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APRIL 2007 COUTTS ET AL. 477

Impact of Increasing Urban Density on Local Climate: Spatial and Temporal

Variations in the Surface Energy Balance in Melbourne, Australia
ANDREW M. COUTTS, JASON BERINGER, AND NIGEL J. TAPPER
School of Geography and Environmental Science, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
(Manuscript received 23 September 2005, in final form 28 April 2006)

ABSTRACT

Variations in urban surface characteristics are known to alter the local climate through modification of
land surface processes that influence the surface energy balance and boundary layer and lead to distinct
urban climates. In Melbourne, Australia, urban densities are planned to increase under a new strategic
urban plan. Using the eddy covariance technique, this study aimed to determine the impact of increasing
housing density on the surface energy balance and to investigate the relationship to Melbourne’s local
climate. Across four sites of increasing housing density and varying land surface characteristics (three urban
and one rural), it was found that the partitioning of available energy was similar at all three urban sites.
Bowen ratios were consistently greater than 1 throughout the year at the urban sites (often as high as 5) and
were higher than the rural site (less than 1) because of reduced evapotranspiration. The greatest difference
among sites was seen in urban heat storage, which was influenced by urban canopy complexity, albedo, and
thermal admittance. Resulting daily surface temperatures were therefore different among the urban sites,
yet differences in above-canopy daytime air temperatures were small because of similar energy partitioning
and efficient mixing. However, greater nocturnal temperatures were observed with increasing density as a
result of variations in heat storage release that are in part due to urban canyon morphology. Knowledge of
the surface energy balance is imperative for urban planning schemes because there is a possibility for
manipulation of land surface characteristics for improved urban climates.

1. Introduction from the sky and/or increased absorption of shortwave

In 2003, 47% of the world’s 6.3 billion inhabitants
were living in urban areas; in more developed coun-
tries, 75% of the population (1.2 billion) lived in urban
areas (Population Reference Bureau 2003). As increas-
ing numbers of people make their residencies in the
heart of the industrial and commercial world, urbaniza-
tion will continue to grow. Alterations to the natural
environment, resulting from the physical structure of
the city and its artificial energy and pollution emissions,
interact to form distinct urban climates (Bridgman et al.
1995). These urban climates can often be undesirable,
causing increases in air pollution and aiding the forma-
tion of urban heat islands (UHI). Urban warming can
have substantial implications for air quality and human
health (Stone and Rodgers 2001). Factors generating
the UHI are believed to include emissions of atmo-
spheric pollutants that increase longwave radiation
Corresponding author address: Andrew M. Coutts, School of
Geography and Environmental Science, Monash University,
Wellington Rd., Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia.
E-mail: amcou1@student.monash.edu.au
radiation (depending on the pollutant), anthropogenic
heating, reduced horizontal airflow due to increased
friction, absorption and retention of energy from solar
radiation due to canyon geometry, reduced longwave
loss due to limited sky-view factor, and reduced evapo-
transpiration from vegetation removal, which is a natu-
ral cooling mechanism (Tapper 1984; Oke 1982; Stone
and Rodgers 2001). Urban structure, intensity of devel-
opment, and type of building material can also influ-
ence UHI intensity, which suggests that UHI may be
more a product of urban design rather than, as com-
monly assumed, the density of development (Stone and
Rodgers 2001). As a consequence, different urban land
use types such as city centers, parklands, and various
suburban residential areas produce distinct alterations
in net radiation, heat storage, and sensible and latent
heating, resulting in variable local climates (Fehren-
bach et al. 2001).
Melbourne, Australia, with a population of over 3.6
million, features UHI consistently throughout the year
(Morris et al. 2001). In 1992, an automobile transect
across the Melbourne region during the evening found
a peak warming of 7.1°C in the central business district

DOI: 10.1175/JAM2462.1

© 2007 American Meteorological Society

JAM2462
478 JOURNAL OF APPLIED METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY
(CBD), with smaller peaks in industrial areas and the
medium-density terrace housing in the inner northern
suburbs (Torok et al. 2001). The Victorian state gov-
ernment, which oversees planning in Melbourne, re-
leased a document in 2002 titled Melbourne 2030 that is
a long-term strategic plan to manage growth and
change across metropolitan Melbourne and its sur-
rounding region (Department of Sustainability and En-
vironment 2002). Based on population trends, Mel-
bourne’s population is estimated to increase by 1 mil-
lion people over the next 30 yr, leading to an increase of
around 620 000 households. Melbourne 2030 aims to
achieve a livable, attractive, and prosperous city
through planning toward a more compact city by in-
creasing housing in established urban areas, particu-
larly around activity centers (built-up centers for high-
quality development, activity, and living for the com-
munity) and establishing an urban growth boundary
(Department of Sustainability and Environment 2002).
Understanding the link between urbanization and ur-
ban climate, together with the impact of changes in land
surface properties, such as the amount of impervious
and vegetational cover, is very important. Thoughtful
design of residential areas can purposefully alter the
thermal environment and manipulate microclimates
through alterations in the surface energy balance
(Bonan 2000) and can aid in avoiding negative impacts
and compounding extreme events such as heat waves.
A number of studies have been conducted in urban
areas over the last few decades that investigate the ur-
ban surface energy balance, particularly in suburban
areas, though few have employed the use of multiple
sites, especially within a single city. Comparisons
among discrete urban land use types (residential, com-
mercial, industrial) often show large differences in flux
partitioning (Oke et al. 1999; Grimmond and Oke
1999). Substantial differences in the surface energy bal-
ance between urban and rural landscapes have also
been well documented as rural vegetated surfaces are
replaced by concrete, asphalt, and other impervious
surfaces (Cleugh and Oke 1986). A study in Vancouver,
British Columbia, Canada, that investigated the tempo-
ral variability of flux partitioning found that the parti-
tioning of energy over spatial scales of tens to hundreds
of meters varied because of the heterogeneity of the
urban surface (Schmid et al. 1991). This was evident in
the variability of turbulent flux measurements across
different source areas, with differences as large as the
average urban–rural flux contrast. Trends in flux parti-
tioning in response to changes in surface cover can aid
in reducing negative climatological impacts, which is
evident in effects such as increased vegetation cover.
In suburban areas, general patterns of flux partition-
VOLUME 46
ing have been shown to be similar across many cities,
and features such as precipitation and irrigation are
important in driving the suburban climate (Grimmond
and Oke 1995). Sensible heating and heat storage are
generally the dominant fluxes during summer, and la-
tent heating is small, largely influenced by water avail-
ability from precipitation, irrigation, and vegetation
cover (Spronken-Smith 2002). Results from Basel,
Switzerland, from a network of seven sites indicated
that, as green space increased, latent heat fluxes be-
came more dominant while the sensible heat and stor-
age fluxes decreased. Also, the diurnal flux partitioning
showed variations among the sites, with positive sen-
sible heat fluxes during the night at the dense urban
sites. The amount of energy going into storage varied
throughout the day, particularly at the urban sites
(Christen and Vogt 2004). Grimmond et al. (1996) also
found that a higher vegetation cover increased latent
heat flux while decreasing the partitioning of energy
into sensible heat flux. However, the storage heat flux
partitioning increased and the absolute magnitude of
fluxes increased as a result of increased net radiation,
resulting in slightly greater temperatures above the
canopy (Grimmond et al. 1996).
Given the potential changes in the size and density of
Melbourne, we initiated a study to investigate the po-
tential impacts of the implementation of the Melbourne
2030 planning strategy on local climate by examining
the surface energy balance across a range of urban resi-
dential densities. We hypothesize that a more compact
city, incorporating increased housing density similar to
current designs and the further development of activity
centers, will intensify the Melbourne UHI through
changes in land surface cover—in particular, reduced
vegetation cover. This may in turn conflict with the
Melbourne 2030 vision statement of a more livable city.
This study is one of only a few worldwide to measure
surface fluxes simultaneously across multiple urban
sites. A new and unique dataset was produced, allowing
direct site comparisons and an increased understanding
of the impact of changes in urban land use on local
climate. Such knowledge should be used to generate
appropriate planning tools/information and therefore
should lead to informed sustainable planning decisions
based on multiple benefits, such as increased density
and improved climate.
2. Site characteristics
a. Site selection and locations
To investigate the differences in urban surface en-
ergy balance and climate across a range of housing den-
APRIL 2007 COUTTS ET AL. 479

FIG. 1. Site locations of Melbourne CBD and three urban sites (Armadale: HIGH, Preston: MEDIUM, and Surrey Hills: LOW)
and one rural site (Lyndhurst: RURAL) on a Landsat image of the region (Department of Sustainability and Environment 2000).

sities, four surface energy balance sites were selected
throughout the Melbourne region (37°49⬘S, 144°53⬘E),
including three urban sites of varying housing density
and one rural control site (pastoral land) (Fig. 1). Each
of the urban sites was located in predominantly resi-
dential areas that are the likely focus of development
through Melbourne 2030’s compact-city objective. The
first urban site (“HIGH”) was a highly developed me-
dium-density site with row (detached closed set) hous-
ing and flats, located to the southeast of Melbourne in
Armadale [urban climate zone (UCZ) 3; Oke 2004].
The second urban site (“MEDIUM”) was located north
of the Melbourne CBD in Preston and consisted of
moderately developed low-density housing (UCZ 5).
This site continues to be maintained as a long-term
urban flux site (Table 1). The third urban site (“LOW”)
was also a moderately developed suburban residential
housing site, but of lower density, located east of Mel-
bourne in the well-vegetated suburb of Surrey Hills
(UCZ 5). The rural site (“RURAL”) was located to the
southeast of Melbourne in Lyndhurst, just outside the
main metropolitan region, almost directly on the Mel-
bourne 2030 urban growth boundary. The rural site was
a semirural cleared grassed area (nonirrigated) used for
farming purposes (horse grazing) (UCZ 7). The sites
were operating for varying periods as indicated in Table
1. MEDIUM was operational for the entire observa-
tional period selected for the study (August 2003–
August 2004). However, from March to May 2004, all
four sites were operating simultaneously.
480 JOURNAL OF APPLIED METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY VOLUME 46

TABLE 1. The study sites across differing housing density in Melbourne and the measurement details including housing density, the
measurement system used, albedo ␣, height of instrumentation zm, roughness length z0, maximum height of roughness elements zH,
mean building height zB, mean height-to-width ratio (H:W), mean wall-to-plan area ratio (W:P), the UCZ (Oke 2004), and the period
of operation.

HIGH MEDIUM LOW RURAL

System Eddy covariance Eddy covariance Eddy covariance Bowen ratio
␣ 0.19 0.15 0.17
zm (m) 40 40 38 Arms at 3 and 5.2
z0 (m) 0.62 0.4 0.68
zH (m) 16 12 16
zB (m) 8.8 6.4 7.2
H:W 0.56 0.42 0.41
W:P 0.59 0.4 0.4
UCZ 3 5 5 7
Operational Dec 2003–May 2004 Aug 2003–Aug 2004 Mar–Jul 2004 Nov 2003–May 2004

b. Housing density, structure, and population the surface cover surrounding each tower (Fig. 2). Al-
though this method gives good spatial coverage, the
Housing densities at each of the sites were graded
surface can sometimes be misinterpreted, because indi-
using visual observations from both the ground and
vidual pixels from the aerial photos can have similar
from the tower, aerial photography, and census data
spectral signatures. In summary, it is clear that HIGH
(Australian Bureau of Statistics 2001). Housing and
had the largest impervious cover and LOW had the
population data for each of the urban study sites were
highest vegetation cover and highest pervious cover
collected from the census districts within a 1.5-km ra-
(Table 3). Furthermore, the expert classification
dius from each tower, with population and total dwell-
method also highlighted the differences in the rooftop
ings largely determining the density of the sites (Table
color, which is important in influencing site albedos
2). HIGH had both a lower number of separate houses
(Table 1). The classification gave a good approximation
than MEDIUM and LOW and a higher number of flats,
of the degree of urbanization and density at each of the
units, or apartments, which matched visual observa-
sites, but the percentages of these surface covers con-
tions that HIGH was a much denser site. The region
tributing to the observed turbulent fluxes will vary over
located near the HIGH site in Armadale is listed as a
time with changes in the flux footprint (Schmid 1994).
future major activity center in the Melbourne 2030 plan
The spatial analysis using GIS methods as performed
(Department of Sustainability and Environment 2002).
here will be linked to the turbulent fluxes in a forth-
coming paper, which will yield a dynamic characteriza-
c. Surface cover fractions
tion of the surface with varying fetch. Other site char-
Because of the heterogeneity of the urban surface, acteristics important in influencing surface energy bal-
we determined the nature of the surface types that may
influence the partitioning of energy and hence local TABLE 2. Information from the 2001 census on the average den-
climate, which in turn gave further insight into the den- sity per square kilometer of population, various type and number
sity of development. Two methods were employed to of dwellings at each of the urban sites, and overall density of
dwellings from the census districts located within a 1.5-km radius
determine the surface characteristics, both of which
from each tower.
used aerial photography covering an area of 500-m ra-
dius around each tower. Manual surface classifications HIGH MEDIUM LOW
were conducted by visually identifying the surface Population 3167 2939 2748
cover at intersections on a 10-m grid overlay. This No. census districts included 51 38 32
method accurately determined the surface type but did Separate house 613 872 699
not result in a high-resolution spatial coverage and re- Semidetached, row, or terrace 220 104 248
house; townhouse; etc.
quired considerable time to conduct. A second method
Flat, unit, or apartment 512 173 90
of classification was employed that used a geographical Other dwelling (e.g., caravan, 12 10 4
information system (GIS) and aerial photography. Fol- dwelling attached to shop)
lowing Kunapo et al. (2005), a method called expert Not stated 12 6 3
classification was used with the multispectral classifica- Unoccupied private dwellings 128 83 70
Dwelling density 1495 1248 1113
tion decision rule using GIS software tools to determine
 APRIL 2007
COUTTS ET AL.

FIG. 2. An example of the expert classification method used in determining surface cover fractions of a segment of an area within a 0.5-km radius surrounding the HIGH site.
481
482 JOURNAL OF APPLIED METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY VOLUME 46

TABLE 3. Surface cover fractions for 500-m radius using both This method constrained site selection, but careful con-
the expert classification method and the manual method and using sideration ensured that instrumentation was mounted
an average of the two methods. Other refers to bare ground or
at a height of zm ⬎ 2zH so that measurements would be
swimming pools.
taken in the constant flux layer above the height of the
HIGH MEDIUM LOW roughness sublayer z to avoid the influence of indi-
*
Expert classification vidual roughness elements (Rotach 1999; Kastner-
Building area 0.44 0.44 0.36 Klein and Rotach 2004) (Table 1). The measurement
Concrete 0.06 0.03 0.07 height also ensured that fluxes were representative of
Road 0.11 0.13 0.09 the local scale (102–104 m). In addition, sites were se-
Vegetation (excluding grass) 0.21 0.29 0.27
lected so that the land uses below and surrounding the
Grass 0.17 0.11 0.17
Other 0.01 0.00 0.02 towers were as homogeneous as possible so that the
Manual classification likely radiation and flux source area types would be
Building area 0.47 0.45 0.42 similar (Schmid 1994).
Concrete 0.11 0.06 0.04 Each urban site recorded net radiation Q*, sensible
Roads 0.12 0.13 0.08
Vegetation (excluding grass) 0.19 0.16 0.31
heat flux QH, and latent heat flux QE, as well as tem-
Grass 0.10 0.19 0.13 perature and humidity at the measurement heights
Other 0.01 0.01 0.03 given in Table 1. Instrumentation included a 3D sonic
Average anemometer (CSAT3; Campbell Scientific, Inc.) to
Building area 0.46 0.45 0.39 measure the three-dimensional wind velocities and ei-
Concrete 0.09 0.05 0.06
Roads 0.12 0.13 0.09
ther a krypton hygrometer (KH20; Campbell Scien-
Vegetation (excluding grass) 0.20 0.23 0.29 tific) or an infrared gas analyzer (LI7500; Li-Cor Bio-
Grass 0.14 0.15 0.15 sciences, Inc.) to measure the turbulent fluctuation of
Other 0.01 0.01 0.03 water vapor. Data were recorded using a datalogger
Total impervious 0.67 0.62 0.53 (CR23X; Campbell Scientific) at 10 Hz, and data were
Total pervious 0.35 0.38 0.47
block averaged using 30-min intervals. Temperature
and relative humidity were measured using a tempera-
ance partitioning are given in Table 1, including albedo, ture and relative humidity sensor at 1 Hz and were
roughness lengths, height-to-width (H:W) ratio, and averaged over 30 min (HMP45C; Campbell Scientific).
wall-to-plan (W:P) area ratio. The urban storage heat flux ⌬QS at the urban sites was
not measured directly because of the range of ground
3. Surface energy balance measurements surfaces (soil, concrete, asphalt) and was therefore ap-
proximated as a residual from the energy balance equa-
a. Techniques and instrumentation tion. Caution must be used when evaluating ⌬QS as a
To study the surface energy balance in urban areas, a residual, because errors within the measurements accu-
number of methodological considerations must be ac- mulate in this term. In addition, recent work has shown
counted for during measurement. In this study, the that the convective fluxes of QH and QE may be under-
eddy covariance approach was used to examine the ex- estimated by as much as 20% (Wilson et al. 2002), and
change rates of heat and moisture between the surface so the residual value of ⌬QS should be seen as the
and the atmosphere at the urban sites (Baldocchi et al. upper limit of energy stored within the urban canopy.
1988). The surface energy balance in urban areas is The net advective flux ⌬QA is difficult to determine and
given by (Oke 1988) in this study, as in many others, is assumed to be neg-
ligible and has been ignored (Grimmond 1992; Grim-
Q* ⫹ QF ⫽ QH ⫹ QE ⫹ ⌬QS ⫹ ⌬QA, mond and Oke 1995; Spronken-Smith 2002). The radia-
where Q* is net radiation, QF is the anthropogenic heat tion balance was also measured at the three urban sites,
flux, QH is sensible heat flux, QE is latent heat flux, ⌬QS allowing the albedo and surface radiative temperature
is the storage heat flux, and ⌬QA is the advective heat to be calculated. Radiation instruments included a net
flux. In urban studies, exchanges of energy and momen- radiometer (Q7.1; Radiation and Energy Balance Sys-
tum are viewed as being between the atmosphere and tems, Inc.), an albedometer (CM 7B; Kipp and Zonen,
the top of a volume of air encompassing the buildings Inc.), and a net pyrgeometer (CG2 or 2 ⫻ CG4; Kipp
and trees and other elements of the urban area being and Zonen).
studied (Oke 1988). The Bowen-ratio technique (Bowen 1926) was em-
The three urban sites were established on preexisting ployed at the rural site using a commercially available
tall telecommunications towers around Melbourne. system (BR023; Campbell Scientific). Temperature and
APRIL 2007 COUTTS ET AL.
vapor pressure gradients were measured across a dis-
tance of 2.2 m. Net radiation and ground heat flux QG
were determined directly using a net radiometer (Q7.1)
and ground heat flux plates (HFT3; Radiation and En-
ergy Balance Systems) and soil temperature thermo-
couples (TCAV; Campbell Scientific). Wind speed and
direction were also measured at the site (Wind Sentry;
R. M. Young Co.). Fetch was greater than 1 km in each
direction over nonirrigated pasture. Although an inter-
comparison of the eddy covariance and Bowen-ratio
systems was not conducted for this study they have pre-
viously been found to be within 10%–15% (Beringer
and Tapper 2000).
Eddy covariance measurements were corrected for
oxygen absorption (Tanner et al. 1993) and density ef-
fects (Webb et al. 1980), and data underwent strict
quality-control measures. Discarded and missing data
were gap filled using a neural-network procedure. The
radial basis function (RBF) neural network was used,
in which gaps were filled by drawing on available data
such as temperature and solar radiation from nearby
stations or the Monash University weather station
(www.arts.monash.edu.au/ges/research/climate/
weather). The quality-controlled available data for
each station were used to train the RBF network for the
corresponding site’s dataset, along with the site-specific
available energy balance data for the station. The RBF
network tests the results and outputs an estimate value
for each 0.5-h period that was either missing or
screened out. The results showed an acceptable perfor-
mance in generating the missing data (data not shown).
b. Anthropogenic heat release QF
Anthropogenic heat QF is an added source of heat to
the energy balance that is unique to urban environ-
ments and aids the development of the UHI (Oke
1988). Therefore, QF needs to be accounted for; how-
ever, it cannot be measured directly with the eddy cor-
relation technique. An estimate of QF for this study was
calculated following Sailor and Lu (2004) and utilized
sources of somewhat readily available data. The major-
ity of anthropogenic heat comes from three main
sources: vehicles (QV), the building sector (QB), and
human metabolism (QM), as represented by the equa-
tion
QF ⫽ QV ⫹ QB ⫹ QM.
We employed a simplified version of the Sailor and Lu
(2004) model, because the same detailed databases
were not available for Melbourne. Variations in QV,
QB, and QM among the urban sites were determined
primarily as a function of population density, computed
for each site (section 2a).
483
For the estimation of heat release from vehicles, data
were collected from the Australian Bureau of Statistics
(2003) from a vehicle survey during November 2002–
October 2003. During this period, 31 538 ⫻ 106 km
were traveled in the year in Melbourne (7693.6 km2).
Given a population of 3 471 625 from the 2001 census
(Australian Bureau of Statistics 2001), an estimated
value of 24.89 km was traveled per person per day.
Hourly values of QV were then determined using the
following equation (Sailor and Lu 2004):
QV 共h兲 ⫽ pcDVD ⫻ Ft 共h兲␳pop ⫻ EV,
where pcDVD is per capita daily vehicle distance, Ft (h)
is the hourly fraction of total daily travel, ␳pop is the
population density, and EV is the energy release per
vehicle, in this case estimated at 3866.7 J m⫺1 for Mel-
bourne vehicles. We did not have detailed traffic counts
to construct temporal traffic profiles, and so we deter-
mined the hourly fraction of daily traffic Ft (h) using an
average for U.S. cities (Hallenbeck et al. 1997), which
was assumed to be similar in Australia.
Heat release from buildings QB in the residential ar-
eas of Melbourne is due primarily to the consumption
of electricity QBE and natural gas QBNG, where
QB ⫽ QBE ⫹ QBNG.
For electricity, half-hourly demand data (MW h) were
obtained from the National Electricity Market Manage-
ment Company for 2001. Only the percentage of elec-
tricity used directly in heating was accounted for, with
space heating at 4.3%, space cooling at 2.8%, water
heating at 26.4%, and cooking at 9.6%, giving a total of
43.1% of electricity that was converted to heat (Na-
tional Appliance and Equipment Energy Efficiency
Committee 1998). The remaining 56.9% was used in
refrigeration, lighting, and appliances, where heat is
generated but is a small by-product. For natural gas,
only daily consumption data were available from the
Victorian Energy Networks Corporation for 2001. Data
were converted to per capita consumption using an as-
sumed thermal combustion efficiency of 80%. To esti-
mate the diurnal heating profile, the diurnal variability
in natural gas consumption was modeled as a function
of the daily range in temperature (Sailor and Lu 2004)
using mean maximum and minimum temperatures ob-
tained from the Bureau of Meteorology and a linear
interpolation between the minimum and maximum
temperatures, occurring at approximately 0700 and
1700 LST. This method has been shown to be an accu-
rate estimate for the diurnal natural gas heating profile
(Sailor and Lu 2004). The human metabolic rate was
approximated at 75 W for the nighttime hours (2300–
484 JOURNAL OF APPLIED METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY VOLUME 46

FIG. 3. (left) Diurnal profile (LST) of the contributing sources of anthropogenic heat (where QV ⫽ vehicles, QBE ⫽ building
electricity, QBNG ⫽ building natural gas, and QM ⫽ human metabolism) at MEDIUM and the resultant total of QF for July during the
Southern Hemisphere winter, and (right) the average monthly variation in QF at each of the urban sites.

0500 LST), 175 W for daytime hours (0700–2100 LST),
and 125 W for transitional periods (0600 and 2200 LST)
(Sailor and Lu 2004). The QM was then calculated for
each site from the population density.
Figure 3 presents the diurnal (LST) course of the
different contributions of estimated QF for each com-
ponent at MEDIUM for July (Fig. 3, left panel) and the
annual variation in QF for the three urban sites (Fig. 3,
right panel). This method gives a good approximation
of QF for each of the study sites, but it is recognized that
there are a number of assumptions made in the method.
In particular, the methods assume that spatial popula-
tion densities are constant across all time scales, traffic
profiles are similar for weekends and weekdays, and
there is no lag between electricity consumption and re-
sultant heat release. Nevertheless, the results give an
excellent picture of the relative contribution of QF to
the total energy balance diurnally and seasonally and
show that anthropogenic heating is higher in winter,
primarily as a result of increased natural gas consump-
tion. In this study, QF is similar to the range of values
found in previous studies for suburban areas (Klysik
1996; Grimmond 1992; Khan and Simpson 2001; Kalma
and Newcombe 1976).
4. Results and discussion
a. Temporal variations in the surface energy
balance
The magnitude of Q* was highest during the austral
summer when solar radiation input was at its greatest
and the magnitudes of QE, QH, and ⌬QS followed the
monthly course of available Q* throughout the obser-
vational period (Fig. 4). The QH was the dominant flux
during the summer period as a result of strong surface
heating, the effect of which decreased as winter ap-
proached. The magnitude of QE was low at the urban
sites throughout the year in comparison with previous
studies because of low moisture availability, resulting
from less irrigation because of domestic water use re-
strictions in Melbourne during the study period and
several years of drought (Nicholls 2004). Despite poor
summertime moisture availability, the summer months
showed greater QE because of higher Q* and greater
rates of transpiration. The daytime evaporative fraction
QE/Q* (Fig. 5) in this study (0.3 in July 2004 and 0.19 in
January 2004) was smaller than that seen in suburban
Vancouver (0.46 and 0.3 for winter and early summer,
respectively) because of differences in irrigation (Grim-
mond 1992). This resulted in high Bowen ratios at the
urban sites, with mean monthly summer values of
greater than 2 and daily values often in excess of 5 (Fig.
5). As a result, summertime climates across Melbourne
were often very warm and dry. This has the potential to
produce conditions that are unfavorable for urban
dwellers, likely leading to the development of intense
UHI and putting at risk those inhabitants who are par-
ticularly vulnerable to extreme heat (Schär et al. 2004).
During winter, QE/Q* generally increased and was
influenced by the increasing moisture at the sites from
rain-bearing weather systems. Reduced Q* limited the
magnitude of surface heating and the sensible heat frac-
tion (QH/Q*), reducing Bowen ratios (Fig. 5). Surface
heating was reduced, but the role of anthropogenic
heating became more pronounced during winter (Fig.
3). Greater heat release largely from natural gas com-
APRIL 2007 COUTTS ET AL. 485

FIG. 4. Comparison of mean (⫾std error) monthly daytime (1000–1600 LST) surface energy balance components (Q*, ⌬QS , QE ,
and QH) across each of the sites.

bustion for heating resulted in a greater contribution
toward measured Q H at the urban sites, varying
throughout the day but particularly significant during
the early morning, evening, and throughout the night.
The mean contribution in winter of anthropogenic heat
to QH was 30% during the day at MEDIUM and was
much higher at other times. High temperatures were
not a cause for concern during winter, but results indi-
cated that the contribution of QF was likely to be the
main driver of winter UHI.
The daytime partitioning of energy into ⌬QS was
similar throughout the year, with a slight increase dur-
ing winter (Fig. 5). Despite a reduced Q*, the ability for
heat conduction through the surface (roads, buildings)
was still significant because the surface properties and
form of the urban surfaces allowed continued heat con-
duction into the ground, as did the storage of energy
within the urban canopy layer, while more moisture
also increased soil thermal conductivity. The reason for
the slight increase may also have been due to the syn-
optic conditions, with a more stable atmosphere (as
seen in reduced friction velocity u values in winter)
*
resulting in smaller turbulent fluxes. Because ⌬QS was
calculated as a residual of the energy balance, this con-
dition resulted in a slight increase. Spronken-Smith
(2002) also found ⌬QS to increase in winter in Christ-
church, New Zealand, where often a strong nighttime
surface inversion persisted into the morning and sup-
pressed turbulence and hence limited QE and QH. This
was in contrast to the results of Grimmond (1992) in
Vancouver, where, using the Objective Hysteresis Model
(Grimmond et al. 1991), ⌬QS /Q* was observed to in-
crease as summer approached, resulting from increased
dry surface conditions, with less intense atmospheric
heating and QH fraction, leading to greater heat storage.
b. Urban–rural contrasts
Large differences were observed in the surface en-
ergy balance between urban and rural landscapes, typi-
cal of previous urban–rural comparisons (Cleugh and
486 JOURNAL OF APPLIED METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY VOLUME 46

FIG. 5. Mean (⫾std error) monthly daytime (1000–1600 LST) partitioning of energy into the energy balance components and the
Bowen ratio for each of the sites.

Oke 1986; Christen and Vogt 2004). The main contrast
was the greater QE at RURAL as a result of the greater
vegetative cover and increased water storage in the soil
(Fig. 4). The differences increased in the wetter months
as the soil moisture increased in contrast to the imper-
vious surfaces in the urban area that dispersed water
away from the region through the storm water network.
Large differences were also seen in the heat storage
with a twofold–threefold increase in ⌬QS at the urban
sites in comparison with RURAL. The magnitude of
⌬QS was influenced by the amount of impervious sur-
face cover because common urban materials typically
have a higher thermal conductivity and heat capacity
than natural materials and the 3D urban canopy also
stores significant amounts of energy.
However, QH at RURAL was as high as at the urban
sites in the summer months, in part because of the low
QG. RURAL itself was very dry during this period as a
result of the drought conditions. Therefore, early sum-
mertime Bowen ratios were not much lower than at the
urban sites, yet once Q* began to decrease into the
winter months and precipitation increased, QE became
much larger and QH considerably decreased relative
to the urban landscapes. In addition, Q* was lower at
RURAL because of the absence of radiation trapping
within urban canyons. Urban–rural contrasts were not
significant during the summer because RURAL was
located in a nonirrigated pasture land, yet more for-
ested vegetation may have yielded stronger contrasts.
Nevertheless, two major driving forces were still signifi-
cant for UHI formation: 1) the large difference in ⌬QS
(QG) and subsequent nighttime heat release and 2) the
added source of QF in the urban landscape.
c. Housing density and variations among urban
sites
If one looks more closely at the differences among
the surface energy balances across the range of housing
densities, one can assess more-detailed information
about important site characteristics and their influence
APRIL 2007 COUTTS ET AL.
on energy partitioning that could potentially help urban
planners in improving local climates. The Q* varied
slightly between the sites as a result of differences in the
radiation balance and was influenced largely by the al-
bedo and H:W ratio (Table 1). LOW had an albedo
of 0.17 and had a Q* similar to RURAL. This was due
to a lower impervious cover and H:W ratio, which
would have limited the amount of radiation trapping.
MEDIUM had a similar H:W ratio yet had a lower
albedo (0.15) because of the roof color and increase in
building area (observed from the expert classification).
However, despite increased H:W and W:P (refer to
Table 1 for definitions) ratios at HIGH, the albedo was
highest (0.19). This was likely due to a large amount of
light-colored concrete and corrugated iron used as
rooftop materials at the site. Hence, MEDIUM gener-
ally showed the highest Q* throughout the year. De-
spite the greater albedo at HIGH, Q* was similar to
MEDIUM. Analysis of the radiation budget measured
by the radiation instruments showed a 5%–6% higher
net longwave radiation at HIGH relative to MEDIUM,
consistent with an increase in H:W and also perhaps
urban factors such as air pollution (higher emissivities)
and increased sky temperatures (Arnfield 2003).
The major difference in energy partitioning among
sites of varying density was seen in contrasting ⌬QS
values (Fig. 4). In general, increasing urban density and
surface cover resulted in higher heat storage. At HIGH,
heat storage was greater than that seen at LOW, de-
spite a higher albedo, because of the greater trapping
and storage of energy in the urban canopy. At LOW,
the combination of a lower building and impervious
surface cover and less complex canopy resulted in much
reduced ⌬QS, with values approaching those observed
at the rural site. The reason that ⌬QS was the highest at
MEDIUM was the low albedo from darker rooftop sur-
faces, which effectively increased the amount of solar
radiation absorbed by urban buildings and structures
(Taha 1997) despite similar H:W and W:P ratios to
LOW. Therefore, although the increase in density and
built-up surfaces of urban areas contributed to in-
creased ⌬QS from a greater urban surface area for both
absorption and trapping of energy within the urban
canyons, the albedo was also highly important in influ-
encing the heat storage.
The differences among the convective fluxes across
the urban sites were smaller than anticipated (Fig. 4).
There appeared to be no clear relationship between
QE/Q* (Fig. 5) and urban characteristics of vegetation
cover or housing density (Tables 2 and 3) as might have
been expected. The relative partitioning into QE among
the urban sites was similar and was generally small
across all sites because of low moisture availability.
487
LOW generally showed the highest QE/Q* (except in
March) because of the higher pervious surface cover
and vegetation. However, a greater QE/Q* was ob-
served at HIGH relative to MEDIUM despite a slightly
lower vegetation cover. Differences could be attributed
to differences in irrigation rates or vegetation types.
Vegetation types at HIGH and LOW were more exotic,
including many deciduous trees, relative to MEDIUM,
where vegetation was dominantly native evergreen spe-
cies, which were likely to transpire at a lower rate but
throughout the year require less irrigation.
The partitioning of available energy was similar at
each of the sites as illustrated by the Bowen ratios (Fig.
5). In general, MEDIUM had a higher Bowen ratio
(although the magnitude of QE and QH was not the
highest). In comparison with North American suburban
sites at similar latitudes (Grimmond and Oke 1995), the
values for mean daytime Bowen ratios were high, es-
pecially during summer, leading to warm and dry cli-
mates across all urban surfaces. The role of vegetation
in influencing QE in the urban environment was mini-
mal across the small range of vegetation covers mea-
sured in this study (0.21–0.29). This led to QH being the
dominant flux, indicating that manipulation of urban
form and structure in climate control may be important
in Melbourne. However, varying vegetation cover out-
side the range measured here could also influence local
climate. In either case, the amelioration of the hot/dry
climate by vegetation is likely limited by water avail-
ability. Initiatives such as rainwater tanks could allow
irrigation and improve climate. It is evident from this
study that the nature of surface properties (albedo and
thermal admittance) and canopy structure (H:W and
W:P ratio) were particularly important in controlling
the available energy for the convective fluxes. We were
not able to measure over a truly high density inner
urban site for logistical and methodological reasons,
and therefore we may expect the differences to be
much greater over the full range of urban densities in
Melbourne.
d. Diurnal variations in the surface energy balance
There was generally high day-to-day variation in the
magnitude of the fluxes and timing of peak fluxes be-
cause of variations in source area, synoptic conditions,
and water availability associated with precipitation
events or irrigation. Averaged over longer time scales,
general trends in flux partitioning can be seen and dif-
ferences among urban areas emerge (Fig. 6). The con-
tributions to the fluxes averaged over longer periods
become increasingly dominated by the prevailing wind
directions. The Melbourne region and hence all the
sites examined here are subject to a land–sea breeze
488 JOURNAL OF APPLIED METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY VOLUME 46

FIG. 6. Mean (⫾std error) diurnal surface energy balance for March 2004 at each of the sites (LST). Anthropogenic heating is not
included because the contribution is small (see Fig. 3).

year-round, and so seasonal variations in source areas
are not that evident. The discussion that follows fo-
cuses on two months (March and May) during which all
four stations were operating. Though these particular
months reside in the Southern Hemisphere autumn, a
good picture of the seasonal differences in radiative and
energy flux partitioning between drier and wetter cli-
mate regimes can be seen. The diurnal partitioning of
energy during March 2004 at the end of summer (mean
daily maximum temperature of 23.8°C) was character-
ized by small QE at the urban sites (Fig. 6) due to the
summertime water balance deficit and to the impervi-
ous nature of the surface and associated runoff. The QH
and ⌬QS were the dominant fluxes, showing a hyster-
esis pattern in ⌬QS with a peak that preceded the peak
in Q* by 1–2 h (Grimmond et al. 1991). An asymmetri-
cal pattern in QH was also evident as a greater propor-
tion of energy was partitioned into ⌬QS in the morning
until the maximum heat storage capacity was reached,
at which point QH became dominant. Christen and
Vogt (2004) suggested that in the morning ⌬QS was a
result of urban materials and sunlit area whereas in the
afternoon complete aspect ratio ␭C (the complete
three-dimensional built-up surface area) was the dom-
inant control. This may explain the early peak ⌬QS
at LOW as a lower built-up surface area (H:W) re-
duced the ability for heat to be absorbed as the day
progressed and led to the higher values of QH in March
(Figs. 4 and 5).
Results also showed that QH remained positive into
the early evening, despite Q* becoming negative, being
supported by a strong negative ⌬QS. This feature in-
creased with increasing density because of the features
of impervious surface cover and canopy H:W ratio and
W:P ratio (Table 1), which restricted longwave cooling
and maintained high surface temperatures into the eve-
ning (Table 4). Positive QE fluxes were also observed
for most of the night at the urban sites, and the mag-
nitude was found to be the highest at LOW with the
largest vegetation cover (Table 3). This was likely to be
APRIL 2007 COUTTS ET AL.
TABLE 4. Measurements of daytime and nighttime surface and above-canopy air temperatures T for 1-week-long periods during
March and May 2004. Values were calculated over a period during which all instruments were fully operational. Mean and standard
error are shown. Surface temperatures were calculated from outgoing longwave radiation.
March 2004 (yeardays 62–68)
Tsfc
Daytime (1000–1600 LST)
HIGH 31.2 ⫾ 0.6
MEDIUM 31.7 ⫾ 0.6
LOW 30.7 ⫾ 0.6
Nighttime (2200–0400 LST)
HIGH 19.9 ⫾ 0.3
MEDIUM 19.5 ⫾ 0.3
LOW 18.7 ⫾ 0.3
supported by energy release from storage that evapo-
rated moisture that had been made available by re-
stricted irrigation with watering systems between 2000
and 1000 LST. Hence, the influence of housing density
and vegetation cover on climate may be more evident
at night. The contrast in energy partitioning was again
greatest between the rural and urban sites. The QE was
the dominant flux at RURAL with small substrate stor-
age (QG) relative to urban ⌬QS . At RURAL, the peak
in QE preceded the peak in Q* as moisture available at
the surface was initially evaporated. These patterns in
partitioning between both the urban and rural sites and
the urban sites themselves contribute to the spatial
variations in the Melbourne UHI intensity and its peak
in the early morning as previously observed by Torok et
al. (2001) and Morris et al. (2001).
During the early winter month of May 2004 (Fig. 7)
(mean daily maximum temperature of 16.6°C), patterns
in diurnal partitioning were similar to those in March,
though variations in absolute fluxes among the sites
were smaller because of reduced Q*. However, the im-
portance of QF increased as winter approached, becom-
ing a significant contribution to QH particularly during
the night, morning, and evening, causing greater atmo-
spheric heating than may otherwise have been. The QE
became more dominant during the day because of
greater moisture availability and continued as a positive
flux at night while QH became negative as a result of
the reduced surface temperatures and turbulence. This
would not necessarily result in a reduced UHI intensity
because differences in partitioning between urban and
rural sites were still significant and enhanced by a
greater urban QF . The QG at RURAL was positive for
a shorter period of time relative to the urban sites be-
cause of a differential effect at a lower solar zenith
angle, whereby the three-dimensional structure of the
urban regions permits higher radiation trapping and
greater ⌬QS. The QH and QE were unexpectedly also
slightly positive at the rural site during the night, pos-
489
May 2004 (yeardays 146–152)
Tair Tsfc Tair
22.4 ⫾ 0.6 17.4 ⫾ 0.2 12.6 ⫾ 0.2
22.1 ⫾ 0.6 15.4 ⫾ 0.2 12.0 ⫾ 0.2
22.8 ⫾ 0.6 14.2 ⫾ 0.2 12.3 ⫾ 0.2
17.5 ⫾ 0.4 12.6 ⫾ 0.3 10.3 ⫾ 0.2
16.7 ⫾ 0.4 10.3 ⫾ 0.2 9.3 ⫾ 0.2
17.2 ⫾ 0.4 9.5 ⫾ 0.2 9.9 ⫾ 0.2
sibly as a result of generally cloudy skies and fog that
would have reduced surface cooling.
e. Local climate development and management
The radiation and energy exchanges above the urban
canopy can subsequently lead to distinct boundary
layer development and local climates. Urban planners
who may wish to incorporate climate knowledge into
metropolitan planning schemes such as Melbourne 2030
will be largely concerned with thermal comfort (mainly
temperature related) and addressing ways in which to
alleviate heat stress that may be exacerbated by the
UHI. The ultimate influence of differences in the sur-
face energy budget translates into local climate, and we
have calculated mean above-canopy air temperatures
and derived surface radiative temperatures to examine
any differences (from outgoing longwave radiation and
assuming an emissivity of 0.95 for all sites) (Table 4).
During March, daytime radiative surface tempera-
tures increased with increasing ⌬QS because of more
energy absorbed by the surface, which in turn restricted
the absolute QH. Therefore, above-canopy air tempera-
tures would be reduced by lower QH, but we observed
little difference in air temperatures among sites because
of the effective mixing of the atmosphere over the
rough urban landscape. This process often leads to the
sometimes-observed urban cool islands, though the
heat island is still consistently seen in the urban bound-
ary layer (Oke 1995). Of interest is that air temperature
was anticorrelated with surface temperature, and this
illustrates the dual impact of increasing urban density:
1) increased density allows greater admittance of en-
ergy into the substrate and hence higher surface tem-
peratures and 2) increased density will generate in-
creased surface roughness and enhanced vertical mix-
ing of heat and will thereby reduce the above-canopy
air temperatures. It is important to note that although
the above-canopy air temperatures show little differ-
ence the greatest differences are expected to be found
490 JOURNAL OF APPLIED METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY
FIG. 7. As in Fig. 6, but for May 2004.
at street level, where inhabitants will feel the difference
(Svensson and Eliasson 2002). Therefore, an increase in
density would result in decreased thermal comfort and
could have more serious health implications if coupled
with heat waves and extreme temperature events.
During the night, density-related patterns were more
pronounced, with surface temperatures increasing with
increasing densities. This was driven by the greater re-
lease of ⌬QS and maintenance of positive QH into the
evening (Fig. 6), which increased with increasing den-
sity as found by Christen and Vogt (2004). The slower
rate of energy release at HIGH was likely to be asso-
ciated with urban canyon differences of greater H:W
and W:P ratios and a lower sky-view factor, as well as
the flux of QF . This pattern extends through to May
and also then extends into the day. Increasing within-
canopy air temperatures would be expected with in-
creasing density because of changes in the morphology
of the buildings. For example, Kusaka and Kimura
(2004) found that higher-density sites decreased the
sky-view factor, resulting in higher surface tempera-
VOLUME 46
tures at night, and aided the development of the UHI.
Sakakibara (1996) found that the surface temperature
of an urban street floor cooled more slowly than a park-
ing lot, because of the geometry of the urban area. In
our study, surface radiative temperatures (Table 4)
were modified primarily by the partitioning of energy
into storage and the subsequent release into the atmo-
sphere at night (Fig. 5) and therefore supported higher
surface temperatures at HIGH.
Introducing larger amounts of vegetation cover into
suburban neighborhoods and increasing the albedo of
the surface to improve thermal comfort have often
been proposed in previous studies (Rosenfeld et al.
1998). An increase in albedo and vegetation cover can
generally reduce ground-level temperatures and would
be expected to improve thermal comfort as seen at
LOW in this study. However, during winter, the mor-
phology of the surface (H:W and W:P) was a more
important feature that requires further investigation, in
particular addressing the modification of local climate
at street level. Across the sites we examined in Mel-
APRIL 2007 COUTTS ET AL.
bourne, QE did not respond significantly to changes in
vegetation cover, although had unlimited irrigation
rates been allowed differences may have become more
pronounced and relationships may have become appar-
ent between vegetation cover and QE, as seen in some
North American studies.
5. Conclusions
Investigating current partitioning of energy into the
surface energy balance and the resulting climates across
a range of housing densities allows a broad estimation
of likely climatic impacts resulting from increasing ur-
banization in Melbourne as directed in the Melbourne
2030 vision. The results from this study suggest that a
move toward a more compact city with built-up activity
centers would result in a larger heat storage fraction
because of changes in the surface characteristics
through reduced albedo and less vegetated cover, but
more so through increased built-up surface area (e.g.,
H:W ratio). This would raise urban surface and within-
canopy temperatures, leading to unfavorable condi-
tions, in particular for those with increased vulnerabil-
ity to excess temperatures, thereby contradicting the
goals of Melbourne 2030. The low evapotranspiration at
all sites as a result of water restrictions led to high
Bowen ratios during the summer months. A move to-
ward a more compact city will extend the seasonal ex-
posure to unfavorable climatic conditions, with warmer
temperatures expected in the shoulder months on ei-
ther side of summer. In addition, diurnal exposure will
also increase with warmer temperatures continuing into
the evening, because of increasing built-up surface area
(including walls) and increased storage.
As a result of these findings, improvements in cli-
mate at activity centers could be made through strate-
gies such as reducing the available energy by incorpo-
rating the use of lighter-colored building and roofing
materials to increase albedo. The highest observed heat
storage at MEDIUM was driven by a lower albedo de-
spite a low H:W ratio, demonstrating that higher albe-
dos can be a significant option for reducing energy stor-
age. Also, the integration of rooftop gardens at activity
centers to increase the evaporative fraction and the es-
tablishment of within-canopy vegetation would help to
reduce surface temperatures and Bowen ratios. How-
ever, this option may be limited to the nighttime hours
in its effect because Melbourne now employs perma-
nent water restrictions, and so natural evaporative cool-
ing from vegetation would be small without daytime
irrigation. Initiatives such as onsite water-saving meth-
ods (rainwater tanks) may allow greater provision of
irrigation and increase daytime evapotranspiration. En-
491
ergy-saving strategies would be beneficial for reducing
summer anthropogenic heat flux; however, the in-
creased relative contribution of QF in the winter is not
likely to be seen as a negative impact. Although a more
compact city with high-density activity centers is the
plan for Melbourne and the increase in total built-up
surfaces cannot be changed, these suggested strategies
could easily be incorporated into the planning frame-
work to improve local climates.
The investigation of local-scale fluxes through the
eddy covariance technique gave a good indication of
the exchanges between the top of the canopy and the
atmosphere and of boundary layer climate, but the
within-canopy temperatures and climate are of particu-
lar interest for thermal comfort levels. To identify fur-
ther the driving forces of urban climates through the
surface energy balance, temperature analysis within the
urban canopy would be beneficial as well as further
characterization of the urban canyon. The patterns of
temperature and wind within the urban street canyons
will be different from those above the canopy, and this
area of research needs further work. It is clear from the
difference between the urban and rural sites that the
potential range of surface energy partitioning and air
temperatures is large and that urban dwellers will ex-
perience a range of climates across different areas of
the city. In this study, sites were chosen to represent
areas of low-, medium-, and high-density housing. Be-
cause of the difficulty of finding a site in a truly high
density area, we likely underestimate the impact of a
high-density site. The impact of increased density also
assumes that densification follows current urban con-
figurations, and the impact could be amplified or re-
duced if alternate designs are considered. We were also
unable to quantify the energy balance over the Mel-
bourne CBD, which would likely display a distinct cli-
mate itself.
Coupled land surface–atmosphere modeling of the
Melbourne region, incorporating the features of the
Melbourne 2030 plan and knowledge acquired from the
observational results presented in this study, would be
useful to determine particularly vulnerable areas
around Melbourne and to examine further the potential
impact of the Melbourne 2030 key directions across the
entire city. Indeed, if the modeling results were in good
agreement with above-canopy flux observations,
screen-level temperatures could be modeled with a
large degree of confidence and climate impacts associ-
ated with increased urbanization and planning manage-
ment directions could be assessed and recommenda-
tions reported to the appropriate authorities. If it is
possible to improve the urban planning directions by
employing climatic strategies that work with the key
492 JOURNAL OF APPLIED METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY
directions of Melbourne 2030, the Victorian state gov-
ernment can help to achieve its vision of Melbourne as
one of the most livable, attractive, and prosperous areas
in the world for residents, business, and visitors.
Acknowledgments. Thanks are given to Peter Wal-
lace of P. G. Wallace Communications and Geoff Syms
of Comgroup Australia for assistance and permission of
the use of their communications towers and to Miduuri
and her family for use of their land for the rural station.
Thanks also are given to field assistants Christopher
Barker and Jamie Spellman and rigger Phil Peacock for
their valuable contribution in the setting up and main-
tenance of the research towers. The loan of instrumen-
tation by Lindsay Hutley (Charles Darwin University)
and Russell Jaycock (James Cook University) is also
greatly appreciated. Thanks are also given to Dr. Helen
Cleugh for input during the early stages of project de-
velopment.
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