947 .
330 . I. D. Shcherbakov , " Experience in the Directed Alteration of the
Reactions of Birds in Transference of the Nest in Connection
With the Resettling of Insectivorous Birds, " Sb . privlecheniye

- 871 -
i pereseleniye poleznykh ptits v lesonasazhdeniya ( Anthology :
Attraction and Resettling of Beneficial Birds Into Af foresta
tion Areas ) , Main Administration of Game Preserves , Moscow ,
1954 .

. 872 -
 THE WORKS OF SOVIET PSYCHOLOGISTS IN THE HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGY

M. V. Sokolov

The Marxist - Leninist teachings on the treatment of the cultural

legacy of the past obliges psychologists carefully to study and criti
cally to master the achievements of psychological ideas accumulated in
the preceding periods of the development of society . For Soviet psy
chology , as for Soviet science in general , the principle of the his
toric approach to the subject of study constitutes one of the most im
portant methodological requirements . The content and system of the
basic concepts which form theories of individual sciences cannot be
fully discovered and substantiated without an explanation of how these
concepts were formed in the course of the long and complex development
of the corresponding field of scientific knowledge .
" Understanding (perception ) , " wrote Lenin , " in existence ( in
direct phenomena ) discovers the essence ( the law of causality , identity ,
distinction , etc. ) -- such is the general course of all human percep
tion ( of all science ) in general. Such is also the course of natural
science and political economy and history / .... Extremely gratifying
is the task of tracing this more concretely and in greater detail in
the history of individual sciences ( V. I. Lenin , Works, Vol . 38 , 4th
edition , p . 314 ) .
Soviet materialist psychology did not develop in a vacuum . Con
structed on a granite foundation of the most progressive philosophy in
the world , the revolutionary philosophy of Marxism - Leninism , it has ab
sorbed all the best that was created by scientific psychological minds
in previous times . It is not a simple continuation of the preceding
history of psychology , neither is it fenced off by a blank wall from
the work of thinkers and scientists of previous generations . In a new
fashion , solving the basic problems of science according to Lenin , So
viet psychology is connected with the past by many of its ideas , sci
entifically established facts and techniques of research .
It would seem that this is a clear enough point ; yet recently
it was forgotten . Certain participants at the Joint Session of the
AS , USSR , and AMS , USSR , which was dedicated to the physiological
teachings of I. P. Pavlov , declared all pre - Pavlovian psychology
idealist , as if the development of science takes place in such a way
that an idealist period is supplanted by a materialistic one , and as
if it were not the case that in each historical epoch materialism car
ries on a relentless fight with idealism on the basic problems of human
knowledge .
There has already been noted in our literature / 1957 the non
Marxian character of this sort of periodization of the history of psy
chology . Its supporters closed ranks , in substance , with bourgeois
historiographers who reduce all the developments of psychology through

- 873 -
the ages to a simple substitution of one group of idealist trends for
another .
Actually , psychology like philosophy has a " solid ma
terialist tradition " ( Lenin ) . It is up to historians of this science
to trace this great tradition , reveal the valuable facts which Soviet
psychology has inherited from the past and the erroneous facts which
have been discarded , show how a revolutionary transformation of psy
chology became possible and necessary on the basis of the Leninist
theory of reflection , on the basis of the dialectical -materialist con
cept of the passage from insensate matter to the perceptible and from
sensation to thought .
Within the framework of this general task , special importance
accrues to a proper and thorough elucidation of the development of
Russian scientific psychology , connected most intimately with Russian
philosophical materialism and with the progress of our country's na
tural science . Not to mention the foreign bourgeois historiography in
which the history of Russian psychology is almost completely ignored ,
even in the works of Russian prerevolutionary historians the process
of the development of psychology in Russia was depicted in a very nar
row and one - sided way . The development of our country's psychology was
misrepresented as a succession of ideas evolved from idealist philo
sophical systems ; it was slanderously refused any status as an inde
pendent and original science and depicted in every possible way as be
ing distinctively " dependent on Western philosophical and psychological
trends" ( Verzhbolovich ) . Bourgeois falsification of the history of
Russian psychology continued to the beginning of the 1920's ( Radlov ,
Shpet ) , when Soviet psychology was already making its first steps .
It was essential to reconstruct the actual course of develop
ment of progressive Russian psychology , built in a continuous and re
lentless battle between materialism and idealism on the problem of the
essence of psychic phenomena . It was also essential to show that sci
entific psychology in Russia was not separated from the broad road of
development of psychological thought ; that Russian psychologists , while
creatively assimilating the achievements of West European science , at
the same time introduced their contribution into the world treasury of
psychological knowledge .
The first serious attempt to explain the process of the develop
ment of Russian psychology from the Marxist standpoint was made by
B. G. Anan'yev . The task of creating a scientific history of our coun
try's psychology was formulated by him in_1938 / 6_7. _In the following
years he published a series of articles 17, 10, 11 , 137, which confirmed
the progressive character of the Russian psychological thought of the
past . But it was not until 1947 that his nationally well -known book
" An Outline of_the History of Russian Psychology of the 18th and 19th
Centuries" / 14/ was published . This book gives a summary of the de
velopment of psychology in our country over a long historical period .
The author included many names and pertinent facts which had not been
presented in previous works on the subject These facts enabled Anan'yev

. 874 -
to refute the lie about the " backwardness" of our nation's psychology
and show that Russian psychologists have influenced certain eminent
representatives of foreign psychological science .
Independently of Anan'yev, analogous attempts were made by B. L.
Berkovich 1497 , but , unfortunately , his work on the history of Russian
psychology in the 18th and first half of the 19th centuries was not de
veloped further .
Anan'yev's book is still only a short and unavoidably super
ficial review of the most important trends of psychology in Russia
during the 18th and 19th centuries . It contains many loose_and even
erroneous features . In its time the journal Bolshevik 14051 pointed
out Anan'yev's exaggerated evaluation of certain psychologists of the
prerevolutionary period , his " objectivistic " explanation of certain
historical facts of bourgeois psychology . These inadequacies were
pointed out in a discussion of the " Outline " /1191 .
However , Anan'yev's book played a definitely positive role in
that it incited Soviet psychologists to elaborate the history of their
science , revealed the cardinal scientific and social significance of
this problem , and paved the way for its solution . But the work that
was begun had to be continued , painstaking and more thorough research
had to be carried out on the history of psychology , which in the final
analysis would have made it possible to supplement Anan'yev's draft
outline with more concrete data and correct its historically unjusti
fied evaluations and parallels .
This direction was taken by the subsequent efforts of Soviet
psychologists. In the years following the publication of Anan'yev's
" Outline, " numerous writings were published devoted to individual rep.
resentatives of Russian psychological thought of the period which was
touched upon in his book .

Much attention of Soviet researchers was drawn to the 18th cen

tury which was noted in the history of science for the fact that Rus
sian psychology not yet separated from philosophy as an independent
discipline -- made its first big strides .
Proceeding in chronological order , we must first of all dwell
on the outstanding educator of the first half of the century , V. N.
Tatishchev ( 1686-1750 ) . His psychological views are considered in an
article by P. R. Chamata / 396 / .
Tatishchev developed the idea that individual thought is based
on the experience and knowledge of other people , which are absorbed
through language and literature . He called for a thorough study of
the properties of human nature and gave the psychological character
istics of individual age - groups . He made the first attempts to bring
together psychological knowledge and the practical tasks of life , the
tasks of education and training .

• 875 -
 The materialist trend of Russian psychology of that time is in
extricably connected with the name of M. V. Lomonosov ( 1711-1765 ) as
the founder of the Russian philosophical materialism of the 18th cen
tury . The rich psychological content of his numerous works was the
subject of an analysis in G. S. Kostyuk's article / 175 / . To the same
subject was devoted an extensive research conducted by G. Boryagin 1577 .
Lomonosov gave a materialistic interpretation of the essence of
sensations , explaining them as the product of physical and physiologi
cal processes that take place on the basis of the mechanical laws of
combination of particles . He was cognizant of a number of regulari
ties of visual perception ( the fact of adaptation , the idea of the ex
pression of the visual threshold through the angle of vision , etc. ) .
He worked out the tri - component theory of color sensation , which ex
erted an influence on the subsequent development of the psychophysi
ology of vision . Fighting for the unity of empirical and rational
cognition , Lomono sov characterized the cognitive process as a complex
process of the movement of thought from appearance to essence . He in
terpreted " ideas, " or concepts , as the reflection in our consciousness
of the connections and relationships of objects of the real world , and
expressed a number of valuable ideas on the psychological nature of
speech , of its many - sided ties with the thinking and emotional- voli
tional sphere . He confirmed the concept of " passion " and other mental
phenomena as " vital properties" of man , which are formed under the in
fluence of living and work conditions . In Lomono sov's " paradoxes" on
passions and the rules for satisfying the passions , expression was
given to the problem of the internal motivations of human action ,
which in the subsequent development of Russian psychology figured as
one of the basic psychological problems.
Ya . P. Kozel'skiy ( circa 1728-1754 ) followed Lomono sov's line
in solving a number of psychological problems.
Kozel'skiy opposed Wolf's speculative psychology with its dis
cussions of " spiritual substance , " and considered exercises in activity
the main condition for the formation of intellectual and moral quali -
ties in man . Sensations are determined by objects and therefore as
sume for us a " coercive character . Like Lomonosov , Kozel'skiy de
fended the position of the unity of sensation and reason , thinking and
language , in the process of perception .
An analysis of his psychological ideas is given in an article
by D. F. Nikolenko / 254 / .
Psychological problems interested many eminent workers of the
Moscow University which was founded in 1755 . The seeds sown by the
university's founder , M. V. Lomonosov , as founder of progressive psycho
logical theory , here yielded an abundant harvest . The progressive
psychological ideas of the professors of the Moscow University in the
18th century are presented in the works of R. G. Gurova /102, 103 , 1047,
and A. V. Petrovskiy (271/ .
A kinship in thought with Lomonosov is revealed , for example ,
in the works of Professor D. S. Anichkov ( 1733-1788 ) , eminent repre
sentative of free thinking in the 1760's and 1770's . While not a

- 876 -
consistent materialist , he nevertheless asserted the dependence of the
" soul " on the state of the organism and expressed the opinion that all
cognitive activity of man is realized " by means of the brain " and the
" fine veins that reach up to it , " i.e. , the nerves . This idea acquired
more concrete form in the works of the professors of physiology F. F.
Keresturi ( 1735-1811 ) and M. I. Skiadana ( died 1802 ) . The former made
an innovatory attempt to trace the development of sensations in phylo
genesis ; he also demonstrated the existence of various conduction paths
for sensory and motor stimuli . The latter , acknowledging the nervous
system as the regula tor of the life of the " soul, " was the first person
in the history of the science correctly to indicate the cerebral cortex
as the organ of the higher psychic processes . Professor A. A. Antonskiy
developed the theory that the human psychic life of the individual is
formed in the process of his life and activity under the influence of
his natural and social environments .
An important role in the development of our native psychology
was played by the work of a remarkable representative of the Russian
Enlightenment in the second half of the 18th century , N. I. Novikov
( 1744-1818 ) . The journals which were published and edited by him
served as a nursery of psychological knowledge in Russian society . In
his own works Novikov , for all the concessive character of his philo
sophical position , expressed serious doubts about the accuracy of the
idealist conception of the psychic life . He based his pedagogic sys
tem on data of psychology believing that an educator should be mindful
of the psychological peculiarities of the students , " he should look
into the capacity of their souls and the properties of their hearts . "
These problems are discussed in the works of T. V. Kosma / 161 /
and N. P. Lin'kova (211) .
Many advanced ideas were contained in the psychological views
of G. S. Skovoroda ( 1722-1794 ) . These views have been systematically
presented and analyzed in the work of G. S. Kostyuk / 1747 .
Rejecting the existence of inherent ideas , Skovoroda saw the
source of all knowledge in the surrounding world and pointed out the
need of transition from the contemplation of phenomena to the dis
covery of their essence . In addition , he stressed the importance of
man's search for truth . Sensations depend on man's activity and are
formed in the course of satisfying his needs . Volitional acts are
conditioned by necessity which affects man's life and all nature .
Russian psychology reached the peak of its development in the
18th century in the works of A. N. Radishchev ( 1749-1802 ) . From the
standpoint of the progressive physiology of that era , Radishchev exam
ined the " soul" ( psychic phenomena ) as a property , the " production " of
the brain . In his philosophical generalization of a number of conclu
sions of contemporary natural science , he demonstrated the fallacy of
preformi sm and the groundlessness of the various theories on " immor
tality of the soul. " He also developed diverse argumentation in de
fense of the idea of " co -dying " of the soul with the body . Recognizing
the " likeness" between man and animal, he at the same time pointed out

877 -
the profound distinction of man from other living beings ( upright posi
tion , role of the hands , articulate speech , intellectual level ) . How
ever , he did not understand the socio - historical conditioning of human
consciousness . Radishchev underlined the sensory basis of thought , but
rejected Helvetius ' views identifying thinking with sensations . In
speech , he saw a condition that exerted a decisive influence on the de
velopment of man . Highly progressive was his theory on " co - participa
tion " as the result of the spiritual kinship of human beings and the
basis of higher human feelings .
A more complete analysis of his psychological views and his
place in the history of Russian materialist psychology are given in
the researches of A. V. Petrovskiy 1270 , 2737, the articles of G. S.
Kostyuk / 173 / , and I. A. Derevtsov /111/ . The psychological views of
Lomonosov and_Radi shchev are also examined in an article by B. G.
Anan'yev 1 7_1.
3

The general status and character of the development of our na

tive psychology under the complex political conditions of the first
half of the 19th century are described in the works of_A._M . Vul'fo
vich 1697 , S. Yu . Novomiskaya (2571 and P. M. Pelekh [ 2641.
Natural- philosophical idealism represented a special trend in
psychology during that period . Its spokesmen in Russia included D. M.
Vellanskiy , V. F. Odoyevskiy , A. I. Galich .
The greatest attention of Soviet researchers ( Rubinshteyn ,
Anan'yev ) has been attracted by Galich , teacher of Pushkin at the
Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum , later professor at the Pedagogic Institute and
University in St. Petersburg . An analysis of Galich's psychological
views has been given in a special work by A. D. Kolbin /1551 . Some
material_on this topic is included also in an article by N. S. Gordi
enko /93 / .
It is difficult to agree with the first of these authors when
he rejects entirely the long established view of Galich as a follower
of Schelling . But there remains the undoubted fact that there were
present in Galich's psychological system individual profound and orig
inal ideas characterizing him in certain respects as a progressive
scholar of his time . His idea on the phasic nature of man's percep
tion deserves mention . Sensory , " constrained , " perception , serving as
the basis of " free" perception or theoretic activity of the spirit ,
emerges first of all in the form of sensory perception and then in the
form of sensory representations and imagination . " Free" perception ,
in turn , changes in conformity with the stages of man's mental devel
opment . The transition from " constrained " to " free" perception is
" semi -thought , " i.e. , " opinion " and " plausible conjectures" (hypothe
ses ) . Memory is just as inseparable from thought as from sensory rep
resentations . Man's spiritual development is manifested most com
pletely in his moral feelings and actions . The internal conditions of

- 878
practical activity include motivations , inclinations , habits , and pas
sions . In these positions of Galich's, expression was given to a char
acteristic feature of Russian psychology -- the " motivational -dynamic
trend " ( B. G. Anan'yev ) .
Comprising a special group are the psychological works of the
first half of the 19th century . The authors , proceeding from Wolf's
division of psychology into empirical and rational , give preference to
empirical , " experimental, " psychology ; they attempt to construct a sys
tem of psychological data accessible to " experimental knowledge " and
not only " mental vision . " These authors take a negative view of meta
physics , although they cannot always avoid it in their constructions .
Works of this kind may be exemplified by a book_published_in
1815 , " A Short Handbook of Experimental Soul - Science /Psychology , "
by a master of Khar'kov University P. M. Lyubovskiy ( dates of birth
and death unknown ) . This book was analyzed by A. V. Petrovskiy 12727.
P. M. Lyubovskiy undertook the task of creating a national text
book of psychology which was intended to replace the numerous translated
texts on psychology ( Snell , Kampe, Jakob , Baumeister , Brnesti , etc. )
based on the religious dogma of the spirituality and immortality of the
soul , which were widespread even in the second half of the 18th century .
Lyubovskiy himself appeared to be idealist in taking as point of de
parture abstract philosophical postulates , and approaches materialism
when he bases himself on facts of vital reality obtained in particular
from pedagogic practice . Believing that " sensitivity " gives rise to a
" more or less accurate image of that object which caused an impression , "
he attempted to give the physiological characteristics of various sen
sations . In connection with audítory sensations , he presented a number
of ideas which anticipated in general outline Helmholtz ' theory on the
resonance of sound . Lyubovskiy was one of the first Russian psycholo
gists to advance the law of associations ( "association of ideas" ) in
explaining the principle of mechanical and logical memory and other
mental processes . Great interest was evoked by his ideas on the nature
of thought and the role of language as the infinite " perfectibility
of the intellect . In his study of human " inclinations," dividing them
into "mental" and " corporeal, " Lyubovskiy placed special emphasis on
" love of one's country" and " aspiration for work , " for activity . By
corporeal inclinations he understood temperament , interpreting tempera
ments as bodily predispositions obtained from nature and changing under
the influence of living conditions .
The ideological influence of the great Russian thinkers of the
18th century was also reflected in the views of P. D. Lodiy ( 1764-1829 ) ,
professor at the Pedagogic Institute and University in St. Petersburg
and author of " Lectures in Logic " -- a voluminous work containing a
course on psychology , published in 1815 . Lodiy's_psychological views
were examined in an article by G. S. Kostyuk / 176 / .
In solving the problem of the relationship of the psyche to the
organi sm , Lodiy took the dualistic standpoint . But he boldly opposed
Kant's subjectivism and agnosticism , the very essence of " Kant's

. 879 -
philosophical system ." Noting the ground lessness of Kant's attempts
to explain the universality of the judgments of the a priori cognitive
faculties of man , Lodiy opined that not only sensory but also intellec
tual perception is the reflection of objectively existing things, that
we form concepts of the general signs of single things by means of their
comparison , abstraction , and generalization . Like Lyubovskiy , Lodiy
considers the " natural laws " of the connection of concepts as being the
association of ideas , based on the coexistence and succession of ob
jects and phenomena , as well as their causal dependence , integral rela
tionship , etc. Lodiy devoted much attention to the role of language
in man's knowledge of his surroundings , stressing the existence of the
" closest tie " between perception and speech , and was the first in Rus
sian psychological literature to point out the fact of the use of speech
even when we think to ourselves . He is also credited with the ideas
of the dependence of differences in the intellects of individuals on
social conditions in life , of the leading role of the mastering of sci
ences in the development of children's capabilities, etc.
An important contribution to the substantiation of the scientific
concept of mental activity was made in the first half of the 19th cen
tury by the following eminent physiological scholars, professors at
Moscow University : Ye . 0. Mukhin ( 1766-1850 ) , I. Ye . Dyad ' kovskiy
( 1784-1841 ) and A. M. Filomafitskiy ( 1807-1849 ) . These bold protago
nists of materialist ideas in the study of man tried not to limit the
natural - scientific explanation by the confines of organic life alone ,
but to extend it to a " restricted " area such as 'human mental activity .
The significance of their scientific activity for the development of
materialist psychology in Russia was revealed by Ye . A. Shumilinyy
14231. The complex arrangement of ideas in which this activity took
place was well depicted in an article by Yu . I. Solov'yev and N. N.
Ushakova ( 351 ) .
Having pointed to the complete fruitlessness of the attempts of
" naturfilosofen " / " natural philosophers " / to study nature and man on
the basis of speculative constructions covered with a " thick gloom of
reverie, " Mukhin declared that " experiences and observations are es
sentially the best guides in the search for scientific truth . " Pro
ceeding from the need to construct science on a strictly factual
basis , he took a pointedly negative stand against the phrenological
ideas which attracted many of his contemporaries and categorically re
jected the idea that human behavior was determined by inherited anato
mic peculiarities which were an indicative fatal predeterminant of an
individual's fate . In Mukhin's works the idea was taking shape of the
supreme role of the nervous system in the vital activity of the or
gani sm . He saw the basic physiological function of the nervous system
as the conduction of stimulation . His study of " stimuli " that act on
the brain clearly brings out the close tie between organism and en
vironment and recognizes the causal dependence of mental phenomena .
Mukhin was the first to indicate the phenomenon of inhibition in the
nervous system as non - conduction of the nerve " fibers" in the event of

• 880 -
" excessive stimulation . " An important place in Mukhin's physiological
theory is held by the concept of association as a material process based
an anatomico - physiological connection of the neural paths. He estab
li shed a number of important regularities that characterize the process
of sensation .
The characteristic peculiarity of Dyad 'kovskiy's theories is his
sharp rejection of any kind of animistic idea regarding man , including
vitali sm , the metaphysical conception of the faculties in Wolf's psy
chology , Shelling's transcendentalism , etc. Dyad ' kovskiy voiced
thoughts which contained in embryo the idea of the transformation of
non - sensing matter into sensing . Having already assumed the existence
in the inorganic world of a capacity which has something in common with
sensation , he believed that at a higher level of development matter ac
quires a new property -- irritability . The more complex the nervous
system the more perfect the forms of sensitivity . He recognized the
reflexive function of the nervous system , underlining the fact that
afferent and efferent processes form a single act . Whereas pre
Sechenovian physiology recognized reflexes only as those organic ac
tions which were connected with the spinal cord , Dyad 'kovskiy main
tained that not only involuntary but also voluntary reactions were
communicated to the brain . His innovating was also seen in his sharp
The common substrate of all mental capacities he
antifunctiona li sm .
considered the anterior portion of the brain . The very idea that men
tal phenomena could be analyzed apart from cerebral function was " false "
and "wild . "
Antivitalism also characterizes the views of A. M. Filomafit
skiy . Together with his co - workers at the Moscow University , he saw
the nervous system as an organ which integrates the organism and as
sures its communication with the external world . It was Filomafitskiy
who introduced the term " reflected movements , " which agrees in meaning
with " reflex actions. " Recognizing the contribution of I. Müller and
M. Kohl in developing the reflex theory , he nevertheless opposed them
on many pertinent problems . In distinction to Müller , he considered
expressive movements reflex actions . On the contrary , in the dispute
between Müller and Kohl on the integrating function of the brain he
took Müller's viewpoint , noting the generalized character of an or
ganism's reactions . Filomatovskiy's experiments with frogs led him to
believe that the brain can exert an inhibiting effect on the reflex ac
tivity of the spinal cord . He presented a new conception of the nature
of voluntary actions , advancing the remarkable idea that " every volun
tary action is reflective . "
All these facts have primary importance for the understanding
of the developmental history of the reflex theory in Russia and depict
the above -mentioned natural scientists particularly Filomafitskiy --
as the Russian predecessors of I. M. Sechenov .
It follows from the above that an essential role was played by
scientists of Moscow University in the development of our national psy
chology during the second half of the 18th to the first half of the 19th

. 881
centuries . A review of the successes of psychological minds in the
first hundred years of the existence of Russia's oldest university is
given in an article by M. V. Sokolov / 3421 . The general status of
psychology during the first decades of the 19th century is examined
by P. M. Pelekh ( 264 /.
4

An important place in the works of Soviet historians of psy

chology was held by the rich psychological legacy of the classics of
Russian philosophical materialism in the 19th century , contributed by
V. G. Belinskiy , A. I. Gertsen , N. G. Chernyshevskiy , and N. A. Do
brolyubov . The voluminous psychological - historical literature on this
subject pursues one common purpose -- to show the decisive significance
of the psychological opinions held by great revolutionary democrats in
the second half of the past century for the development of progressive
psychology .
The psychological views of V. G. Belinskiy ( 1811-1848 ) are
examined in a number of_works . The most_complete analyses were made
by G. Kostyuk (169 , 1771 , B. M. Teplov 1373/ , and M. B. Zarkya /131 ,
1321 .
The psychic life is inseparable from its material substrate ,
thought is inseparable from the brain , but mental function must be
distinguished from the physiological -- this was Belinskiy's convic
tion at the height of his creativity . The unanimous impression of the
given authors was that Belinskiy's central psychological concept was
personality . Reason , sensation , and volition apart from personality
constitute only " logical abstraction . " The forming of personality is
not some process of imminent development : it is determined by " cir
cumstances " and upbringing . The thesis of the social nature of per
sonality is one of the most important in his psychological system .
Toward the end of his life he ascended to the concept of class psy
chology , giving in an exceptionally irate vein a characterization of
the psychology of the capitalist . The world of feelings and passions
constitutes the source of every vital , fruitful action of the indi
vidual . Belinskiy noted the complexity and the inner conflict of
human feelings , the possibility of integrating the experiences of
conflicting emotional qualities . One of Belinskiy's major contribu
tions in elaborating psychological problems is considered to be his
profound formulation of the cognitive significance of the senses , of
the unity of reason and emotions in the process of perception . The wi11
depends on what the individual lives with , what he strives for , his
convictions , and character . When constant conflicts occur between the
inclinations of the heart and the sense of duty , man realizes that he
is in harmony with himself only if his actions and behavior conform to
his principles and convictions .
G. S. Kostyuk dwells on Belinskiy's ideas on the psychology of
creative activity .

• 882 -
 Belinskiy considered the creative process a conscious , purpose
ful human activity . Creative success requires talent ; however , the
manifestation of talent requires a rational, valuable content . The
source of this content is life itself . But in order to be true to
life , it is necessary to know it . Ignorance paralyzes talent . Ar
tistic creativity presupposes a gift for observation . Together with
this , every artistic work is the product of powerful thought . Poetic
creation always reveals the author's attitude to life as he portrays
it . The poet's personality appears through all his creative works.
The works of V. V. Mironenko /240 , 241 , 242 / are devoted espe
cially to the psychological problems of personality in Belinskiy's
studies . These works add little to the information presented above as
far as explaining Belinskiy's principal position on basic psychological
problems is concerned , but they attract attention to aspects of his
concepts which other researchers have barely touched upon . In par
ticular , Mironenko described in detail how Belinskiy solved the prob
lems of temperament and character . A happy choice is made of Belin
skiy's statements analyzing the pivotal , the most essential , proper
ties of character which determine man's general physiognomy and be
havior . Belinskiy emerges as the creator of a concordant theory of
the individual and the typical in character . Mironenko also examines
Belinskiy's concept of talent . The author dwells mainly on the demands
on the talented individual, as presented by Belinskiy , and on his ideas
regarding different degrees of talent .
Let us proceed to A. I. Gertsen ( 1812-1870 ) . The principal re
searchers of his rich psychological legacy were Teplov 1370 , 375 ) , and
G. S. Kostyuk /165 , 1787. A. V. Cherkov's work 1404 / contains supple
mentary material for an understanding of Gertsen's views on problems
of psychological development.
These authors underline the significance of Gertsen's decisive
rejection of dualism of the body and mind . His initial thesis of
materialist moni sm recognizes the reality of the psychic as a quali
tatively peculiar property of a living being , which cannot be reduced
to its other properties . Hence Gertsen recognizes the independence of
psychology as a science which cannot be separated from physiology , but
cannot be reduced to physiology either . A remarkable debater , Gertsen
introduced into psychology the genetic and -- which is most important
the historical viewpoint . Of special importance for the development
of psychological thought was the task he presented that of under
standing human personality as the " product of physiological necessity
and histórical necessity . " In solving the problem of freedom of the
will -- one of the acute problems of Russian psychology in the 1860's
to the 1880's Gertsen took a firm stand on scientific determini sm .
Man's actions are causally conditioned ; however , there are differences
between voluntary action and involuntary physiological functions . The
concept of action is for Gertsen the central psychological concept .
He understood the principal mental capacities first of all as motive
forces of human actions . On this plane , Gertsen also examined the

- 883 -
problem (which had so attracted his attention ) of reason and emotion
these two great motivators of our behavior . He proved the unity of
emotion and reason in the motivation of human actions . Equally , Gertsen
did not permit the splitting of the single and integral process of
perception into individual independent processes . There cannot be
" pure thought " independent of sensations , just as there cannot be " pure
contemplation " free from the element of thought . Nor is there any an
tagonism between the thought and the word , nor between thought and ac
tion , the theoretical and practical activity of man . The positions
which Gertsen maintained in psychology are far removed both from ideal
i sm and from mechanistic materialism .
A great contribution in the development of Russian psychology
was made by N. G. Chernyshevskiy ( 1828-1889 ) . Lenin's words on Cher
nyshevskiy's " pure philosophical materialism " may be applied with per
fect justice to his profoundly thought -out psychological conception
which had a direct influence on the theoretical train of ideas in the
activity of I. M. Sechenov and his followers .
Chernyshevskiy's philosophico - psychological ideas are quite equal
in importance to that attached to them by Anan'yev /14/ in his " Out
lines. " An extensive evaluation of Chernyshevskiy's role in the devel
opment of materialist psychology is given in_the works of B. P. Ak sov
137, I. V. Strakhov ( 3627, A. K. Zakuyey / 1267, M. A. Mazmanyan 12217,
T. Ye . Galushko 1731 , L. T. Lyushina / 2161 , P. M. Pelekh [ 2651 . There
are also works by N. A. Dement'yeva , T. Ye . Galushko , and V. V. Sheulin ,
which are devoted to individual aspects of Chernyshevskiy's psychologi
cal system : his views on problems of general psychology / 1091 , the
psychology_of_cognitive processes /76 , 4191 , _the psychology of per
sonality /1107 , the psychology_of emotions 1721 , the psychology of a
writer's creative activity 7747.
The well - known philosophical controversy of the 1860's inevitably
gave rise to a sharp conflict in questions of psychology as well .
Chernyshevskiy led the school of revolutionary democracy in the fight
for a materialist psychology against the united front of idealists and
obscurants Katkov , Lavrov , Yurkevich , Gogotskiy , etc. Soviet au
thors underline Chernyshevskiy's idea that the most essential point in
the scientific development of psychology is the affirmation in it of
the principle of causality , the recognition of the fact that man's
mental life is subordinated to objective laws and depends on " external
circumstances . ' Scientific psychology is for him a field directly com
bining philosophy with natural science and using " methods similar to
those used in elaborating the natural sciences .
Sarcastically describing the scientist who contents himself with
" trite illusionism ," Chernyshevskiy insisted that sensations are " true
knowledge of objectively existing objects . " He defined thought as a
complex integrating process of mediated reflection in man's conscious
ness of the most common regularities of the external world .
process is active in character . Man's activity finds expression
through thinking , whereby he alters nature according to his " vital

884 -
needs ," and thus , theoretical and practical activity serve as " recipro
cal supplementation . " Chernyshevskiy clearly pointed out that the feel
ings are a peculiar form of the reflection of reality . He developed a
materialist theory on esthetic emotions , disclosing their class peculi
arities and close tie with the practical needs in life . Paramount im
portance was attached to the problem of needs in Chernyshevskiy's psy
chological theory . He showed that the leading role in man's develop
ment was played by needs which were created by the life of the organism
and its material relationships to the environment .
Chernyshevskiy's works considerably enriched the psychology of
artistic creativity . Contrary to idealist theories, he saw in the cre
ative process not some mysterious and unconscious activity , but a
clearly perceived and purposeful activity , the success of which is de
termined by how its results serve society . Creativity is stubborn and
strenuous work , where the solution of a creative task is preceded by
complex preparatory work .
We may thus sum up the principal results of the numerous re
searches in which Chernyshevskiy's views were examined .
Psychological problems were also widely reflected in the works
of N. A. Dobrolyubov ( 1836-1861 ) . His works have been analyzed from
this viewpoint_in_L. I. Vasil'yeva's thesis 4671 and in articles by
Ye . I. Legkov ( 2057 and E. L. Berkovich (517.
Bringing out the materialistic concept of human psychic activity ,
Dobrolyubov examined psychic processes as " impressions obtained from
objects in the external world . " He also had no doubt that all the di
versity of these processes represents the product of the activity of
the " cerebral hemispheres . " However , he believed that man's mental
development was determined not so much by biological as by historical
factors . All the mental qualities of the individual are of an acquired
character ; they are formed in the process of man's life and activity ,
in the process of learning and upbringing . Pointing to the close tie
between man's intellectual development and the historical development
of the peoples, Dobrolyubov defended both the unity of the emotional
and intellectual factors in cognition and the unity of thought and
speech . Sensations, representing the expression of a distinct rela
tionship of man to phenomena perceived by him in his surroundings , are
inseparable from perceptual processes . Dobro lyubov underlined the ac
tive nature of man's sensations , their capacity to emerge as the motive
for activity . In explaining willing and volitional processes , he main
tained the position of determini sm . The consistent application of the
materialist principle of determinism by this fine thinker has invari
ably been underlined by every researcher of his psychological creative
work .
Soviet historians of psychology give characteristics of the
views not only of individual representatives of Russian philosophical
materialism of the 19th century , but they also subject their psycho
logical views to a comparative study usually within the framework
of one or another definite problem . This permits a broader outline of

. 885 -
the position held by the revolutionary democrats , from which they ap
proach the solution of the most important psychological problems.
From among these works we shall mention first of all the thesis
of P. P. Zimin / 1347, which examines the psychological theories of
Belinskiy , Gertsen , Chernyshevskiy , and Dobrolyubov.
On the basis of an analysis of materialist moni sm which consti
tutes the determining feature of the world outlook of revolutionary
democrats , P. P. Zimin systematically presents their views on the es
sence of thought . He devotes much attention to the development of
problems in the legacy of Russian materialist philosophers, which
have special significance for the understanding of the sources of
man's thinking activity . Among these problems he classes the problem
of the integrity of the organism and the problem of needs . He also
makes a detailed analysis of the revolutionary democratic thesis that
thinking , as the highest form of the reflection of reality , develops
in unison with all the mental processes and is formed on the basis of
speech . The author gives special attention to their views on thought
as a complex psychic activity , consisting of a number of different op
erations and taking place in definite forms.
In_this group of researches we should include M. A. Mazmanyan's
article 2191 on the interrelationship of thought and speech in the
works of Russian materialists, analyzing in particular the views of
Belinskiy , Gertsen , and Chernyshevskiy on this problem ; P. I. Raz
myslov's work ( 302 / on psychic development in the works of revolu
tionary democrats ; and Ye . I. Stepanova's thesis 1353/ which estab
lishes the unanimity of opinion of the materialist philosophers of
the 19th century on the deterministic notion of the will .
The great similarity of the views of the leaders of the revolu
tionary democratic movement in the 1860's (Chernyshevskiy and Dobrol
yubov ) prompted researchers to examine their psychological theories
( more correctly , certain aspects of these theories ) as an integral
whole . Thus, L. I. Mari sova 229 , 230 / examined the joint contribu
tion of both great materialists to the development of the materialist
theory of character, and V. 2. Smirnov / 335 / attempted to bring out
the new ideas they introduced in solving the problem of the all - round
development of personality .
The first of these authors introduced the idea that having sur
mounted to a certain degree the narrowness of anthropological material
ism , Chernyshevskiy and Dobrolyubov gradually progressed from the defi
nition of personality as man in general to the concept of personality
as a concrete representative of a definite society . In connection with
this , they proved the possibility of objectively studying the laws of
its formation and development . V. Z. Smirnov showed that , from Cherny
shevskiy's and Dobrolyubov's viewpoint , man's physical and spiritual
powers and capacities are in union , and for this reason , only that
system of education is intelligently organized which ensures a har
monious , all - round development of personality .

- 886 .
 Soviet authors also contributed much toward the study of the
psychological views of other scholars among the Pleiades of the Russian
revolutionary democrats .
It was natural to turn in particular to the closest student and
companion - in -arms of Chernyshevskiy and Dobro lyubov -- M. A , Antonovich
( 1835-1918 )_-- whose lot it_was to introduce into the pages of Sov
remennika / The Contemporary / a debate with the idealists on N. G.
Chernyshevskiy's " The Anthropological Principle in Philosophy . " This
wa s_also done by L. N. Bezotosna 140 , 41 / and partly by V. K. Boyarchuk
461 / who se article illuminated Antonovich's relentless and steadfast
fight for a materialist psychology .
The authors reproduced the brilliant argument which Antonovich
used against the " arguments " of the obscurantist, Golotskiy , in favor
of the substantiality of the soul , and showed how this militant defender
of materialism backed up his demand to " extract " psychology " from the
dead hands of metaphysics " and " combine it with physiology . " The given
works make it possible to trace the important role Antonovich played
in the controversy of The Contemporary with the reactionaries Yurkevich
and Katkov on the philosophical problems of psychology in connection
with the appearance in Russian translation of Lewis ' book " The Physi
ology of Everyday Life . " Antonovich is characterized as an ardent sup
porter of the ideas of Sechenov , opportunely evaluating the great im
portance of " Reflexes of the Brain . "
A great deal of the attention on the part of Soviet researchers
in the history of psychology was attracted by the works of one of the
best representatives of revolutionary democracy in Russia and an ardent
fighter for materialism against idealism in the 1860's -- D. I. Pisarev
( 1840-1868 ) . A many- sided analysis of his viewpoints on the most im
portant_psychological problems is presented in the works of L._P . Shev
tsova 14111 , L. V. Kalashnikova / 1491 , and E. L. Berkovich / 507 . These
works do not concur entirely in evaluating Pisarev's psychological
legacy (Berkovich brought out , more than the other authors , the weak
aspects of his world outlook , his deviations from the " integral philo
sophical materialism " of Chernyshevskiy ) , but they all depict him as
an upholder of the Russian tradition with respect to the materialist
concept of the essence of the psychic .
Considering the material substrate of the psychic life the
" subtle " matter of the brain , Pisarev maintained it was impossible to
study mental phenomena without knowing the physiological processes
taking place in the brain . His indisputable service is his criticism
of the method of introspection and his objective approach to the study
of mental activity . Like Chernyshevskiy , Pisarev recognized the lead
ing principle of psychology as that of the unity of the environment and
the organism together with the laws of development . He expressed belief
in the power of human consciousness which is capable not only of per
ceiving the laws of nature , but also of reorganizing and directing them
toward man's interests . Pisarev indicated the complexity and contra
diction of the cognitive process , made dialectical deductions regarding

- 887 -
language as a form of realizing thought , the unity of language and
thought, and the social functions of language . Well known is his con
tribution to scientific psychology , which he made by working out the
problem of the role of reverie and the fantasy in the cognitive and
creative activities of man . Determinism of psychic activity was also
his idea .
Expressing a materialist concept of the nature of personality ,
Pisarev defined personality as a part of nature and , at the same time,
a product of the society and environment in which the individual de
velops . He believed that work , language , and consciousness comprised
three of the cardinal conditions of the historical development of per
sonality . He greatly enriched the study of needs and interests as mo
tives of human activity . Pisarev's notable classification of prominent
people -- " titans" -- comes close to Dobrolyubov's character classifi
cation distinguishing scientists , artists , and practical types of peo
ple . Genius , according to Pisarev , presupposes along with certain
innate premises -- favorable conditions of upbringing , as well as volun
tary inurement and diligence .
Pisarev's characteristic boldness of thought distinguished it
self by his posing of the problems of the writer's creative activity .
He considered artistic creativity a rational process presupposing per
sistent , concentrated effort , without which it is impossible to develop
even a great talent .
Such is Pisarev's general psychological concept as revealed in
the given Soviet works. Individual aspects of this concept have become
for us subjects of special research . The subject of interests in
Pisarev's treatment was examined in detail ( though without sufficient
accentuation of hisassertions on the social conditioning of interests )
by M. F. Belyayev 1471. I. A. Frenkel's article 2387 / has vital im
portance for an understanding of the new ideas that Pisarev introduced
in developing child and pedagogic psychology .
Frenkel' is also the author of a work 43887 on the psychologico
pedagogic views of the prominent participant in the revolutionary demo
cratic movement in Russia N. V. Shelgunov ( 1824-1891 ) .
The author justifiably points out the importance of Shelgunov's
progressive formula , i.e. , that upbringing should ensure well - rounded
development of personality with an " integral" character , the organic
unity of high " development of thought" and "practical knowledge " -- the
combination of " practical training" with " theoretical development .
In keeping with the problems of our era is Shelgunov's idea of the
need for a many - sided study of children . Convincing attestation to
the progressive trend of his theoretical quests in the field of peda
gogic psychology are his assertions that the " inherent bases of the
soul" boil down to the strength of the nervous system , to its impres
sionability and animation of perceptions , and that these " inherent
bases" represent only a " probability" transforming into a " potency"
under the influence of concrete living conditions .

- 888 -
 It is well known that the legacy of thought of the revolutionary
democrats exerted a direct influence on the world outlook and scien
tific work of Russian natural scientists -materialists : K. A. Timir
ya zev , I. R. Tarkhanov, N. 0. Kovalevskiy , s . s . Korsakov , I. P. Pav
lov , etc. A direct development of Chernyshevskiy's materialist ideas
was the activity of the " father of Russian physiology , " I. M. Sechenov
( 1829-1905 ) , who played a revolutionary role in the field of psychology .
5

Soviet historico - critical literature treats I. M. Sechenov very

extensively . The year 1955 -- 50th anniversary of his death -- served
as a particularly important impetus for the publication of extensive
literature on the great Russian scientist .
It would be impossible to exhaust in the present review all that
has been written about Sechenov . Suffice it to mention only the most
important of these writings , those contributed mainly by psychologists
and not by representatives of allied fields .
First of all , we should refer to works that analyze and evaluate
his general conception and its significance for the subsequent devel
opment of world psychological thought . Such was V. M. Kaganov's book
(well - known among psychologists ) on Sechenov's world outlook / 148 / , in
which the first attempt was made systematically to examine the entire
aggregate of the philosophical and psychological views of this remarka
ble representative of the Russian nation . An article summarizing the
basic theses of Kaganov's book was written by the same_author which
opens the anthology of Sechenov's collected works / 147 / which were pub
lished in 1947. These works give a fairly complete analysis of Seche
nov's_philosophical and psychological legacy . Teplov's critical arti
cle / 3747 points out certain erroneous contentions in these works, which
lead toward an obliteration of the line between the materiali sm of Se
chenov and dialectical materialism .
Teplov's own viewpoint is expressed in his report [3767 dedicated
to the 50th anniversary of Sechenov's death .
He believed that Sechenov's great service was that he strove to
eliminate the gap between psychology and the physiology of the nervous
system , Sechenov's system of psychological views -- usually charac
terized as the reflex theory of mental activity was based on the
following general principles : the unity of the organism and its en
vironment ; the unity of human nature and the falseness of all forms of
dualistic representation ; and the principle of determinism , i.e. , the
strict causal conditioning of all psychic phenomena .
This theory gives rise to an entirely new formulation of the
question regarding the subject matter of psychology : the subject of
psychological study should include integral reflex actions "with their
beginnings , middles , and endings, " and not the " psychic" or " conscious"
elements torn out of them . Connected with this understanding of the
subject is Sechenov's emphasis of the active role of psychic activity ,

- 889
the need for the psychic element in the strictly determined course of
reflex actions .
It was characteristic for him to propose the elaboration of
psychology by the same objective methods used in the work of natural
history . He rejected the concept of introspection as an instrument
of perception independent of sensations . At the same time , he did not
discard what , in the common use of the word , is called self - examination .
However , he considered the data of self - examination raw material which
was subject to scientific development by the objective method , and be
lieved that ordinary self - examination was carried out without any aid
of a specific instrument of perception -- internal vision , or intro
spection .
s . L. Rubinshteyn 13157 characterized Sechenov's conception by
contrasting it with Wundt's conception .
Sechenov and Wundt outlined their programs for the construction
of psychological science at approximately the same time . Wundt based
himself on the Helmholtz theory of the function of the sense organs
the peripheral and receptory theory . On the basis of Helmholtz's
physiology , implementing the dualistic position of Kant's philosophy,
Wundt formulated the principles of idealist experimental psychology .
His experiment was constructed on the contention of a parallel course
of psychic and physical processes , on the opposition of perception and
apperception and of " lower" and " higher " mental processes in general .
The receptor theory of the function of the senses is , according
to Rubinshteyn , in opposition to the reflex theory of cerebral function .
The reflex principle , which prior to that time was applied only to the
lower levels of the nervous system , was extended by Sechenov to the
cerebrum . This led to a consideration of all psychic activity as re
flex activity of the brain . Sechenov's importance as an innovator is
also seen in his reflex conception of the psychic according to which :
1 ) the general pattern of a mental process is the same as for any re
flex act ; 2 ) psychic activity constitutes an " integral part " of a
single reflex action of the brain . Mental phenomena , according to
Sechenov, cannot be separated from objective reality or from the re
flex activity of the brain .
His innovations in solving problems which were po sed prior to
his time by the entire course of the development of psychology are re
vealed in an article by G , S. Kostyuk / 179 / . The fact is underlined
that in Sechenov's teaching , mental activity emerges not as an epi
phenomenon , but as a real , vital factor regulating the organism's
activity . He was the first in the history of psychology to formulate
the thesis that all human cognitive activity is , in essence , an ana
lytico - synthetic activity . The reflex theory of psychic activity en
abled this great scholar to raise the materialist concept of the prin
ciple of associations to a new level and to explain them as a universal
phenomenon in man's mental activity . A number of other questions of
psychology also received a new treatment in the works of Sechenov .

- 890 -
 M. G. Yaroshevskiy (440, 442 , 4447 also evaluates the teaching
of Sechenov as a qualitatively new form of materialist psychology .
The weakness of the preceding materialist theories which correctly
maintained that the psychic life was a function of the brain lay in
their inability to give this position an adequate natural - scientific
basis because the physiology of the central nervous system had not yet
been developed . The conditioning of mental activity by material
causes was conceived in the image of physico - chemical regularities .
Mental activity was believed to be determined by intraorganic factors ,
and the brain -- the final cause of psychic phenomena was under
stood to be an autonomous and not a reflecting apparatus . Leaning upon
new biological data , Sechenov posed the problem of an entirely different
determination of the psychic . The nervous system emerged not as the
final cause , but as a link regulating the unceasing interaction of the
organism and its environmental conditions , the latter assuming the de
termining role .
Sechenov's fight against idealism in psychology is described in
the works of Ye . A. Budilov / 64 , 651 .
From the stand point of the history of psychology in Russia , these
works are interesting in that the fierce battle of ideas , which de
veloped around " Reflexes of the Cerebrum , " is presented in a great
amount of factual material. The author underlines the militant , of
fensive character of Sechenov's materialism and depicts the staggering
blow dealt by the reflex theory to its contemporary idealist trends --
psychophysical parallelism connected with the neo - Kantianism of " physi
ological" idealism , and the newly - evolved Machism . Sechenov's scien
tific activity against the background of the philosophical battle of
the 1860's was also the subject of the researches of S. Ye . Drapkina
/114 , 1161 . )
The bases of Sechenov's concept of mental activity were the sub
ject of analysis in a number of other theoretical and historical- psycho
logical researches : an early article by S. Rubinshteyn (314) , showing
that Sechenov proceeded from psychology in solving the problems of his
physiological research ; M. I. Alekeyeva's thesis / 4_ / on Sechenov's
teaching on the objective character of psychological laws ; 0. Yakhot's
article 1447 / which attempts to prove that Sechenov , in maintaining the
community of reflex and mental action , was far from the idea of identi
fying them . The determining features of Sechenov's_psychological system
are explained in the theses of S. Ye . Drapkina /115/ , A. M. Zolotareva
/ 1391 , and P. Trusov ( 382 ) , which attempt to embrace his concept of the
psychic as a whole ; and in the articles of V. Kukushkina / 1971 and
T. Sultanguzin 13671 , which are concerned primarily with his solution
of the psychophysical problem . _Finally , we should mention the philo
sophical works of M. Sverdlin 1322 , 3231 , which have a direct relation
ship to the problem of Sechenov's treatment of the nature of the psychic ,
and those works of Kh . Ko shtoyants /187 , 188 , 189 , 1901 , which concern
his fight for a materialist psychology .

- 891 -
 Many separate parts and aspects of Sechenov's reflex theory were
also studied in Soviet psychological literature .
Since the central place in the Sechenovian analysis of mental
activity is occupied by problems of the psychology of perception , it is
these problems that have attracted the greatest attention of research
ers . We will mention first of all Ye . A. Budi lova's monograph /63/
which examines Sechenov's views on sensation and thought. The broad
ness of this examination is attested to by the following list of sec
tions of the main chapters of the given book : sensation as a process
of reflection ; sensory equipment ( the analyzers ) ; the role of sensa
tion in reflex action ; species of sensation ; the forming of sensory
images ; the interdependence of sensations; development of sensory per
ception ; thinking as a process of reflection ; elementary thought proc
esses ; the role of speech in the reflex process ; thought the highest
form of reflection .
Budi lova also wrote an article elucidating the problem of the
analyzers in Sechenov's works / 62 / . The main intention of the article
is to contrast Helmholtz ' and Sechenov's theories in relation to this
problem and to show their nearness to the basic position of the Pav
lovian physiology of higher neural activity .
Sechenov's views on the psycho physiological bases of cognitive
activity are also discussed in the works of S. Drapkina /117 , 118 / .
According to her , Sechenov rejected the anatomic principle of the
study of the functions of the central nervous system , which was pre
dominant at that time , according to which sensation and motion were
separate . He established the unity of sensation and motion and the
unity and integrity of the neural process .
Sechenov's teaching on space perception was the subject of
A. Sleyshka's work /3291 . Sechenov was the first in psychology to
examine in unity the perception of space , time , motion , and objects .
He was the first to demonstrate that the mechanism of space perception
can be properly explained only on the basis of the reflex theory , and
not on that of the receptor theory . He believed that the analysis of
the spatial properties and relationships of an object was the result
of the breaking down of these complex stimuli through the medium of
muscular sensation . Space vision develops through frequent repetition
of visual -motor actions , i.e. , through experience.
Sechenov's theories on perception were the theme of Bayev's
writings 230 , 32 , 33 , 34 / . Like Budilova , he turned mainly to sensa
tion and thought , but he centered his attention on Sechenov's formula
tion of the problem of the transformation of sensations into thought .
Bayev emphasizes the importance for the materialist theory of percep
tion of the Sechenovian position that the leading role in the genera
tion of thinking activity belongs to sensory means first of all , to
movements and actions with objects of the external world . Sechenov's
idea is valued as the first scientific attempt to explain from the
psychological point of view the dialectics of the transition of the
sensory reflection of reality into abstract and generalized reflection .

- 892 -
 To this group of works should be added N. Antonov's article 123/
and the theses of 0. Davidenko / 1077 and A. Il'yin / 1447, which like
wi se examine Sechenov's views on the origin and development of thought .
Sechenov's teaching on object thought , being along with so
called " sensory -automatic " thought one of the basic intermediate
steps in the transition from sensory perception to the abstract and
generalized , is analyzed in an article by V. Timofeyeva 1379/ . This
subject is examined mainly in the light of Sechenov's view that " a
Other
reality corresponds ... to all the elements of object thought .
aspects of the problem ( the physiological basis of object thought , its
direct inclusion in activity , etc. ) are given considerably less atten
tion .
Sechenov's treatment of abstract thought is analyzed both in the
given works of Budi lova_and Bayev and , with special attention , in an
article by N. Bori sov (56) on the logical problems of perception .
Sechenov's principal views on the interrelation of_thought and
speech_are discussed by M. A. Ma zmanyan ( 2207, B. Bayev / 357, G. Shus
tove 14247, and V. Strukulenko 1366 /. According to the last named ,
Sechenov links speech with thought , standing on the position of their
complete unity . When thought is not expressed verbally , the speech
process acquires an internal character , expressed by slight movements
of the articulative apparatus . Sechenov notes the generalizing func
tion of words and examines speech as a means of communication among
human beings . The process of mastering speech represents a number of
complex associations of sensations produced by the muscles of the
speech apparatus with auditory sensations from the individual's own
sounds and visual sensations from surrounding objects and phenomena .
The researches of Soviet psychologists give fairly detailed ac
counts of Sechenov's teachings on other_mental processes as well .
In particular , F. Shemyakin 14177 showed how from Sechenov's
theory the problem of the nature of representations is solved . In
comparison with an image of a single object arising in perception and
retained in memory , a representation , according to Sechenov , is a
deeper reflection of a reality , requiring more complex analytical and
synthetic work by the brain . Sechenov saw representation as the pen
ultimate " instance of the transformations of all sensory forms. " He
believed the " instance" following it was the concept , metamorphosing
directly into extrasensory , or verbal, knowledge .
An article by I. Smoliy / 338 / examines Sechenov's theory on the
understanding of essence and the role of associations . The main thesis
of the article is that Sechenov considered associations a universal
phenomenon of the psychic activity of man and animals, which were the
product of the analytico - synthetic activity of the brain . As distinct
from representatives of traditional association psychology , he based
his concept of associations on recognition of the reflexive nature of
mental activity , seeing in them a " continuous series of contacts of the
end of the preceding reflex with the beginning of the following one . "

. 893 -
 In close connection with_the Sechenovian treatment of associa
tions , Ye . Mileryan's article 1238 / examines Sechenov's ideas on atten
tion and P. Zinchenko's article / 136 / discusses his teaching on memory .
Sechenov's views on the senses are discussed in the works of
I. Romanyuk / 308 / and P. Pelekh / 2671 . The authors hold the position
that Sechenov substantiated the theory of the reflexive , reflective na
ture of the senses ; elucidated the regularities in the origin and de
velopment of the senses as reflexes with intensified terminals; demon
strated that the senses reflect the nature of the organism's interrela
tionship with its external environment in satisfying its needs .
Sechenov's views on voluntary movements_and volitional actions
are examined_by_A. Avramenko / 2_ ) , K._Dedov / 1081 , v . Asnin 1291 ,
Ye . Legkov / 204 / , and A. Zaporozhets [ 1297. The large number of works
on this topic was induced by the fact that the greatest defeat of
idealism was effected first of all by Sechenov's reflex theory in the
area of volition which , for the longest time , had been the stronghold
of idealist philosophy and psychology . According to Sechenov , voli
tional actions arise from automatic reflex actions with which they
possess basic constituent elements in common . This attests to the ob
jective , material determinability of voluntary processes by the ac
tions of the external environment and the work of the brain . But , in
counterbalance to the mechanistic concepts which ignored the role of
the middle psychic link in the realization of volitional actions ,
Sechenov believed that they " ari se out of psychic acts . "
We should also mention a number of works which concern Seche
nov's treatment of the development of the_psychic life : A. Zolotarev
/ 140 , 141/ ; B. Bayev / 31 / ; N. Cherednik 1401, 402 , 403 / ; P. Chamata
13971 ; I. Selikhanovich (3251. The authors present Sechenov's ma
terialist response to the question of the correlation of heredity ,
environment , and training another area of bitter dispute between
materialism and idealism in psychology . The given works systematized
and generalized Sechenov's views on the development of individual
psychic processes, and examined his viewpoint on the development of
self - awareness in the child .
The characteristic feature of many of the given works is that
the authors attempted , on the one hand , to find connecting links be
tween Sechenov and the revolutionary democrats , showing him to be a
direct continuer of the materialist traditions of the past ; and on the
other hand , to lay a bridge from Sechenov to Pavlov , showing a further
development and enriching of Sechenov's scientific legacy in the teach
ing of Pavlov on higher neural activity . The authors frequently sup
plement their analyses of Sechenov's ideas by pa rallel examinations of
those researches of Pavlov for which these ideas served as a " point of
departure. " With this method of analysis , the historical succession
of theoretical psychology in Russian science emerges with still greater
distinctness .

- 894 -
 6

A great stream of researches was also prompted by another rep

resentative of Russian psychology of the past -- K. D. Ushinskiy ( 1824
1870 ) .
Here , too , we are unable to present all the literature that has
been written on the subject . Not to mention the numerous works in
which Ushinskiy's views on problems of psychology are not the subject
of special analysis , but are touched upon only in connection with his
pedagogic views , we shall have to omit articles and brochures which are
not investigative in character and which are written mainly to popu
larize Ushinskiy's accomplishments .
In classifying the writings concerning this great Russian peda
gogue , we must first of all separate those works of Soviet authors
which are devoted to the philosophical bases of his teachings . The
complexity and contradiction which characterize his views gave special
importance to the task of elucidating these views . The principal
evaluation of his psychological system depends directly on one or an
other solution of this difficult task . This is why not only philoso
phers and pedagogues, but also psychologists have devoted themselves
to it .
G. Kostyuk /ī647 was one of the first Soviet psychologists to
write on the bases of Ushinskiy's psychologico - pedagogic views . In his
long article which was devoted to the general character of this great
psychologist the author notes both the weakness of his principal
phi lo sophical positions ( first of all , the dualistic solution of the
psychophysical problem ) and the existence of elemental -materialist ten
dencies which are reflected in his teachings despite the concluding
idealist explanations. An analogous point of view is brought forth
by I. Aryamov 1267, who appraised Ushinskiy's " factual theory" as
dualistic , at the same time finding essential materialist features in
it . K. Kornilov / 158 / evaluated him as an idealist by conviction , but
at the same time a profound dialectician in the solution of many im
portant problems of psychology . I. Frenkel ' (389/ disclosed contradic
tions in his philosophico - psychological concepts and maintained that
they also contained scientific -materialist and metaphysical - idealist
elements . The inconsistency of Ushinskiy's methodological positions
was also pointed out by N. Goncharov 1917. Using in his argument the
essential positions of Ushinskiy's psychological theory , the author
concluded that this classic Russian pedagogue maintained a materialist
position in solving many problems , while not considering it as material
ist . He fought against metaphysics and scholasticism seeing them both
in idealism and in the contemporary materialism , identified by him with
positivism . On the whole, the authors who examined the methodological
bases of Ushinskiy's psychology had no material differences of opinion .
Ushinskiy's psychological system itself was repeatedly made the
subject of research , in all its complex and many - sided content .

- 895 -
 The basic_theoretical principles of this system were formulated
by B. Anan'yev /121 . He underlines Ushinskiy's role as the father of
pedagogic psychology . The author considers the fact that Ushinskiy
came to psychology from pedagogy as a fundamentally new trend not only
in Russian , but also in world scientific literature . Hence the entire
meaning of his intent -- to create a real psychology of the real man .
The real man this is the central problem in the huge work which he
undertook for the construction of a scientific theory of education
based on psychology . No less important than Ushinskiy's progressive
idea was the idea of the determining role of activity in man's mental
development . Referring to the impossibility of deriving consciousness
only from observation and self - examination , he pointed directly to the
importance of the " third source " -- our capacity for activity . He
ba sed his entire theory on the senses and volition , as well as charac
ter , on this very source of the development of consciousness . Ushin
skiy's third leading idea stands out clearly in his psychological
system . While fighting against mechanistic physiologism in psychology ,
he also proceeded from the radical need for a physiological basis of
psychological facts . He used not only physiological data , but also
advanced new problems for the physiology of the nervous system .
A systematic analysis of the theoretical bases and the concrete
content of Ushinskiy's psychological system is given in T. Ta zhibayev's
monograph / 3687, in which the great pedagogue is also evaluated as the
" founder of pedagogic psychology in Russia . " The same theme is con
tained in the thesis of L. Balatskaya / 371 , the work of A. Vyalykh
1707, and a large section in the monograph of D. Lordkipanidze 12127,
devoted to the pedagogical theory of Ushinskiy .
Particular importance attaches to an article by K. A. Ramul '
13047, in which the famous problem of Ushinskiy's " electism " is clari
fied . Having established that Ushinskiy's great informedness on the
psychological literature of his time ( which was attested to by the
great number of names of foreign authors in the pages of the Pedagogic
Anthropology ) , Ramul' attempted to clarify the following problems
what did the West - European psychology of Ushinskiy's time represent ?
How did its general character and status reflect on the character of
Ushinskiy's own psychological works ? The author presented the char
acteristic features of the most important trends in the psychology of
the middle of the 19th century , compared them with Ushinskiy's posi
tion , and came to the conclusion that the latter did not join any of
his contemporary schools of psychological thought and was entirely
critical of them . Moreover , the content of the problems discussed in
the Pedagogic Anthropology and the psychological theories analyzed in
connection with them , indeed the very method of solution of these prob
lems bear the stamp of the era in which Ushinskiy lived and wrote his
book .
Individual aspects of Ushinskiy's psychological concepts were
also elucidated in the works of Soviet authors.

. 896 -
 A broad analysis of the problems of the psychology of percep
tion , presented in the Pedagogic Anthropology , was made by G. Kostyuk
/ 171/ . In a thoroughgoing examination of Ushinskiy's theory on in
dividual perceptional processes , he gives special shading to the posi
tive , progressive features of Ushinskiy's theories , pointing out at the
same time their inadequacies . The more special problem of the forms
of thought as interpreted by Ushinskiy wa s_discussed in S. V. Fed
chishin's thesis / 3847 . A. P. Kudima / 1947 discussed Ushinskiy's views
on the formation of concepts .
An_article by V. Artemov / 247 and particularly the work of I. K.
Ek gol'm / 426 / contain detailed analyses of Ushinskiy's theory on lan
guage and thought , which both authors examine not only in its philo
sophical and linguistic , but also in its psychological_aspects . This
same problem is discussed in the work of A. Moroz / 2451 .
Ushinskiy interpreted the unity of language and thought as an
historical unity developing as a unity of interrelated and interde
pendent components , and from this point of view criticized the various
idealist views on the origin of language . Human speech has three
" sources ' : a ) physical -- " reflective roots " ; b ) psychological
self - awareness ; c ) experience acquired in the process of activity . But
the " cause" of speech is man's need of language, to " express to another
what is in his mind . " A moving force of the development of language
and thought is man's activity . Ushinskiy interpreted perception as a
complex analytico - synthetic activity . He emphasized the importance of
the " concentrating," generalizing function of thought . He gave much
consideration to forms of human thought : the concept , the judgment ,
deduction , etc. He characterized the process of the formation of the
concept as a long and difficult road " from the concrete to the ab
stract , " " from representation to thought , " i.e. , to generalization .
Ushinskiy's views on the psychology of understanding are pre
sented in an article by A. Sokolov / 3397 . The author points out the
great scientific importance of Ushinskiy's interpretation of under
standing as a peculiar intellectual activity consisting in the com
bining of basic object signs into the form of a concept . Ushinskiy
rightly considered the mechanism of understanding as the development
and application of various associations , and the process of the de
velopment of understanding as the result of the complication of as
sociations . Innovatory in character is his assertion that associa
tions are not only a means of consolidating already obtained knowl
edge , but also a means of acquiring new knowledge . He also expressed
many valuable ideas on the dependence of understanding on the emotions
and will .
A. A. Shein (4127 and I. I. Avgustevich I 1ī discussed the
psychology of perception from the standpoint of Ushinskiy's views on
the training of thought in the school child . The main interest of
these works is the concrete examination of those principles and meth
ods of the training of thought which were reflected in the system of
training according to Ushinskiy's textbooks " The Child's World " and
" Native Speech . "

- 897 -
 Ushinskiy's views on the psychology and pedagogy of memory were
examined by P. I. Zinchenko / 1351 . The author stressed the significance
of the fact that Ushinskiy , in distinguishing mechanical , rational, and
spiritual memory , maintains the existence of connections and passages
between them . The correct understanding of the relationships between
these types of memory led Ushinskiy to a correct understanding of the
relationship between knowledge and habits , the role of repetition in
learning and other problems of pedagogic memory . He believed that
repetition was not only a method of forming habits, but also one of
the methods of the conscious mastery of knowledge.
The attention of researchers was also drawn to Ushinskiy's inter
pretation of the psychology of the senses , will , and character. A suf
ficiently thorough analysis of this subject was made by G. Kostyuk
/ 1721 .
He showed that , according to Ushinskiy's interpretation , an un
derstanding of the nature of sensation is possible only if you proceed
from the needs of the living organism and its relationships -- condi
tioned by these needs -- to its external environment . Ushinskiy also
emphasized the significance of activity in the emergence of sensations .
In the process of activity , not only are the native needs and inclina
tions satisfied , but new inclinations develop with related sensations
and desires . Throughout, Ushinskiy sought a genetic connection between
the native and acquired needs and their related sensations in human
beings . Defining sensation as a peculiar manifestation of man's psychic
life , he also pointed to the indissoluble tie between sensations and
perceptual processes . He attempted to group sensations on the bases
of human needs . Although this attempt did not provide a solution of
the complex problem of classifying sensations , it did help to intro
duce many new facts into the characterization of individual types of
sensations , their dialectical interrelationship , and their specific
peculiarities .
With respect to volition , Ushinskiy advanced the idea that it
was formed in activity , that its strength increased in the process of
overcoming difficulties which man encountered in reaching his goal.
Ushinskiy's idea on the great importance of a serious purpose in life
is still true . He viewed desires as complex phenomena arising in the
course of satisfying human needs . He advanced valuable ideas in ex
plaining the metamorphosis of wishes into desires , the conditions and
peculiarities of this process in the child .
Ushinskiy believed that man's character develops under the in
fluence of native peculiarities and his social environment . Character
is not inherited , just as the experiences which help to form it are not
inherited . Only neural inclinations -- which , however , can be changed
and even overcome by systematic training are inherited .
Some important information supplementing Kostyuk's analysis of
the theory of Ushinskiy on the question of the essence of the senses ,
will_and character may be_found in the articles of P. L. Zagorovskiy
/123/ and V. S. Filatov 13857 .

. 898 -
 L. A. Gordon devoted a long article 1947 to Ushinskiy's theory
on attention and interest . The author underlined that as distinct from
certain other psychologists , Ushinskiy understood attention as a mani -
festation of consciousness and not as a separate, independent capacity .
Nor did he contrast active attention with passive , recognizing the
existence of " transition " between them . The author believes that
Ushinskiy did not separate attention from interest , considering them
two sides of one and the same process . Pointing to the complex , syn
thetic character of interest , Ushinskiy allotted the dominant role in
it to sensations . He believed that interests originated in close rela
tionship to needs , but in their dynamic nature and diversity interests
transcend needs .
Ushinskiy's views on mental development are the topic of articles
by N. K. Balatskiy 136 , 38 / and I. Frenkel ' /3901 .
According to Ushinskiy , mental development in animals takes place
according to the laws of organic heredity . In man's development, how
ever , decisive importance is attributed to the law of historical suc
cession . Man inherits not mental capacities themselves, but only their
" somatic " conditions , the possibility of development which becomes a
reality under the influence of the conditions of life and education .
Proving the possibility of a purposeful guidance of the process of de
velopment of the individual, Ushinskiy came out against extremes both
of the concept of the omnipotence of training and the fatalistic con
cept of the predetermination by his nature of a child's development .
The closer the correlation between training and the laws of human na
ture the greater the strength of the former . Training is a leading
factor , but not the sole factor . Ushinskiy demonstrated the fallacy
of viewing a child as a passive subject of training , and substantiated
the position that the active and many - sided activity of the child it
self constitutes one of the most important conditions for the develop
ment of its powers and aptitudes . He was the first psychologist to put
a premium on work as a condition for the formation and perfection of
man's psychic life .
We should also mention some works in which Ushinskiy's theory of
psychic development is examined in its practical aspects : Kostyuk
( 1667, the psychological bases of his teachings ; A. Ivanov / 1427, the
psychological bases of moral training ; I. Meykshan /233/ , the_psycho
logical bases of his general pedagogic theory; and Ā. Moroz /243, 2447,
the role of visual aids in education .
Finally , there is M. K. Godyna's work 88 / systematizing Ushin
skiy's ideas on the psychology of teaching activity .
We may thus establish that Ushinskiy's complex psychological
system , the most important step in the course of the development of
psychology in Russia , has been studied fully and from many aspects in
Soviet scientific literature .

• 899 -
 7

A number of authors who studied the theoretical views of P. F.

Lesgaft ( 1837-1909 ) considered it their duty to clarify likewise the
psychological positions which formulate an integral part of his_sci
entific system . These authors include G. Shakhverdov /407 , 408 / , Ye .
Medynskiy_ / 231, 2321 , 0. Chernikova 14061 , K. Grantyn ' 1991 , M. Ley
kina 1206 / , G. Kharabuga 1391 / .
In these works , Lesgaft is considered a follower of Ushinskiy .
Attempting to give pedagogy a scientific basis , he places it on an
" anthropological foundation, " basing pedagogic requirements on the laws
of anatomy , physiology , and psychology . His system of physical educa
tion he considers not only a factor of the perfection of the organism ,
but also a powerful means of influence on human consciousness , sensa
tion , and volition , on the individual as a whole . Carrying out Ushin
skiy's principles of " Pedagogic Anthropology , " he proceeded to study
the child with the purpose in mind of its balanced education , and ad
vanced his original typology on childhood ( " types of school children " ) .
Thereby, he was one of the founders in our country of the psychology of
individual differences .
Lesgaft devoted much attention to the role of heredity , environ
ment , and training in man's development . Criticizing We i smani sm , he
pointed out with full justification that " A. Weisman's explanations
constitute a transition from the teachings of Hippocrates to the theory
of preformation . " He believed it was possible to assign heredity the
place of " only one basic form " ; whereas, " all typical and individual
properties , as well as manifestations of character" he considered " ac
quired under the influence of training and the environmental conditions
under which the child lived and developed . " Lesgaft rejected the idea
that aptitudes could be passed on from parents to offspring : " Just as
human speech is not inherited , but a child masters the speech which it
hears from those around it . " While rejecting the idea of native de
pravity in the child , Lesgaft did not go to the other extreme : he did
not idealize the child's nature . The type of the child is formed in
function of influences of the external environment , but the crucial
importance in the forming of its personality accrues to training.
Researchers have also examined certain particular psychological
problems touched upon by Lesgaft . of interest , specifically , is his
position on the correlation of words and visualization in teaching .
He rejects the independent , " absolute " significance of the graphic
method and the advantage of its application divorced from verbal ex .
planation and theoretical perception . He suggests that the graphic
method be combined with verbal explanation , the latter to precede
demonstration . Lesgaft also presents his understanding of habit . He
rejected the concept of habit as a fixed and permanent form of move
ments , independent of the conditions of activity . He finds the mean
ing of habit not in automatized techniques , but in the ability con
sciously to use these techniques , modifying and adapting them to con
crete conditions of activity .

. 900 -
 Lesgaft expressed a number of valuable ideas on the psychology
of play . He distinguished imitative play , relating it to the " family ' '
( pre - school) period of a child's life , and play of the school period .
The content of the former is in direct relationship with the child's
surroundings . Moreover , the child is especially willing to imitate
the actions of persons close to it . Play of the second type is char
acterized by the unfolding of the individual qualities of the partici
pants and by actions on their own initiative . He constructs his meth
odical requirements for the formulation of games on this concept of
the nature of play .
The noted philologist A. A. Potebnya ( 1835-1891 ) also figured
in the history of_psychology . His views are examined in two works by
M. Yaro shevskiy 1438 , 439 / . One of these reveals Potebnya's system of
philosophico - psychological views , which was the theoretical basis of
his concrete study of the history of language ; the other work examines
the concept of the internal form of speech , which was developed by Po
tebnya in his work " From Notes on Russian Grammar . "
An important figure in Russian psychology at the end of the 19th
and the beginning of the 20th centuries was N. N. Lange ( 1858-1921 ) .
An article by N. Gordiyevskiy 1921 , published in 1930 , contains
valuable information on Lange's life and principal works .
A considerable number of researches have been devoted to the
analysis of his scientific legacy. D. El'kin 1427, 429 , 430 , 431 , 4337 ,
believed Lange approached materialist monism in a number of his views .
Recognition of a real physical world independent of consciousness con
stituted for Lange a " necessary postulate of psychological science . "
He considered the nervous system a material substrate of mental activity .
The psychic activity of man is prepared by " all the preceding develop
ment of the animal world . " The human soul is " 99 % a product of history
and society . El'kin characterized Lange as an advocate of experimenta
tion in psychology . He not only defended the experimental method with
convincing theoretical reasons , but also gave actual models of the use
of experimentation in psychology . He is credited with the original ,
experimental substantiation of the theory of attention , examining the
mechanism of this process in sui generis motor phenomena . Disclosing
the dynamics of perception , Lange established the phasic character of
this process and its involvement with motor elements , attention , memory ,
and thought. El'kin attempted to link Lange's views with the ideas of
I. M. Sechenov .
The materialist tendencies in Lange's views were also underlined
in works by T. V. Ko sma /159 , 160 , 1621. The author examined Lange's
attempt to " eliminate all kinds of dualism " in his treatment of the
interrelationship between the psychic and physical , and noted his pe
culiar objective- genetic approach to an understanding of the psychic
life . In supplement to ei'kin's writings on Lange's contributions ,
Kosma pointed to his criticism of the one - sidedness of the intellec
tualistic and voluntaristic theories in psychology , to his elucidation
of the role of semantic connections in the processes of recollection

- 901 -
and reproduction , to his proper treatment of the material substrate of
emotions ( according to his view , the emotions have their roots in
processes which are carried out not only in the subcortical centers ,
but also in the cortex of the great hemispheres of the brain ) .
Lange's negative attitude toward the_philosophical systems of
idealism was revealed in B. Teplov's work / 3771 . The author con
vincingly showed that Lange was able to rise above the narrow
mindedness both of the traditional introspective psychology and of
flat behaviorism ; and that an important contribution was thereby made
to the campaign for the construction of an objective science of the
psychic life of man . Rejecting epiphenomenalism in any form , Lange
understood the psychic life as a real vital process necessary in the
course of the biological development of animals and the social devel
opment of man . Among Lange's most important ideas is his thesis that
every psychic process includes a motor component . He considered in
ternal mental actions secondary to the external motor actions . The
given article puts special emphasis on the fundamental significance
of Lange's fight for the inclusion of experimentation in psychologi
cal research . In essence , this was a fight against the " idealist
philosophersi' for a basically materialist psychology .
Individual aspects of Lange's psychological concepts were_dis
cussed by Kostyuk / 1821 , L. Belen'kaya 1437 , and V. Yaroshchuk 1446 / .
Apart from the researches devoted to our nation's greatest rep
resentative of psychological thought in the second half of the 19th
century , there are a number of works on the development of individual
psychological problems of that period .
V. Andreyeva 121, 227 , using material of experimental researches
on sensitivity , discussed the development of the experimental method
in Russian psychology of the latter part of the past century .
The author showed that the founders of experimental psychology
in Russia were leading natural scientists -- psychiatric physicians and
neurologists V. M. Bekhterev , A. F. Lazurskiy , s . s . Korsakov , A. A.
Tokarskiy , and others . Representatives of the official idealist psy
chology -- G. I. Chelpanov , A. I. Vvedenskiy , etc. --

spoke against
practical experimental psychology under the slogan of a campaign against
a profanation of the science . It was characteristic for experimental
psychologists of that time to disregard philosophical problems of psy
chology and attempt to construct the science on an experimental basis
alone . The nature of psychological experimentation was usually treated
from the viewpoint of psychophysiological dua lism . The concept of the
objectivity of a method was reduced to the technical equipment of the
experiment and to the possibility of the mathematical processing of
data obtained . But in the context of the supremacy of the introspec
tive method , even such a narrow and inconsequential solution of the
problem of the essence of experimentation in psychology was a form of
battle for the rightful existence of the objective method .
The author analyzed the experimental researches in sensitivity ,
which were conducted during this period , dividing them into 3 groups :

- 902 -
a ) psychological researches devoted to measuring the time of the sim
plest psychic processes; b ) the study of certain peculiarities of in
dividual types of sensitivity ; c ) research on the " memory of sensa
tions , " i.e. , the duration of the retention of traces of stimulation
in an analyzer . A description and critical analysis are given of the
methods of research and results obtained . The author concluded that
these results were , on the whole , simply stated . Individual attempts
to explain them did not go beyond the traditional subjective - psycho
logical interpretation , when one unknown psychological fact was ex
plained by another no less unknown .
The controversy on experimentation and experimental methods in
Russian psychology during the latter part_of the 19th century was
examined more broadly by E. A. Budi lova 1661.
The above -mentioned researches of Andreyeva were also well sup
plemented by the writings of Ye . Stepanova / 353, 3547 , concerning the
work of Russian physiologists, neuropathologists, and psychiatrists in
developing natural - scientific bases of psychology .
From the theories on the mechanisms of voluntary movements and
actions developed in the works of V. M. Bekhterev , V , A. Bets , I. P.
Merzheyevskiy , N. Ye . Vvedenskiy , I. S. Tarkhanov, etc. , the author
showed that the basic principles of the Sechenovian reflex theory be
came deeply rooted in Russian science even before Pavlov's era . As
long ago as the 1870's to the 1890's , ideas were forming on the dynamic
character of localization , an understanding was already dawning of the
mechanism of volitional behavior as the result of the systemic activity
of the cerebral cortex , and ideas were forming on the sensory function
of the motor zone of the cortex . Experimental research and clinical
observations of that period proved Sechenov's idea of the role of mus
cular sense in the motor act . Even during Sechenov's lifetime , emi-
nent Russian clinicians attempted to discover the material processes
underlying the complex forms of psychic activity .
The work of I. P. Smoliy / 3371 is devoted to the study of as
sociations in Russian psychological literature during the second half
of the 19th century . This subject is also discussed in an article by
M. K. Godyna /83/ .
Smoliy showed how the materialist concept of associations is re
flected in the works of revolutionary democrats and Sechenov , in the
works of Ushinskiy and his follower Kapterev , in the researches of the
psychiatrists Korsakov , Tokarskiy , and Butske. Sechenov gave the most
consistent materialist interpretation of the essence of associative
Other researchers permitted certain deviations toward idealism .
The position of the progressive scientists is opposed by the viewpoint
of subjectivists and agnostics such as Lopatin , Troitskiy , Grot , Go
gotskiy , Vladislavlev , who looked on association as a purely subjective
synthesis of psychic phenomena devoid of a material substrate and not
determined by objectively existing ties between objects and phenomena
of the external world .

• 903 -
 The theories on attention of progressive Russian psychologists
from the end of the 19th to the beginning of the 20th centuries was the
subject of G. Potanina's research / 277/. The author analyzed the treat
ments of this problem by Ushinskiy , Katerev , and Lange . She suggested
that the views of these men on the nature , types , and role of attention
in life were based on Sechenov's reflex theory .
Finally, the work of K. Platonov and A. Lavnikov / 2757 contains
interesting information on aviational psychology of the past .
8

A characteristic feature of Soviet scientific literature on the

history of psychology is the comparatively important place held by
analyses of the psychological views of our outstanding writers in the
second half of the 19th to the beginning of the 20th centuries .
The articles of M. Kruglyak /191 , 1927 , concerning the views of
N. V. Gogol' ( 1809-1852 ) on personality and its training , maintain that
the writer approached an elemental understanding of the social condi
tioning of personality . He sharply opposed the noble personality
traits of the common people to the moral poverty of the nobility and
the bureaucrats . In Taras Bulba " Golol ' revealed the inner conflict
between feeling and obligation , between the individual and the collec
tive . In the second volume of " Dead Souls" we see Gogol's ideal of
the mentor and trainer of youth , sharply distinguished from the official
views on the teacher .
The psychological system of T. G. Shevchenko ( 1814-1861 ) were
examined in articles by Kostyuk / 170 / and T. Ye . Galushko 1751 .
The authors underlined the similarity of ideas between Shev
chenko and Russian revolutionary democrats . Like the latter , he had
a profound faith in the power of human reason . Mental activity is emo
tionally experienced by man particularly when it turns into an ardent
searching for truth . In the cognition of the world , Shevchenko at
tached great importance to the word , and had deep convictions on the
possibility of adequately expressing ideas through speech . He con
sidered the richness of sensations an inalienable sign of man's high
level of development . The authors gave a detailed account of Shev
chenko's views on the nature and significance of esthetic feelings .
His materialist understanding of the psychic life was revealed by his
ideas on the origin and formation of man's character. He expressed
many important and interesting ideas on the psychology of creative
work , which were often identical with the views of Chernyshevskiy .
A number of works of Ukrainian psychologists have been devoted
to the psychological ideas of I. Franko ( 1856-1916 ) . Articles on this
subject were written by M. Godyna /82 , 84 , 851 and I. Bel'yavskiy 1451 .
The authors point out that Franko's philosophico - psychological
views were greatly influenced by Belinskiy , Gertsen , and Chernyshev
skiy . He made wide use of the progressive ideas of materialist psy
chology which " pushed god out of all psychic manifestations. " Only

- 904 -
the new " physiological psychology " can provide knowledge of the true
laws of man's psychic life , " explain the material bases of all psychic
acts. " Franko recognized that the " mind and body are one , " and cen
sured those who attempted " to tear man in half . " He saw the basis of
mental activity in " the material which is furnished by our sensations . "
lle also held materialist views on the phylogenesis of the psychic life
of animals and the development of human consciousness . He sharply
censured social Darwinists who mechanically transferred biological laws
to the development of society . He believed that only the unification
of human beings into a society could develop the numerous capacities
which are characteristic for them . Franko attributed primary im
portance in man's psychic activity to reason . In sensations he saw a
necessary factor for success in man's mental creativity ; volition he
understood as man's capacity to mobilize all his powers for the achieve
ment of his goal; personality was the product of native peculiarities
and the influences of environment and training. But he did not believe
that personality was only the passive product of environment ; he be
lieved that it functioned , that by its function it changed the sur
rounding environment and its own character . Godyna also wrote in de
tail on Franko's views on the psychology of artistic work , disclosing
the kinship between them and the views of Chernyshevskiy and other Rus
sian revolutionary democrats .
The creative process of I. Goncharov ( 1812-1891 ) was studied by
V. Strakhov /355 , 356 , 3571 .
The author examined Goncharov's views on the psychology of cre
ative work and characterized the principal stages of his creative
process . The work " The Dream of Oblomov" reveals the writer's peculiar
artistic practice . The author analyzed Goncharov's ideas on artistic
thought , on the correlation of the mind and fantasy in creative work .
He revealed the mental state of the writer during the creative process ,
showed the significance of effort in an artist's work , and analyzed
Goncharov's habituation toward certain way of working at creative
writing
Much has been done by Soviet psychologists for the study of the
psychological views of L. N. Tolstoy ( 1828-1910 ) .
The most important place here_should be given to I. Strakhov
for_his monograph on this theme / 3637 , his articles 4359 , 360 , 364 ,
3651 , and his published reports ( 3587.
Strakhov devoted his works to an investigation of the general
psychological ideas of the great writer , his views on personality and
character , which he expressed both in theoretical form and in creative
embodiment ; and to a study of the profound psychological revelations
of Tolstoy in his analysis of the human mind , the peculiarities of his
artistic - psychological power of observation which , in general form , was
defined by Chernyshevskiy as " a dialectic of the soul." The author de
parted from the purely illustrative techniques of the study by psy
chologists of creative literature and developed a method of systematic
analysis of the literary text , attempting to show the significance of

- 905 -
psychological research in creative literature for a knowledge of the
laws governing the human psychic life .
Strakhov centered his attention on the psychological problems
of Tolstoy's creative work . He dwelt on the writer's characteristic
style of " inner monologues " which show the numerous forms of interior
speech , the capacities of thought " to one self . " He made an analysis
of dreams, which were one of Tolstoy's forms of di sclosing the image
of a character . He analyzed the emotional aspect of personality in
connection with the literary portrait and creative portrayal of vari
ous mental states in Tolstoy's works.
Tolstoy's skill in depicting " childhood , adolescence and youth "
in all their psychological peculiarity could not but evoke a response
from psychologists. Works on this subject were contributed by N. Kono
valov / 1567 and L. Dragoli / 113 / .
Works also exist on psychological problems in the works of A. P.
Chekhov ( 1860-1904 ) . These include an article by Strakhov / 361 / on
interior speech in Chekhov's characters; a thesis by Belyayev 1467 on
psychological analysis in the writer's works; an article by V. Vershin
ina L68 / on emotional expressiveness in his works ; and an item by
N. Rybnikov / 320 / on Chekhov as a child psychologist.
In all these works Chekhov was represented as a subtle observer
and an expert on human " stirrings of the soul, " who modeled a number
of characters remarkable in their realism and typical for the transi
tional period in Russian history . Chekhov's heroes are always revealed
in action , in thought and feelings directly connected with actions ;
Chekhov studied man by his behavior . He was distingui shed by his deep
penetration into child psychology , by his great understanding of the
peculiarity of a child's perception of the world . There was great
psychological content in Chekhov's esthetics , with its attempt to find
beauty in the ordinary , " inconspicuous," beauty .
To embody the image of a new hero of Russian life was reserved
to A. M. Gor'kiy ( 1868-1936 ) , a writer who depicted that period of the
Russian revolutionary movement , when the popular masses rose to con
scious creativity of history .
The task of studying the psychological ideas of the great prole
tarian humanitarian was undertaken by G. Kostyuk / 167 / and L. Gurevich
/ 101/ .
According to Gor'kiy , literature should show in its images logic
in action , and should convince the reader that this character could not
act otherwise , while this one could , but did not act from motives of
avarice , compassion , due to incomprehension . The writer should reveal
the psychological meaning of actions and deeds . It is possible to know
a person only by observing his deeds . Gor'kiy pointed to the futility
of knowing oneself " by means of self - absorption , divorced from life and
from the activity of self- perception . ' Man's mental capacities are not
only revealed in his activity , but are also formed in it . People de
velop their capacities through work . For a child , this formative ac
tivity is play . Play is " the way of children to perceive the surround
ings in which they live and which they are called to alter . " Gor'kiy

- 906 -
tirelessly repeated that study , the mastery of knowledge , is a neces
sary premise for the development of personality . This development is
a complex and contradictory process in which occurs a conflict between
various influences , a conflict of the old with the new , which often as
sumes sharp , dramatic forms .
Kostyuk systematized Gor'kiy's comments relating to his under
standing of individual psychic processes and their interrelationship .
These comments show the writer's materialist outlook on the basic prob
lems of perception , sensations , and volition . He comes out against
the idealist treatment of the psychic life of the human individual .
With this we conclude our review of historical - psychological
work embracing the paramount facts of the development of Russian psy
choloty during the 18th and 19th centuries . We cannot overlook the
fact that nearly all these works were already published after Anan'yev's
" Outlines" was released . A number of phenomena of the history of the
science, which this book mentioned necessarily rather superficially ,
are now being studied more thoroughly . This is particularly true of
the basic psychological problems which are connected with the names of
Radishchev , the revolutionary democrats, Sechenov , Ushinskiy , and others .
But the researches of recent years have not only led to a filling
in of Anan'yev's historiographic outline with more concrete content .
They have also made it possible to widen the historical framework to
which the author of essentially the first attempt to construct the his
tory of materialist psychology in Russia had necessarily to confine him
self .
It was clear that Russian psychology did not start only in the
18th century and that our modern psychological thought developed on the
basis of traditions who se roots extended far into the centuries . His
torians of psychology were therefore faced with the task of tracing
this kind of tradition as far as the literary monuments preserved from
early times permitted . It was also necessary to study the paths of de
velopment of Russian psychology after the 19th century , particularly
during the Soviet period . There was a third task of no less impor
tance to study the contribution to the development of scientific
psychology which had been made , along with Russian and Ukrainian schol
ars , by representatives of other nationalities of our multinational
country .
The researches of Soviet psychologists proceeded along all three
of these lines .

P. M. Pelekh , in a number of his works [259, 260 , 261 , 262 , 263 ,

266 , 2697 , elucidated the status of Russian psychology in the 17th and
the beginning of the 18th centuries .
In that period psychological thought was formed primarily in the
Kievo -Mogilyanskiy College and the Moscow Slavic - Greco - Latin Academy ,
where systematic courses in psychology , as a component part of philoso
phy , were presented in Latin . In spite of their general idealist and

- 907 -
scholastic character , these courses included many healthy, progressive
ideas , which were well brought out in Pelekh's researches .
The authors of these courses leaned in the main on Aristotle ,
Epicurus, Hippocrates , Galen , and other thinkers and scholars of an
tiquity . Repeating Aristotle in their definition of the soul , they
considered the lower forms of human mental activity as being common to
man and animals and as having a material origin , while its higher forms
( thought and acts of rational volition ) were considered as being opera
tions of the rational soul . In their theory of sense perception they
developed the idea borrowed from Democritus and Epicurus on " appear
ances, " attempting to prove its truth by facts from real - life observa
tions ( reflection in a mirror , imaginary refraction of a stick in the
water , etc. ) . The professors of the Kiev and Moscow Academies , who
gave the course in psychology , presented an anatomic description of
the structure of the sense organs and the brain on the level of the
knowledge of their day . Attempts were made to put the question of the
localization of the psychic functions in the brain . Some of the au
thors of the courses attempted to throw a bridge from sensory to in
tellectual perception by means of graphic thought . Gizel ' advanced
even before Locke -- the famous thesis : " ' There is nothing in the in
tellect which was not in the senses. " Psychologists of that time pre
sented in their courses the humoral theory of temperaments , according
to Hippocrates and Galen . Courses of rhetoric contained interesting
theories on the psychology of sensations , particularly affects , the
ways in which speech influenced human experience and activity .
Pelekh's researches show that we have no basis for considering
17th century Russia as a remote province separated from the general
paths of the development of world science , specifically psychology .
An analogous conclusion with respect to a still earlier period
is evoked by M. Sokolov's researches 1343 , 346 , 349 / on the psychologi
cal views which prevailed in our country in the 11th to 16th centuries .
It would be a great mistake to think that the philosophico
psychological ideas of ancient Russia were formed under the exclusive
influence of the church and its teachings . Of course , the church , be
ing " the highest generalization and sanction of the existing feudal
structure " ( Engels ) , could not but impart a definite trend to the
formation of these ideas . However , its influence even then was not
monopolistic . The history of that time reveals a number of broad popu
lar movements which were in sharp opposition to the church and the en
tire feudal upper crust . The ideologists and participants of these
movements formed opinions which were often opposed to the church's
teachings . The voluminous translated literature of the Kiev era brought
to us from Byzantium the philosophical and natural - scientific views of
antiquity , including views on the psychic life which were drawn par
ticularly from Aristotle . Soon , original works by Russian authors be
gan to appear , in which problems of psychology were also examined .
These problems included the origin and essence of the soul , the proper
ties of the intellect and its role in man's psychic life , the structure

• 908 -
of the sense organs and the peculiarities of visual perception , memory
and its laws , developmental and individual differences in the psychic
life of individuals , the origin of dreams . Throughout the naively
idealist presentations penetrated shoots of sober , realistic concepts
of man's spiritual life . Concepts began to be formed on the psychic
life , deeply hostile to ecclesiastical doctrine , containing elemental
materialist tendencies. The author shows that there was a conflict be
tween materialism and idealism in the area of psychology at this stage ,
as well .

10

As has been mentioned , the work at the history of psychology ex

tended likewise to works written in the 20th century .
D. F. Nikolenko's article L255 / on the conflict centering around
the materialist concept of the psychic life during the period of the
Russian Revolution describes the debauch of rank idealism and spirit
ualism in the psychology of the early 20th century .
A stronghold of idealistic psychology , such as the journal
Problems of Philosophy and Psychology , assiduously ignored the ideas
of Marxism , but devoted much space to articles of antimaterialistic ,
mystical content . The ideas of Kant , Leibnitz , and Mach were widely
propagandized ; psychological problems were treated from mystico - theo
sophic stand points ( V. Solov'yev , S. Trubetskoy , L. Lopatin ) , were
elaborated in the spirit of voluntarism ( Losskiy ) , " pure phenomenali sm "
( Zen'kovskiy ) , empiriomoni sm ( Bogdanov ) , etc. Representatives of the
official idealist psychology ( Chelpanov and others ) deliberately failed
to adduce the differences between metaphysical and mechanistic ma
terialism and dialectical materialism , ascribing to dialectical ma
terialism the errors of mechanistic materiali sm .
At the same time , materialist positions in psychology were being
strengthened . K. Timiryazev mercilessly criticized idealist concepts
biology and psychology , fought against vitalism and mysticism . The
first works of I. P. Pavlov on the objective study of psychic phenomena
in animals represented a new stage in the development of materialist
psychology . V. M. Bekhterev po sed the problem of the " development of
natural - scientific bases for the theory of personality . " V. A. Vagner
contributed a number of experimental works on comparative and genetic
psychology .
The author pointed with full justification to the special im
portance of the publication of V. I. Lenin's brilliant work " Material
ism and Empiriocriticism , " which became an encyclopedia for all psy
chologists who , in scientific fashion , were developing psychological
problems from materialist standpoints . But a radical reorganization
of psychology on the basis of the teachings of Marxism -Leninism became
possible only after the victory of the Great October Socialist Revolu
tion .

- 909 -
 One of the most significant events on the psychological front
in the period between the revolutions of 1905 and 1917 were the five
Pan - Russian psychological congresses . The activity of these congresses
was the subject of M. Sokolov's works 2344 , 3451.
The congresses were an arena for the complex battle of the vari
ous currents of psychology in Russia at that time . They also served
as impetus for a further crystallization of these trends and a deep
ening of the contradictions between them . The papers of the congresses
are of particular interest in that they summarize the results which
Russian psychology had achieved by Great October . These papers con
tained a vivid picture of the disorder of opinions , which characterized
prerevolutionary psychology and which could not have been surmounted
under the ideology that reigned at that time .
The four psychological schools of that time , headed by A. P.
Nechayev , A. F. Lazurskiy , G. I. Chelpanov , and G. I. Rossolimo , were
widely represented at the congresses . Active participants at the con
gresses also included such outstanding psychologists of that time as
N. Lange , V. Bekhterev , A. Krogius , N. Vinogradov , G. Troshin , P. Kap
terev , A. Bernshteyn , as well as I. P. Pavlov who presented a report
on the reflex of purpo se at the final congress .
The problems which were most heatedly debated have not lost
their importance to this day . These include the role of experimenta
tion in psychological research , the interrelationship of pedagogy and
psychology , the problems and methods of pedagogic psychology , methods
of determining individual differences in general talent and capacities .
The last problem evoked especially heated arguments at that time . But
the old psychology , in the persons of its most eminent university rep
resentatives , was powerless to solve it because of the idealist char
acter of this psychology .
In Soviet scientific literature an important place is also occu
pied by the analysis of the views of individual representatives of pre
revolutionary Russian psychology.
They include the early deceased A. F. Lazurskiy ( 1874-1917 ) .
critical analysis of his most important works was given in a thesis by
P. Sadchikova / 321/ .A. Kovalev's article / 151 / contains an evalua
tion of Lazurskiy's method of " natural experimentation . " Lazurskiy's
study of the child's personality was examined by K. Khomenko_ / 394 / .
His earlier works were discussed in articles by M. Basov / 39 / and
D. El ' kina 428 , which used archival material of scientific interest .
Lazurskiy believed that psychology , like natural science , should
base all its conclusions on concrete facts . He criticized Herbart ,
Krechmer , Vvedenskiy, Losskiy , and others, for constructing their sys
tems on abstract judgments . He endeavored to draw psychology closer
to life , to make it a practically useful science . Researchers con
sidered Lazurskiy an eminent representative of Russian experimental
psychology . He developed original methods of " clinical observation "
and " natural experimentation , " permitting the study of the personality
under the natural conditions of its life and activity . His demand to

• 910 -
give as complete as possible , factually substantiated , and psychologi
cally analyzed characteristics of school children lay at the basis of
the method of psychological observations which was later developed by
his student M. Ya . Ba sov .
During the years in which the Machists were redoubling their
efforts at spreading their idealist views on the nature of sensations ,
Lazurskiy was explaining sensations as the result of the conversion
of an external action on the organism into a fact of consciousness .
He conducted experimental research on the determining influence of the
subject's preceding experience on the perception of a given phenomenon .
He believed correctly that associations were the underlying factor in
perception , memory , and other psychic processes. of interest were his
experimental researches which brought out the great role of individual
differences in the forming of concepts . He also studied the effect of
sensations on the rate of speed of psychic processes . He rejected the
voluntaristic theories of Schopenhauer and Losskiy and considered voli
tional actions to be causally conditioned by the surrounding reality .
Lazurskiy understood personality as a more or less stable unity
of psychic processes and psychic properties. Criticizing Schopenhauer's
theory of personality , he emphasized that " individuality depends not
only on native peculiarities , but also on the character of training and
the cultural - social environment . " However , he erroneously believed
that even under favorable social conditions , each personality can de
velop only to a certain level foreordainted for it by nature , and that
the gifted supplant the less gifted , thrusting them back mainly into
the field of physical labor . Lazurskiy devoted much attention to
problems of characterology , giving his concept of the nature and struc
ture of character and developing a method of its objective study . A
mistake of the mechanistic sort was his opinion that each of the " ten
dencies , " the combination of which forms character , is made up of even
simpler elements , similar to the way in which a material substance can
be decomposed into atoms in chemistry .
Concerning all the published works on Lazurskiy it should be noted
that they correctly emphasize the positive aspects of his psychological
views but give inadequate criticism of his idealist fallacies .
Let us now turn to V. Bekhterev ( 1857-1927 ) . During the years
of the October Revolution and the Young Republic's battle with foreign
intervention and internal counterrevolution for the compiete and final
triumph of the ideas of October , this eminent Russian scholar's scien
tific and organizational- pedagogic life was already nearing its natural
end . It would be no error to say that Bekhterev's most important psy
chological works dated back to the prerevolutionary period . The cele
bration in 1957 of the 100th anniversary of his birth gave Soviet psy
chologists an opportunity to sort out the valuable and important ideas
which he introduced into the science and , at the same time , to note the
narrowness of his world outlook which he was unable to surmount .
We shall mention the following of the recent works on Bekhterev :
brochures and articles by V. N. Myasi shchev ( 246 ) , v . A. Pro setskiy

• 911 -
[2917, P. S. Gornostay 195 , 97, 987, B. G. Anan'yev /197, A. L. Shnir
man and A. V. Yarmolenko_ /4221 , V. N. Grashchenkov , V. N. Myasi shchev
and N. M. Shchelovanov / 100 / , giving a general evaluation of his psy
chological_legacy ; articles by N. M. Shchelovanov 14251 and P. S. Gor
no stay 196 / on his views on_the mental development of the child ; and
a thesis by 2. P. Isayeva ( 1467 containing valuable research material
on Bekhterev's psychological views in the prereflexological period of
his life . This thesis is similar in subject matter to an earlier work
by 2. Berkenblit 148 / .
Bekhterev's merit in developing the neurological bases of psy
chology is undisputed . His numerous researches in the morphology of
the brain led to a number of discoveries in this area . He correctly
evaluated the role of the organs of equilibrium in the process of
space perception ; he introduced many new facts in the study of the
role of the cerebellum in the coordination of movements ; his experi
ments shed light on the relationship of the thalamus opticus to ex
pressive movements and vegetative functions; he was one of the first
to study the neural connections of the cortex of the great hemispheres
with the internal organs of the body. Not satisfied with the prevail
ing narrow - localization theory , he pointed to the interaction of vari
ous parts of the cortex of the brain , in which he believed an important
role was played by associational fibers which bound separate parts of
the cortex into a single whole . He believed that one and the same por
tion of the cortex , being connected on many sides with the periphery
of the body , could take part in various functions. He firmly defended
the thesis that each area of the cortex of the brain carries out in a
definite correlation the functions both of receptor and of effector .
In 1885 , Bekhterev established the first experimental psychologi
cal laboratory in Russia , in affiliation with the chair of psychiatry
at Kazan ' University . The significance of the researches conducted in
this laboratory lies in the fact that here was waged the first battle
in the history of experimental psychology for the objective method of
studying psychic activity . The second psychological laboratory was or
ganized by him at the Military Medical Academy in St. Petersburg in
1895 . The work which was carried out here embraced problems of gen
eral psychology ( sensations , perception , memory , thought , etc. ) ; child ,
pedagogic , and medical psychology ; the psychology of labor, etc. These
researches were also characterized by a search for an objective method
of studying psychic activity .
Bekhterev attempted to extend the objective method to all
branches of psychology , including child psychology . He demonstrated
that the study of the ontogenesis of the neuropsychic activity of child
ren had the greatest significance not only as a basis for the training
of children , but also for the elaboration of the basic problems of the
psychology and physiology of the human nervous system . He was the first
to suggest the necessity of starting the child's training in the first
days of its life .

- 912 -
 In constructing his psychological system which he called " ob
jective psychology " Bekhterev attempted to transcend the framework of
subjective , idealist psychology . However , he was not in a position
to do this because he considered psychic activity only in its external
manifestations in connection with various external influences . Despite
the fact that he was unable subsequently to realize a materialist con
cept of the psychic , his unceasing struggle for an objective approach
to its study had progressive significance in the prerevolutionary con
text .
Later , his system of views took the form of so - called reflexology ,
representing a departure from the basic line of the development of the
reflex theory of Sechenov and Pavlov . Bekhterev's last works showed
even more sharply his mechanicism which was expressed in a complete re
jection of psychology as a science and in an attempt to reduce to " the
principles of the world process" ( in the final analysis , to the laws
of mechanics ) the regularities of all phenomena of activity , beginning
with the processes of inorganic nature and ending with human psychic
activity and the complex phenomena of social life . At the same time ,
his philosophical position was clearly defined as energeticism in the
spirit of Ostwald , the idealist essence of which was revealed by V. I.
Lenin .
We shall conclude our review with an examination of an article
by G. Roginskiy ( 306 ) , devoted to V. Vagner ( 1849-1934 ) . The prolific
scientific work of this eminent zoologist and psychologist , which had
begun at the end of the past century , continued under the Soviet Power ;
but a large part of his major work was published in the pre - October
period .
Roginskiy characterized Vagner not only as the first in Russia
to conduct research in comparative psychology , but also as one of the
founders of this science in general. Vagner collected and systematized
a vast amount of factual material on instincts , perceptions , emotional
conditions , memory , and individual experiences of animals at various
stages of evolution , which enabled him to create an orderly system of
zoopsychological knowledge . Vagner was a champion of the objective
method in zoopsychology . Believing that knowledge of the complex
problems of human psychology required a follow- up of the development
of mental activity in the animal world , he criticized the subjective
anthropocentric method which , he thought , was leading zoopsychology
into a blind alley . Considering research on the instinctive life of
animals a central problem of zoopsychology , Vagner proposed three ob
jective techniques of studying instincts : a ) by establishing the type
of an instinct by comparing individuals of a given species ; b ) by
establishing the affinitive of instincts in species that were similar ;
c ) by analyzing the development of the instincts of an individual in
the process of its individual development . Vagner maintained that
with all the likeness between instincts and unconditioned reflexes ,
instincts were qualitative new formations which emerged on the basis
of reflexive processes .

- 913 -
 His critique of Koehler's theory is deserving of attention .
Vagner adduces many interesting animadversions in refutation of Koeh
ler's opinions on the rationality of the behavior of monkeys . Ana
lyzing the results of experiments with monkeys, which were conducted
by other researchers , including N. Ladygina -Kots, he concludes that
the actions of monkeys are devoid of purposiveness .
Along with works on comparative psychology , Vagner conducted
researches on collective psychology , in which he was guilty of an exag
geration of the importance of psychology for purposes of explaining
social phenomena.
The attention of researchers could not but be drawn to the reso
lution of the philosophical problems of psychology which is given in
the works of the prominent Russian thinker , the great theorist of
Marxism , G. Plekhanov ( 1856-1918 ). This subject is dealt with in
the dissertations of A. Spirkin 1352 / and A. Shemyakin 1413 ) , and the
work of A. Rayevskiy [2987. The main content of the dissertations
mentioned includes the problem of the psychic and the physical , in
dividuality , and the treatment of the psychic, consciousness , and
ideology in Plekhanov's interpretation . The last of these problems
held particular interest for A. Shemyakin who analyzed it in a thesis
and in two special articles 1414, 4157 .
The authors give a predominantly critical interpretation of
Plekhanov's viewpoint , underlining the incorrect formulations of which
he is guilty and which represent deviations from the Marxist explana
tion of the given problems . The authors are correct in their criti
cism . However , the task of extraction from the " mass of excellent
work " ( Lenin ) written by Plekhanov of all that is of value for psy
chology in their content cannot as yet be considered to have been com
pletely resolved .

11

A special and cardinal theme in our literature on the history

of psychology is the history of Soviet psychology , its emergence and
development as a qualitatively new system of psychological knowledge ,
the principles and methods of which are based upon the most progressive
philosophy in the world -- Marxism - Leninism .
In 1947 , when the country was celebrating the thirtieth anni
versary of the Great October Socialist Revolution , Soviet psycholo
gists submitted a series of reports , brochures and articles in honor
of this illustrious date . The se presented an historical outline of the
psychology of the Soviet period and sought to interpret those profound
changes which had taken place in psychological science during the past
ten years . The authors were_B . G. Anan'yev /15 , 16 / , G. S. Kostyuk
/ 168 / , and B. M. Teplov ( 371 / . In this same category of retrospective
writings must be included an article of V. A. Artemov / 25 / which was
written for the twenty- fifth anniversary of Soviet psychology and a
still earlier article by K. N , Kornilov ( 157 ) , which assessed the

- 914 -
works of psychologists during the first ten years of the Soviet_regime.
There are also_the short historical outlines of I. A. Aryamov / 277 and
P. I. Ivanov / 1431 , which sketch predominantly the early developmental
stages of Soviet psychology .
The basic trend of the se summarizing writings may be described
as follows :
For its essentially new content , its progressive ideas and re
search methods and its great successes , our psychology is indebted to
the fact that it is Soviet psychology , to which , thanks to the Soviet
governmental system and to socialist society , has fallen the high honor
of beginning a new age in the development of the science of psychology .
The whole history of Soviet psychology is a reflection of the campaign
to build socialism within our country ; it amounts to something much
nore than the " self -development" of psychological ideas pure and sim
ple . The genuinely novel character of Soviet psychology did not come
about in a moment : it was the result of a prolonged struggle to master
Marxist- Leninist theory and to concretize it in psychological research .
Soviet psychology was shaped in the process of a gradual liberation
from the obsolete notions of earlier times and from the influence of
various idealist and mechanistic trends in contemporary bourgeois re
actionary psychology .
The period of formation of Soviet psychology was marked by de
cisive blows against Russian idealism in the field of psychological
science . One of the most eminent representatives of this idealism
was G. I. Chelpanov , who for many years had been actively struggling
against materialism . Pursuing the experimental method of studying
psychic phenomena at the Psychological Institute which he founded ,
Chelpanov at the same time persistently sought to limit the signifi
cance of the experiment in setting up a psychological system , and pro
posed considering as " psychology proper" a psychology which should
concern itself with investigating " the basic laws of the soul . " The
first militant pronouncements against traditional idealist philosophy
and the first appeals for a psychological science based on materialism ,
came at the beginning of the twenties and are associated with the names
of P. P. Blonskiy and K. N. Kornilov . Under the flag of materialism
then appeared the reflex psychology of V. M. Bekhterev , which in re
ality , as we have remarked , deviated from materialism in a number of
substantial aspects . The most effective part in the struggle against
the Chelpanov - type psychology was played by Kornilov , although his own
positive program suffered from serious theoretical errors and subse
quently was subject to sharp criticism ( See the materials on the so
called " reactological discussion , " published in the journal Psikhologiya
for 1931 [292 / ) .
Among the most significant facts in the development of Soviet
psychology in the second half of the twenties we must include the ap
pearance of a special trend originated by a group of young psycholo
gists ( A. R. Luriya , A. N. Leont ' yev and others ) headed by L. S. Vygot
skiy . The system of ideas championed by this group , which bore the

- 915 -
name theory of cultural-historical development , was born out of the at
tempt to explain the psychology of the individual human being as a prod
uct of historical development and to approach the process of psychic
development dialectically , pointing up , before anything else , the quali
tative peculiarity of each of its stages . However , the originators of
this theory tolerated a dualistic break between " natural" and " cul
tural" development, and interpreted in a completely abstract manner
the very course of the historical development of the psychic life .
( The criticism to which the " Cultural - historical Theory " was subjected
in the psychological discussions of the time is reflected in an arti
cle by P. I. Ra zmyslov / 301 / . ) But the unquestioned service rendered
by Vygotskiy and his colleagues was the creation of original methodolo
gies in experimental research on the higher psychic processes and the
discovery of a number of vital facts and laws in the same area . Vygot
skiy's school published a number of valuable works which have exercised
an influence on the subsequent history of Soviet psychology .
One profound error on the part of our psychologists of this
period was their infatuation with various fashionable theories of reac
tionary bourgeois psychology . Particularly harmful was the importation
onto Soviet soil of the pseudo - science of pediology . Thanks to this ,
P. P. Blon skiy for a number of years was lost to useful scientific
work ; M. Ya . Basov , who had developed a methodology for psychological
observation of children which was remarkable in its rigor and accuracy ,
fell under the same spe11 ; while L. S. Vygotskiy and others also were
influenced by pediological errors .
The 1930-1932 period of psychological discussions was a decisive
moment in the history of Soviet psychology , when that science was raised
to a new and higher level . A radical change took place in the minds of
our psychologists regarding the trends of psychology abroad . A clear
understanding arose that without thorough mastery of the Leninist theory
it was impossible to create a Marxist psychology . The direct result
was a decisive rejection of " behaviorism " in all of its forms (reaction
ary , reflexology ) . The reactionary meaning of approaching man as a re
acting automaton the essence of " behaviorism " was fully recog
nized . ( Evidence of the demise of reflexology_appears, for example ,
in a self - critical article by B. G. Anan'yev / 5_ ) , who had been of
the Bekhterev school ; cf. also the criticism of the vulgarizing errors
of the prominent representative of comparative psychology in the USSR ,
V. M. Borovskiy , which is contained in the articles of P. I. Razmyslov
/299 , 3001. )
The years immediately following the period of psychological dis
cussions were devoted to more thoroughgoing work on the methodological
bases of the science , and the search for ways and means of the resolu
tion of major problems which had been posed to psychology by various
areas of practice . During this period were published the major works
of S. V. Kravkov , S. L. Rubinshteyn and P. P. Blonskiy ( now back in
scientific psychological research ) and others .

- 916 -
 The initiation of this stage in the development of Soviet psy
chology was associated with the declaration of the Central Committee
of the All - Union Communist Party , " On Pediological Distortions in the
System of the People's Commissariats of Education , " dated 4 July 1936 .
This proclamation states with complete clarity the reactionary essence
of the main " law " of pediology , the " law " of the fatalistic condition
ing of the fate of children by biological and social factors and by
the influence of heredity and a sort of " immutable environment. " The
proclamation exposed the essential viciousness of the basic method of
pediology -- so - called testing investigations purporting to " measure "
the talent of children . There was accomplished the elimination of both
the pseudo - science of pediology and of the techniques derived from it .
Works on child and pedagogical psychology now came to the fore .
An intensive psychological research was begun of the basic aspects of
child activity learning and play ( A. N. Leont'yev , A. V. Zaporozhets,
L. I. Bozhovich ) , the development in children of the processes of per
ception , memory , thought and speech ( A , A. Smirnov , L. V. Zankov , works
under the direction of S. L. Rubinshteyn and D. N. Uznadze ) , the process
of acquiring academic knowledge and habits ( P , A. Shevarev , N. A. Men
chinskaya , L. M. Shvarts , T , G. Yegorov, Ye . V. Gur'yanov , D. N. Bogo
yavlenskiy ) . Soviet psychology renounced the pseudo - scientific pre
tense of measuring ability and talent ; and parallel with a detailed
investigation of the various forms of talent , there was begun work on
a genuinely scientific theory of talent ( B. M. Teplov ) . In 1940 ap
peared s . L. Rubinshteyn's book Fundamentals of General Psychology , in
which an attempt was made to generalize the earlier works of Soviet
psychologists and to express the cardinal principles of Soviet psychology .
In the days of the Great Patriotic War psychologists were faced
with the same task as that before the whole nation to further the
defense of the country against the Fascist invaders by every means at
their disposal. A complex of researches was developed on the subject
of defense . Such questions were studied as building up the visual and
auditory sensitivity of the soldier ( K. Kh . Kekcheyev , S. V. Kravkov ,
L. M. Shvarts ) , the revival of functions lost as the result of wounds
( A. R. Luriya , A. N. Leont'yev , A. V. Zaporozhets, s , G. Gellershteyn ,
L. V. Zankov ) , and the working out of methods for instruction in mili
tary subjects ( T. G. Yegorov , Ye . V. Gur'yanov ) .
All of the works mentioned above dealing with the history of
Soviet psychology had already been published in 1950 when the Joint
Session of the Academy of Sciences and the Academy of Medical Sciences
of the USSR took place . This session was devoted to problems of the
physiological studies of I. P. Pavlov . The Session advanced a demand
for the reconstruction of psychological science on the basis of the
Pavlovian doctrine , which is the only solid natural science foundation
of psychology . The Session made a start at the complex job of elimi -
nating from psychology the remains of subjectivism , introspectionism
and every sort of error of dualistic character . The Session exerted
a profound influence on the content , problems and methods of psycho
logical research , and it evoked an enormous flood of special psycho
logical literature .

- 917 -
 Materials on the history of the Soviet period of psychological
science are not limited to those historical outlines which we have dis
cussed above . The historian of Soviet psychology will find quite a lot
which is valuable to him in those works which give a " section ," so to
speak , of the state of psychology at a definite historical stage . Thus,
for example , the state of psychology on the eve of_the Great Patriotic
War is preserved in an article by B. G. Anan'yev 8_) , published in
1941 . Soviet psychology during the war is discussed in articles by
S , L. Rubinshteyn /312/ and B. G. Anan'yev [ 9_7. A. N. Leont'yev
[ 208 / characterizes the science ten years after the Central Committee
proclamation " On Pediological Distortions in the System of the People's
Commissariats of Education" dated 4 July 1936. The achievements of
Soviet psychology at the end_of the forties is the topic of printed
speeches of B. G. Anan'yev /16 , 171. The situation in the field of
Soviet psychology in connection with the work of its reconstruction
on the basis_of Pavlovian teaching is analyzed in a work by A. A.
Smirnov 13317. The same author has written one of the latest works
in a series of the same type in which he evaluates the condition of
psychology on the eve of the Third Conference on Questions of Psy
chology / 332 / .
Valuable data on the development of Soviet psychology are in
cluded also in those works of a survey nature which are concerned with
only a single branch of psychology . Such are the articles of P. Shev
chenko 2410 / on the concept of personality in Soviet psychological
writing ; of A. N. Rayevskiy ( 295 / on Soviet pedagogical psychology ; _of
P. R. Chamata /3951 on child psychology ; of V..N . Myasi shcheva 1247 /
on medical psychology ; of Ye . V. Gur'yanov , D. A. Oshanin and V. V.
Chebysheva ( 105 ) ( joint article ), and s . G. Gellershteyn / 78 / on labor
psychology ; of G. 2. Roginskiy ( 307 / on comparative psychology ; and of
0. I. Nikoforova / 253 / on the study of perception in artistic litera
ture ; and , finally , A. V. Petrovskiy's book [ 274 / on the history of
the liaison between psychology and the physiology of the higher neural
activity .
Of the literature devoted to the various eminent representatives
of Soviet psychology , we should note the articles of v . N. Kolbanovskiy
/154/ , and of A. N. Leont'yev and A. R. Luriya ( 2097 , which contain an
analysis of the psychological conceptions of L. S. Vygotskiy ( 1895-1934 ) .
In the first of these works Vygotskiy is characterized as a
psychologist energetically struggling with idealism and defending the
materialist positions in psychology . Having at first fallen under the
influence of behaviorism and reflexology , he at the same time dis
tinctly recognized the full " absurdity " of the reflexological denial
of the psychic life . Establishing the causes of the crisis of bourgeois
psychology , he pointed out , in particular , the tendency of psycholo
gists to convert any sort of discovery into a universal explanatory
principle . By the example of four currents of contemporary psychology
( psychoanalysis, reflexology , gestaltism and personalism ) he showed
the absurdity to which such a tendency leads . According to Vygotskiy ,

- 918
psychic phenomena deserve study as facts of objective reality . V. N.
Kolbanovskiy emphasized the significance of the investigations of Vy
gotskiy which were devoted to an analysis of the relationship between
thought and speech , the working out of general questions of psychic
development in the child , and a clarification of the relationship of
development and learning .
A. N. Leont'yev and A. R. Luriya indicate in their article that
Vygotskiy was one of the first Soviet authors to appreciate the full
significance of the problem of consciousness for materialist psychology .
According to Vygotskiy's hypothesis the basic difference between psychic
activity in man and that of animals consists in the use by man of tools
and the means of production , precisely as an intermediate relationship
between him and his environment . Forms of relationship between human
beings arising on the basis of material production and the products of
the development of the culture of society , by mediating the activity
of man , " structure " his psychic life . This is why Vygotskiy called
his conception the cultural - historical theory of the psychic life , set
ting it apart , on the one hand , from the old , idealist theory of con
sciousness as a special world of purely subjective phenomena closed
within itself ; and , on the other hand , from behaviorism , which per
ceives no difference between the behavior of animals and the psychic
activity of man . With all its inadequacies , his theory was for its
time an important step forward .
The investigations undertaken by Vygotskiy made it possible to
set up certain general laws concerning the development of the psychic
life of man . In particular , it was acknowledged that a new structure
of psychic processes , peculiar to man , is necessarily formed to begin
with in his external activity , and only subsequently can " pass within "
to become a structure of his internal processes .
The authors of the article reveal the essence of Vygotskiy's in
vestigations on the problem of the development of concepts . In these
investigations there was realized a theory of the unity of word and
meaning ; they were supposed to reveal the function of the word in the
process of formation of the concept . Vygotskiy's route was in direct
contrast to that traveled by the psychologists of the würzburg school .
Their attempt to discard the " envelope " of the word and penetrate di
rectly to the concept , to the sense , was fatal for psychological in
vestigation . The word is not an envelope ; the word is inseparable
from the meaning , and the meaning is inseparable from the word . To
study meaning amounts to studying the word from the point of view of
its function , its use in the process of generalization . The main prob
lem for Vygotskiy was to study the mental processes which lead to the
formation of a generalization . His investigations made it possible to
reveal the stages of development of concepts in the child . The descrip
tion which he gave of the formation of the generalization process from
the directly sensory , syncretic to the visual - situational, and from
this to the logical , conceptual, is one of the achievements of Soviet
psychology .

- 919 -
 Vygotskiy had something new to say in the field of the theory
of teaching . In the process of classroom learning the child starts
out from the generalizations and concepts which have grown in him .
These concepts (" everyday " or " spontaneous" concepts ) are now included
in a new process , in a new cognitive relationship to the world ; and in
this process they are transformed and change their structure . The
mastery of the foundations of the sciences , of the system of scientific
concepts , becomes foremost in the development of consciousness in the
child . This change is a transition to a new and higher structure of
consciousness . The entire system of the child's relationships is
changed , the whole of his psychic activity .
The authors of the article also treat of other aspects of the
psychological conception of Vygotskiy , but they point out the theo
retical contradictions which remain insurmountable in his works as
well as those of his propositions which require a critical attitude .
A great number of works are devoted to the psychological analy
sis of the pedagogical system of A. S. Makarenko ( 1888-1939 ) .
The investigators try in the main systematically to state and
to comment upon what is valuable in the writings and pedagogical prac
tice of Makarenko for the resolution of problems of the psychology of
the personality and its training . Here emphasis is given to the prob
lem of the formation of the moral qualities which characterize the per
sonality of the Soviet man . To this category of writings belong the
articles of V. N. Kolba novskiy /152 , 153 / and A. L. Shni rman L4211 ,
the dissertations of A. F. Kochkina_ / 1867, M. I. Smirnov / 336 / , G. M.
Yeritsyan / 1207 , T. A. Blyumina ( 521 , and Yu . V. Florovskiy ( 386 /.
Certain authors have set themselves the task of finding the psychologi
cal foundations of the predominantly concrete pedagogical techniques
of Makarenko . Such an approach is found in the articles of V. M.
Belous 144 / and M. K. Godyna 481 , 86 , 87 , 90 / . As concerns questions
of child psychology , Makarenko's ideas are treated in an article by
G. Ye . Zhurakovskiy /122/ .
12

It would be a mistake to think that all research in the history

of psychology is conducted exclusively within the Russian Federation .
We have seen earlier how large a contribution to the solution
of these questions came from psychologists of the Soviet Ukraine . They
were the first to illuminate a whole series of quite important facts
from the history of our national psychological thought , facts which
bear witness to the role of the advanced Ukrainian culture in the de
velopment of scientific psychology in Russia and in the USSR . In addi
tion we shall mention here works which present a general survey of the
history of Ukrainian psychology both in the pre - Revolutionary and in
the Soviet era . _These are the works of G. S. Kostyuk / 1767 , P. M.
Pelekh /263 , 2691 , and A. N. Rayevskiy 1294/ .

- 920 -
 Other nationalities of the USSR have also treated the history
of psychology successfully .
Extensive work along this line has been done in Georgia .
A. S. Prangishvili wrote Outlines of the History of Psychologi
cal Knowledge in Georgia ( 17th to First Third of the Nineteenth cen
tury ) . Certain portions of this systematic investigation were pub
lished in Trudy instituta psikhologii im . D. N. Uznadze AN Gruzinskoy
SSR ( Journal of the D. N. Uznadze Institute of Psychology of the Geor
gian Academy of Sciences ) , and in other publications . Among these
writings we find works of a generalizing character concerning the
condition_of psychological knowledge in Georgia in the 18th century
/ 280 , 2857 , and the reflection of this knowledge_in_the Georgian
literature of the so - called renaissance period /286/ . Other works of
the same author are devoted to the psychological views of the various
leading representatives of Georgian psychological thought . Thus
there is given an analysis / 2787 of the content of psychological
concepts in the Georgian Dictionary , compiled by an eminent writer
of the end of the 17th and beginning of the 18th centuries . Sulkhan
Saba Orbeliani ( 1658-1725 ) ; a critique of the psychological system re
flected in the " Spekal" of Antoniy Bagration ( 1720-1788 ) ; an examina
tion of the 12817 psychological views of the well known Georgian
teacher of the end of the 18th and beginning of the 19th centuries ,
Ioann Bagration ( 1772-1839 ) , who constructed a positive , antimeta
physical system of concrete psychology , taking as point of departure
the principles of materialist sensuali sm ; and an evaluation [283 , 288 ,
2897 of the solutions of the basic psychological problems which were
proposed by Solomonom Doda shvili ( 1806-1836 ) , eminent Georgian teacher
of the 19th century who was attracted by materialism .
Among the representatives of the Georgian school of psychologi
cal thought in pre -Revolutionary times, attention is attracted to
Gavriil Kikodze ( 1825-1896 ) , the author of " Fundamentals of Empirical
Psychology . " The progressive elements in his psychological system are
treated in an article by A. T. Bochori shvili / 58 / .
There are quite a number of works which deal with the history
of psychology in Soviet Georgia . The basic achievements of Georgian
psychology in the period from 1921 to 1941_are described in articles
by D. N. Uznadze [ 383/ and R. G. Natadze [ 2491. Still another article
was written by R. G. Natadze [250/ in connection with the 25th anni
versary of Soviet Georgia . Articles by A , S , Prangi shvili [ 284 / ,
R. G. Natadze / 251 / and G. V. Kariya / 150 / deal with the course of
Georgian psychology up to the 40th anniversary of the October Social
ist Revolution .
Many of the works written by Georgian psychologists have as
their subject the original psychological conception of D. N. Uznadze ,
known under the designation , _ " the theory of set ." _These include arti
cles_by A. S. Prangishvili / 2827, A. A. Kuteliya / 2987, 2. I. Khodzhava
/3937 and D. I. Rami shvili [ 303 / , all recently published in Russian .

- 921 -
 Psychologists of Soviet Armenia are actively working out the
history of psychological thought in their country .
M. A. Ma zmanyan has been most active in this field . He has
written a generalizing work on the history of Armenian psychology
/ 2187, in which he analyzes the content of the Empirical Psychology
of Nazaryanets ( 1812-1879 ) , characterizing that work as the first
original effort in psychology in Russian Armenia , and pausing to dis
cuss the psychological viewpoints of two other Armenian figures of the
19th century -- Popovyanets and ( in particular ) Bagadryan , an important
Armenian psychologist of the pre -Revolutionary period who approached
the materialistic view of the psychic life . M. A. Ma zmanyan also wrote
an article / 217 / on the psychological views of the great Armenian
writer Abovyan ( 1805-1848 ), the founder of the new Armenian literature.
Ma zmanyan reconstructs the views of Abovyan on the basis of the psycho
logical traits of one Agasi , a hero in Abovyan's novel Wounds of Ar
menia . Mazmanyanhas also occupied himself with a psychological recon
struction of the_leading Armenian revolutionist - democrat , Nalbandyan
( 1829-1866 ) [ 2257 , who was the founder of materialist psychology in
Armenia . In one of his writings ( 226 / M. A. Ma zmanyan examines the
scientific concepts of the eminent Armenian psychophysiologist S. S.
Istomanov, who in large degree followed in the footsteps of Sechenov .
Another author who has worked on the history of psychology in
Armenia is A , A. Lalayan . His investigations /200 , 2018 trace the
echoes of the ideas of I. M. Sechenov and V. M. Bekhterev among Ar
menian scholars. Certain works of an historico -psychological charac
ter 1222 , 223 / have been written jointly by M. A. Mazmanyan and A , A.
Lalayan .
We should note also the articles of Sh. S. Simonyan [ 327, 3287,
which are devoted to the psychological views of Nalbandyan , particu
larly his solution to the problem of the personality .
In Soviet Azerbayd zhan , A. K. Zakuyev is the predominant figure
in the history of psychology.
In his works /124 , 127 / A. K. Zakuyev makes a systematic investi
gation of the immense and contradictory psychological legacy of the
eminent Tadzhik philosopher and natural scientist , Abu Ali Ibn - Sina
( Avicenna ) ( ca. 980-1037 ) . The psychological position of this eminent
medieval scholar is on the whole of metaphysical character ; but it em
braces a good many progressive and materialist elements , which the au
thor has sought to bring out . A. K. Zakuyev has also produced a gen
eral survey of Arabic language psychology in the Near and Middle East
at the mid - century / 1287. Finally , there is a long article by the same
author / 125 / devoted to the psychological views of one of the most im
portant representatives of scientific thought of medieval Azerbayd zhan
Nasi reddin Tusi ( 1201-1274 ) . In resolving questions of psychology Tusi ,
as the author shows , not only went back to Avicenna and other writers ,
but to some extent laid out his own course , in his turn exhibiting a
spontaneous materialist tendency .

- 922 -
 From the point of view of the history of Russian psychology the
works of A. K. Zakuyev are of interest in that they help to clarify the
sources of certain psychological notions which became widespread among
us during the period of the Kievan State and in subsequent times .
Azerbaydzhan psychology during the Soviet period has also been
a subject of special investigation . This matter has been dealt with
in a work by S. G. Gadzhiyev 771 / .
A beginning at researches on the history of philosophy has been
made in Kazakhstan . T. Tazhibayev has produced a work _3697 , devoted
to the founder of the Kazakh literary language, Abay Kunanbayev ( 1845
1904 ) , in which are examined the great Kazakh's psychological notions,
in addition to his philosophical and pedagogical ideas .
The history of psychology in Estonia is presented in an article
by K. A. Ramul' ( 305) , who gives a survey of the courses taught in the
University of Tartu from_1802 to 1918 .
A. S. Guchas / 106 / has outlined the basic developmental stages
of psychology in Lithuania .

13

A number of the works of Soviet psychologists are devoted to

questions of the history of_psychology abroad .
A. 0. Makovel'skiy /227 , 228 / gives an analysis of the psycho
logical theory of Spinoza ( 1632-1677 ) , dwelling in particular detail
on Spinoza's theory of affects . A. T. Bochori shvili / 59 / investigates
the psychological system of John Locke ( 1632-1704 ) , while G. A. Bocho
rishvili 260 / analyzes the psychological position of an opponent of
Locke's, the philosopher - sensualist , Condillac ( 1715-1780 ) . F. I.
Georgiyev / 80 / reveals the " rational kernel" in the theory of Hegel
( 1770-1831 ) concerning consciousness , showing, on the one hand , the
essential features of the Hegelian approach to the problem of con
sciousness which distinguish it from the metaphysical , rational ap
proach , and , on the other hand , the basic differences existing in
this question between Hegel and the founders of Marxi sm - Leninism . In
another article / 79 / F. I. Georgiyev analyzes the solution of the
mind - body problem in the works of Feuerbach ( 1804-1872 ) , stressing the
idea that despite Feuerback's assertions on the impossibility of study
ing the psyche by objective methods , he nevertheless admits the possi
bility of such objective study . The views of Feuerbach concerning the
nature of desires are discussed in an article by M. I. Zarandiya / 1301.
The psychological system of A. Binet ( 1857-1912 ) , in particular his
view of child and pedagogical psychology , has been treated by N. D.
Levitov / 203/ . Still closer to_us_in time is the epoch treated in
articles by s . L. Rubinshteyn / 3117 and F. N. Shemyakin 14167, which
present a critique of the vicious psychological notions of Durkheim ,
Levy - Bruehl and other representatives of the French sociological
school .

- 923 -
 Somewhat apart among this group of works written in the USSR ,
is the investigation of D. Tolingerova / 381/ , which deals with the
system of views of the outstanding Czech scholar , Georgi Prohazka
( 1749-1820 ) , who holds an important place in the history of the re
flex theory of the psychic life .
of more comprehensive character are_the works of S. L. Rubin
shteyn / 310, 316/ and M. G. Yaroshevskiy 1441, 445 / , in which is con
structed a definite historiographic scheme of the development of for
eign psychological thought in the 19th and the beginning of the 20th
centuries . Investigating the philosophical roots of experimental psy
chology , s . L. Rubinshteyn deals with the theme that these roots must
be sought in the crisis of the Cartesian - Lockeian introspective con
ception of consciousness . The same author establishes the bond between
the latest philosophic idealist theories and psychological problems;
and he indicates how these theories not only have determined the con
ception of ideali st psychology , but have themselves been dependent upon
a definite system of psychology . M. G. Yaroshevskiy speaks out against
an exaggeration of the role of the idealist philosophy of the 19th cen
tury in the formation of our knowledge of the psychic life , and empha
sizes the significance of natural -historical materialism as the source
of ideas for those conquests in the experimental study of the psycho
logical , which have led psychology out of the sphere of pure specula
tion .
Finally , we should note that more or less thorough expeditions
into the history of both national and foreign psychology are to be
found in nearly all the important Soviet monographs of recent years .
In particular , there is extensive information on the history of the
question at hand in_the monograph of B. M. Teplov on the psychology of
musical aptitudes 13727, in A. A. Smirnov's book on the psychology of
memory (3307 , in the monograph of N. 4. Menchinskaya on the psychology
of learning arithmetic / 234 / , in N. D. Levitov's work on the psychology
of character ( 2027. in D. N. Bogoyavlenskiy's book on the psychology
of handwriting (531 , and in other writings .
14

The celebration of the 40th anniversary of the Great October

Socialist Revolution was the occasion for the summing up of the efforts
of Soviet psychologists during the whole period of the Soviet era . The
basic achievements of Soviet psychology received extensive and detailed
coverage in such major publications as the anthology , " Soviet Psychologi
cal Science for Forty Years , " published in Ukrainian with G. S. Kostyuk
as editor , and the two - volume work " Psychological Science in the USSR "
( collaborating editors : B. G. Anan'yev , G. S. Kostyuk , A. N. Leont'yev ,
A. R. Luriya , N. A. Menchinskaya , S. L. Rubinshteyn , A. A. Smirnov ,
B. M. Teplov and F. N. Shemyakin ) . These publications contain detailed
survey articles on all the cardinal problems and branches of psychologi
cal science as built upon the granite foundation of Marxist - Leninist

- 924 -
philosophy and having as its natural- science foundation the Pavlovian
doctrine of higher neural activity .
Also devoted to the achievements of Soviet psychology for the
past forty years are a book by A. N. Rayevskiy /296/ , and a series of
magazine articles. The latter_include such_articles as those_of_A . A.
Smirnov 1333/2 G. S. Kostyuk (180 , 181 , 1841 , P. R. Chamata / 398 / , and
N. K. Indik / 145 / .

Soviet psychologists have contributed a rich and varied body of

facts giving a description of various aspects of the psychology of the
past . This description is often a detailed one . We have been able to
work out definite methods of research on the history of psychology and
principles of evaluation for earlier conceptions . Both from the factual
and the methodological and the procedural aspects we are now sufficiently
equipped to take the following step : from a description of separate
facts , from an outline of separate " literary portraits, to pass to a
re - creation of a total picture , to the construction of a genuinely sci
entific history of the development of psychology in our country in all
the complexity of the causes which determined its course and direction .
There is no doubt that this step , too , will be successfully accomplished .

- 925 -
 LITERATURE

I.I. Avgus tevich , Voprosy vospitaniya myshleniya uchashch

1.
ikysya v trudakh K.D. Ushins kogo i yego posledovateley ( Questions of
Thought Training in Students in the Works of K.D. Ushinskiy and His
Successors ) , Candidate's Dissertation , Leningrad , 1958 .
2. Á.M. Avramenko , " Questions of Volitional Activity in the
Works of 1.M. Sechenov and I.P. Pavlov , " Sovetskaya Pedagogika (Sov
iet Peda gogy ) , No 8 , 1954 .
3. B.P. Aksov , Psikhologicheskiye vs glyadi N.G. Chernyshev
skogo ( Psychological Viewpoints of N.G. Chernyshevskiy ) , Candidate's
Dissertation , Ural'sk , 1939 .
4. M.I. Alekseyev , I.M. Sechenov ob ob'yektivnom kharaktere
psikhologicheskikh zakonomernos tey ( 1.M. Sechenov on the Objective
Character of Psychological Laws ), Candidate's Dissertation , Kiev ,
1955 .
5 . B.G. Anan'yev , " On Certain Questions of the Marxist
Leninist Reconstruction of Psychology , " Psikhologiya (Psychology ) ,
Vol IV , Issue 3/4 , 1931 .
6 . B.G. Anan'yev , " Tasks of the Study of the History of Rus
sian Psychology , " Sovetskaya pedagogika (Soviet Pedagogy ) , No 4,
1938 .
7 . B.G. Anan'yev , "From the History of Psychological Points
of View in Eighteenth -Century Russia , " Sovetskaya pedagogika (Soviet
Pedagogy ) , No 11/12 , 1939 .
8. B.G. Anan'yev , "On the Contemporary Condition of Psycho
logical Science in the USSR ," Sovetskaya pedagogika. (Soviet Peda
gogy ) , No 5 , 1941 .
9. B.G. Anan'yev , "From the War Experience of Soviet Psycho
logy , " Sovetskaya pedagogika (Soviet Pedagogy ) , No 2/3 , 1943 .
10 . B.G. Anan'yev , " Typical Traits of Russian Scientific
Psychology , " Nauchnaya sessiya posvyashchennaya 125 -letiyu LGU,
(A Scientific Session Honoring the 125th Anniversary of the Lenin
grad State University ) , ( Abstracts of reports ) , Leningrad , 1944 .
11. B.G. Anan'yev , " Russian Scientific Psychology and Its
Role in World Psychological Science , " Sovetskaya pedagogika (Soviet
Pedagogy ) , No 3 , 1954 .
12. B.G. Anan'yev , " K.D. Ushinskiy : Great Russian Psychol
ogist , " Sovetskaya pedagogika (Soviet Pedagogy ) , No 12 , 1954 .
13. B.G. Anan'yev, " Progressive Traditions of Russian Psy
chology , " Uchenyye zapiski MGU ( Scientific Notes of the Moscow State
University ) , Issue 90 , 1945 .
14. B.G. Anan'yev , Ocherki is torii russkoy psikhologii XVIII
i XIX vekov (Outlines of Russian Psychology in the 18th and 19th
Centuries) , State Political Publishing House , 1947 .
15. B.G. Anan'yev , " Thirty Years of Soviet Psychology , "
Sovetskaya pedagogika (Soviet Pedagogy ), No 11 , 1947.

- 926 -
 16. B.G. Anan'yev , " New Lines of Development in Psychological
Science in the USSR , " Materialy psikhologicheskoy konferentsii LGU
1-5 oktyabrya 1947 g . (Papers of the Leningrad State University Psy
chological Conference of 1-5 October 1947) , Leningrad , 1949 .
17. B.G. Anan'yev , Uspekhi sovets koy psikhologii (Achieve
ments of Soviet Psychology ) , from the stenographic record of a public
lecture , Leningrad , 1948 .
18 . B.G. Anan'yev , "The Problem of Concepts in Soviet Psychol
ogical Science , " Filosofskiye zapiski Instituta filosofii AN SSSR
( Philosophic Notes of the Philosophical Institute of the USSR Academy
of Sciences ) , Vol V , 1956 .
19. B.G. Anan'yev , " The Contribution of V.M. Bekhterev to Psy
chological Science , " Vsesoyuznaya nauchnaya konferentsiya , posvyashch
ennaya 100 - letiyu so dnya rozhdeniya V.M. Bekhtereya . 29 yanvarya
1 fevralya 1957 g . (All -Union Scientific Conference in Honor of the
100th Anniversary of the Birth of V.M. Bekterev , 29 January - l February
1957) (Abstracts or reports ) , Leningrad, 1957 .
20. B.G. Anan'yev , "The Contribution of Soviet Psychological
Science to the Theory of Sensation, " Anthology, Psikhologicheskaya
nauka v SSSR (Psychological Science in the USSR) , Vol I , Moscow ,
1959 .
20 - a . B.G. Anan'yev , "I.M. Sechenov and the Modern Theory of
Sensomotor Development in Man , " from 1.M. Sechenov i sovremennyye
problemy psikhologicheskoy nauki ( 1.2 . Sechenov and Contemporary
Problems of Psychological Science : Papers of a Scientific Session
of the Leningrad Institute of Pedagogy and the Leningrad Division of
the Society of Psychologists , edited by B.G. Anan'yev ) , Leningrad ,
1959 .
21 . V.N. Andreyeva ,
Razvitiye eksperimental'nykh metodov
issledovaniya v istorii russkoy psikhologii kontsa XII . ( The
Development of Experimental Methods of Investigation in the History
of Russian Psychology at the End of the 19th Century (on the Problem
of Sensitivity )) Candidate's Dissertation , Leningrad, 1953 .
22 . V.N. Andreyeva , " The Rise of Experimental Psychology in
Russia ," Uchenyye zapiski Daugavpilsskogo pedinstuta (Scientific
Notes of the Daugavpils Pedagogical Institute) , Issue 1 , 1958.
23. N.P. Antonov , " I.M. Sechenov on the Origin and Develop
ment of Thought , " Uchenyye zapiski Ivanovskogo pedinstituta (Scien
tific Notes of the Ivanov Pedagogical Institute ) , Vol III, 1952 .
24. Artemov , V.A. "K.D. Ushinskiy on Language and Thought and
on the Study of Foreign Languages , " Anthology , Voprosy psikhologii i
metodiki obucheniya inos trannym yazykam (Questions of Psychology and
Methodology in the Teaching of Foreign Languages ) , edited by V.A.
Artemov , I.V. Karpov and I.V. Rakhmanov , Moscow , 1947 .
25. V.A. Artemov , " Psychology in the USSR During the Past
25 Years , " Sovetskaya pedagogika (Soviet Pedagogy ) , No 10 , 1942 .

- 927 -
 26 . I.A. Aryamov , " Materialist Features of Ushinskiy's Factual
The ory and His Psychologico - Pedagogical Teaching ," Sovetskaya pedagog
ika (Soviet Pedagogy ), No 9 , 1945 .
27. I.A. Aryamov , " From the History of Soviet Psychology, "
Uchenyye zapiski Moskovskogo oblastnogo pedinstituta (Scientific Notes
of the Moscow Oblast ' Pedagogical Institute ), Vol XXIX , 1955 .
28. I.A. Aryamov , " Russian Forerunners of I.P. Pavlov , "
Uchenyye zapiski Moskovskogo oblastnogo pedinstituta (Scientific Notes
of the Moscow Oblast ' Pedagogical Institute ), Vol XXIX , 1955 .
29 . V.I. Asnin , " I.M. Sechenov on the Volitional Processes in
Man , " Nauchnaya konferentsiya Odesskogo universiteta , pos vyas hchennaya
50 - letiyu so dnya smerti I.M. Sechenova (Scientific Conference of the
University of Odessa in Honor of the 50th Anniversary of the Death of
I.M. Sechenov) (Abstracts of reports ) , 1955 .
30 . B.F. Bayev, " Problems of Thought in the Works of I.M. Sech
enov , " (in Ukrainian ), Radyans'ka shkola (Soviet School) , No 9 , 1954 .
31. B.F. Bayev, " I.M. Sechenov on the Mental Deve lopment of
Younger Children" ( in Ukrainian ), Doshkil'ne vikhovaniya (Pre - School
Training ) , No 11 , 1955 .
32 . B.F. Bayev , " I.M. Sechenov on the Transition From Sensation
to Thought , ” Voprosy psikhologii (Questions of Psychology ) , No 5 , 1955 .
33. B.F. Bayev , " Questions of the_Psychology of Cognition in
the Works of I.M. Sechenov " (in Ukrainian7, from the collection Ocherki
po istorii oteches tvennoy psikhologii XII v . (Outlines of the History
of National Psychology of the 19th Century) , Part II , edited by G.S.
Kos tyuk , Kiev , 1955 .
34 . B.F. Bayev , " I.M. Sechenov on the Genesis and Development
of Thought" [in Ukrainian ), Uchenyye zapiski Instituta psikhologii
Ministerstva prosveshcheniya USSR (Scientific Notes of the Psycholog
ical Institute of the Ministry of Education of the Ukrainian SSR) ,
Vol VI , Kiev , 1956 .
35. B.F. Bayev , " Questions of Internal Speech in the Light of
the Teaching of I.M. Sechenov , " Trudy Odesskogo universiteta (Proceed
ings of the University of Odessa) , Vol CXLVII (A Collection in Honor
of the 50th Anniversary of the Death of I.M. Sechenov ) , 1957 .
36. L.K. Balats kaya , "K.D. Ushinskiy on_the Development of the
Psychic Life of the Pre -Schooler" (in Ukrainian ], za kommunistychne
vykhovannya doshkil'nika (For the Communist Training of the Pre - Schooler)
No 1 , 1961 .
37. L.K. Balatskaya , Psikhologicheskaya sistema K.D. Ushinskogo
( The Psychological System of K.D. Ushinskiy) , Candida te's Dissertation ,
Kiev , 1945 .
38. L.K. Balatskaya , " Questions of the Development of the
Psychic Life in the Works of K.D. Ushinskiy , " [ in Ukrainian ], Radyans'
ka shkola (Soviet School ) , No 5/6 , 1945 .
39. M.Ya. Basov , " Problems of Functional Psychology as Posed
by A.F. Lazurskiy , " Voprosy izucheniya i vospitaniya lichnosti ,
( Questions of Study and Education of the Personality ) No 2 , 1920 .

- 928 -
 40. L.N. Bezotosnaya , " Psychological Views of W.A. Antonovich , "
( in Ukrainian ), Anthology , Ocherki po istorii otechestvennoy psikhol
ogii XIX v . Toutlines of the History of National Psychology in the 19th
Century ) , Part I , edited by G.S. Kostyuk , Kiev , 1955 .
42. L.N. Bezotosnaya , " Questions of the Psychology of the Per
sonality in the Works of M.A. Antonovich , " Uchenyye zapiski Kiyevskogo
pedinstituta (Scientific Notes of the Kiev Pedagogical Institute) ,
Vol XXIX , 1958 .
42. L.Ya , Belen'kaya , "I.M. Sechenov on Physical and Mental
Labor , " Trudy Odess kogo universiteta ( Proceedings of the University of
Odessa ) , Vol CXLVII ( Collection in Honor of the 50th Anniversary of the
Death of I.X. Sechenov ) , 1957.
43. L.Ya. Belen'kaya , " N.N. Lange on the Psychology of the Kin
esthetic Sense , " Materialy konferentsii . posvyashchennoy 100 - letiyu so
dnya rozhdeniya N.N. Lange ( 1858–1958) ( Materials of the Conference in
Honor of the 100th Anniversary of the Birth of N.N. Lange ( 1858–1958 ) ) ,
Odessa , 1958 .
44. V.M. Belous , Psikhologiya vospitaniya v proizvedeniyakh
Makarenko (Psychology of Education in the Works of A.S. Makarenko ) ,
A.S.
Simferopol" , 19W .
45. I.G. Belyavskiy , " Problems of Psychology in the Works of
Ivan Franko , " ( in Ukrainian ), Uchenyye zapiski Zhitomirskogo pedinsti
tuta (Scientific Notes of the Zhitomir Peda gogical Institute ), Vol IV ,
1956 .
46. V.M. Belyayev, Psikhologicheskiy analiz v tvorchestve
A.P. Chekhova (Psychological Analysis in the Art of A.P. Chekhov) ,
Candidate's Dissertation , Saratov, 1951 .
47. M.F. Belyayev , D.I. Pisarev ob interese (D.I. Pisarev on
Interest ) , Irkutsk , 1950 .
48. 2.M. Berkenblit , " Experimental - Psychological Tendency of
the V.M. Bekhterev School , " Yubileynaya sessiya Instituta po izucheniyu
mozga im . V.M. Bekhtereva , posvyashchennaya 20 - letiyuinstituta ( Jubilee
Session on the V.M. Bekhterev Institute for the Study of the Brain , in
Honor of the 20th Anniversary of the Institute ) ( Abstracts of reports ) ,
Leningrad , 1938 .
49. E.L. Berkovich , Ocherki russkoy psikhologii v. XVIII i pervoy
polovine XIX v . (Outlines of Russian Psychology in the 18th Century and
the First Half of the Nineteenth ) , Candidate's Dissertation , 1940 .
50. E.L. Berkovich , " Psychological Views of D.I. Pisarev, "
Uchenyye zapiski Chkalovskogo pedinstituta (Scientific Notes of the Ped
agogical Institute of Chkalov) , Issue 8 , 1956 .
51. E.L. Berkovich, " Questions of General and Developmental Psy
chology in the Works of N.A. Dobrolyubov ," Uche nyye zapiski Orenburg
skogo pedinstituta (Scientific Notes of the Orenburg Pedagogical In
stitute ) Issue 12 , 1958 .
52. T.A. Blyumin , Problema lichnosti v sisteme psikhologo
pedagogicheskikh vs glyadov A.S. Makarenko ( The Problem of Personality
in the Psychologico -Pedagogical System of A.S. Makarenko ) , Candidate's
Dissertation , Moscow , 1953 .

929 -
 53 . D.N. Bogoyavlenskiy , Psikhologiya osvoyeniya orfografii
(Psychology of the Mastery of Spelling ) , Moscow , 1957 .
54 . L.I. Bozhovich , "Study of the Personality of the Student
and Problems of Education , " Anthology , Psikhologicheskaya nauka_v
SSSR ( Psychological Science in the USSR ) , Vol II , publ by APN of the
RSFSR , 1960 .
55. Ye . I. Boyko, " The Problem of the Conditioned - Reflex Bases
of the Higher Psychic Processes , " Anthology , Psikhologicheskaya nauka
v SSSR ( Psychological Science in the USSR ), Vol I, publ by the APN of
the RSFSR , 1959 .
56 . V.N. Borisov , "Logical Problems relating to Conscous ness
in the Teachings of I.M. Sechenov Concerning the Reflexes of the Cere
brum , " Uchenyye zapiski Kalinins kogo pedinstituta (Scientific Notes
of the Kalinin Pedagogical Institute) Vol XVII, Issue 1 , 1954 .
57. G.I. Boryagin , " Psychological Views of M.V. Lomonosov , "
Anthology , Ocherki po istorii russkoy psikhologii (Outlines in the
History of Russian Psychology ) , edited by M.V. Sokolov , Moscow , 1957 .
58. A.T. Bochorishvili , " Fundamentals of G. Kikodze's Empirical
Psychology , " ( in Georgian7, Trudy Instituta psikhologii im D.n. Uznadze
AN GruzSSR (Proceedings of the D.N. Uznadze Psychological Institute of
the Georgian SSR Academy of Sciences ) , Vol VII , 1950 .
59. A.T. Bochorishvili, " The Place of Reflex Action in the Psy
chological System of John Locke , " (in Georgian7 , XII nauchnaya sessiya
Kutais skogo pedinstuta (Nineteenth Scientific Session of the Kutaisi
Pedagogical Institute ) , Abstracts of reports ), 1955 .
60. G.A. Bochorishvili, Psikhologicheskaya kontseptsiya E.B.
de Kondil'yaka ( The Psychological Conceptions of E.B. de Condillac) ,
Author's Abstract of Candidate's Dissertation , Tbilisi, 1958 ,
61 . V.K. Boyarchuk , "The Struggle of A.M. Antonovich for a
Materialist Psychology in the Philosophical Polemic of the 1860s ,
Nauchnaya sessiya , pos vyashchennaya 40 -letiyu Velikoy_Oktyabr'skoy
sotsialisticheskoy revolyutsii (Scientific Session in Honor of the
40th Anniversary of the Great October Socialist Revolution ) , Abstracts
of reports , Rostov -on - Don , 1958 .
62. Ye . A. Budilova , " The Problem of the Analyzers in the
Works of I.M. Sechenov , " Anthology , Ucheniye I. P. Pavlova i filosof
skiye voprosy psikhologii ( The Teachings of I.P. Pavlov and the Philo
sophic Questions of Psychology) , edited by S.A. Petrushevskiy and
others , Moscow , 1952 .
63 . Ye . A. Budilova , Ucheniye I.M. Sechenova ob oshchushchenii
i myshlenii ( The Teachings of I.M. Sechenov Concerning Sensation and
Thought ) , Moscow , 1954 .
64 . Ye . A. Budilova , " The Struggle of I.M. Sechenov for a
Materialist Psychology , " Voprosy filosofii ( Questions of Philosophy ) ,
No 1 , 1955 .
65 . Ye .A. Budilova , " The Struggle of I.M. Sechenov Against
Idealism in Psychology , " Voprosy psikhologii ( Questions of Psychology ),
No 5 , 1955 .

- 930 -
 66 . Ye . A. Budilova , " The Polemic Concerning Experimentation
and Experimental Methods in the Russian Psychology of the End of the
19th Century , " Tezisy dokladov na I S " yezde Obshchestva psikhologov
29 iyunya - 4 iyulya 1959 g . (Abstracts of Reports. at the First Congress
of the Society of Psychologists , 29 June - 4 July 1959) , Issue 1 , Mos
cow , 1959 .
67. L.I. Vasil'yeva , Psikhologicheskiye vzglyady N.A. Dobrol
yubova (Psychological Views of N.A. Dobrolyubov ) , Candidate's Disserta
tion , Odessa , 1954 .
68. V.M. Vershinina , " Psychological Analysis of Emotional Ex
pression in the Art of A.P. Chekhov , " Uchenyye zapiski Saratovskogo
Pedinstituta ( Scientific Notes of the Saratov Pedagogical Institute ) ,
Issue XXXII , 1958 .
69 . A.M. Vul'fovich , Kriticheskiy bibliograficheskiy obzor
psikhologicheskoy literatury pervoy polovinoy XII_v . (Critical Biblio
graphic Survey of the Psychological Literature of the First Half of
the 19th Century) , Candidate's Dissertation , Leningrad , 1945 .
70 . A.Ya. Vyalykh , " K.D. Ushinskiy as a Psychologist , " Sbor
nik nauchnykh trudov 5 - y nauchnoy konferentsii omskikh yuzov i nauch
nykh uchrezhdeniy 25-30 maya 1948 g . (Collectionof Scientific Works
of the Fifth Scientific Conference of the Colleges and Scientific
Institutions of the City of Omsk , 25-30 May 1948) , Omsk, 1949 .
71. S.G. Gadzhiyev , " From the History of Soviet Psychological
Science in Azerbaydzhan ," Trudy Azerbaydzhanskogo zaochnogo pedinsti
tuta ( Proceedings of the Azerbaydzhan Correspondence Pedagogical In
stitute ) Vol V, Baku , 1958 .
72 . T.Ye. Galushko , "N.G. Chernyshevskiy on the Psychology of
Sensations," ( in Ukrainian IX nauchnaya sessiya Kiyevskogo universi
teta ( Ninth Scientific Session of the University of Kiev ) (Abstracts
of reports ) , 1952 .
73 . T.Ye . Galushko , Psikhologicheskiye vzglyady N.G. Cherny
shevskogo ( Psychological Views of N.G. Chernyshevskiy ) Candidate's
Dissertation , Kiev , 1953 .
74 . T.Ye. _Galushko , "N.G. Chernyshevskiy on the Creative Work
of the Writer , " ſin Ukrainian), Uchenyye zapiski Kiyevskogo universi
teta ( Scientific Notes of thē University of Kiev ) , Vol XIV , Issue 3 ,
1955 .
75 . T.Ye. Galushko , " Psychological Views of T.G. Shevchenko ,
( in Ukrainian7, fromthecollection Ocherki po istoriiotechestvennoy
psikhologii XIX v. ( Outlines of the History of National Psychology of
the 19th Century) , Part I , edited by G.S. Kostyuk , Kiev , 1955 .
76. T.Ye. Galushko ,_" N.G . Chernyshevskiy on the Psychology of
the Cognitive Processes , " ( in Ukrainian ], Uchenyye zapiski Kiyevskogo
universiteta (Scientific Notes of the University of Kiev ) , Vol XIV ,
Issue 3 , 1957 .
77. P.Ya. Gal'perin , " Development of Investigations of the
Formation of Mental Activities ," from the collection Psikhologiches
kaya nauka v SSSR ( Psychological Science in the USSR ) , Vol I , Moscow,
1959 .

- 931 -
 78. S.G. Gellershteyn , " Questions of the Psychology of Labor , "
Voprosy psikhologii (Questions of Psychology ) , No 4, 1957 .
79 . F.I. Georgiyev, " The Mental and the Physical According to
Feuerbach , " Sovetskaya pedagogika (Soviet Pedagogy ) No 10 , 1938 .
80 . F.I. Georgiyev , " The Rational Kernel in the Teachings of
He gel on Consciousness , " Sovetskaya pedagogika (Soviet Pedagogy ) ,
No 4/5 , 1940 .
81. M.K. Godyna , " On the_Psychological Bases of the Teaching
Experience of A.S. Makarenko , " ( in Ukrainian from the collection
A.S. Makarenko Stat'i . Vospominaniya . Neopublikovannyye proizvedeniya
(A.S. Makarenko Articles . Memoirs. Unpublished Writings ) , L'vov ,
1949 .
82 . M.K. Godyna , " Questions of the Psychology of Artistic
Creation in the Works of 1.Ya. Franko, " (in Ukrainian7, Ivan Franko .
Stat'i i materialy . Sb . tretiy ( Ivan Franko . Articles and Papers .
Third Collection ) , Khar'kov , 1951-1952.
83. M.K. Godyna , " Towards a History of the Doctrine of Assoc
iation in Psychology ," [in Ukrainian), Nauchnaya konferentsiya L'vov
skogo pedins tuta (Scientific Conference of the Livov Peda gogical In
stitute (Abstracts of reports ) , Livov, 1954 .
84. M.K. Godyna, " Psychological Ideas of 1.Ya. Franko , " ſin
Ukrainian7, Anthology , Ocherki po istorii otechestvennoy psikhologii
XIX v . (Outlines in the History of National Psychology of the 19th
Century ) , Part I , edited by G.S. Kostyuk .
85. "Franko's Contribution to the Development of Progressive
Psychological Thought , " [in Ukrainian ), Uchenyye zapiski L'vovskogo
pedinstituta (Scientific Notes of the Livov Pedagogical Institute )
Vol IV, Issue 2 , Livov, 1955 .
86. M.K. Godyna , " Psychology of the Individual Approach in
the Teaching Experience of A.S. Makarenko," ( in Ukrainian7, Anthology ,
A.S. Makarenko (A.S. Makarenko ) , Book 2 , L'vov , 1955 .
87. M.K. Godyna , " Peda gogical Exactingness in the Experience
sychological Substantiation ,," (in Ukrainian )
of A.S. Makarenko and Its Psychological
Uchenyye zapiski Instituta psikhologii Ministerstva prosveshcheniya
USSR (Scientific Notes of the Psychological Institute of the Ukrain
ian SSR Ministry of Educatio . ) , Vol VI , Kiev, 1956 .
88. M.K. Godyna , " K.D. Ushinskiy on the Psychological Cul
ture of the Teacher , " (in Ukrainian ], Nauchnaya sessiya L'vovsko go
pedinstituta (Scientific Session of the Livov Pedagogical Institute )
(Abstracts of reports ) , Livov , 1956 .
89. M.K. Godyna, " Psychological Training ," ( in Ukrainian ),
Uchenyye zapiski Instituta psikhologii ministerstva prosveshcheniya
USSR (Scientific Notes of the Psychological Institute of the Ukrain
ian SSR Ministry of Education) Vol VIII , Anthology , Sovetskaya psikh
ologicheskaya nauka za 40 let (Forty Years of SovietPsychology ) ,
edited by G.S. Kos tyuk , Kiev, 1958 .

- 932 -
 90. M.K. Godyna , " The Contribution of A.S. Makarenko to the
Development of the Soviet Psychology of Education ," ( in Ukrainian ),
Radyans 'ka shkola Soviet School) , No 3 , 1958 .
91. N.K. Goncharov , " Materialist Traits in the Pedagogical
Sys ten of K.D. Ushinskiy , " Sovetskaya pedagogika (Soviet Pedagogy ) ,
No 2 , 1945 .
92. N.I. Gordiyevskiy , " Scientific and Sociopedagogical Activ
ities of Prof N.n. Lange,"ſin Ukrainian7, Zapiski Odesskogo nauchnogo
pri VUAN obshchestva ( Notesof the Odessa Scientific Society Attached
to the VUAN ) , No 1 , Odessa , 1930 .
93. N.S. Gordienko , " Lectures of A.I. Galich on Logic , Meta
physics and Morals ," Voprosy filosofii, (Questions of Philosophy ) , No
5 , 1958 .
94. L. Gordon , " The Psychology of Attention and Interest in
Ushinskiy's View, " ( in Ukrainian ), Kommunistychna osvita (Communist
Education ) , No 2 , 1941.
P.S. Gornos tay, V.M. Bekhterev - vydayushchiyseya otech
es tvennyy psikholog (v.m. Bekhterev - Eminent National Psychologist)
Kiev , 1957 .
96. P.S. Gornos tay , " V.M. Bekhterev on the Development and
Education of Children , " ſin Ukrainian ), Doshkil'ne vikhovannya (Pre
School Training) , No 3, 1957 .
97 . P.S. Gornos tay , " An Outstanding Contribution in the
Development of Materialist Education ," ( on the Hundredth Anniversary
of v.m. Bekhterev's Birth) ( in Ukrainian7, Radyans 'ka shkola (Soviet
School ) , No 2 , 1957 .
98. P.S. Gornostay , " V.M. Bekhterev on the Reflex Nature of
the Psychic Life , " Nauchnaya konferentsiya Berdichevskogo pedinsti
tuta za 1957 g . (Scientific Conference of the Berdichev Pedagogical
Institute for 1957) , ( Abstracts of reports ) , 1958 .
99. K. Kh . Grantyn ', " Basic Characteristics of P.F. Les
gaft's System of Physical Education for School -Age Children , " from
the collection Pamyati P.F. Les gafta (In Memory of P.F. Les gaft) ,
edited by Ye.n. Medynskiy , Moscow , 1947.
100. N.I. Grashchenkov , V.N. Myas ishchev , and N.M. Shchelov
anov, Vklad V.M. Bekhtereva v ucheniye o mozge i psikhike ( The Con
tribution of V.M. Bekhterev to Knowledge of the Brain and the Psychic
Life ) , Moscow , 1958 .
101. L.I. Gurevich , " Maxim Gorkiy on the Training of the Will
and Character ," ( in Ukrainian ), Radyans'ka shkola (Soviet School) , No
6 , 1953.
102 . R.G. Gurova , " Advanced Psychological Thought in the Uni
versity of Moscow , " Sovetskaya pedagogika ( Soviet Pedagogy ) , No 6 ,
1952 .
103 . R.G. Gurova , " Questions of Psychology in the Publica
tions of the University of Moscow , " Ves tnik MGU (Moscow University
News ) , No 11 , 1952 .

933 -
 104. R.G. Gurova , " Questions of Psychology in the Works of the
Philosophers of the 18th Century , " Anthology , Ocherki po istorii russ
koy psikhologii (Outlines in the History of Russian Psychology ) , edited
by M.V. Sokolov, Moscow , 1957 .
105. Ye.V. Gur ' yanov , A.D. Oshanin , and V.v. Chebysheva , " The
Present State and Tasks of the Psychology of Labor , " Voprosy psikhologii
(Questions of Psychology ), No 3 , 1957 .
106. A.S. Guchas , " Main Landmarks in the History of Lithuanian
Psychology , " Tezisy dokladov no I shyezde Obshchestva psikhologov
29 iyunya - 4 iyulya 1959 g . (Abstracts of Reports at the First Congress
of the Society of Psychologists , 29 June 4 July 1959) , Issue 1 , Mos
cow , 1959 .
107. 0.D. Davidenko , Voprosy myshleniya v trudakh I.M. Sechenova
i I.P. Pavlova ( Questions of Thought in the Works of I.M. Sechenov and
I.P. Pavlov) , Author's Abstract of Candidate's Dissertation, Kiev , 1955 .
108. K.M. De dov , " The Problem of Volitional Action in the Light
of the Works of I.M. Sechenov and I.P. Pavlov , " Uchenyye zapiski Aka
demii obs hchestvennykh nauk (Scientific Notes of the Academy of Natural
Sciences ), Issue 19, 1954 .
109. N.A. Dement'yev , Voprosy obshchey psikhologii v trudakh
N.G. Chernyshevskogo (Questions of General Psychology in the Works of
N.G. Chernyshevskiy ), Author's Abstract of Candidate's Dissertation ,
Moscow , 1955 .
110. N.A. Dement'yeva , " N.G. Chernyshevskiy on the Psychology
of the Personality , " Uchenyye zapiski Saratovskogo pedinstituta
(Scientific Notes of the Saratov Pedagogical Institute ), Issue 32 ,
1958 .
111. I.A. Derevtsov , " The Struggle of A.N. Radishchev for Mater
ialist Psychology , " Uchenyye zapiski Tomsko go universiteta (Scientific
Notes of the University of Tomsk ) , Vol XXII , 1953.
112 . N.F. Dobrynin , "Basic Questions of the Psychology of
Attention, " Anthology , Psikhologicheskaya nauka v SSSR ( Psychological
Science in the USSR ) , Vol I , Moscow , 1959 .
113. L.D. Dragoli , Voprosy dets koy psikhologii v khudozhest
vennykh proizvedeniyakh L.N. Tolstogo (Questions of Child Psychology
in the Artistic Production of L.N. Tolstoy) , Author's Abstract of
Candidate's Dissertation , Odessa , 1955 .
114. S.Ye. Drapkina, " The Philosophico - Psychological Polemics
of 1860-1862 and I.M. Sechenov , " Sovetskaya pedagogika (Soviet Peda
gogy ) , No 6 , 1939 .
115. S.Ye. Drapkina , Psikhologicheskaya sistema I.M. Sechenova
(The Psychological System of I.M. Sechenov) , Candidate's Dissertation ,
Leningrad , 1940 .
116. S.Ye. Drapkina , "N.G. Chernys hevskiy and I.M. Sechenov , "
Fiziologicheskiy zhurnal SSSR im I.M. Sechenova ( Physiological Journal
of the USSR imeni 1.m. Sechenov) , Vol XXVIII, Issue 2/3 , 1940 .

- 934 -
 117. S.Ye. Drapkina , " I.M. Sechenov as a Psycho - Physiologist , "
Sovetskaya nauka , (Soviet Science ) , No 8 , 1940 .
118. S.Ye. Drapkina, " Psychophysiological Bases of Cognitive
Activity in the Works of I.M. Sechenov , " Trudy Instituta po izucheniyu
im . V.M. Bekhtereva ( Proceedings of the V.M. Bekhterev Institute for
Brain Study) , Vol XIX , 1947 .
119. S.Ye , Drapkina , " Towards the History of Russian Psychology , "
Sovetskaya pedagogika ( Soviet Pedagogy ) , No 6 , 1949 .
119 - a . S.Ye. Drapkina , " The Theory of Associations in the Teach
ings of 1.m. Sechenov , " I.M. Sechenov i sovremennyye problemy psikhol
ogicheskoy nauki ( I.M. Sechenov and Contemporary Problems of Psycholog
ical Science ) Papers of the Scientific Conference of the Leningrad Insti
tute of Pedagogy and the Leningrad Division of the Society of Psychol
ogists ) , edited by B.G. Anan'yev , Leningrad , 1959 .
120 . G.M. Yeritsyan , Formirovaniye lichnos ti sovetskogo cheloveka
v pedagogike A.S. Makarenko (Formation of the Personality of Soviet Man ,
in the Pedagogy of A.S. Makarenko ) , Candidate's Dissertation , Moscow ,
1950 .
121 . N.I. Zhinkin , " Ways to the Study of the Mechanism of Speech , "
Anthology , Psikhologicheskaya nauka v SSSR (Psychological Science in the
USSR ) , Vol I , Moscow , 1959 .
122 . G.Ye. Zhurakovskiy , "A.S. Makarenko on the Psychology of
Childhood and Adolescence , " Sovetskaya pedagogika (Soviet Pedagogy ) ,
No 6 , 1956 .
123. P.L. Zagorovskiy , " K.D. Ushinskiy on Sensations and Their
Role in the Psychic Life of Man , " Izvestiya Voronezhsko go Pedinstituta
( Journal of the Voronezh Pedagogical Institute ) , Vol VIII , Issue 1 ,
1946 .
124 . A.K. Zakuyev , " On Certain Materialist Tendencies in the
Psychological Doctrine of Ibn Sina (Avicenna ) , " Trudy Instituta ist
orii i filosofii AN AzerbSSSR ( Proceedings of the Institute of History
and Philosophy of the Academy of Sciences of the Azerbaydzhan SSR) ,
Vol II , 1952 .
125. A.K. Zakwyev , " Psychological Views of Nasireddin Tusi,
Trudy Instituta istorii i filosofii AN AzerbSSSR ( Proceedings of the
Institute of History and Philosophy of the Academy of Sciences of the
Azerbaydzhan SSR ) , Vol VI, 1955 .
126. A.K. Zakuyev , " The Role of N.G. Chernyshevskiy in the
Development of Materialist Psychology in Russia , " Trudy In -ta istorii
i filosofii AN AzerbSSR ( Proceedings of the Institute of History and
Philosophy of the Academy of Sciences of the Azerbaydzhan SSR) , Vol I ,
1957 .
127. A.K. Zakuyev , Psikhologiya Ibn -Siny (The Psychology of
Ibn -Sina ), Baku, 1958 .
128. A.K. Zakuyev , " Arabic - language Psychology in the Near and
Middle East in the Middle Ages , " Voprosy psikhologii ( Questions of
Psychology ) , No 4 , 1959 .

- 935 -
 129 . A.V. Zaporozhets , " The Problem of Volitional Actions in
the Light of 1.M. Sechenov's Works , " Voprosy psikhologii (Questions
of Psychology ) , No 1 , 1956 .
130. M.I. Zarandiya, Feyerbach o prirode potrebnosti (Feuer
bach on the Nature of Desire ), Tbilisi, 1958 .
131 . M.B. Zarkua , Psikhologicheskiye vzglyady V.G. Belinskogo
( Psychological Views of v.G. Belinskiy) ( examined and presented in con
nection with Belinskiy's esthetic views ) , Author's Abstract of Candi
date's Dissertation , Kutaisi , 1952 .
132. M.B. Zarkua , "Some Socio -psychological Questions in the
Literary Legacy of V.G. Belinskiy , " Trudy Kutaiss kogo pedinstituta
( Proceedings of the Kutaisi Pedagogical Institute ) , Vol XIII, 1955
( in Ukrainian ] .
132 -a. B.V. Zey garnik and S.Ya. Rubinshteyn , " Experimental
Psychological Laboratories in the Psychiatric Clinics of the Soviet
Union , " Anthology , Psikhologicheskaya nauka v SSSR ( Psychological
Science in the USSR ) , Vol II, Publishing House of the APN of the
RSFSR , 1960 .
133. M.I. Zemtsova , " Peculiarities of the Cognitive Processes
of Blind Persons , " Anthology , Psikhologicheskaya nauka v SSSR_ (Psych
ological Science in the USSR ) , Vol II , Publishing House of the APN
of the RSFSR , 1960 .
134. P.Zimin , Psikhologicheskiye voprosy teorii myshleniya v
trudakh klassikov russkoy filosofii XII v . (Psychological Questions
of the Theory of Thought in the Works of Classical Russian Philosophy
of the 19th Century) , Author's Abstract of Candidate's Dissertation ,
1956 .
135. P.I. Zinchenko, " The Problem of Memory in the Works of
K.D. Ushinskiy ," (in
[ in Ukrainian
Ukrainian ), Nauchnaya khronika Khar'kovskogo
universiteta . Sb . annotatsiy. (Scientific Chronicle of the University
of Khar'kov . Collection of Annotations . ) , No 5 , 1946 .
P.I. Zinchenko , " Questions of Memory in the Works of
136 .
I.M. Sechenov , " Sb . tezisov dokladov Khar'kovskogo pedinstituta ino
strannykh yazykov (Collection of Abstracts of Reports of the Khar 'kov
Pedagogical Institute of Foreign Languages ) , Khar'kov , 1956 .
137. P.I. Zinchenko, " The Psychology of Memory ," (in Ukrainian
Uchenyye zapiski Instituta psikhologii USSR ( Scientific Notes of the
Institute of Psychology of the Ukrainian SSR) , Vol VIII , Anthology ,
Forty Years of Soviet Psychological Science , edited by G.S. Kostyuk ,
Kiev , 1958 .
138. P.I. Zinchenko , " Questions of the Psychology of Memory , "
Anthology , Psikhologicheskaya nauka v SSSR (Psychological Science in
the USSR ) , Vol I , Moscow ,
139 . A.M. Zolotarev , Psikhologicheskiye vzglyady I.M. Sechen
ova , ( Psychological Views of I.M. Sechenov ), Candidate's Disserta
tion , Moscow , 1942 .

- 936 -
 140. A.M. Zolotarev , " Questions of the Development of the Psy
chic Life in the Works of 1.M. Sechenov , " Sovetskaya Pedagogika ,
( Soviet Pedagogy ) , No 6 , 1949 .
14. A.M. Zolotarev , " Questions of Genetic Psychology in the
Works of I.M. Sechenov , " Uchenyye zapiski Gor 'kovskogo pedinstituta
( Scientific Notes of the Gor'kiy Pedagogical Institute ) , Issue 16 ,
1951 .
141 - a . A.I. Zotov , "I.M. Sechenov and Practical Questions in
the Theory of Visual Sensations, " I.M. Sechenov i sovremennyye prob
lemy psikhologicheskoy nauki ( I.M. Sechenov and Contemporary Prob
lems of Psychological Science ) Papers of a Scientific Conference of
the Leningrad Institute of Pedagogy and the Leningrad Division of the
Society of Psychologists ), edited by B.G. Anan'yev , Leningrad, 1959 .
142. A.G. Ivanov , "On the Psychological Bases of Moral Train
ing in the Pedagogical System of K.D. Ushinskiy , " Uchenyve zapiski
Yaroslavskogo pedinstituta (Scientific Notes of the Yaroslavl ' Peda
gogical Institute ), Issue 13 ( 23 ) , 1948 .
143. P.I. Ivanov , "From the History of Soviet Psychology ,
Uchenyye zapiski Tashkentskogo pedinstituta (Scientific Notes of the
Tashkent Pedagogical Institute) , Issue XV, 1959 .
144. A.Ya. Il'in, Issledovaniye I.M. Sechenovym problemy
etrazheniya deystvitel'nosti v soznanii ( Investigation by I.M. Sech
enov of the Problem of the Reflection of Reality in the Consciousness )
Author's Abstract of Candidate's Dissertation , Moscow , 1955 .
145. N.K. Indik , "Forty Years of Soviet Psychology , " Sovet
skaya pedagogika (Soviet Pedagogy ) , No 1 , 1958 .
146 . 2.P. Isayev , Psikhologicheskive vzglvady V.M. Bekhtereva
v dorefleksologicheskiy period yego deyatel'nosti (Psychological Views
of V.M. Bekhterev in the Pre - Reflexological Period of His Activity )
Author's Abstract of Candidate's Dissertation , Moscow , 1952 .
147. V.I. Kaganov , " I.M. Sechenov , " introductory article in
the book I.M. Sechenov . Izbr . filosofskiye i psikhologicheskiye proiz
vedeniya ( I.M. Sechenov : Selected Philosophical and Psychological
Works) , State Political Publishing House , 1947 .
148. V. Kaganov , Mirovozzreniye 1.m. Sechenova (Weltanschau
ung of 1.2 . Sechenov) , State Political Publishing House, 1948 .
149. L.V. Kalashnikova , Psikhologicheskiye vzglyady D.I.
Pisareva ( Psychological Views of D.I. Pisarev) , Author's Abstract of
Candidate's Dissertation , Irkutsk , 1954 .
150. G.V. Kiriya, " Development of Psychological Science in the
Georgian SSR," [in Ukrainian ), Radyans'ka shkola ( Soviet School) ,
No 11 , 1958 .
151. A.G. Kovalev , " The Method of Scientific Experiment of
A.F. Lazurskiy and Its Modern Adaptation , " Vestnik LGU ( Journal of
the Leningrad State University ) , Issue 2 , No 11, 1958 . 10
152. V.N. Kolbanovskiy, " A.S. Makarenko as a Psychologist ,
Sovetskaya pedagogika (Soviet Pedagogy) , No 3 , 1949 .

- 937 -
 153. V.N. Kolbanovskiy , "The Psychology of Personality in the
Works of A.S. Makarenko , " Sovets kaya pedagogika (Soviet Pedagogy ) ,
No 3 , 1950 .
154 . V.N. Kolbanovskiy , "On the Psychological Views of L.S. Vy
gotskiy , " Voprosy psikhologii (Questions of Psychology ), No 5 , 1956 .
155 . A.D. Kolbin , Psikhologicheskiye vozzreniya A.I. Galicha
( Psychological Views of A.I. Galich ) , Author's Abstract of Candidate's
Dissertation , Moscow , 1953 .
156 . N.A. Konovalov , " Childhood and Youth in the Artistic Crea
tions of L.N. Tolstoy , " Uchenyye zapiski Permsko go universiteta , (Sci
entific Notes of the University of Perm ') , 1920 .
157 . K. Kornilov, " The Present - Day Condition of Psychology in
the USSR ," Uchenyye zapiski Instituta eksperimental'noy psikhologii
(Scientific Notes of the Institute for Experimental Psychology ) , Vol
III , Moscow , 1928 .
158 . K.N. Kornilov , " K.D. Ushinskiy as a Psychologist , Uch
enye zapiski MGPI im V.I. Lenina (Scientific Notes & the V.I. Lenin
Moscow State Psychological Institute ) , Vol XXXIII, 1946 .
159. T.V. Kosma , Psikhologiya N.N. Lange ( The Psychology of
N.N. Lange) Candidate's Dissertation , Kiev , 1944 .
160 . T.V. Kosma , Psikhologicheskoye naslediye N.N. Lange ( The
Psychological Heritage of N.n. Lange ) (in Ukrainian ], Radyans 'ka
shkola ( Soviet School ) , No 3 , 1945 .
161 . T.V. Kosma, " Questions of Psychology in the Publications
of I.I. Novikov , " [in Ukrainian ), Anthology , Ocherki po istorii otech
estvennoy psikhologii (XVII -XVIII w . ) (Outlines of the History of
National Psychology of the 17th and 18th Centures ), edited by G.S.
Kos tyuk , Kiev , 1952 .
162 . T.V. Kosma, "The Problem of the Development of the Psychic
Life in the Works of N.N. Lange " ( Papers of a Conference in Honor of the
100th Anniversary of the Birth of N.N. Lange (1858-1958 ) ) , Odessa ,
1958 .
163. G.S. Kostyuk , "Karl Marx on the Consciousness of Man , "
in Ukrainian ), Uchenyve zapiski UNDIP ( Scientific Notes of the
ŪNDIP ), Vol
vol Ī, Kiev , 1940 .
164 . G.S. Kostyuk , " Ushinskiy as a Psychologist " (in Ukrain
ian ) , Komunis tychna osvita ( Communist Education ) , No 2, 1941.
165 . G.S. Kostyuk , "Gertsen as a Psychologist ," ( in Ukrain
ian7, Radyans 'ka shkola , ( Soviet School ) ; No 1/2 , 1945 .
166. _G.S . Kostyuk, " Ushinskiy on the Psychological Bases of
Teaching , " ſin Ukrainian7 , Radyans'ka shkola (Soviet School) , No 1/2 ,
1946 .
167. G.S. Kostyuk , "On the Psychological Ideas of M. Gor'kiy , "
(in Ukrainian ), Radyans 'ká shkola (Soviet School ), No 3 , 1946.
168.G.S. Kostyuk , " Thirty Years of Soviet Psychology , " ( in
Ukrainian7, Radyans'ka shkola (Soviet School) , No 5, 1947 .

- 938 -
 169 . G.S. Kos tyuk , Psikhologicheskiye vzglyady V.G. Belinskogo ,
( Psychological Views of v.g, Belinskiy ) [in Ukrainian), Kiev , 1949.
170. G.S. Kostyuk , " Psychological Views of T.G. Shevchenko ,
( in Ukrainian], Radyans 'ka shkola (Soviet School ), No 2 , 1949.
171. G.S. Kostyuk , " Questions of the Psychology of Cognition
in the ' Pedagogical Anthropology ' of K.D. Ushinskiy , " ſin Ukrainian ] :
an introductory article to Vol IV of Sobr . soch . K.D. Ūshins kogo (Col
lected Works of K.D. Ushinskiy ) , Kiev , 1952 .
172. G.S. Kostyuk , "Questions of the Psychology of Sensation
and Volltion in K.D. Ushinskiy's 'Pedagogical Anthropology ', " ſin
Ukrainian ]: an introductory article to Vol V of Sobr . sochi K.D. Ush
inskogo Collected Works of K.D. Ushinskiy ) , Kiev , 1952 .
173. G.S. Kos tyuk , " Psychological Ideas of A.N. Radishchev , "
Lin Ukrainian ], Anthology, Ocherki po istorii otechestvennoy psikh
ologii (XVII-XVIII v . ) ( outlines of the History of National Psychology ,
17th and 18th Centuries) , edited by G.S. Kostyuk , Kiev , 1952 .
174. G.S. Kostyuk , " Psychological Views of G.S. Skovoroda , "
{in Ukrainian ], Anthology, Ocherki po istorii otechestvennoy psikhol
ogii (XVII -XVIII v .) (Outlines of the History of National Psychology,
17th and 18th Centuries) , edited by G.S. Kos tyuk , Kiev , 1952 .
175 . G.S. Kostyuk , " Psychological Views of M.V. Lomonosov ,
( in Ukrainian ), Anthology, Ocherki po istorii otechestvennoy psikhol
ogii (XVII-XVIII w .) (Outlines of the History of National Psychology ,
17th and 18th Centuries ) , edited by G.S. Kos tyruk , Kiev , 1952 .
176 . G.S. Kostyuk , " Russo -Ukrainian Liaison in the Formation
of Progressive National Psychological Thought, " Izves tiya APN RSFSR
( Journal of the APN of the RSFSR ), Issue 65 , edited by N.A. Kons tan
tinov , 1955 .
177 . G.S. Kos tyuk , " The Psychological Ideas of V.G. Belinskiy , "
[ in Ukrainian ], Anthology , Ocherki po istorii otechestvennoy psikhol
ogii XIX v . Toutlines of the History of the National Psychology of the
19th Century ) , Part One , edited by G.S. Kostyuk , Kiev , 1955 .
178 . G.S. Kos tyuk , " Questions of Psychology in the Works of
A.I. Gertsen " ( in Ukrainian ] , Anthology , Ocherki po istorii otechest
vennoy psikhologii XIX v . Toutlines of the History of the National
Psychology of the 19th Century) , Part One , edited by G.S. Kostyuk ,
Kiev , 1955 .
179. G.S. Kostyuk , " The Significance of the Works of 1.M.
Sechenov for the Development of Materialist Psychology , " Trudy Odess
kogo universiteta ( Proceedings of the University of Odessa) , Vol CXLVII
(Collection in Honor of the 50th Anniversary of the Death of 1.M.
Sechenov) , 1957 .
180. G.S. Kostyuk , " Achievements of Soviet Pedagogical Psych
ology Over Forty Years ," { in Ukrainian7, Radyans'ka shkola (Soviet
School) , No 11 , 1957 .
181 . G.S. Kostyuk , " Questions of Thought in Soviet Psychology , "
Voprosy psikhologii (Questions of Psychology ) , No 5 , 1957 .

- 939 -
 182. G.S. Kos tyuk , "N.N. Lange's Law of Perception ," Materialy
konferentsii posvyashchennoy 100 -letiyu sodnya rozhdeniya N.N. Lange
(1858-1958) ( Papers of a Conference in Honor of the 100th Anniversary
of the Death of N.N. Lange (1858-1958 ) , Odessa , 1958 .
183. G.S. Kostyuk , " Problems of the Psychology of Thought, "
( in Ukrainian ), Uchenyye zapiski Instituta psikhologii Ministers tva
pros veshcheniya USSR (Scientific Notes of the Psychological Institute
of the Ministry of Education of the Ukrainian SSR) , Vol VIII , Anthology ,
Sovets kaya psikhologicheskaya nauka za 40 let (Forty Years of Soviet
Psychological Science) , edited by G.S. Kostyuk , Kiev , 1958 .
184. G.S. Kostyuk, "Basic Trends of Development in the Investi
gations of Soviet Pedagogical Science Over Forty Years , " Uchenyye zap
iski Kiyevskogo pedinstituta (Scientific Notes of the Kiev Pedagogical
Institute ), Vol XXVIII, 1958 .
185. G.S. Kos tyuk , " Questions of the Psychology of Thought, "
Anthology , Psikhologicheskaya nauka v SSSR ( Psychological Science in
the USSR ) , Vol I , Moscow , 1959 .
186. A.F. Kochkina , Tselenapravlennoye formirovaniye lichnosti
v opyte A.S. Makarenko ( Purposeful Formation of the Personality in the
Experience of A.S. Makarenko ) , Author's Abstract of Candidate's Dis
sertation , Stavropol ' , 1949 .
187. Kh.S. Koshtoyants , Ivan Mikhalovich Sechenov ( Ivan Mikhay
lovich Sechenov ) , Moscow , 1945 .
188 . Kh.S. Koshtoyants , Ocherki po istorii fiziologii v rossii
(Outlines of the History of Physiology in Russia) chapters VIII -XV ,
Moscow /Leningrad , 1946 .
189. Kh.S. Koshtoyants , I.M. Sechenov - otets russkoy fiziologii
( 1.M. Sechenov - Father of Russian Physiology ) , a Stenographic Report
of a Public Lecture , Moscow , 1951 .
190. Kh.S. Koshtoyants , " I.M. Sechenov in the Struggle for a
Materialist Study of the Psychic Processes , an introductory article
to the book I.M. Sechenov , Izbrannyye proizvedeniya ( I.M. Sechenov .
Selected Works ) , Vol I , 1952 .
191. M.I. Kruglyak , " N.V. Gogol's Ideas on Teaching and Edu
cation , " _in Ukrainian ), Radyans 'ka shkola ( Soviet School) , No 2 ,
1952 .
192. M.I. Kruglyak , " Gogol's Ideas on Personality and Educa
tion , " Uchenyye zapiski Nezhinskogo pedinstituta (Scientific Notes
of the Nezhin Pedagogical Institute ) , Vol IV-V, 1954 .
193. V.A. Krutetskiy , " The Problem of Character in the Works
of Soviet Psychologists , " Voprosy psikhologii (Questions of Psychol
ogy ) , No 6 , 1957.
194. A.P. ,Kudima , " K.D. Ushinskiy on the Formation of Con
cepts ," _in Ukrainian ) Uchenyye zapiski Khersonskogo pedinstituta
(Scientific Notes of the Kherson Pedagogical Institute ) , Vol VIII,
1957 .

- 940 -
 195. Ye.s. Kuz'min, " On the Contemporary Tasks in the History
of Psychology , " Voprosy psikhologii (Questions of Psychology ) , No 2 ,
1957.
196. Ye.s. Kuz'min , " From the History of Teachings on Desires , "
Uchenyye zapiski LGU (Scientific Notes of the Leningrad State Univer
sity) , Issue 11, No 244 , 1957.
197. V. Kukushkina , " The Doctrine of I.M. Sechenov as a First
Attempt to Construct a Materialist Psychology , " Uchenyye zapiski
Vladimirskogo pedinstituta (Scientific Notes of the Vladimir Pedagog
ical Institute ) , Issue 4 , 1958 .
198. A.A. Kuteliya , "On the Fundamental Positions of D.N.
Uznadze's Theory of Set , " Voprosy psikhologii (Questions of Psychology )
No 2 , 1956 .
199. N.N. Ladygina - Kots , " Works of Soviet Scholars in the Field
of Comparative Psychology , " Anthology , Psikhologicheskaya nauka v SSSR
( Psychological Science in the USSR ) , Vol II , publ by the APN of the
RSFSR , 1960 .
200. A.A. Lalayan , " Echoes of the Ideas of I.M. Sechenov in the
Pre -Soviet Armenian Press , " ( in Armenian ) , izvestiya AN ArmSSR . Ser
iya biologicheskikh nauk . (Proceedings of the Academy of Sciences of
the Armenian SSR . Biological Sciences Series ) , Vol VIII, No 2 ,
Yerevan , 1955 .
201. A.A. Lalayan , " S.I. Topalov ( Topal'yants ) Psychologist ,
Representative of the School of V.M. Bekhterev , " Sbornik nauchnykh
trudov psikhologicheskoy laboratorii pri Yeveranskom armyanskom
pedenstitute ( Anthology of Scientific Writings of the Psychological
Laboratory of the Yerevan Armenian Pedagogical Institute ) , 1959.
N.D. Levitov, Voprosy psikhologii kharaktera (Questions
202 .
of the Psychology of Character ) , Moscow , 1956 .
203. N.D. Levitov , "Alfred Binet ( on the 100th Anniversary
of His Birth ) ," Voprosy psikhologii ( Questions of Psychology ) , No 6 ,
1957 .
204. Ye.I. Legkov , " Questions of the Psychology of the Will
in the Works of 1.M. Sechenov , " ( in Ukrainian7, Anthology, Ocherki
po istorii otechestvennoy psikhologii XII v .(Outlines of the Hist
ory of National Psychology of the 19th Century ), Part Two , edited
by G.S. Kostyuk , Kiev , 1955 .
205. Ye . I. Legkov , " The Psychological Heritage of N.A. Do
brolyubov , " ( in Ukrainian ], Anthology , Ocherki po istorii otechest
vennoy psikhologii XIX v . ( Outlines of the History of National
Psychology of the 19th Century) Part One , edited by G.S. Kostyuk ,
Kiev , 1955 .
206. M.V. Leykina , " Games in the Physical Education System
of P.F. Les gaft , " from the collection Pamyati P.F. Les gaft ( in
Memory of P.F. Les gaft ) , edited by Ye.N. Medynskiy , Moscow , 1947 .
207. N.S. Leytes , " Individual Differences in Ability , '
Anthology, Psikhologicheskaya nauka v SSSR ( Psychological Science
in the USSR) , Vol II, publ . by the APN of the RSFSR , 1960 .

. ‫ او‬-
 208. A.N. Leont'yev , " Soviet Psychology After the Proclama
tion of the Central Committee of the Communist Party , ' On Pediolog
ical Distortions in the System of the People's Commissariate of
Education ' , " Sovetskaya pedagogika (Soviet Pedagogy ) , No 7 , 1946 .
209. A.N. Leont'yev and A.R. Luriya , " Psychological Position
of L.S. Vygotskiy , " introductory article to the book L.S. Vygotskiy .
Izbrannyye psikhologicheskiye issledovaniya (L.S. Vygotskiy . Sel
ected Psychological Researches ) , Moscow , 1956 .
210. A.N. Leont'yev , "On the Historical Approach to the
Study of the Psychic Life of Man , " Anthology , Psikhologicheskaya nauka
v SSSR ( Psychological Science in the USSR ) , Vol I , Moscow , 1959 .
211. N.P. Lin'kova , " Questions of Psychology in the Russian
Periodical Publications of the Second Half of the 18th Century , "
Tezisy dokladov no I s " yezde Obshchestva psikhologov 29 iynya -4_iulya
(Abstracts of Reports at the First Congress of the Society of Psych
ologists , 29 June - 4 July) , Leningrad, 1959 .
212. D.O. Lordkipanidze , Pedagogicheskoye ucheniye K.D. Ush
inskogo. ( Pedagogical Theories of K.D. Ushinskiy) , Moscow, 1950 .
212 - a . B.F. Lomov , " I.M. Sechenov and the Theory of Touch, "
I.M. Sechenov i sovremennyye problemy psikhologicheskoy nauki ( I.M.
Sechenov and Contemporary Problems of Psychological Science)
Papers of a Scientific Conference of the Leningrad Institute of
Pedagogy and the Leningrad Division of the Society of Psychologists ,
edited by B.G. Anan'yev , Leningrad, 1959 .
213 . A.R. Luriya , " Paths of Soviet Psychology Over 15 Years , "
Sovetskaya Psikhonevrologiya ( Soviet Psychoneurology ) , Khar ' kov,
No 1,1933 .
214 . A.R. Luriya , "Soviet Psychology in the Study of Brain
Diseases and the Reestablishment of Damaged Functions ," ( in Ukrain
ian ), Uchenyyezapiski Instituta psikhologii Ministerstvā prois
veshcheniya USSR (Scientific Notes of the Psychological Institute
of the Ministry of Education of the Ukrainian SSR) , Vol VIII , An
thology , Soviet Psychological Science Over 40 Years , edited by G.S.
Kos tyúk , 1958 .
215. A.R. Luriya , " Development of Speech and the Formation
of Psychic Processes , " Anthology , Psikhologicheskaya nauka v SSSR
( Psychological Science in the USSR ), Vol I , Moscow , 1959 .
215 -a . A.R. Luriya , "The Study of Brain Diseases and of the
Reestablishment of Damaged Functions in Soviet Psychology , " Anthology ,
Psikhologicheskaya nauka v SSSR ( Psychological Science in the USSR ),
Vol II , publ. by the APN of the RSFSR , 1960 .
276. L.T. Lyushina , Psikhologicheskiye vzglyady N.G. Cherny
shevskogo (Psychological Views of N.G. Chernyshevskiy ) , Author's
Abstract of Candidate's Dissertation , Irkutsk , 1954 .
217. _M.A . Mazmanyan , " Khachatur Abovyan and His Agassiz ,'
(in Armenian Sovetakan grakanutyun (Soviet Literary Journal ), 1948 .

- 942 -
 218. M.A. Mazmanyan , "From the History of Psychology in
Armenia , " Materialy psikhologicheskoy konferentsii LGU (1-5 oktya
brya , 1947 g .) , (Papers of a Psychological Conference of the Lenin
grad State University , 1-5 October 1947) , Leningrad , 1949 .
219. M.A. Mazmanyan , "The Problem of the Interrelationship
of Thought and Speech in the Works of the Russian Materialists , "
( in Armenian7, Sovetakan mankavarzh (Soviet Pedagogical Journal) ,
No 2 , 1952 .
220. M.A. Mazmanyan , " I.M. Sechenov and the Problem of the
Interrelationship of Thought and Speech ," ( in Armenian ), Sovet
akan mankavarzh (Soviet Pedagogical Journal) , No 2 , 1953 .
221. M.A. Mazmanyan , " On_the Question of the Psychological
Views of N.G. Chernyshevskiy ," [ in Armenian Sovetakan mankavarzh
(Soviet Pedagogical Journal) , No 7 , 1953 .
222. _M.A . Mazmanyan , and A.A. Lalayan , " A Follower of
Sechenov , " ( in Armenian ] Izvestiya AN ArmSSR ( Journal of the Acad
emy of Sciences of the Armenian SSR) , No 7 , 1956 .
223. M.A. Mazmanyan and A.A. Lalayan , " Theoretical and
Practical Questions of the Study of the Speech Function in the
Works of M.A. Astavatsaturov , " IV ob " yedinennaya nauchnaya konfer
entsiya fiziologov zakavkazkikh pedinstitutov (Fourth Joint Sci
entific Conference of Physiologists of the Transcaucasian Pedagog
ical Institute) ( Abstracts of reports ) , Yerevan , 1957 .
224 . M.A. Mazmanyan , " Certain Stages of Development of
Soviet Psychophysiology , " Sb . nauchnykh trudov Yerevanskogo arm
yans kogo pedinstituta (Anthology of Scientific Works of the Yerevan
Armenian Pedagogical Institute ) , No 4 , 1958 .
225. M.A. Mazmanyan , " From the History of Armenian Psycho
logical Thought , " Sb . nauchnykh trudov psikhologicheskoy laboratorii
pri Yerevanskom armyanskom pedinstitute (Anthology of Scientific
Works of the Psychological Laboratory of the Yerevan Armenian Peda
gogical Institute ) , 1959 .
226. M.A. Mazmanyan , " Toward the History of the Reflex Theory
of Sensation , " ibid .
227 . A.0 . Makovel'skiy , " Spinoza as a Psychologist ," Uchen
yye zapiski Azerbaydzhanskogo universiteta ( Scientific Notes of the
Azerbaydzhen University ) , Baku , 1956 .
228 . A.0 . Makovel'skiy , " Benedict Spinoza and His Place in
the History of Psychology , " Voprosy psikhologii ( Questions of Psy
chology ) , No 5 , 1959 .
229. L.I. Marisova , Problemy kharatera v trudakh G.N. Cherny
shevskogo i N.A. Dobrolyubova (Problems of Character in the Works of
N.G. Chernyshevskiy and I.A. Dobrolyubov ) , Candidate's Dissertation ,
Kiev , 1954 .
230. L.I. Marisova , "N.G. Chernyshevskiy and N.A. Dobrolyu
bov on the Interrelationship of the Ideology of the Personality and
Its Character , " ( in Ukrainian ), XIII naychnaya sessiya Kiyevskogo
universiteta ( Thirteenth Scientific Session of the University of
Kiev) (Abstracts of reports ) , Kiev , 1956 .

- 943 -
 231 . Ye.N. Me dynskiy , " In Memory of AF . Les gaft, " from the
Collection Pamyati P.F. Les gafta ( In Memory of P.F. Les gaft ), edited
by Ye .n . Medynskiy , Moscow , 1947 .
232. Ye.n. Medynskiy , " Pedagogical Heritage of P.F. Lesgaft ,
Sovetskaya pedagogika (Soviet Pedagogy ) , No 2 , 1950 .
233. I. Meyks han , " Psychological Bases of the Pedagogical
Theory of K.D. Ushinskiy ," [in Lettish], Padom'yu Latviyas Skola
(Soviet Latvian School ), No 5 , 1949 .
234 . N.A. Menchinskaya , Psikhologiya obucheniya arifmetike
( The Psychology of Teaching Arithmetic ) , Moscow , 1955 .
235 . N.A. Menchinskaya , "Soviet Psychology of Teaching , "
Voprosy psikhologii (Questions of Psychology ) , No 5 , 1957 .
236. N.A. Menchinskaya, " The Psychology of Teaching ," ſin
Ukrainian ), Uchenyye zapiski Instituta psikhologii Ministerstva
prosveshcheniya USSR (Scientific Notes of the Psychological Institute
of the Ministry of Education of the Ukrainian SSR) , Vol VIII, An
thology , Sovetskaya psikhologicheskaya nauka za 40 let (Forty Years
of Soviet Psychological Science) , edited by G.S. Kos tyruk , Kiev , 1958 .
237 . N.A. Mench inskaya and D.N. Bogoyavlenskiy , " The Psychology
of Study , " Anthology , Psikhologicheskaya nauka v SSSR ( Psychological
Science in the USSR ) , Vol II , Moscow , 1960 .
238 . Ye.A. Mileryan, " I.M. Séchenov on Attention ," ( in Ukrain
ian ], Anthology , Ocherki po istorii oteches tvennoy psikhologii XIX v .
( Outlines of the History of National Psychology of the 19th Century )
Part Two , edited by G.S. Kostyuk , Kiev , 1955 .
239 . Ye .A. Mileryan , "Questions of the Psychology of Attention , "
( in Ukrainian7, Uchenyye zapiski Instituta psikhologii USSR (Scien
tīfic Notes of the Institute of Psychology of the Ukrainian SSR ),
edited by G.S. Kos tyuk , Kiev , 1958 .
240 . V.V. Mironenko , " The Problem of Talent in the Works of
V.G. Belinskiy , " Izvestiya Krymskogo pedinstituta ( Proceedings of the
Crimean Pedagogical Institute ) , Vol XV, Simferopol ' , 1950 .
241. V.V. Mironenko , " The Problem of Temperament and Charac
ter in the Works of V.G. Belinskiy , " Izvestiya Krymskogo pe dins tituta
( Proceedings of the Crimean Pedagogical Institute ), Vol XVII , Sim
feropol ' , 1951 .
242 . V.V. Mironenko , Voprosy psikhologii lichnos ti v trudakh
V.G. Belinskogo ( Questions of the Psychology of Personality in the
Works of V.G. Belinskiy ) Author's Abstract of Candidate's Disserta
tion, Moscow , 1954 .
243. A.V. Moroz , " K.D. Ushinskiy on Visual Aids in Teaching , "
in Ukrainian7 , Doklady i soobshcheniya Livovskogo universiteta
TReports and Communications of the University of L'vov ) , Issue VI,
Part One , L'vov , 1955 .
244 . A.V. Moroz , " K.D. Ushinskiy on Visual Aids in Teaching
the Mother Tongue , " ( in Ukrainian?, Uchenyye zapiski L'vovskogo
pedinstituta (Scientific Notes of the Livov Peda go gical Institute ),
Issue 2 , Pedagogical Series , Livov , 1955 .

- 944 -
 245. A.V. Moroz , " Toward the Question of the Unity of Language
and Thought in the Works of K.D. Ushinskiy , " ( in Ukrainian), Doklady
i soobshcheniya L'vovskogo universiteta (Reports and Communications of
the University of Livov) , Issue 8 , L'vov , 1957 .
246. V.N. Myas ishchev , V.M. Bekhterev zamechatel'nyy uchenyy ,
vrach , pedagog , obshchestvennyy deyatel' (V.M. Bekhterev - Remarkable
Scholar , Physician , Pedagogue , Public Figure) , Kirov , 1956 .
247. V.N. Myas ishchev , "On the Significance of Psychology for
Medicine , " Voprosy psikhologii ( Questions of Psychology ), No 3 , 1956 .
248. V.N. Myas ishchev , "Basic Problems and Contemporary State
of the Psychological Relationships of Man , " Anthology , Psikhologich
eskaya nauka v SSSR ( Psychological Science in the USSR ) , Part Two,
published by the APN of the RSFSR , 1960 .
249. R.G. Natadze, " Psychology Up To the 20th Anniversary of
Soviet Georgia ," [ in Georgian ), Trudy Tbilisskogo uchitel'skogo in
stituta ( Proceedings of the Tbilisi Teachers ' Institute) Vol I, 1941 .
250 . R.G. Natadze , " Psychology Up To the 25th Anniversary of
Soviet Georgia, " ( in Georgian ), Anthology, Nauka za 25 - let Sovetskoy
Gruzii ( Twenty - five years of Science in Soviet Georgia) , Vol III,
Tbilisi , 1946 .
251. R.G. Natadze , " Questions of Thought and Speech in the
Works of the Psychologists of the Georgian SSR, " Voprosy psikhologii
( Questions of Psychology ) , No 5 , 1957 .
252. R.G. Na tadze , " Experimental Bases of the Theory of Set
of D.N. Uznadze , " Anthology , Psikhologicheskaya nauka v SSSR (Psych
ological Science in the USSR) , Vol II, publ. by the APN of the RSFSR ,
1960 .
253. 0.1 . Nikiforova , " The Study of the Perception of Artistic
Literature in Soviet Psychology , " Voprosy psikhologii (Questions of
Psychology ) , No 3 , 1957 .
254. D.F. Nikolenko , " Psychological Views of Ya.P. Kozel'skiy , "
( in Ukrainian7 Anthology , Ocherki po istorii otechestvennoy psikhol
ogii ( XVII -XVIII w .) (Outlines of the History of National Psychology
(17th - 18th centuries) ) , edited by G.S. Kostyuk , Kiev , 1952 .
255. D.F. Nikolenko , " The Struggle Centering Around the Mater
ialistic Understanding of the Nature of the Psychic Life in National
Psychology During the Period of the First Russian Revolution ," ſin
Ukrainian7, Uchenyye zapiski Kiyevs kogo pedinstituta (Scientific
Notes of the Kiev Pedagogical Institute ), Vol XVIII, 1955 .
256. D.F. Nikolenko , "The Psychology of Volitional Activity ,'
( in Ukrainian ), Uchenyye zapiski Instituta psikhologii Ministerstva
prosveshcheniya USSR (Scientific Notes of the Psychological Institute
of the Ministry of Education of the Ukrainian SSR ), Vol VIII , Anthol
ogy , Sovetskaya psikhologicheskaya nauka za 40 let ( Forty Years of
Soviet Psychological Science ) , edited by G.S. Kostyuk , Kiev , 1958 .
257. S.Yu. Novomiskaya , " Basic Traits of University Psychology
in the Ukraine in the 19th century , " Na uchnaya sessiya Instituta
psikhologii Ministerstva prosveshcheniya USSR (Scientific Session of

- 945 -
of the Psychological Institute of the Ministry of Education of the
Ukrainian SSR) , 2-5 February 1948 ( Abstracts of reports , in Ukrain
ian) , Kiev , 1948 .
258. P.M. Pelekh , " On the Life and Creative Activity of Skovo
roda , " (in Ukrainian7, Zapiski nauchnogo obshchestva im . Shevchenko
(Notes of the Shevchenko Scientific Society) , Vol CXXXVII , L'vov ,
1925 .
259. P.M. Pelekh , " For the 300th Anniversary ( 1647-1947) of
the Oldest National Course in Psychology ," / in Ukrainian ], Nauchnaya
sessiya Instituta psikhologii Ministerstva prosves hcheniya USSR 2-5
fevralya 1948 8. (Scientific Session of the Institute of Psychology
of the Ministry of Education of the Ukrainian SSR , 2-5 February 1948)
( Abstracts of reports ), Kiev , 1948 .
260. P.M. Pelekh , Psikhologiya v Kiyevo -Mogilyanskoy kollegii
XVII v . ( Psychology in the Kiev -Mogilyan College of the 17th Century )
Author's Abstracts of Candidate's Dissertation , Kiev , 1949 .
261 . P.M. Pelekh , "From the History of National Psychology of
the 17th Century , " Anthology , Ocherki po istorii oteches tvennoy psikh
ologii XVII -XVIII v. ( Outlines of the History of National Psychology of
the 17th and 18th Centuries ) , edited by G.S. Kostyuk , Kiev , 1952 .
262 . P.M. Pelekh , " Psychology in the Kiev Academy in the 18th
Century , " [in Ukrainian], Anthology , Ocherki po istorii otechestvennoy
psikhologii (XVII-XVIII stoletiva ) (outlines of the History of National
Psychology of the 17th and 18th Centuries) , edited by G.S. Kos tyuk ,
Kiev , 1952 .
263 . P.M. Pelekh, " Russo -Ukrainian Unity in the Development of
National Psychology , " ( in Ukrainian ], Radyans 'ka shkola (Soviet School),
No 5 , 1954 .
264 . P.M. Pelekh , " Progressive Ideas_in National_Psychology
in the Early Decades of the 19th Century ," (in Ukrainian Anthology,
Ocherki po istorií otechestvennoy psikhologii XIX v . ( Outlines of the
History of National Psychology of the 19th Century) , edited by G.S.
Kostyuk , Kiev , 1955 .
265 . P.M. Pelekh , " The Contribution of N.G. Chernys hevskiy
to the Development of a Materialist Psychology , " (in Ukrainian7 ,
Anthology , Ocherki po istorii otechestvennoy psikħologii XII V. (Out
lines of the History of National Psychology of the 19th Century ),
edited by G.S. Kos tyuk , Kiev , 1955 .
266. P.M. Pelekh , " Progressive Ideas in the National Psych
ology of the 17th and the Beginning of the 18th Centuries , " Izvestiya
APN RSFSR ( Proceedings of the APN of the RSFSR ) , edited by N.A. Kon
stantinov , No 65 , Moscow , 1955 .
267 . P.M. Pelekh , " I.M. Sechenov on the Psychology of the
Sensations , " Anthology , Ocherki po istorii otechestvennoy psikhologii
XIX v . ( Outlines of the History of National Psychology of the 19th
Century) [in Ukrainian7, Part Two, edited by G.S. Kostyuk, Kiev, 1955.

- ‫ ياو‬6 .
 268. P.M. Pelekh, " Questions of the Psychology of Personality , "
( in Ukrainian], Uchenyye zapiski Instituta psikhologii Ministerstva
prosveshcheniya USSR (Scientific Notes of the Psychological Institute
of the Ministry of Education of the Ukrainian SSR) , Vol VIII , (Collec
tion Sovetskaya psikhologicheskaya nauka za 40 let ( Forty Years of
Soviet Psychological Science ) , edited by G.S. Kos tyuk , Kiev, 1958 .
269. P.M. Pelekh , " Progressive Ideas in the History of Psycho
logical Thought in the Ukraine Before the October Revolution , " Tezisy
dokladov na I s "yezde Obshchestva psikhologov 29 iunya- 4 iylya 1959 g .
(Abstracts of Reports at the First Congress of the Society of Psych
ologists , 29 June - 4 July 1959) , Issue 3 , Moscow , 1959 .
270 . A.V. Petrovskiy , "On the Pronouncements of A.N. Radishchev
on Questions of Natural Science , " Voprosy filosofii ( Questions of Phil
osophy ) , No 1 , 1950 .
271 . A.V. Petrovskiy , " An Atheistic Dissertation in the 18th
Century, " Voprosy filosofii (Questions of Philosophy ) , No 1 , 1950 .
272. A.V. Petrovskiy , " Petr Lyubovskiy - Progressive Psycholo
gist of the Beginning of the 19th Centry , " Voprosy filosofii (Questions
of Philosophy ) , No 3 , 1952 .
273. A.V. Petrovskiy , "A.N. Radishchev as a Psychologist , "
Anthology , Ocherki po istorii russkoy psikhologii ( Outlines of the
History of Russian Psychology ) , edited by M.V. Sokolov , Moscow , 1957 .
274 . A.V. Petrovskiy , " Towards the History of the Bond of
Psychology and the Physiology of Higher Neural Activity in Soviet
Science , " Tezisy dokladov no I s " yezde Obshches tva psikhologov
29 iunya - 4 iulya 1959 g . (Abstracts of Reports at the First Congress
of the Society of Psychologists , 29 June - 4 July 1959) , Issue 1 , Moscow ,
1959 .
275 . K.K. Platonov , and A.A. Lavnikov , Materialy iz proshlogo
oteches tvennoy aviatsionnoy meditsiny (Materials from the Past of
National Aeronautical Medicine ) , Moscow , 1957 .
276 . K.K. Platonov , " Psychology of Flight Operations , " Anthol
ogy , Psikhologicheskaya nauka v SSSR (Psychological Science in the
USSR) , Vol II, Moscow , 1960 .
277. G.L. Potanina , Ucheniye o vnimanii peredovykh russkikh
psikhologov kontsa XIX v . i nachala XI v . (Theory of Attention of the
Progressive Psychologists of the End of the 19th Century) Author's
abstract of Candidate's Dissertation , Moscow , 1955 .
278 . A.S. Prangishvili , " Psychological Views of Sulkhan
Saba Orbeliani on the Determination of_Psychological Concepts , as
given in the 'Georgian Dictionary ', " /in Georgian, resume in Russian ],
Trudy Instituta psikhologii im . D.N. Üznadze AN Gruz SSR (Proceedings
of the D.N. Uznadze Psychological Institute of the Academy of Sciences
of the Georgian SSR) , Vol IV, 1957 .
279 . A.S. Prangishvili , " The System of Psychological Knowledge
in the 'Spekali ' Antoniy Bagration , " in Georgian , resume in Russian ,
Trudy TGU ( Proceedings of the Tbilisi State University ), Vol XXXV ,
1950 .

- 947 -
 280. A.S. Prangishvili, " Materials Towards the History of
Psychological Knowledge in Georgia in the Second Half of the 18th
Century, * ( in Georgian, resume in Russian ), Trudy Instituta psikh
ologii im . D.N. Uznadze AN GruzSSR (Proceedings of the D.N. Uz
nadze Psychological Institute of the Academy of Sciences of the
Georgian SSR) , Vol VII , 1950 .
281. A.S. Prangishvili, " Psychological Knowledge in the Works
of Ioann Bagration , " ( in Georgian with Russian resume Trudy Insti
tuta psikhologii im . Õ.n. Uznadze AN GruzSSR , (Proceedings of the
D.N. Uznadze Institute of Psychology ) , Vol IX , 1954 .
282. A.S. Prangishvili , " On the concept of Set in the System of
Soviet Psychology ," Voprosy psikhologii (Questions of Psychology ) ,
No 3 , 1955 .
283. A.S. Prangishvili , " Psychological Views of Solomon Dodash
vili , " ( in Georgian7, Komunisturi agzrdisatvis (Communist Training ),
No 6, 1955 .
284. A.S. Prangishvili , " Psychological Science in Georgia Up To
the 40th Anniversary of the October Socialist Revolution , " ( in Georgian
with Russian resume /, Trudy Instituta psikhologii im . D.N. Uznadze AN
GruzSSR ( Proceedings of the D.N. Uznadze Psychological Institute of the
Academy of Sciences of the Georgian SSR) , Vol XI , 1957 .
285. A.S. Prangishvili, " Psychological Knowledge in the Georgian
Training Colleges of the 18th Century , " ( in Georgian , with Russian re
sume7, Trudy Instituta psikhologii im . D.n. Uznadze ÁN GruzSSR ( Proceed
ings of the D.N. Uznadze Psychological Institute of the Academy of Sci
ences of the Georgian SSR) , Vol XI , 1957.
286. A.S. Prangishvili, " The Problem of Man and His Spiritual
Life in the Georgian Literature of the so-called Renaissance Period, "
( in Georgian, with Russian resume7, Trudy Instituta psikhologii.im .
Õ.N. Uznadze AN GruzSSR , (Proceedings of the D.N. Uznadze Psychological
Institute of the Academy of Sciences of the Georgian SSR ) , Vol XI ,
1957 .
287. A.S. Prangishvili , Ocherki po istorii psikhologicheskikh
znaniy v Gruzii (XVII v . -pervaya tret ' XIX V. (Outlines of the History
of Psychological Knowledge in Georgia , 17th -First Third of the 19th
Centuries ) , ( Author's Abstract of Doctoral Dissertation ) , Tbilisi,
1957 .
288. A.S. Prangishvili, " Concerning an Unpublished Letter of
s . Didashvili," [in Georgian) , Tsiskari ( Dawn ), No 5 , 1958 .
289. A.S. Prangishvili, " Psychological Opinions of Dodashvili ,10
Tezisy dokladov na I s " yezde Obshchestva psikhologov , 29 iyuna -4 iyulya
( Abstracts of Reports at the First Congress of the Society of Psycholo
gists, 29 June -4 July) , Issue 1 , Moscow , 1959 .
290. A.S. Prangishvili , "General Psychological Theory of Set , "
Anthology , Psikhologicheskaya nauka v SSSR ( Psychological Science in
the USSR ) , Vol II, Moscow , 1960 .

948 -
 291. V.A. Prosetskiy , " V.M. Bekhterev as Psychologist and Peda
gogue ,"Uchenyye zapiski Yeletskogo pedinstituta ( Scientific Notes of
the Yelets Pedagogical Institute ) , Issue 3, 1957.
292 . Psikhologiya (Psychology ) , Vol IV, Issue 1/2 , Moscow , 1931 .
293. A.Ts . Puni, " Certain Problems of the Psychology of Sports
Contests , " Anthology , Ps ikhologicheskaya nauka v SSSR ( Psychological
Science in the USSR ) , Vol II, publ . by the APN of the RSFSR , 1960 .
294 . A.N. Rayevskiy , " Thirty Years of the Development of Psych
ological Science in the Soviet Ukraine , " Materialy psikhologicheskoy
konferentsii LGU 1-5 oktyabrya 1947 g . (Papers of the Psychological
Conference of the Leningrad State University , 1-5 Oct 1947 ) , 1949.
295. A.N. Rayevskiy , " Significance of the Works of V.I. Lenin
for the Development of Soviet Pedagogical Psychology , " [ in Ukrainian),
Radyans'ka shkola (Soviet School ) , No 4 , 1958 .
296 . A.N. Rayevskiy , Psikhologiya rechi v sovetskoy psikholog
icheskoy nauke za 40 let (1917-1957) ( The Psychology of Speech During
Forty Years of Soviet Psychological Science , 1917–1957 ) , Kiev , 1958 .
297 . A.N. Rayevskiy , "Speech and Its Development in Children ,"
( in Ukrainian7 Uchenyye zapiski Instituta psikhologii Ministerstva
prosveshcheniya USSR (Scientific Notes of the Psychological Institute
of the Ministry of Education of the Ukrainian SSR ) , Vol VIII (Collec
tion , Sovetskaya psikhologicheskaya nauka za 40 let ( Forty Years of
Soviet Psychology) ) , edited by G.S. Kos tyruk , Kiev , 1958 .
298 . A.N. Rayevskiy , " G.V. Plekhanov and Materialist Psych
ology , " Tezisy dokladov na I s " yezde Obshches tva psikhologov (Ab
stracts of Reports of the First Congress of the Society of Psychol
ogists , 29 June - 4 July 1959) , Issue I , Moscow , 1959 .
299. P.I. Razmyslov , " Against Mechanism in Psychology , "
Kniga i proletarskaya revolyutsiya ( The Book and the Proletarian
Revolution ) , No 10 , 1933 .
300 . P.I. Razmyslov , "On the Errors of Professor Borovskiy , "
Kniga i proletarskaya revolyutsiya ( The Book and the Proletarian
Revolution ) , No 3 , 1934 .
301. P.I. Razmyslov , " On the Cultural -Historical Theory of
Psychology , " Kniga i proletarskaya revolyutsiya ( The Book and the
Proletarian Revolution ) , No 4 , 1934 .
302 . P.I. Razmyslov , " The Problem of Psychic Development of
Children in the Works of the Revolutionary Democrats , ". Tezisy dok
ladov na I s " yezde Obshches tva psikhologiv 29 iyunya- 4 iyulya
1959 8 . ( Abstracts of Reports at the First Congress of the Society
of Psychologists , 29 June - 4 July 1959) , Issue 1 , Moscow , 1959.
303. D.I. Ramishvili, "on theBasic Content of the Theory of
Set , " Voprosy psikhologii (Questions of Psychology ) , No 3 , 1957 .
304 . K.A. Ramull, " K.D. Ushinskiy and Western European Psych
ology of His Day , " Voprosy psikhologii (Questions of Psychology ),
No 5 , 1956 .

- 949 -
 305. K.A. Ramul ' , " Psychology at Tartu University , " Voprosy
psikhologii ( Questions of Psychology ) , No 1 , 1960 .
305 - a . S. Rakhimov , " Certain Materialist Elements in the Psych
ological Opinions of Abu Ali Ibn Sina , " Tezisy dokladov po psikhologii
vtoroy respublikanskoy nauchnoy konferentsii Instituta pednauk Vinis ter
stva prosveshcheniya UzSSR i Uzbekskogo otdeleniya Obshchestva psikhol
ogov 21-26 dekabrya 1959 8. (Abstracts of Reports on Psychology at the
Second Republic Scientific Conference of the Institute of Pedagogical
Sciences of the Ministry of Education of the Uzbek SSR , and the Uzbek
Division of the Society of Psychologists , 21-26 December 1959) , Tash
kent , 1959 .
306. G.2 . Roginskiy , " Vagner , V.A. " Sovetskaya pedagogika
(Soviet Pedagogy ) , No 1 , 1940 .
307. G.Z. Roginskiy , " Comparative Psychology in the USSR , "
Vestnik LGU ( Herald of the Moscow State University ) No 7 , 1947 .
308. I.T. Romanyuk , " Questions of the Psychology of Sensation
in the works of 1.M. Sechenov and I.P. Pavlov, " (in Ukrainian ), Nauchnyy
yezhe godnik Kiyevskogo universiteta za 1957 (Science Yearbook of the
University of Kiev for 1957) , Kiev , 1958 .
309. S.L. Rubinshteyn , " Problems of Psychology in the Works of
K. Marx , " Sovetskaya psikhotekhnika (Soviet Psychotechnics ), Vol VII,
No 1 , 1934 .
310. S.L. Rub inshteyn , " Philosophical Roots of Experimental
Psychology , " Uchenyye zapiski LGPI im . Gertsena (Scientific Notes of
the Leningrad Certsen State Psychological Institute ) , Vol XXIIV ,
Leningrad , 1940 .
311. S.L. Rubinshteyn , " The Psychological Position of the
French Sociological School , " Uchenyye zapiski LGPI im . Gertsena
(Scientific Notes of the Leningrad Gertsen State Psychological Insti
tute ) , Vol XXXV , Leningrad , 1941 .
312. S.L. Rubinshteyn , " Soviet Psychology During the Great
Patriotic War , " Pod znamenem marksizma ( Under the Banner of Marxism ) ,
No 9/10 , 1943 .
313. S.L. Rubinshteyn , Os novy obshchey psikhologii, Izd . 2
(Fundamentals of General Psychology ) , Moscow , 1946 , Chapter III,
(History of Psychology ) .
314. S.L. Rubinshteyn , " Physiology and Psychology in the Scien
tific Activity of 1.m. Sechenov , " Fiziologicheskiy zhurnal SSSR im .
I.M. Sechenova ( The Physiological Journal of the USSR imeni I.M.
Sechenov) , Vol XXXII, Issue 1 , 1946 .
315. S.L. Rubinshteyn , " The Psychological Viewpoint of I.M.
Sechenov and Soviet Psychological Science , " Voprosy psikhologii
( Questions of Psychology ) , No 5 , 1955 .
316. S.L. Rubinshteyn , "Philosophy and Psychology ( from the
History of Philosophical and Psychological Thought at the Beginning
of the 20th Century) , " Voprosy filosofii ( Questions of Philosophy ) ,
No 1 , 1957.

- 950
 317. S.L. Rubinshteyn , "The Principle of Determinism and the
Psychological Theory of Thought, " Anthology , Psikhologicheskaya nauka
v SSSR ( Psychological Science in the USSR ) , Vol I , Moscow , 1959 .
318. P.A. Rudik , "The Psychology of Sports ," Anthology ,
Psikhologicheskaya nauka v SSSR ( Psychological Science in the isso),
Vol II , Moscow , 1960 .
319 . Ye.F. Rybalko , " Views of I.M. Sechenov on the Problem of
Desires , " Uchenyye zapiski LGU (Scientific Notes of the Leningrad State
University ) , Issue 16 , No 265 , 1959 .
320 . N.A. Rybnikov , "Chekhov as a Child Psychologist, " Sem'ya i
shkola (Family and School ) , No 7 , 1954 .
321. P.I. Sadchikova , Psikhologicheskoye naslediye A.F. Lazur
skogo ( The Psychological Heritage of A.F. Lazurskiy ) Author's Abstract
of Candidate's Dissertation , Moscow , 1955 .
321 -a . Yu.A. Samarin , " Questions of Mental Activity in the
Works of I.M. Sechenov , " I.M. Sechenov i sovremennyye problemy psikhol
ogicheskoy nauki ( I.M. Sechenov and Contemporary Problems of Psychol
ogical Science ) Papers of a Scientific Conference of the Leningrad Ped
agogical Institute and the Leningrad Division of the Society of Psych
ologists , edited by B.G. Anan'yev) , Leningrad , 1959 .
322. M.A. Sverdlin , "On the Attitude of Seche nov to Helmholtz's
Theory of Symbols , " Trudy Stalingradskogo meditsinskovo instituta
( Proceedings of the Stalingrad Medical Institute ) , Vol VII, 1948 .
323. M.A. Sverdlin , " Philosophical Views of I.M. Sechenov ,
Uchenyye zapiski Akademii obs hchestvennykh nauk (Scientific Notes of
the Academy of Social Sciences) , No 15 , 1952 .
324 . V.I. Selivanov, "on the Development of the Materialist
Concept of the Will in Pre -Marxian Philosophy , " Uchenyye zapiski
Ryazanskogo pedinstituta (Scientific Notes of the Ryazan ' Pedagogical
Institute ) , Vol XIII, 1956 .
325. 1.B. Selikhanovich , " Thoughts of I.M. Sechenov on Educa
tion , " (in Ukrainian7, Radyans 'ka shkola (Soviet School ) , No 11 , 1955 .
326. Ye.n. Semenovskaya , "Concerning Certain Physiological Laws
and Mechanisms of Visual Sensations and Perceptions , " Anthology,
Psikhologicheskaya nauka v SSSR (Psychological Science in the USSR ) ,
Vol I , Moscow , 1959 .
327. Sh. S.Simonyan , "On the Psychological Views of Mikael
Nalbandyan ," [ in Armenian ), Sovetakan mankavarzh (Soviet Pedagogical
Journal ) , No īl, 1954 . n
328. _Sh . S. Simonyan , "Mikael Nalbandyan on the Personality ,
( in Armenian7, Sbornik nauchnykh trudov psikhologicheskoy laboratorii
pri Yerevanskom pedinstitute im . Kh . Abovyan (Anthology of Scientific
Works of the Psychological Laboratory of the Kh . Abovyan Pedagogical
Institute of Yerevan ), Yerevan , 1959.
329. A.S. Sleyshka , Ucheniye I.M. Sechenov o vospriyatii pro
stranstva ( 1.M. Sechenov's Theory of Space Perception ) Author's Ab
stract of Candidate's Dissertation , Moscow , 1955 .

- 951 -
 330. A.A. Smirnov, Psikhologiya zapominaniya ( The Psychology of
Recall ) , Moscow /Leningrad, 1948 .
331. A.A. Smirnov , Sos toyaniye psikhologii i yeye perestroyka
na osnove ucheniya I.P. Pavlova ( The Condition of Pychology and Its Re
construction on the Basis of I.P. Pavlov's Teaching ) , Moscow , 1952 .
332. A.A. Smirnov , "On the State of Scientific Research in Psy
chology ," Voprosy psikhologii (Questions of Psychology ) , No 5 , 1955 .
333. A.A. Smirnov , " Forty Years of Soviet Psychology , " Voprosy
psikhologii ( Questions of Psychology ) , No 5 , 1957 .
334. A.A. Smirnov , "The Development of Memory , " Anthology ,
Psikhologicheskaya nauka v SSSR (Psychological Science in the USSR ) , Vol
I, Moscow , 1959.
335. V.2 . Smirnov , " N.G. Chernyshevskiy and N.A. Dobrolyubov on
the Balanced Development of Personality , " Sovets kaya pedagogika_ (Soviet
Pedagogy ) , No 4 , 1955 .
336 . M.I. Smirnov, K voprosuo psikhologicheskom analize protses
sa formirovaniya sovetskogo cheloveka v pedagogicheskoy praktike A.S.
Makarenko ( Towards the Question of the Psychological Analysis of the
Formation of Soviet Man in the Pedagogical Practice of A.S. Makarenko )
Author's Abstract of Candidate's Dissertation , Moscow , 1949 .
337. I.P. Smoliy , Ucheniye ob assotsiatsii v russkoy psikhol
ogicheskoy literature vtoroy poloviny XIX st . ( Theory On Association
in the Russian Psychological Literature of the 19th Century ) , Author's
Abstract of Candidate's Dissertation , Kiev , 1953 .
338. I.P. Smoliy , " The Problem of Associations in the Works
of I.M. Sechenov ," (in Ukrainian ), Anthology, Ocherki po istorii otech
es tvennoy psikhologii XIX v . (Outline of the History of National Psy
chology of the 19th Century) , Part Two , edited by G.S. Kos tyuk , Kiev,
1956 .
339. A.N. Sokolov , "Questions of the Psychology of Understand
ing in the Works of K.D. Us hinskiy, " Voprosy psikhologii (Questions of
Psychology ) , No 6 , 1955 .
340. A.N. Sokolov , " Researches on the Problem of the Speech
Mechanisms of Thought , " Anthology , Psikhologicheskaya nauka v SSSR
( Psychological Science in the USSR) , Vol I , Moscow , 1959.
341. Ye.N. Sokolov , " The Reflex Bases of Perception , An
thology , Psikhologicheskaya nauka v SSSR ( Psychological Science in the
USSR ) , Vol I , MOSCOW , 1959 .
342. M.V. Sokolov, " Progressive Psychological Thought in the n
University of Moscow During the First Century of Its Existence , Vop
rosy psikhologii (Questions of Psychology ) , No 2 , 1955 .
343. M.V. Sokolov , " Russian and Ukrainian Psychological Thought
Up To the Union of the Ukraine With Russia , " Izvestiya APN RSFSR
( Journal of the APN of the RSFSR ) , edited by N.K. Konstantinov, No 65 ,
Moscow , 1955 .
344. M.S. Sokolov , " Questions of Psychological Theory at the
Russian Congresses on Pedagogical Psychology , " Voprosy psikhologii
( Questions of Psychology ) , No 2 , 1956 .

952 -
 345. M.V. Sokolov , "A Criticism of the Test Methods at the Rus
sian Congresses on Experimental Pedagogy , " Voprosy psikhologii (Questions
of Psychology ) , No 6 , 1956 .
346. M.V. Sokolov , " Psychological Views in Ancient Russia , " An
thology , Ocherki po istorii russkoy ps ikhologii (Outlines of the History
of Russian Psychology) , edited by M.V. Sokolov , Moscow , 1957.
347. M.V. Sokolov , Psikhologiya (Psychology ) , from Yezhe godnik
Bol ' shoy Sovetskoy entsiklopedii 1958 ( Yearbook of the Breat Soviet En
cyclopedia , 1958) , Moscow , 1958 .
348. M.V. Sokolov, Psikhologiya ( Psychology ) , from Yezhegodnik
Bol'shoy Sovetskoy entsiklopedii 1959 (Yearbook of the Great
Soviet
Encyclopedia , 1959 , Moscow , 1959 .
349. M.V. Sokolov , "At the Sources of Russian Psychology , "
Tezisy dokladov na I s " yezde Obshchestva psikhologov 29 iunya - 4 iyulya
1959 8. (Abstracts of Reports at the First Congress of the Society of
Psychologists , 29 June - 4 July 1959) , Issue 1 , Moscow , 1959 .
350. I.M. Solov'yev , " Questions of the Psychology of the Deaf
Mute Child , " Anthology , Psikhologicheskaya nauka v SSSR (Psychological
Science in the USSR ) , Vol II , Moscow , 1960 .
351. Yu.I. Solov'yev and N.N. Ushakova , "From the History of the
Struggle of Russian Natural Scientists of the First Half of the 19th
Century Against Idealist Philosophy of Nature , " Voprosy filosofii (Ques
tions of Philosophy ) , No 1 , 1954 .
352. A.G. Spirkin , Filosofskiye problemy psikhologii v trudakh
Plekhanova ( Philosophic Problems of Psychology in the Works of Plekhanov) ,
Candidate's Dissertation, Moscow, 1948 .
353. Ye.I. Stepanova , Razvitiye deterministicheskogo ponimaniya
voli v russkoy psikhologii ( s 60 -x godov XII stoletiya ) (Development of
the Deterministic Concept of the Will in Russian Psychology Since the
Sixties of the 19th Century ) , Author's Abstract of Candidate's Disserta
tion , Leningrad, 1955 .
354. Ye.I. Stepanov , "From the History of the Theory of Volun
tary Behavior , " Voprosy psikhologii (Questions of Psychology ) , No 4 ,
1957 .
355. V.I. Strakhov , " Pronouncements of I.A. Goncharov on the
Creative State in a Literary Work , " Uchenyye zapiski Saratovskogo
pedinstituta (Scientific Notes of the Saratov Pedagogical Institute ) ,
Issue 26 , 1956 .
356. V.I. Strakhov , " On the Creative Process of I.A. Goncharov ,"
Uchenyye zapiski Saratovs kogo pedinstituta ( Scientific Notes of the
Saratov Pedagogical Institute ) , Issue 29 , 1957 .
357. V.I. Strakhov , " I.A. Goncharov on Artistic Thinking , "
Uchenyye zapiski Saratovskogo pedinstituta (Scientific Notes of the
Saratov Pedagogical Institute ) , Issue 32, 1958 .
358. I.V. Strakhov , " The Psychology of Images in the Art of
L.N. Tolstoy , " Nauchnaya sessiya LGU ( Scientific Session of the Lenin
grad State University ) , Leningrad, 1945 .

- 953 -
 359. I.V. Strakhov , " Inner Monologues in the Works of L.N.
Tolstoy as a Source for Studying Emotional -Volitional Processes , "
Sovetskaya pedagogika (Soviet Pedagogy ) , No 3 , 1946 .
360 . I.V. Strakhov , " The Structure of Inner Monologues in
the Art of L.N. Tolstoy , " Nauchnyy byulleten ' LGU (Scientific Bul
letin of the Leningrad State University ) , No 9 , 1946 .
361 . I.V. Strakhov , " Interior Speech in the Art of A.P. Che
khov , " Nauchnyy byulleten LGU (Scientific Bulletin of the Leningrad
State University ) , No 10 , 1946 .
362. I.V. Strakhov , " Questions of the Psychological Heritage
of N.G. Chernyshevskiy , " Uchenyye zapiski Saratovskogo pedinstituta
(Scientific Notes of the Saratov Pedagogical Institute ) , Issue 9 ,
1947 .
363. I.V. Strakhov , "L.N. Tolstoy as Psychologist , " Uchenyye
zapiski Saratovskogo pedinstituta (Scientific Notes of the Saratov
Pedagogical Institute ) , Issue 10 , 1947 .
364 . I.V. Strakhov , " Character and Its Stable Traits in the
Art of L.N. Tolstoy , " Anthology , Problemy psikhologii (Problems of
Psychology ) , edited by B.G. Anan'yev , Leningrad , 1948 .
365 . I.V. Strakhov , " L.N. Tolstoy on the Psychology of Char
acter , " Uchenyye zapiski Saratovskogo pedinstituta ( Scientific Notes
of the Saratov Pedagogical Institute ) , Issue 12 , 1948 .
366. V.M. Strukulenko, " Questions of the Psychology of Speech
in the Works of 1.M. Sechenov , " Trudy Odesskogo universiteta ( Proceed
ings of the University of Odessa) , Vol CXLVII, (Anthology in Honor of
the 50th Anniversary of the Death of I.M. Sechenov) , 1957 .
367 . T.G. Sultanguzin , "Statement and Solution by I.M. Sech
enov of a Psychophysical Problem , " Uchenyye zapiski Groznens kogo ped
instituta ( Scientific Notes of the Groznyy Pedagogical Institute ) ,
Vol VII, Issue 1-4 , 1952 .
368. T. Tazhibayev, Psikhologiya i peda go gicheskaya psikhol
ogiya K.D. Ushinskogo ( Psychology and Pedagogical Psychology of K.
D. Ushinskiy) , Alma -Ata , 1948 .
369. T. Tazhibayev , Filosofs kiye, psikhologicheskiye i ped
agogicheskiye vzglyady Abaya Kunanbayeva (Philosophical , Psycholog
ical and Pedagogical Views of Abay Kuranbayev ) , Alma -Ata , 1957 .
370. B.M. Teplov , " A.I. Gertsen as Psychologist , " Sovetskaya
pedagogika (Soviet Pedagogy ), No 5/6 , 1945 .
371. B.M. Teplov , Sove tskaya psikhologicheskaya nauka za 30
let ( Thirty Years of Soviet Psychological Science) , A Stenographic
Report of a Public Lecture , Moscow , 1947 .
372. B.M. Teplov , Psikhologiya muzykal'nykh sposobnos tey
( The Psychology of Musical Aptitudes ) , Moscow /Leningrad , 1947 .
373. B.M. Teplov , " Psychological Views of V.G. Belinskiy , "
Sovetskaya pedagogika (Soviet Pedagogy ) , No 5 , 1948 .
374 . B.M. Teplov , " Philosophic and Psychological Views of
I.M. Sechenov , Bol'shevik ( The Bolshevik ) , No 7 , 1948 .

-. 954 .
 375 . B.M. Teplov , " Psychological Views of Gertsen , " Filosof
skiye zapiski (Philosophic Notes ) , Vol V , 1950 .
376. B.M. Teplov , Rol ' I.M. Sechenov v razvitii materialist
icheskoy psikhologii (The Role of I.M. Sechenov in the Development of
Materialist Psychology ) : a report read 16 November at a joint session
of the Division of Biological Sciences of the USSR Academy of Sciences ,
The Division of Economic , Legal and Philosophical Sciences of the USSR
Academy of Sciences , the Division of Medico -biological Sciences of the
USSR Academy of Medical Sciences , the RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical
Sciences , the Board of the Moscow Division of the All-Union Society of
Physiologists , Biochemists and Pharmacologists , and the Academic Coun
cil of the USSR Ministry of Public Health : in honor of the 50th anni
versary of the death of I.M. Sechenov . Unpublished.
377. B.M. Teplov , "Basic Ideas in the Psychological Works of
N.N. Lange , " Voprosy psikhologii (Questions of Psychology ), No 6 ,
1958 .
378. B.M. Teplov , " Investigation of the Properties of the Ner
vous System as a Means of Studying Individual Psychological Differ
ences , in Anthology , Psikhologicheskaya nauka v SSSR (Psychological Sci
ence in the USSR ) , Vol II, Moscow , 1960 .
379 . V.N. Timofeyev , " The Doctrine of I.M. Sechenov on Objec
tive Thought as a Reflection of Reality ," Uchenyye zapiski Moskovskogo
oblastnogo pedinstituta (Scientific Notes of the Moscow Oblast' Ped
agogical Institute ) , Vol XXIX , 1955 .
380 . V.G. Tkachenko , "P.F. Kapterev on the Development and
Training of Children of Preschool Age , " ſin Ukrainian7, Doshkil'ne
vikhovaniya ( Pre -School Training ) , No 11, 1958 .
381 . D. Tolingerova , Georgiy Prokhazka i ye go mesto v is torii
psikhologii ( G. Prohazka and His Place in the History of Psychology) ,
Author's Abstract of Candidate's Dissertation , Moscow , 1957 .
382 . P.N. Trusov , Bor'ba I.M. Sechenov za materialisticheskuyu
psikhologiyu ( The Struggle of I.M. Sechenov for a Materialist Psychol
ogy) , Author's Abstract of Candidate's Dissertation , Kiev, 1951 .
383. D.N. Uznadze , " Psychology in Georgia During 20 Years of
the Soviet Regime, " (in Georgian7, Komunisturi agzrdisatvis (Communist
Training ) , No 2/3 , 1941 .
384 . S.V. Fedchishin , K.D. Ushinskiy o formakh myshleniya
( K.D. Ushinskiy on the Forms of Thought) , Author's Abstracts of Cand
idate's Dissertation , L'vov , 1956 .
385. V.S. Filatov, " The Teaching of Ushinskiy on the Will and
Its Development , " Uchenyye zapiski Yaroslavskogo pedinstituta (Scien
tific Notes of the Yaroslavl ' Pedagogical Institute ), Issue 13 ( 23 ) ,
1948 .
386. Yu.V. Florovskiy , A.S. Makarenko o formirovanii nravst
vennykh chuvs tv sovetskogo cheloveka (A.S. Makarenko on the Forma
tion of Moral Feelings in Soviet Man ) , Author's Abstract of Candi
date's Dissertation , Yaroslavl ' , 1954 .

- 955 -
 387 . I.A. Frenkel ' , " Toward the Question of the Solution by
D.I. Pisarev of the Problem of the Education , Teaching and Develop
ment of the Child , " Sovetskaya pedagogika (Soviet Pedagogy ), No 12,
1950 ,
388. I.A. Frenkel ' , " The Revolutionary Democrat N.V. Shelgunov
on the Education , Teaching and Development of the Child , " Sovetskaya
pedagogika ( Soviet Pedagogy ) , No 10 , 1953 .
389. I.A. Frenkel ' , " Toward the Question of the Philosophical
Bases of the Psychologico -Pedagogical Doctrine of K.D. Ushinskiy , "
Uchenyye zapiski Kurskogo pedinstituta (Scientific Notes of the Kursk
Pedagogical Institute ) , Vol III , 1954 .
390. I.A. Frenkel , " The Problem of Education and Development in
the Psychologico - Pedagogical Researches of K.D. Ushinskiy , " Sovetskaya
pedagogika (Soviet Pedagogy ) , No 12 , 1955 .
391 . G.D. Kharabuga , " The Role of P.F. Les gaft in the Develop
ment of the National Science of Physical Education , " Teoriya i praktika
fizicheskoy kul'tury ( Theory and Practice of Physical Culture) , Vol XII,
Issue 11 , 1949 .
392. V.Kh. Kharkevich , " The Psychological Views of A.S. Makar
enko and I.P. Pavliv's Doctrine of Higher Neural Activity , " ( in Ukrain
ian7, Nauchnaya konferentsiya Kremenetskogo pedinstituta za 1957 g .
(Scientific Conference of the Kremenets Pedigogical Institute for 1957)
Abstracts of Reports , Issue 2 , 1958 .
393. 2.1 . Khodzhava , " Toward the Question of D.N. Uznadze's
Theory of Set , " Voprosy psikhologii ( Questions of Psychology ) , No 1 ,
1957 .
394 . K.Ye . Khomenko , "The Study of the_Personality of the Child
in the works of A.F. Lazurskiy ," ( in Ukrainian7, XI nauchnaya sessiya
Khar'kovskogo pedinstituta 6-9 fevralya 1956 g . (Eleventh Scientific
Session of the Khar'kov Pedagogical Institute 7-9 February 1956) ,
Abstracts of Reports , 1956 .
395. P.R. Chama ta , " Thirty -five Years of Soviet Child Psychol
ogy , " ſín Ukrainian) , Doshkil'ne vikhovannya (Pre - School Training ),
No 11, 1952.
396. P.R. Chamata , " Psychological Views of V.N. Tatishev,
( in Ukrainian ], Anthology, Ocherki po istorii otechestvennoy psikhol
ogii (XVII -XVIII vv ) . (Outlines of the History of National Psychology
of the 17th and 18th Centuries ) , edited by G.S. Kos tyuk , Kiev , 1952 .
397. P.R. Chamata , " I.M. Sechenov on the Development of Self
Awareness in the Child , " ( in Ukrainian7, Anthology , Ocherki po istorii
otechestvennoy psikhologii XIX v . (Outlines of the History of the Na
tional Psychology of the 19th Century ) , Part Two , edited by G.S. Kost
yuk , Kiev , 1955 .
398. P.R. Chamata, "Forty Years of Psychological Science in
the USSR , " [ in Ukrainian7, Uchenyye zapiski Kiyevskogo pedinstituta
(Scientific Notes of the Kiev Pedagogical Institute ), Vol XXVIII,
1958 .

- 956 -
 399. P.R. Chamata , " Questions of Self - Awareness of the Individual
Personality, " [ in Ukrainian7, Uchenyye zapiski Instituta psikhologii
Ministerstva prosveshcheniya USSR (Scientific Notes of the Psychological
Institute of the Ministry of Education of the Ukrainian SSR ) , Vol VIII ,
(Collection, Sovetskaya psikhologicheskaya nauka za 40 let(Forty Years
of Soviet Psychology/) , edited by G.S. Kostyuk , 1958.
LOO . P.R. Chamata , " Questions of Self - Awareness of the Indivi
dual Personality in Soviet Psychology , " Anthology , Psikhologicheskaya
nauka v SSSR (Psychological Science in the USSR ) , Vol II, Moscow , 1960 .
401. N.A. Cherednik , Problema razvitiya psikhiki v trudakh
I.M. Sechenova ( Problems of the Development of the Psychic Life in the
Works of 1.M. Sechenov )(in Ukrainian ), Author's Abstract of Candidate's
Dissertation , Kiev , 1953.
‫ܢܐ‬20 ., N.A. Cherednik , " I.M._Secheno on the Development of the
v
Senses in Children , ". [ in Ukrainian ), Doshkil'ne vikhovannya (Pre -School
Training ) , No 6 , 1954 .
403. N.A. Cherednik , _ " I.M . Sechenov on the Psychic Development
of the Child, " in Ukrainian ], Anthology , Ocherki po istorii otechest
vennoy psikhologii XIX v. (Outlines of the History of the National
Psychology of the 19th Century ) Part II , edited by G.S. Kostyuk , Kiev ,
1955 .
‫ܕܢܐܘܢܐ‬. A.V. Cherkov, " A.I. Gertsen on the Problem of Psychic De
velopment , " Uchenyye zapiski Udmurtskogo pedinstituta, (Scientific
Notes of the Udmurt Pedagogical Institute ) , Issue 1, Izhevsk , 1946 .
405 . Ye . Cherpanov , " Toward the History of Russian Psychology , "
Bol 'shevik ( The Bolshevik ) , No 12 , 1948 .
406 . 0.A. Chernikova , " P.F. Les gaft on the Visual Method of
Teaching , " Anthology , Pamyati P.F. Les gafta ( In Memory of P.F. Les gaft)
edited by Ye.N. Medynskiy, Moscow , 1947.
407 . G.G. Shakhverdov , " Toward the Problem of the Weltanschauung
of P.F. Les gaft , " Teoriya i praktika fizicheskoy kul'tury ( The Theory
and Practice of Physical Culture ) , Vol IX , Issue 5 , 1946 .
408 . G.G. Shakhverdov , " The Struggle of P.F. Les gaft With Weisman
ism and His Theory of Heredity, Environment and Training , " Sovetskaya
pe da go gika (Soviet Pedagogy ) , No 4 , 1949 .
409 . P.A. Shevarev , " Investigations in the Realm of the Percep
tions , " Anthology , Psikhologicheskaya nauka v SSSR ( Psychological Sci
ence in the USSR ) , Vol I , Moscow , 1959 .
410. P.D , Shevchenko , " The Concept of the Personality in Sov
iet Psychological Literature of the Prewar Era , " (in Ukrainian ), Uch
enyye zapiski Kiyevskogo pedinstituta (Scientific Notes of thē Kiev
Pe da gogical Institute ) , Vol XXIX , 1958 .
411. L.P. Shevtsova , " The Psychological Views of D.I. Pisarev , "
( in Ukrainian ], Anthology, Ocherki po istorii otechestvennoy psikhol
ogii XIX v . Toutlines of the History of National Psychology of the 19th
Century ) , Part One , edited by G.S. Kos tyuk , Kiev, 1955 .

- 957 -
 412. A.A. Shein , " K.D. Ushinskiy on the Training of Thought , "
Uchenyye zapiski Novos ibirskogo pedinstituta (Scientific Notes of the
Novosibirsk Pedagogical Institute ) , Issue 2 , 1946 .
413 . A.N. Shemyakin , Neko toryve osnovnyye problemy XII v . V
traktovke G.V. Plekhanova (Some Basic Problems of the 19th century as
Treated by G.V. Plekhanov ) , Candidate's Dissertation , Moscow , 1948 .
‫ܕܢܐܠܐܢܐ‬. .N . Shemyakin , " The Problem of the Correlation of the
Psychic Life , to Consciousness and Ideology in the Works of Plekhanov , "
Uchenyye zapiski LGU (Scientific Notes of the Leningrad State Univers
ity ) , Issue 3, 1949 .
415. A.N. Shemyakin , "Toward the Question of the Views of G.V.
Plekhanov on the Relationship of the Psychic Life to Ideology , " Mater
ialy psikhologicheskoy konferentsii LGU 1-6 oktyabrya 1947 g . (Mater
ials of the Psychological Conference of the Leningrad State University ,
1-6 Oct 1947 ) , 1949 .
416. F.N. Shemyakin , " The Theory of Levi Bruehl in the Service
of Imperialistic Reaction , " Filosofskiye zapiski Instituta filosofii
AN SSSR ( Philosophic Notes of the Institute of Philosophy of the USSR
Academy of Sciences ) , Vol V , 1950 .
417. F.N. Shemyakin , "The Question of Representations in the
Works of I.M. Sechenov and I.P. Pavlov , " Voprosy filosofii (Questions
of Philosophy ) , No 2 , 1952 .
418. F.N. Shemyakin , " Spatial Orientation , " Anthology , Psikhol
ogicheskaya nauka v SSSR ( Psychological Science in the USSR ) , Vol I ,
Moscow , 1959.
‫ܢܐ‬91 ,. V.V. Sheulin , "N.G. Chernyshevskiy on Certain Questions of
the Origin , Development and Liaison of Speech and Thought, " Uchenyye
zapiski Shakhtinskogo pedinstituta ( Scientific Notes of the Shakhty
Pedagogical Institute ) , Vol II, Issue 5 , 1958 .
420. zn . I. Shif , " Questions of Mental Development Among Stu
dents in the Auxiliary Schools , " Anthology , Psikhologicheskaya nauka
v SSSR ( Psychological Science in the USSR ), Vol II , publ. by the APN
of the RSFSR , 1960 .
421. A.L. Shnirman , " Psychological Traits of the Personality
of Soviet Man in the Works of A.S. Makarenko , " Sovetskaya pedagogika
( Soviet Pedagogy ) , No 3 , 1950 .
422 . A.L. Shnirman and A.V. Yarmolenko , " Vladimir Mikhaylovich
Bekhterev , " Voprosy psikhologii (Questions of Psychology ) , No 2, 1957 .
423. Ye .A. Shumilin , " Russian Precursors of I.M. Sechenov ,
Anthology , Ocherki po istorii russkoy psikhologii (Outlines of the
History of Russian Psychology) , edited by M.V. Sokolov , Moscow , 1957.
424. G.S. Shustova , "I.M. Sechenov on Language and Thought,
Zin Kazakh7, Kazakhskiy yazyk i literatura (Kazakh Language and Lit
erature ) , Alma - Ata , No 8 , 1958 .
425. N.M. Shchelovanov , " The Problem of the Neuro - Psychic
Development of the Child , in the Works of V.M. Bekhterev , " Vsesoyuz
naya nauchnaya konferentsiya , psovyashchennaya 100 - letiyu so dnya
V.M. Bekhterev , 29- yanvarya - 10 febralya 1957 g . (All -Union Scien

- 958 -
tific Conference in Honor of the 100th Anniversary of the Birth of V.M.
Bekhterev, 29 Jan - 10 Feb 1957) , Abstracts of Reports , Leningrad ,
1957 .
426 . I.K. Ekgol'm , " The Theory of K.D. Ushinskiy on Language and
Thought , " Sovetskaya pedagogika, (Soviet Pedagogy ) , No 11 , 1953 .
127. D. El'kin and L. Shapiro , " The Psychological Heritage of
N.N. Lange , " Trudy Odesskogo universiteta ( Proceedings of the University
of Odessa) , Vol II, 1941 .
4:28. D.G. Él'kin , " A.F. Lazurskiy as Correspondent , " (in Ukrain
Radyans'ka shkola (Soviet School) , No 4 , 1946 .
ian7, 429
. D.G. El'kin , "N.n. Lange and I.M. Sechenov ," [ in Ukrainian
Trudy Odesskogo universiteta ( Proceedings of the University of Odessa) ,
Vol I (52 ) , Issue 1 , 1948 .
430 . D.G. El'kin, " I.M. Sechenov in the Ukraine , " ( in Ukrainian ]
Anthology , Ocherki po istorii oteches tvennoy psikhologii XIX v . (Out
lines of the History of the National Psychology of the 19th Century ) ,
Part Two , edited by G.S. Kostyuk , Kiev , 1955 .
431. D.G. El'kin and V.R. Faytel'berg -Blank , " I.M. Sechenov at
the University of Odessa , " Trudy Odesskogo universiteta ( Proceedings of
the University of Odessa ), Vol CXLVII (Anthology in Honor of the 50th
Anniversary of the Death of I.M. Sechenov ) , 1957 .
432. D.G. El'kin , " Sensation and Perception ," [ in Ukrainian
Uchenyye zapiski Instituta psikhologii Ministerstva prosveshcheniya
USSR (Scientific Notes of the Psychological Institute of the Ministry
of Education of the Ukrainian SSR ), Vol VII (Anthology, Sovetskaya
psikhologicheskaya nauka za 40 let (Forty Years of SovietPsycholog
ical Science / ) , edited by G.S. Kostyuk , Kiev, 1958 .
433 . D.G. El'kin , "Sechenov's Influence on the Works of N.N.
Lange , " Materialy konferentsii posvyashchennoy 100 -letiyu rozhdeniya
N.N. Lange ( 1858-1958 ) (Papers of the Conference in Honor of the 100th
Anniversary of the Birth of N.N. Lange ( 1858–1958 ) , Odessa , 1958 .
434 . D.G. El'kin , " Time Perception , " Anthology , Psikhologich
eskaya nauka v SSSR ( Psychological Science in the USSR ), Vol 1, Mos
cow , 1959 .
435. D.B. El'konin , " Some Results of the Study of the Psychol
ogical Development of Children of Preschool Age , " Anthology , Psikhol
ogicheskaya nauka v SSSR (Psychological Science in the USSR ), Vol II ,
publ . by the APN of the RSFSR , 1960 .
436 . P.M. Yakobson , " Questions of the Psychology of the Emo
tions , " ſin Ukrainian ), Uchenyye zapiski Instituta psikhologii Minis
terstva prosveshcheniya USSR (Scientific Notes of the Psychological
Institute of the Ministry of Education of the Ukrainian SSR ) , Vol VIII
(collection , Sovetskaya psikhologicheskaya nauka za 40 let/Forty Years
of Soviet Psychological Science /) , edited by G.S. Kostyuk , Kiev , 1958 .
437 . P.M. Yakobson , " Problems of the Psychology of the Emo
tions , " Anthology , Psikhologicheskaya nauka v SSSR ( Psychological
Science in the USSR ) , Vol II, publ. by the APN of the RSFSR , 1960 .

- 959 -
 438. M.G. Yaroshevskiy , " Philosophico -Psychological Views of
A.A. Potebnya , " Izvestiya AN SSSR , seriya istorii i filosofii (Jour
nal of the USSR Academy of Sciences , History and Philosophy Series ) ,
Vol III, Issue 2 , Moscow , 1946 .
439. M.G. Yaroshevskiy , " Potebnya's Concept of the Interior
Form of the Word , " Izvestiya AN SSSR , otdeleniye literatury i yazyka
( Journal of the USSR Academy of Sciences , Literature and Language
Section ) , Issue 5 , Moscow , 1946 .
440. M.G. Yaroshevskiy , " Toward the Question of the Origin of
Psychology as an Inde pendent Science , " Voprosy psikhologii (Questions
of Psychology ) , No 4 , 1956 .
44. M.G. Yaros hevskiy , "From the History of the Theory on Re
flexes in the Nineteenth century , " Vestnik istorii morovoy kul'tury
(Herald of the History of World Culture) , No 1 , 1958 .
4:42 . M.G. Yaroshevskiy, " N.G. Chernyshevskiy and I.M. Sechenov, "
Voprosy filosofii (Questions of Philosophy ) , No 7 , 1958 .
443. M.G. Yaroshevskiy , "On Two Variants of the ' Elements of
Thought' of I.M. Sechenov , " Voor osy psikhologii (Questions of Psychology )
No 4 , 1958 .
‫ܕܢܐܢܐܢܐ‬
M.G. Yaros hevskiy , " The Role of the ' Physiological Nervous
System ' of I.M. Sechenov in the Formation of His Psychological Views ,"
Nauchnyye zapiski Kulyabskogo pedinstituta ( Scientific Notes of the
Kulyab Pedagogical Institute ) , Issue 4 , 1958 .
4:45 . M.G. Yaroshevskiy, "Some Questions of the History of
Psychological Thought in the Light of the Work of V.I. Lenin , 'Mater
ialism and Empiriocriticism ', " Voprosy psikhologii ( Questions of
Psychology ) , No 2 , 1959.
445 - a . M.G. Yaroshevskiy , "I.m. Sechenov and the Struggle of
Materialism Against Idealism in Western European Psychophysiology , "
I.M. Sechenov i sovremennyye problemy psikhologicheskoy nauki ( 1.M.
Sechenov and Contemporary Problems of Psychological Science) , (Papers
of a Scientific Session of the Leningrad Pedagogical Institute and
the Leningrad Division of the Society of Psychologists ) , edited by
B.G. Anan'yev , Leningrad , 1959 .
4:46 . V.L. Yaroshchuk , "Certain Questions of the Psychology of
the Will in the Works of N.N. Lange , " Materialy konferentsii pos vya
shchennoy 100 - letiyu so dnya rozhdeniya N.N. Lange ( 1858-1958 )
Odessa , 1958 .
447. 0.0 . Yakhot, " Does I.M. Sechenov Reduce the Psychic Life
to a Reflex? " Voprosy filosofii (Questions of Philosophy ) , No 1 ,
19 ‫ويا‬..

5562 - END -
-

- 960
#U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1962 - 636645