Physical Science

Quarter 2 – Early Views of the Universe

Ancient people have always wondered about celestial bodies. These objects in the sky were once
thought as gods. They also served as guides for living. For instance, the positions of the stars were used in
navigation and astronomical events and were perceived as divine messages. As time passed, many
philosophers became more curious and sought other explanations for their observations.

Aristotle’s View of M otion

Aristotle, a Greek philosopher and scientist, categorized motion into two:
1. Terrestrial Motion – pertains to the movement of any object on Earth and is classified as:
a. Natural Motion – is determined by the nature of an object’s composition. Every object, which may
be composed of any of the four terrestrial elements (earth, water, air and fire), tend to go back to
its natural place.
b. Violent Motion – happens when an object is acted upon any external force. For example the force
applied in shooting an arrow sets in motion.
c. Alteration – refers to the type of motion that describes qualitative change. As an example, liquid
water can be turned into ice by removing heat from the liquid matter.
2. Celestial Motion – refers to that of any object beyond Earth.

The Celestial Sphere

In ancient ties, Earth was said to be enclosed in rotating celestial sphere, where the sun, the moon, the
stars and other celestial objects were attached to it. The points directly over Earth’s North Pole and South
Pole are called the north celestial pole and the south celestial pole, respectively. The projection of the Earth’s
equator in the celestial sphere is called the Celestial equator.

The sun’s apparent path through the celestial sphere is called the ecliptic. An equinox happens when
the sun’s position in the ecliptic intersects with the celestial equator. At this point, day and night is equal
length. Earth experiences two equinoxes a year – the vernal equinox in March and the autumnal equinox in
September. A solstice happens when the sun’s position in the ecliptic reaches its northernmost and
southernmost point relative to the celestial equator. The summer solstice takes place in June, when the
longest day is experiences. Winter solstice occurs every December, when night is longest.

The concept of solstices and equinoxes, which depends on the obliquity of the ecliptic, was known to
the Greeks from the time of Hipparchus of Nicaea (190-120 BCE) to the time of Claudius Ptolemy (90-168 CE).
The obliquity of the ecliptic refers to the angle of inclination of Earth’s equator with respect to orbital plane.
Ptolemy proposed that the ecliptic of the sun and the planets lie at an angle with Earth’s axis, which made
them different from other stars. The obliquity of the ecliptic showed that the sun shifted by around seven
degrees. Today, this angle is approximately 23. 5 degrees.

Earth’s M otion
The way people see the sky is influenced by Earth’s motion. The occurrence of day and night, the
changing of the position of the stars, and the seasons all happen because of Earth’s rotation in its axis and its
revolution around the sun.
Diurnal Motion and Annual Motion
Diurnal Motion – refers to the daily rising and setting of the sun. It specifically pertains to the apparent
westward motion of the celestial bodies because of Earth’s eastward rotation on its axis.

Annual Motion – refers to the apparent shift in location of the stars. It is attributed to a single full
revolution of earth around the sun.

Precision of the Equinoxes

The precision of the equinoxes is an ancient term for the gradual change in the orientation of the
Earth’s axis. This phenomenon has been known since the Ancient Greeks. Hipparchus measured the sidereal
year, which refers to the time it takes for the sun to return to the same point relative to the fixed stars and the
tropical year, which is the time it takes for the sun to return to an equinox. Seeing the discrepancy between
the sidereal year and tropical year, he concluded that the precision of the equinoxes happens one degree
every century. By his count, a full cycle takes 26000 years.

The Spherical Earth

In Mesopotamian mythology, Earth was believed to be a flat disk floating on the ocean and bounded
by a spherical sky. The Greeks sought to prove the sphericity of earth. Two Greek philosophers, Plato and
Aristotle provided physical and observational evidence supporting this hypothesis. Aristotle argued that:
• Every portion of the Earth tends ti be compressed toward the center forming a sphere
• Explores going south see the southern constellations slowly rise above the horizon.
• The shadow of Earth on the moon is always round during the lunar eclipse

Plato’s “Saving the Appearances”

Pythagoras, a Greek philosopher, viewed heaven as perfect and that a circle is a perfect polygon.
From this Plato concluded that heaven is circular in motion of celestial bodies as perfect objects has to be
constant and circular as well. However, it was observed that some planets move in an uneven path across a
preset background of stars, doing asymmetrical and nonrepeating retrograde rings. An observer on Earth
sees the path of an outer planet as moving backward. This apparent backward motion is called retrograde
motion. Faced with the difficulty of explaining the retrograde motion of planets, the followers of Plato used
allegory of the cave story to “save the appearances” and provide an explanation without dismissing the
present belief. Saving the appearances means discovering understanding the reality behind what humans
perceive to be true (ex. What they observed with the senses). They explained the truth by logic, geometry,
numbers, observed planetary motion to prove these views because these are what the Ancient Greeks
perceived as reality.

The Com peting M odels of the Universe

Over time, the Greeks developed models of the universe based based on their observations with their
naked eye, with the use of instruments, and with the implication of the data they gathered.

There were two competing models of the universe:

1. Geocentric model – which assumed that Earth was the center of the universe. Supporters of this model
were Eudoxus, Aristotle, and Ptolemy.
2. Heliocentric Model – which considered the sun as the center of the universe. Supporters of this model
were Aristarchus and Copernicus.
Eudoxus’ m odel
Eudoxus is regarded to have created the first model of a geocentric universe using the idea of celestial
spheres and Plato’s notion of uniform and circular motion of celestial bodies. Eudoxus model is homocentric,
which means that the celestial spheres share one common center – Earth. It features 27 spheres: one for the
background stars, three for the sun, three for the moon, and four for each of the five then known planets –
Mercury, Mars, Venus, Jupiter and Saturn.

Aristotle’s M odel
Aristotle considered Eudoxus’ model but was not totally convinced because Eudoxus did not explain
how the planets moved and interacted with each other. To compensate for the irregularities that were seen in
the motion of the celestial bodies. Callipus added two spheres for the moon and the sun, one for Venus,
Mercury and Mars and retained the number of spheres For Jupiter, Saturn and fixed stars. The total number of
spheres in Callipus’ model was 34. It was modified by Aristotle by placing four additional spheres for the sun,
Venus, Mercury, and Mars. He also added three celestial spheres for Jupiter and Saturn. Aristotle’s model has
56 spheres that guide the motion of the sun, the moon, and the five-then known planets. He also proposed
the concept of Prime Mover, which drives the motion of the planets.

Ptolem y’s M odel

Claudius Ptolemy proposed a refinement of the geocentric model of the universe. He provided an
accurate explanation for the motion of heavenly bodies and explained the epicycle and deferent of the
planetary spheres. The deferent refers to the circular path in which the planet moves around the Earth, while
the epicycle pertains to a smaller circle along which a planet moves.
Although, most of Ptolemy’s findings were rooted from Aristotle, the Ptolemic model grew in influence
because it summarized the theory of planetary motion. Ptolemy also adopted the concept of uniform circular
motion. His ideas on the apparent speeding up or slowing down of planets were based on three things. First
was the epicycle of the planets. Second, was the idea of putting the observers out of the center and placing
them in an eccentric position. The third was the equant, the point that has the same distance as that of Earth
to the center. Together, these arguments led to the idea of an elliptical orbit with a foci. The Ptolemic model
of the universe lasted for about 14 centuries.

Aristarchus M odel
Aristarchus of Samos hypothesized that the sun lay at the center of the universe , around which the
planets revolve.
Archimedes, quoted Aristarchus’ hypothesis in his book, The Sand Reckoner. This was the only
reference to Aristarchus until his hypothesis for heliocentric universe was finally proven in the early modern
era.

Copernicus’ M odel
Nicolas Copernicus argued that the sun is the center of the universe, and that the retrograde motion
of the planets naturally occurs because of the combined motion of the Earth and other planets.

The Copernican Revolution

The astronomical observations and measurements done by Galileo Galilei, Tycho Brahe and Johannes
Kepler helped support the Copernican Model of the Universe.

Galileo’s Astronomical Observations

 Galileo Galilei, regarded as the father of modern astronomy, used his own telescope to make
astronomical observations. He found significant evidence, all of which supported the heliocentric model.
1. Lunar craters – small dark spots changed from dark to light. This indicates that the moon is not a
perfect sphere.
2. Phases of Venus – Venus has phases just like the moon. If Venus lies between Earth and the sun, its
atmosphere is visible. Galileo knew that this casting of shadows was only visible if Venus also revolve
around the sun.
3. Moons of Jupiter – Galileo discovered four celestial bodies surrounding Jupiter, and which he later
recognized as the moons revolving around the planet. He called them collectively as Cosmica Sidera.
Galileo’s discovery was a breakthrough; it gave powerful evidence for the revolution of celestial
objects and for the fact that they do not move around Earth.
4. Sunspots – the dark spots that Galileo noticed on the sun’s surface.
5. Supernova – refers to a huge burst of energy from an explosion of a supergiant star.
6. Apparently Identical Size of the Stars – Galileo observed stars that were too faint to be seen by the
naked eye.

Brahe’s Extensive Collection of Data

Tycho Brahe, a Danish nobleman, became the famous in his time because of his contribution to
knowledge of celestial objects. Brahe’s data which include precise and detailed observations of planets and
stars. He also developed a new model for the solar system, modifying the geocentric model. He proposed an
arrangement that placed Earth at the center, but did claim that the other planets orbit around the sun, which
in turn revolves around Earth.

Kepler’s Laws of Planetary M otion

Johannes Kepler, a German mathematician and astronomer, developed the laws of planetary motion.
He generated three laws of planetary motion:
1. The first law of planetary motion states that the orbit of the planet is an ellipse, with sun located at one
foci.
2. The second law of planetary motion states that the imaginary line segment connecting a planet to the
sun sweeps out equal areas in equal time intervals.
3. The third law of planetary motion states that the square of the time it takes for the planet to make one
revolution around the sun (orbital period) is proportional to the cube of the semimajor axis of the
planets elliptical orbit.

M echanics

The Concept of M otion

Motion refers to a change in position of any mass with respect to time. According to Aristotle, force is
required to keep an object moving horizontally. He proposed that moving objects are influenced by the
motive force, a quantity that causes something to move and the resistance of the medium on which the
object moves.

Aristotle formulated an early version of the law of motion, which states that the speed (v) of the object
is directly proportional to motive force (F) and inversely proportional to the resistance (R) of the medium.
Force must be greater than R in order for an object to move. There will be no motion if F is less than or equal
to R.
 From this claim, Aristotle inferred that heavier objects would fall faster than lighter ones. Since weight
is a force it also suggests that heavier objects will take a shorter time to reach the ground than lighter ones,
provided that both objects are dropped at the same height.

Projectile Motion is a type of motion that involves an object called a projectile being thrown or fired
near Earth’s surface. Aristotle explained projectile motion through the concept of antiperistasis which refers to
the resistance made by a medium in response to the action made by an object.

Aristotle’s idea about projectiles was later contraindicated by Alexandrian philologist John Philoponus,
who proposed that the motive force is not transmitted to the medium but retained in the object itself.

Jean Buridan, supported Philoponus’ idea by adding concept of impetus, which refers to the
impressed force that keeps a projectile in motion. He added that impetus is directly proportional to the mass
and the initial speed of the object. Any object thrown forward will continue moving as long as impetus is
stronger than the resistance.

Galileo Galilei studied the motion of objects on Earth and formed is own theory of motion, he
opposed Aristotle’s belief of horizontal motion and argued that if force and resistance are equal to each
other, uniform motion occurs. Uniform motion involves constant speed or velocity.

Galileo proposed that objects moving at a constant velocity require no force to keep them moving,
unless acted upon by friction. Galileo’s experiment with marbles illustrates this theory. If a marble is placed at
any height on an inclined plane, it roll downward and climb another inclined plane, reaching a lower height.
The difference between the initial and final heights is attributed to friction. Thus the smoother the inclined
plane, the lesser the difference between the initial and final heights. Without friction, the marble would return
to its original height when it rolls to the opposite end. In the result would still be the same even if the angle of
the opposite inclined plane is changed. An object with an initial velocity would move forever on a horizontal
plane unless other forces would impede its motion. However, an infinite plane does not exist; there is only the
spherical surface of the Earth. Thus Galileo stated that any object rolling on Earth’s surface would continue to
roll indefinitely unless a retarding force is applied.

Galileo described the motion of falling objects as uniformly accelerated, which involves equal
increments of speed at equal time intervals. The speed (v) is proportional to the time of travel.

For a free-falling object, Galileo stated that the distance (d) traveled by an object is proportional to the
square of the time interval (t). It implies that the speed of an object depends on time of fall, not on its weight.
Thus for Galileo, free-falling objects with different weights would reach the ground at the same time.

Galileo suggested that in vacuum, all objects would fall with the same acceleration regardless of their
weights. From this he described projectile motion as a combination of uniform forward motion and free-fall
motion.

Describing M otion

• Scalar quantities are those described by magnitude alone. Distance and speed are scalar quantities.
• Vector Quantities are those that are described by both magnitude and direction. Displacement and
Velocity are vector quantities.
 • Speed – measures the distance traveled by an object over time.
• Speed = distance/time
• Velocity – represents the ratio of displacement and time.
• Velocity = displacement/time
• The SI unit for speed is meter per second (m/s).
• Acceleration – is a vector quantity that measures the rate of change of velocity. It is expressed in meter
per second squared (m/s2). It is commonly defined as the act of moving more quickly or slowly. In
everyday life, when someone moves faster or when a driver steps on the gas pedal, he/she is said to
be accelerating. However, in Physics, the acceleration of the body can be depicted in variety of ways
1. Changing speed – speeding up or slowing down. When the gas pedal is stepped on while driving,
the car accelerates. When the brake is steeped on, the car decelerates. Deceleration is
acceleration that involves decrease in speed. Negative acceleration means acceleration in the
negative direction.
2. Changing direction – when a driver makes a left, right, or U-turn, he accelerates even though he
maintains the speed of the car. Earth also accelerates as it revolves around the sun even it does so
at constant speed. The reason for this is that Earth constantly changes its direction.
3. Changing speed and direction – when a driver steps on the brake or the gas pedal while turning
left or right, or making a U-turn, the car accelerates.

Newton’s Law of M otion

Isaac Newton formulated the laws of motion to provide conceptual and mathematical foundations for
the interaction among objects on Earth and beyond. The central theme of these laws deals with how forces
affect the state of motions of any object.

In 1687, Newton’s laws of motion and his law of universal gravitation were first introduced in Principia
(Philosophiae Naturalis Principa Mathematica). The first part of the Principia deals with motion regardless of
resistance. The second part is concerned with motion through an opposing medium. The last part pertain to
observed motion of bodies in the solar system.

Newton’s Laws of Motion are considered axioms because they are self-evident and are needed to
form or support theory.

First Law – Law of Inertia

Inertia refers to the tendency of an object to resist change in its state of motion. The law states that an
object at rest tends to stay at rest and an object in motion tends to stay in motion with constant velocity
unless acted upon by an unbalanced force. An unbalanced force or net force is the total force applied to an
object. Are equal to zero, the forces acting on the object is said to be balanced.

Example: Headrests are placed in cars to avoid neck injuries during rear-end collision, wherein the car
suddenly lurches forward. If the passenger is sitting without headrest, the body would move with the car
leaving the head at rest. This can cause a fatal neck injury.

Second Law – Law of Acceleration

Law of acceleration states that the acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the net force
acting on the object, and is inversely proportional to the mass of the oblect

A = Fnet/m or Fnet = ma
Where Fnet is the net force, m is the mass and a is the acceleration, the SI unit of force is kg.m/s2 or Newton.

Sample Problem:
1. A constant net force of 200 N is applied to accelerate a cart in a frictionless surface from rest to a
velocity of 40 m/s in 10s. What is the mass of the cart?
Given: Fnet =200N, t=10s, vi=0 m/s, vf=40 m/s
Find: m=?
Solution: a=vf-vi/t m=Fnet/a
a=40m/s-0m/s/10s m=200N/4m/s2
a=4m/s2 m=50 kg

Third Law – Law of Interaction

Law of interaction states that for every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. A single force
has its pair. Since an interaction involves atleast two objects, there must be one object that will apply force;
the other object will experience the force applied. The second object will then apply same amount of force to
the first object. These two forces acting in opposite directions are an action-reaction pair.
Example: Pushing a wall is an action. Moving away from the wall is the reaction.

Action and reaction forces have the same magnitudes but act in different directions, however these
two forces do not cancel each other because they act on two different bodies.

Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation

Law of universal gravitation states that the force of gravitational attraction is directly proportional to
the masses of the objects and is inversely proportional to the square of the distance that separates their
centers.

Conservation Laws

1. Law of Conservation of Mass – the amount of matter in an object never changes. In chemical and
nuclear reactions some of the masses are converted into energy resulting in a condition where the
masses of reactants and products differ.
2. Law of Conservation of Energy – states that energy remains constant in an isolated system containing
interacting particles. When you throw an object upward, its kinetic energy decreases. The conversion
of kinetic energy to potential energy or the stored energy due to position from the ground. This
means that the sum of potential energy and kinetic energy is conserved.
3. Law of Conservation of Momentum – states that for a collision occurring between objects A and B in
an isolated system, the total momentum of the two objects before the collision is equal to the total
momentum of the two objects after the collision.
Momentum is a quantity attributed to the change in the course of a moving object. For
example, a heavy truck moving at a high speed has a higher momentum han a bicycle traveling at a
low speed. In equation p=mv where, m stands for mass, v for velocity and p for momentum. This
equation implies that momentum is directly proportional to both mass and velocity. A greater mass or
velocity contributes to a larger momentum. The SI unit for momentum is kg.m/s. it is a vector quantity.
The direction of the momentum vector is same as that of velocity of the object.
Collision are good examples that depict the conservation of momentum.