Interchange (2013) 44:63–81

DOI 10.1007/s10780-013-9197-8

Communication, Critical Thinking, Problem Solving:

A Suggested Course for All High School Students
in the 21st Century

Terresa Carlgren

Received: 19 April 2013 / Accepted: 21 November 2013 / Published online: 5 December 2013
 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2013

Abstract The skills of communication, critical thinking, and problem solving are
essential to thriving as a citizen in the 21st century. These skills are required in
order to contribute as a member of society, operate effectively in post-secondary
institutions, and be competitive in the global market. Unfortunately they are not
always intuitive or simple in nature. Instead these skills require both effort and time
be devoted to identifying, learning, exploring, synthesizing, and applying them to
different contexts and problems. This article argues that current high school students
are hindered in their learning of communication, critical thinking, and problem
solving by three factors: the structure of the current western education system, the
complexity of the skills themselves, and the competence of the teachers to teach
these skills in conjunction with their course material. The article will further
advocate that all current high school students need the opportunity to develop these
skills. Finally, it will posit that a course be offered to explicitly teach students these
skills within a slightly modified western model of education.

Keywords Communication
Critical thinking
Global market

High school course
Problem solving
Western model of education

21st Century

From making observations of people in the 21st century, it is clear to me that with
this era comes the requirement of having and using 21st century skills. Competition,
among other things, drives the need to communicate, innovate, and solve problems
using ingenious and multifaceted methods (Alliance for Excellent Education 2011;
Kassim and Fatimah 2010). One way to effectively beat the competition that is

T. Carlgren (&)
University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
e-mail: terresa.carlgren@gmail.com

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prevalent today is for people to earn more qualifications. However, this is not
enough. Our society, being focused on technology (Robinson 2011), and consum-
erism (Passini 2013) means that information is always at our fingertips, consumer
goods are less than a drive away, and the concept of possession is less important
than access to information and material goods. What does this suggest? It suggests
that economic competition is about more than a qualification, or the knowledge and
skills required to earn a degree. The suggestion is that to beat the competition people
need to possess the skills to communicate, think critically, and solve problems on
many different levels. Unfortunately most people today do not seem to have these
necessary skills; as you might observe, and educators are determined to be one
reason for this failure.
To give hope to succeeding generations, and mitigate this problem, it is vital that
current high school graduates develop the skills of communication, critical thinking,
and problem solving (Alliance for Excellent Education 2011). They need to be
armed with these skills in order to function as a global citizen, operate effectively in
post-secondary school, and be competitive in the global market. Unfortunately, not
all students currently graduate high school having developed these skills. This
article argues that in order for all high school students to acquire and apply the skills
of communication, critical thinking, and problem solving under the current western1
educational model, a course specifically designed to focus on the explicit instruction
of these skills is needed. Three reasons hindering student learning of these skills will
be examined in support of offering this explicit instruction. As well, minor
modifications to the existing western model of education will be made to support the
success of the course and allow it’s offering immediately.

Why High School Students do not Learn these Skills and Why They Need to?

Why is it that students are currently graduating high school without competence in
applying the skills of communication, critical thinking, and problem solving; and
why do students need them? The issue of teaching and learning these skills stems
from a number of compounding factors, three of which will be explored here. The
first factor affecting the teaching and learning of communication, critical thinking,
and problem solving arises in the conflict between a teacher’s need to teach these
skills and the demand for him/her to have students achieve on high stakes
achievement tests (Greenstein 2012; Sahlberg 2006). This factor is a direct result of
the current western model of education. The second factor associated with the
teaching and learning of the aforementioned skills is the complex and involved
nature of these skills requiring focused attention, energy, and time be given for
appropriate acquisition and application to occur (Paul and Elder 2008; Rosefsky and
Opfer 2012; Sherblom 2010). Finally teacher competence from the view point of
having the skills themselves, a clear enough understanding of the skills to teach

1
A model of education as organized from western countries such as Canada, Great Britain, the United
States, and some European nations by way of organizational structure (identified curricular outcomes,
assessment strategies, hierarchical administrative levels).

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them, and the professional development and tools to adequately teach the skills
within their courses will be examined in detail. Culminating this section will be
some supporting evidence on why students at the high school level need to be
targeted as acquiring these skills.

The Current Western Model of Education

One reason students are not currently developing the skills of communication,
critical thinking, and problem solving is that there is a lot of pressure placed on
teachers to achieve results, manage their of job expectations as directed by multiple
stakeholders, and maintain their job positions. Some states in America have
instituted strictly enforced accountability measures (such as Value Added
Measures) that directly correlate student achievement to teacher salary, teacher
allocation of classes, and even continuing contracts for sequential years (Holloway-
Libell et al. 2012; Paige 2012). Teachers feel compelled to focus instruction on
testable content and neglect outside life-skills (Spencer 2013). Sahlberg (2006)
asserts that education has been in the age of ‘standardization and marketization’
since the 1990s, a safe environment must be developed within this structure that
allows mistakes and risk-taking, and ‘‘there needs to be a shift in focus from what
the teachers should teach, to what students should learn’’ (p. 265). Finally, he states
that through the Global Education Reform Movement, teachers are essentially torn
between the expectations of school systems in terms of consequential accountability
measures, explicitly prescribed curriculum, as well as standardized assessments and;
the societal requirement of teaching students deeper learning as well as commu-
nication, critical thinking, and problem solving skills.
This article acknowledges the system of education is complex resulting in slow
change. Further, acknowledgment is made that some school curricula have started
requiring communication, critical thinking, and problem solving skills be taught
(Alberta Education 2005, 2008; Alliance for Excellent Education 2011; Greenstein
2012; Kirikkaya and Bozurt 2011). However, multiple factors affecting teachers as
well as the current structure of the system impede the instruction of these skills from
occurring in practice.

The Complex Nature of the Skills Themselves

A second contributing factor as to why students are not developing the skills of
communication, critical thinking, and problem solving to an appropriate level
concerns the complex nature of the skills themselves. Berger and Starbird (2012)
validly state it is incorrect to assume students (or anyone for that matter) are born
with an inherent ability to think effectively. The skills must be modeled, practiced,
and taught. To look at learning critical thinking specifically it is ‘‘self-directed, self-
disciplined, self-monitored, and self-corrective thinking. It requires rigorous
standards of excellence and a mindful command of their use. It entails effective
communication and problem solving abilities and a commitment to overcoming our
native egocentrism and sociocentrism’’ (Paul and Elder 2008, p. 2). The skill of
critical thinking is one that, once acquired to a basic level, needs continued work but

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should be able to exist in every facet of life. It can then transfer to appropriate
contexts while simultaneously growing in complexity as the user gains experience.
It must become a way of life (Ennis 1989; Johanson 2010; Paul and Elder 2008;
Sherblom 2010). The skills are complex, but essential to learn.
In spite of the current system some teachers are working to embed or immerse2
the skills of critical thinking into a context of instruction, such as teaching projectile
motion in Physics, or globalization in Social Studies. However, without having a
basic understanding of the strategies and terminology involved with the act of
thinking critically, students will be unable to use the skills in that context. Further to
this, students will be unmotivated to acquire the skills as their priority is to learn the
curriculum matter in order to pass the test. Students need instruction on the skills
themselves, combined with the application of the skills in their context based
courses. For this reason appropriate effort, energy, instruction, and time must be
dedicated to the teaching and learning of communication, critical thinking, and
problem solving in order to facilitate success within any given classroom. This
success can then be extrapolated to any future endeavor such as post secondary
education, employment, or personal life.

Teacher Competence in Teaching these Skills

The final contributing factor as to why students are not acquiring the skills of
communication, critical thinking, and problem solving comes from a lack of
competence, confidence, and understanding on the part of some classroom teachers
to instruct these skills. Assuredly, this is not solely the fault of the classroom teacher
as they are charged with numerous expectations to meet, and have had their own
perhaps limited teaching and learning in these skill areas. Current high school
teachers are said to span four generations (Richardson 2011). As such these teachers
combine to form a plethora of experiences, ideologies, pedagogies, and values.
Depending on their upbringing, teachers will approach tasks, explain material, and
utilize different strategies accordingly. These teachers may be able to model, think,
and utilize appropriate thinking or problem solving skills, but this does not foretell
they can explain, instruct, organize, rationalize, or verbalize their strategy or
thought process. In actuality, due to the complex nature of the skills, it would be
more hindrance than help to students should their teachers use conflicting
explanations and different vocabulary to explain essentially the same thing. This
is especially true during the learning process.
Getting teachers on the same page however, is easier said than done. One area of
constant and fast change in education is teacher turnover. Veteran teachers retire,
experienced teachers take leaves of absence, and new teacher inductees are hired in
the blink of an eye. One way to start giving teachers the competence and confidence
to teach communication, critical thinking, and problem solving within the context of
their classroom courses is to target pre-service teachers. Targeting pre-service

2
Immersion in terms of critical thinking instruction refers to ‘‘deep, thoughtful, well understood subject-
matter instruction in which the students are encouraged to think critically in the subject … but in which
general critical thinking principles are not made explicit’’ (Ennis 1989, p. 5).

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teachers at the university level would mean teaching them to use instructional
methods that promote the development of critical thinking in their classroom
practice. However, post secondary institutions struggle to find professors comfort-
able enough to teach the skills (Crenshaw et al. 2011; Raybould and Sheedy 2005;
Sherblom 2010). As well, universities struggle for learners to have and use the skills
of communication, critical thinking, and problem solving without resistance due to
the effort required on the learners part (Crenshaw et al. 2011; Dobozy 2012;
Raybould and Sheedy 2005; Sherblom 2010). Illustrating this point, Dobozy (2012)
examined a project done on pre-service teachers to teach the social studies portion
of their training using an inquiry-based approach. The rationale behind the project
was to provoke critical thinking instructional ideas in their students. However, the
result was nothing short of disastrous as the pre-service teachers were unable to
cope with the mode of instruction and could not grapple with the content in light of
the instructional method used. Thus, Dobozy (2012) concluded (in part) the students
themselves did not have the necessary critical thinking skills thus making it difficult
for pre-service teachers to instruct them.
Another method to get teachers to be more consistent and explicit in their
instruction of communication, critical thinking, and problem solving is to offer
whole school professional development to permeate the same message. However,
many problems arise with this such as the fact that subject areas approach the skills
of communication, critical thinking, and problem solving from different perspec-
tives. These differing perspectives consequently require different application and
modeling (Kassim and Fatimah 2010; Tsang 2012). Second, individual teachers
prioritize their instruction based on a number of different factors. Third, budgetary
constraints make it very costly for school wide professional development to occur
(Alliance for Excellent Education 2011). Fourth, it may be difficult to find and
recruit experts in the area of communication, critical thinking, and problem solving
to provide the necessary professional development. Finally, should whole school
professional development occur, sustainability of the project is at risk due to staff
turnover, growth, or implementation of a subsequent project.
From the varied, and valid explanations above, the reality is that high school
students are not guaranteed even an introductory (immersion or otherwise)
opportunity to experience and apply the skills of communication, critical thinking,
and problem solving. These skills require instruction and attention, as can be
evidenced by pre-service teachers at the university level also struggling with these
skills. Therefore, explicit instruction of these skills is one solution. Students would
have a direct opportunity to acquire a foundational level of understanding that could
then be applied in classroom contexts. This course would be offered in conjunction
with the current system until such time as classroom immersion was working
appropriately for the student, teachers started to infuse3 as well as immerse the
critical thinking content into their courses, or adequate buy-in and training from
teachers to instruct these skills became evident.

3
Infusion as it refers to critical thinking involves the explicit instruction of critical thinking principles
and strategies in conjunction with the subject material (Ennis 1989, p. 5).

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Why High School Students Need these Skills

Outlined above are reasons why high school students are not acquiring the skills of
communication, critical thinking, and problem solving. To be comprehensive, it
must be articulated why it is so imperative for these skills to be taught in high
school. It is argued that all students need the skills of communication, critical
thinking, and problem solving. They need them to thrive and they need them earlier
than later. Why? These skills are simply demanded of students after they graduate
from high school.
The administration of education is traditionally structured in a hierarchical
fashion from the top down; governing bodies—superintendants—administrators—
teachers—students. Currently, however, the driving force for education and the
governing bodies come very strongly from outside influences, most notably the
economy. In order to increase economic competitiveness and compete in today’s
knowledge-based economy employees must be able to apply appropriate knowl-
edge, skills, and attitudes to every facet of their life (Alliance for Excellent
Education 2011; Johanson 2010; Rosefsky and Opfer 2012; Sahlberg 2006). These
employees and contributing citizens are, at earliest high school graduates.
As businesses, employers, and entrepreneurs respond to the demands of the
economy, they need to find innovative ways to compete. Employers must choose
employees who are communicative, resourceful, and self-sufficient. Employees
must be capable of complex thinking and problem solving (Johanson 2010;
Raybould and Sheedy 2005). Economic evolution demands a workforce competent
in the skills of communication, critical thinking, and problem solving.
To further support these groups, universities have acknowledged ‘‘the current and
future employment market requires graduates to be equipped with a range of skills.
Applicants need to be able to demonstrate their core transferable skills in addition to
their academic success’’ (Raybould and Sheedy 2005, p. 263). Post-secondary
institutions are attempting to act on this acknowledgment and implement the
instruction of these skills as an overarching mission (Johanson 2010). However, in
some cases the institution does not have appropriate structures in place to
successfully implement and instruct on these skills (finding qualified instructors,
resources, professor development in the skills, professor buy-in, funding, etc.).
Consequently, some institutions simply require students to be able to do this kind of
thinking without any instructional scaffolding in place.
Unfortunately for some students, this instruction (or requirement) comes too late.
As universities establish these skill sets as a requirement in their courses, students
without these skills find themselves increasingly disadvantaged. These disadvan-
taged students will find no reprieve in the work force as employers look for similar
skills (Alliance for Excellent Education 2011; Conley and McGaughy 2012;
Raybould and Sheedy 2005). Therefore, ensuring the development of communi-
cation, critical thinking, and problem solving skills before high school graduation
will offer all students more opportunity to compete in post-secondary education, the
work force, the global market, and in life.

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Action Taken

The argument has now been made for communication, critical thinking, and
problem solving skills to be made a priority of instruction for all high school
students. One solution to address this currently deficit area is to offer a course
specifically designed to teach the skills of communication, critical thinking, and
problem solving. The final section of this article is devoted to explaining what the
course would entail by way of structure, outcomes, instruction, assessment,
resources and teacher training. As well, minor modifications to the current model of
education will be suggested to aid in the delivery and support of this course in order
to immediately offer the course to all students.

A Course in Communication, Critical Thinking, and Problem Solving

Structure

To provide a clear and direct opportunity for students to be exposed to and

instructed on the skills of communication, critical thinking, and problem solving, a
course designed and offered to teach these skills is viable. The course would be
offered with the understanding that immersion and infusion of the skills must
continue (or start) to occur in mainstream classes. The course would target students
at approximately grade 10 where appropriate attention could be paid to the content
without the risk of high stakes achievement testing affecting a student’s list of
priorities. The ideal situation would be to make this course a mandatory one as all
students interested in the arts, humanities, math, and science will benefit from
acquiring these skills (Williamson 2011). The acquisition of these skills would also
help at-risk students gain confidence to compete in the workforce, make healthy
choices, overcome hardships, and persevere (Alliance for Excellent Education 2011;
Johanson 2010). The course would be best taught over one semester with contact
time made with students each day. In this way it would be easily made into a
5-credit4 course compiled of 125 h of instruction.

Outcomes

The course itself is designed to be taught over one semester with instruction on four
inter-related skill-sets; problem solving, critical thinking, communication, and
decision making (an extension to problem solving). Within these skills-sets a
number of knowledge, skill, and attitude outcomes have been identified and noted.
Appendix A outlines a broad list of outcomes designed to provide teachers, as well
as students, a framework from which to teach and learn the skills to an introductory
level. This includes the acquisition of vocabulary specific to the skills as well as
attention paid to student misconceptions.

4
5 credit course as per government of Alberta standards (Alberta, Canada), http://education.alberta.ca/
media/6719891/guidetoed2012.pdf, p. 42.

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Instruction

The course organized into skill-set units, and further arranged into knowledge, skill,
and attitude outcomes, is a conscious decision attempting some conformity to the
existing model of education.5 In practice however, the course is not designed to be
taught or assessed using traditional, ‘check the outcome box’, rote learning,
memorization, or transmission methods of instruction. This is the case as Schleicher
(2012) advocates for the use of inquiry-based learning in the teaching and
assessment of communication, critical thinking, and problem solving skills:
[t]he additional benefits from inquiry learning—namely that it nurtures
communication, collaboration, creativity and deep thinking—becomes apparent
when the assessments try to determine how well the knowledge that has been
acquired is applied and when they measure the quality of reasoning (p. 40).
Therefore, the instructional methods for this course should be: student-directed,
application focused, and context and inquiry-based. Additionally, it should be noted
that this course is not designed to instruct curricular content from other mainstream
courses. Instead, it has been argued that mainstream courses need to teach the above
skills in conjunction with their content. With both this explicit instructional course
and mainstream classes on board, there would be great opportunity for large scale
cross-curricular projects to take place with skill development in mind. Doing this
would allow students to learn the skills as a priority while simultaneously gaining
insight and enrichment from the curricular context provided.

Assessment

Just as the instruction for this course works outside that of traditional methods, the
assessment for this course continues along the same framework. This assessment
would be derived from evidence based on student improvement in skills acquired
over the course of the instructional time as well as mastery of the skills at the course
end. The modes of assessment for this course would be primarily formative and
include: peer and self evaluation, rubric marking, and self-reflection. Greenstein
(2012), offers a number of rubrics that could be relevant. For this course and these
assessments to be most effective a safe, trusting, and risk-taking environment must
be created. Doing so would allow students (and the teacher) freedom to explore their
own understanding without grade-based consequences. Students and teachers alike
must be empowered to modify efforts and pick themselves up and dust themselves
off to continue on the learning path.

Resources and Teacher Training

Finally, due to the complex nature of the skills being introduced, explored, and
applied; attention must be paid to the quality of the skills being taught. Therefore, a

5
See basic structure of Alberta Education curriculum. Example from Science 10; http://education.
alberta.ca/media/654833/science10.pdf.

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specialist teacher is required to give due diligence to the course and skills of
communication, critical thinking, and problem solving. This teacher must be
interested and motivated to invest sufficient effort and time in creating a rich and
valuable student centered learning environment. Professional development specific
to the skill-sets being taught would be essential learning and could come by way of
books such as Becoming a Critically Reflective Teacher by Brookfield, Learning to
Solve Problems: A Handbook for Designing Problem-Solving Learning Environ-
ments by Jonassen, 7 Habits of Highly Effective People by Covey, Crucial
Conversations by Patterson, Grenny, and McMillan, and The 5 Elements of Effective
Thinking by Burger and Starbird. Further, the specialist teacher would be wise to
attend a seminar by Dr. Richard Paul through The Foundation for Critical Thinking
or search professional journals for current information and trends in research.
Ensuring the specialist teacher is adequately prepared with a solid understanding of
the concepts inherent within the curricular outcomes will aid in providing an
engaging and rich learning environment for both the teacher and students. As there
is no specific textbook required for the course, the teacher must be able to utilize the
insights and resources gained from the professional development to facilitate
student learning.
Through the explanation given above, and the help of Appendix A, it is hoped
that the vision to teach communication, critical thinking, and problem solving
resonates clearly. The structure, instruction, and assessment for this course (coupled
with skill-sets and curricular outcomes) are deliberately designed. They are
designed to work within the current educational model by conforming to it in some
respects while simultaneously challenging it in others. The final directive should be:
all students can learn the skills of communication, critical thinking, and problem
solving in a discrete course while working within most parameters of the current
model of education. This means that all students can learn these skills now, provided
minor modifications to the existing model of education ensue. These minor
modifications would mean acknowledgements and concessions (from a jurisdiction
or administrative level) to allow the flexibility required for this course to be offered
and made successful.

Modifications to Existing Western Model of Education

The education system is not changing fast enough for current students to be
guaranteed they will learn the skills required to be competitive in the 21st century.
For the students graduating from high school today, this is not good enough. In
terms of the teaching and learning of communication, critical thinking, and problem
solving a choice must be made. Educators can choose to wait until the structure of
education ensures adequate teaching and learning of these skills to all students
within their courses; or they can choose an immediate alternative working solution.
The solution posed within this article offers the latter, and would ensure all students
be given an introductory opportunity to learn and develop the skills of commu-
nication, critical thinking, and problem solving prior to graduation.
It is understood that this course cannot be offered without challenging some
existing structures in education. In fact, all that is asked of the current education

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system in order to teach the skills of communication, critical thinking, and problem
solving are three modifications.
• The system must allow alternative methods of assessment that reduce the
anxiety of failure, and trust that students are developing the skills as seen by
formative project-based work.
• An investment in human capital must be made by trusting, supporting, and
providing opportunities for teachers to become comfortable and knowledgeable
in the skill-set areas. Additionally, teachers require freedom and time to create
student-centered and student driven programs that are substantial, rich learning
experiences.
• The stakeholders: government agencies, superintendants, administrators, and
teachers capable of affecting change within the education system must continue
to advocate for, as well as demand the immersion and infusion of the skills of
communication, critical thinking, and problem solving into mainstream classes.
The solutions and suggestions posed in this article are not intended as a stand-
alone dictation of how these skills are taught. Rather, they combine to form a viable
approach ensuring the development of the skills of communication, critical thinking,
and problem solving; the same skills that current students are not acquiring to an
appropriate level, but are required of them to function in the 21st century.

Conclusion

All students in high school need to be taught the skills of communication, critical
thinking, and problem solving immediately. They cannot afford to wait until the
current educational model becomes organized and structured in such a way as to
ensure the complete instruction of these skills. Furthermore, until such time as these
skills can be appropriately acquired by infusion and immersion into mainstream
courses, explicit instruction is a relevant and suitable method to aid in student
success. The implementation of this course is essential. It allows a means of
working within the current model of education while also ensuring sufficient energy
and time be devoted to the complex and sophisticated skills of communication,
critical thinking, and problem solving. By doing this, the students of today will have
an opportunity to compete and become successful contributors within existing post
secondary schools and current global markets.
The call to action is now, not tomorrow or next year. All stakeholders: governing
bodies, superintendants, administrators, and teachers must take a risk to allow the
implementation of this course and support its success.
Ideally, the goal of education should be to develop critical thinking and
communication skills and other such mind-strengthening abilities. If the
teachers, the students, and the broader community are clear about the
appropriate goals for education, the daily experience of students changes for
the better (Berger and Starbird 2012, p. 93).

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Appendix

Course Syllabus and Outline

Title: Communication, Critical Thinking, and Problem Solving (an introduction)

Grade: 10

Course Components

No exclusionary, discriminatory, or derogatory material will be taught in this

course, nor will the content in this course be deemed controversial in any way.

Philosophy and Rationale

Much of our thinking, left to itself, is biased, distorted, partial, uniformed or

down-right prejudiced. Yet the quality of our life and that of what we produce,
make, or build depends precisely on the quality of our thought. Shoddy
thinking is costly, both in money and in quality of life. Excellence in thought,
however, must be systematically cultivated (Paul and Elder 2008, p. 2).
The skills required of today’s youth are more pronounced than that of the past.
Students are required to have basic knowledge of content in areas of Science, Math,
and English; as well as technological skills, problem solving skills, critical thinking
skills, and the ability to communicate (Sahlberg 2006). However, with the time
constraints placed on teachers, knowledge outcomes taking priority on learning due
to the high stakes standardized achievement tests, and an understanding that the
particular skills of communication, critical thinking, and problem solving require
explicit instruction (Rosefsky and Opfer 2012); students are not mastering these
skills to an acceptable standard.
In order for students to acquire and master the skills necessary to compete and be
successful in the work force, post secondary education, and life; students must have
the opportunity to engage by learning these skills through practice, application, and
devoted explicit attention. Furthermore, students must explore these skills without
fear of failure but rather with hope that they can improve and move forward from
the learning experience. In this way, learning these skills as a secondary item within
the context of another content based course will not do the students justice.
Historically, the skills of sewing, cooking, woodworking, and mechanics where
offered in high school as application based courses that required hands on and
explorative learning with teacher guidance. More recently computer courses, and
digital citizenship are taking hold in schools to teach students these skills. There is
no reason why the skills of communication, critical thinking, and problem solving
should be treated any differently.
Without the structure and organization of education making drastic changes to
mandate these skills be made more of a priority in the classroom, it is feared that the
teaching and learning of these skills will remain an oversight. It is unfortunate that
the students; citizens, economic and market contributors of our future, will be

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underserved. It is with these reasons that this course offering takes place; such that
an opportunity within the current educational structure can provide students the
opportunity to guard themselves with new foundational skills for the future.

General Learner Expectations

By the end of this course, it is expected learners will have developed and ascertained
explicit knowledge of communication, critical thinking and problem solving. More
importantly, students will have acquired the skills of communication, critical
thinking, and problem solving through application, exploration, and trial and error,
such that they can utilize these skills in different contexts of their lives in
preparation for the work force or post-secondary education.

Specific Learner Expectations

The following is a list of specific learner expectations for the course. Please note
that the units identified for this course are titled ‘Skill-sets’ for a reason as they are
not discrete topics to be taught in isolation, but rather guides toward the
encompassing theme of acquiring these skills. This course is in no way designed
as a check the outcome box course, nor is it organized in order by skill or outcome
number. Rather, the outcomes and skill-sets must be taught in conjunction with each
other through the duration of the course with trust being given to the fact that
through student exploration and leadership; along side teacher guidance and
facilitation, students will improve on their existing skill-set for these skills.

Skill Set A: Critical Thinking Skills6

Knowledge Outcomes: (Students will be able to)

A.K.1 Define the difference between fact and inference.
A.K.2 Derive criteria for which to judge a problem or predicament.
A.K.3 List the elements of thought associated with critical thinking as per one
critical thinking model (Paul and Elder, Rusten and Schuman).
A.K.4 Identify inherent and hidden bias in an argument.
A.K.5 Identify faults in thinking due to oversimplifying or over generalizing
issues or problems.
A.K.6 Identify and state the purpose of thinking.
Skill Outcomes: (Students will be able to)
A.S.1 Utilize background knowledge to solve a problem or predicament.
A.S.2 Apply evidence to solve a problem or predicament.
A.S.3 Express an argument that is logical, clear, and concise.

6
Note: the curricular framework for this course is modelled after that of some curriculum in Alberta
(Alberta Education 2005).

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Communication, Critical Thinking, Problem Solving 75

A.S.4 Derive and model a process by which to critically analyze, think, and solve
a problem or predicament that involves a reasonable, logical, and relevant
thinking strategy.
A.S.5 Explore alternative options and methods before drawing a conclusion.
A.S.6 Illustrate and explore the consequences and implications following the
solution of a problem or issue.
A.S.7 Model, display, or perform the ability to think critically through verbal,
written, and physical means.
Attitudes Outcomes: (Students will)
A.A.1 Believe that it is possible for themselves to solve problems with a
reasonable level of confidence.
A.A.2 Have confidence that they are able to ascertain information needed to help
themselves think critically about a problem or issue.
A.A.3 Respect the diverse nature of thinking and problem solving that allows for
others’ opinions and arguments to be taken into account without discrimination.

Skill Set B: Problem Solving Skills

Knowledge Outcomes: (Students will be able to)

B.K.1 Define convergent and divergent thinking.
B.K.2 State that for any given problem there is more than one problem solving
strategy.
B.K.3 List possible problem solving strategies that exist.
B.K.4 State that problem solving strategies are used in context and explore the
types of contexts that might exist.
B.K.5 Identify that for any problem solving strategy there must be an evaluative
component and an ability to modify the strategy to fit a new context or problem.
Skill Outcomes: (Students will be able to)
B.S.1 Derive and model, illustrate, or describe a problem solving strategy that is
context specific.
B.S.2 Derive and model a personal problem solving strategy to solve a personal
problem.
B.S.3 Solve problems using mathematical reasoning.
B.S.4 Solve problems using technological means or supports.
B.S.5 Solve problems by modeling existing economic structures.
B.S.6 Solve problems by modeling existing political structures.
Attitudes Outcomes: (Students will)
B.A.1 Have improved self-confidence in attempting to solve problems in a
number of different contexts.
B.A.2 Be proud of the problem solving ability they have acquired.
B.A.3 Feel empowered to attempt new problem solving methods that are logical
and relevant without fear of failure.

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Skill Set C: Decision Making Skills

Knowledge Outcomes: (Students will be able to)

C.K.1 Identify that decision making is a process toward problem solving.
C.K.2 Identify personal bias in an argument.
C.K.3 State the difference between dialectic and rhetorical arguments.
C.K.4 Illustrate the types of decisions expected in personal, professional, and
civic lives.
C.K.5 Describe the difference between rational and emotional expressions.
C.K.6 State and explain the difference between normative and naturalistic
decision making.
C.K.7 Define the term dilemma.
C.K.8 State that the primary purpose of decision making is to decide on the best
option, or provide maximum utility.
C.K.9 State that decision making can be made based on what is most consistent
with personal beliefs or past experiences.
C.K.10 Identify that there is uncertainty and risk associated with every decision.
Skill Outcomes: (Students will be able to)
C.S.1 Construct a decision making process that includes identification, evidence,
evaluation and modification of a problem.
C.S.2 Construct and apply a method of decision making to solve personal
problems.
C.S.3 Construct and apply a method of decision making to solve professional
problems.
C.S.4 Construct and apply a method of decision making to solve civic problems.
C.S.5 Examine positive and negative methods of modifying and changing
decisions after they have been made.
C.S.6 Examine circumstances by which to modify, change, or renegotiate a
decision.
Attitude Outcomes: (Students will)
C.A.1 Acknowledge that a commitment needs to be made upon making a
decision.
C.A.2 Take ownership of decisions made using the decision making skills.
C.A.3 Understand that decisions require a course of action that is intended to
yield results that are satisfying for special individuals.
C.A.4 Reflect on decisions made in their life and decide if they were appropriate
or not.

Skill Set D: Communication Skills

Knowledge Outcomes: (Students will be Able to)

D.K.1 Identify factors affecting communication.
D.K.2 State that communication involves more than one person.

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D.K.3 Identify and explore the roles of speaker and listener in any conversation.
D.K.4 List and explore different environments involving communication (i.e.;
formal language vs. slang, workplace vs. home life).
D.K.5 Describe the difference between teamwork and collaboration.
D.K.6 Describe what effective and ineffective communication looks, sounds, and
feels like.
D.K.7 Explain the role of respect, honesty, fairness, and reason in any
communication interaction.
Skill Outcomes: (Students will be able to)
D.S.1 Model and illustrate different conflict resolution strategies.
D.S.2 Identify and illustrate factors affecting teamwork.
D.S.3 Communicate effectively with peers while working collaboratively as a
team.
D.S.4 Communicate effectively with teachers and parents regarding conflicts and
successes.
D.S.5 Communicate clearly, logically, and precisely in verbal and written modes.
D.S.6 Ask and accept help in communicating when needed.
Attitude Outcomes: (Students will)
D.A.1 Feel empowered to communicate with peers.
D.A.2 Have confidence in the skill of communicating to discuss difficult issues
with parents, teachers, and employers.
D.A.3 Feel empowered to ask and accept help by communicating in an
appropriate fashion without fear of rejection or judgment.

Course Assessment

The assessment for this course is by way of individual student improvement in

conjunction with final skill aptitude of the above stated skill sets by course end. This
improvement and aptitude can be measured through a number of different means
and will depend on the structure of the course as arranged and organized by the
teacher. Outlined below are some classroom activities and possible assessments that
might be of benefit to teachers planning this course.
Activities:
• A pre and post written statement of the intention for being in the course and the
problems and skills a student would like to solve and understand.
• Assessed formatively (both pre and post) for critical thinking skills such as
clarity of work, logic, reasoning, and evidence provided.
• Pre and post formative assessments then evaluated for level of improvement.
• Debate as a form of argument, decision making, communication and problem
solving.
• Following and respecting debate rules and roles of speaker/listener.

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• Utilizing rubrics for argument, decision making, communication and

problem solving.
• Market modeling—modeling the course as a competitive market with students
given roles based on an application from them on their expertise and motivation
toward the given problem. The roles would dictate a level of income for the
student as well as a level of responsibility and leadership for them.
• Assessed by way of improvement and movement ‘up the market ladder’—
i.e.—what by way of promotion, what conflict resolution strategies or
problems needed to be overcome, how long did it take to resolve or solve the
problem?
• Take into account rationale for why students have chosen their particular
role (provided this rationale is given in a clear, appropriate, relevant, and
significant manner)—i.e. standard of living, other priorities at the time etc.
• Socratic Seminar on issue at hand to interpret and illustrate improvement in
speaking and communicating an argument.
• Assessed by way of quality and strength of participation and argument.
• Resume of students skills ascertained and improved on through the course.
• Cross curricular problems and projects modeling real life i.e. effects of
globalization, and marketization on students by multinational companies.
Projects to be displayed and presented to the class.
• Assessed by way of rubrics (teacher and peer).
• Likert scale survey for teacher and student on level of improvement of outcomes
throughout the course.
• Utilization of pre-existing rubrics i.e. Decision Making (Jonassen 2012).
• Cornell CT Test level X for critical thinking as a pre and post test? (a
quantitative assessment ordered from http://www.criticalthinking.com/
getProductDetails.do?code=c&id=05501) (Ennis and Millman 1985).
• Assessment strategies as well as possible outcomes for skill-sets can be found in
Greenstein’s (2012), Assessing 21st Century Skills: A guide to evaluating
mastery and authentic learning.
It is expected that all students will learn skill-set outcomes through the duration
of the course. The question is how much will be learned? The answer depends on
the individual student as well as their incoming skill level in each given area. In this
case equal does not mean equitable and the goal of assessment for this course is to
ascertain what improvement as well as final level of understanding an individual
student has.
It should be stated that the nature of the course is student-centered and driven by
the student. The teacher, however, is responsible for setting up the course and
providing students an opportunity to explore this learning. Therefore, the teacher
must come up with valid, rich, open activities for students to work within while at
the same time ideally allowing the students to come up with the problems,
scenarios, and arguments with which to discuss and solve. Explicit instruction may

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be necessary but should be severely limited allowing students ample opportunity for
application and practice.
It is highly recommended that students work the duration of this course in groups
(and differing groups) as it is here that communication, collaboration, and teamwork
skills will be developed. It is further recommended that students be a part of the
assessment process in deciding on the nature of the assessments, the criteria for the
assessment, and in self and peer assessment. Allowing students to direct and lead
requires trust and openness on the part of the teacher but is in fact part of the
learning process.

Learning Resources

Since the premise of this course is for the teacher to be a ‘guide on the side’ and not
a ‘sage on the stage’, there are no required learning resources for this course.
However, it is recommended that teachers undertake professional development in
the skill-set areas to ensure they have developed the necessary skills to pass on.
Books such as: Becoming a Critically Reflective Teacher by Brookfield, Learning to
Solve Problems: A Handbook for Designing Problem-Solving Learning Environ-
ments by Jonassen, 7 Habits of Highly Effective People, Crucial Conversations, and
The 5 Elements of Effective Thinking would be an introduction. Journal articles and
professional publications regarding 21st century skills and the development of these
would be helpful. Finally, professional development seminars or sessions by leading
experts such as Richard Paul from The Foundation for Critical Thinking would be
almost necessary.
From this learning, the teacher will need to develop a tool kit of resources at their
disposal in which to best help their students. The nature of the course being student-
centered will require a teacher to be flexible in the work that is undertaken. The
teacher will also have to be reactive to issues, problems, and learning scenarios that
take place in the classroom. However, as this is a course in allowing the students to
ascertain skills in problem solving, critical thinking, and communication, it must be
mentioned that it is the students who are doing the brunt of the work and actually
doing the problem solving and critical thinking themselves. For instance, it would
not be sufficient for a question to be: What book should we read to learn critical
thinking? And have the answer to the problem be: go ask the teacher and he/she will
tell us. Rather the answer should be: let us go to the library or use the internet and
find out which book is the best book. What options are available? What type of
critical thinking are we looking at? What is critical thinking? Who are the leading
experts in the field? What bias do they have? Where can I actually find or order
these books? What cost and what is my budget? In the end, a seemingly simple
question—is wrought with learning experiences by the student provided the teacher
take a backburner to the work and allow the student to take the reins.

Course Evaluation

The open nature of this course allows for a teacher at any time to make changes to
the structure, organization, and assessment of the course due to evaluation and

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reflection. The evaluation and reflection of this course should therefore be ongoing
by the student and teacher immersed in the learning environment. The teacher is
responsible for periodically seeking feedback from students regarding the nature of
the course, as well as professionally reflecting themselves on the presentation of the
course to their students.
The teacher is also responsible for keeping records of the course, as well as
feedback collected that identifies the (a) strengths and weaknesses of the course as it
is being facilitated, (b) activities and assessments being implemented in the course,
and (c) improvements to the course for a later date. The teacher should ideally
create a long range plan (or running calendar) that becomes more descriptive as the
course proceeds, about the level of difficulty, quality of problems, activities,
resources, feedback, and assessments being utilized in the course to reference at a
later date. Finally, the teacher should be able to provide evidence to the local school
authority at any time in order for the authority to monitor, evaluate, and report
progress should it be required.

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