Answer to Tutorial 4

1)

Usually, HV insulation materials (also called dielectrics) are isotropic and usually homogeneous, at
Dissolved gas analysis ( DGA ) is widely used to detect incipient faults in transformers.

This method involves sampling the oil and testing the sample to measure the concentration of the
dissolved gases.
The presence of the key gases may indicate the existence of any one or a combination of thermal,
electrical, or corona faults

2)

Paper is widely used as the insulation material particularly in cables and transformers. Moisture and
chemical reaction in oil produce acidic compounds which weaken the paper insulation. This does not
affect the electrical strength but mechanical properties deteriorate as fibers break and the paper
becomes brittle. Paper is composed of long chains of cellulose molecules formed by glucose rings.
Reactions cause the cellulose chains to break; Chain length ( = degree of polymerization) decreases

3)

Degree of Polymerization (DP) defines the condition of paper insulation (mechanical strength). It is
the average number of glucose rings per molecule

Generally, higher DP correlates with higher melting temperature and mechanical strength (harder
material).

DP measurement requires a sample of the paper thus it is not suitable as an on-line CM.

4)

The cost, The structure and the material of the insulation (outdoor or indoor, accessible or not, gas,
solid or liquid ,etc) and the level of environmental noise that can affect the measurement.

5)

Ultra-high frequency (UHF) sensors for partial discharge detection have been widely used with a
frequency band range from 100MHz to 2GHz. They have an overall higher sensitivity compared to
the conventional sensors which made them a good candidate for use in GIS and cable terminations.

They can also be used for localization of the PD which is very important in GIS application.

6)

• Small and lightweight

• Durable

• Sensitive (to strain and temperature change)

• Incorporable without being intrusive

 • Immunity in noisy environment (EMI)

• High bandwidth

• Low attenuation

• Resistance to corrosion and fatigue

• Simultaneous sensing of numerous parameters

• Quick response

7)

• May need to isolate from unwanted parameters

• Availability of optical sources

• Š Cost and availability of instrumentation

• Š Long term stability is relatively unknown

• Š Low awareness of fibre-optic sensor technology

• Complexity of the detection and signal processing

8) The directional couplers can be installed between the cable sheath and the semiconductive
layer.

There are 4 outputs from the couplers, marked by A, B, C and D in the Figure. The noise
travelling from left to right will be picked up by A and C outputs and from right to left
picked up by B and D. However, PDs from the cable joint will be picked up only by B
and C which is distinguished from the noise originated on both sides.

9)
The purpose of the fiber sensor is to detect the acoustic emission generated by the partial discharge
in high-voltage cable accessories. When the acoustic emission signal acts on the sensing head, it
transmits in the form of sound pressure that can change the optical path length of the sensing fiber.
Therefore, the working principle of the sensor is to demodulate the phase vibration of light in the
sensing fiber in order to retrieve the acoustic emission signal. It utilizes a Michelson interferometer-
based fiber sensor to detect the acoustic emission. The sensor consists of a coupler and two fiber
arms with two mirrors, respectively. The optical beam from the light source is split into two paths by
the optical coupler. It exists between the arms of modulation with the measured phase difference,
wherein the arm of the reference arm, the other arm, is the sensing arm affected by the acoustic
emission signal. Two beams of light reflect back through the Faraday rotator mirrors (FRMs)and the
interference occurs through the coupler. Since the acoustic pressure waves change the optical path
length of the sensing fiber in the interferometer, the phase variation of the system is coded with the
information of the acoustic pressure waves.

10)

Hot spots are the highest temperature area in the transformer based on flux leakage from the
windings and can degrade the insulating paper making the transformer susceptible to
failure. Transformer aging rate roughly doubles for every 6 -8 °C over temperature set point.

With temperature and time, the cellulose insulation undergoes a depolymerization process. As the
cellulose chain gets shorter, the mechanical properties of paper such as tensile strength and
elasticity degrade. Eventually the paper becomes brittle and is not capable of withstanding short
circuit forces and even normal vibrations that are part of transformer life. This situation
characterizes the end of life of the solid insulation. Since it is not reversible, it also defines the
transformer end of life.

11)

DTS measures temperatures by means of optical fibers. Those optoelectronic devices provide a
continuous profile of the temperature distribution along the fiber cable.

Being insensitive to the electromagnetic interference (EMI), the fiber optic-based DTS systems are of
particular interest in the electrical applications, e.g., power transformers, cables, etc.

The main measuring principles are based on detecting the back-scattering of light, e.g., using the
Rayleigh , Raman , and Brillouin principles.

The position of the temperature reading (along the fiber length) is determined by measuring the
time delay of the returning light pulse, similar to a radar echo.

12)

More effective use of the cable capacity (ampacity)

Better Emergency load management

Locating hot-spot along the cable

Better Life prediction and maintenance planning (using historical data)