10. Units of nationally biased lexicon units and ways of their translation.

Each nation in the course of its historical development acquires its own special
features and names. Examples of names are:

- religious traditions expressed through proper names (Івана Купала, Ireland's St.
Patrick, American Uncle Sam.)

- elements in monetary system (penny, dollar, гривня)

- some articles of clothing, footwear (Scottish kilt, tartan, вишиванка, American

Indians' moccasins)

- national meal, drinks

- national systems of weights and measures (English mile, ounce, Ukrainian верста,
пуд).

Many nationally biased notions are borrowed into other national languages: bacon,
champagne, Coca-Cola, vodka, spaghetti, sweater, pizza. Many of specific national
terms have become widely known (Kozak/Cossack, steppe, polka, pudding, lunch,
etc.), (kulak, collectivization, cosmonaut). In the course of some historical period
some became internationalisms (barter, management, picket, taboo, sauna, oasis).

Some units can be translated without preserving their lingual form: moonlighter-
підробітник - той, хто підробляє у вільний час, переважно вечорами.

Sometimes nationally biased units can be directly translated and explicated: alphabet
soup - "азбучний суп"(суп з макаронів, що мають форму літер абетки, виховна
година - educational lesson (on good behavior and morality of students at school).

Some similar notions exist in different languages: the Order of Merit-орден "За
заслуги", класний керівник - tutor/form master, табель успішності й поведінки -
pupil's report/record card, Department of Education and Science - міністерство
освіти, extension course - курси підвищення кваліфікації, extramural education
-заочне/вечірнє навчання.

11. Internationalisms, neologisms and their rendering.

The translation of neologisms tops the list of the most difficult matters which
translators face. Neologisms are widely known as new words or new meanings of
words already existing in the vocabulary which have not yet entered into the common
use. Obviously, English dictionaries cannot register immediately all new words. As a
result, translators need to rely on the context. It means that they have to “invent” new
words or explain English neologisms using the descriptive method.

The origins of neologisms are often roughly divided into two groups: linguistic and
extra-linguistic which are, however, inseparable. Various types of word-building and
borrowings refer to the first group, and the extra-linguistic sources can be of political
(glasnost), economical (forex = foreign + exchange), social (hipster), scientific
(dilitancy), and technological (FOMO, “Fear of missing out” ¬– related to social
networks) origin.

Generally speaking, there are four methods for translating neologisms: selection of an
equivalent in a target language, transliteration and transcription, loan translation, or
calque. The first method is the easiest one. If the word is fixed in the dictionaries,
there is usually no problem with finding equivalents. Nevertheless, it is not always
possible to find an appropriate analogue in the target language. Without any
background information about the meanings of new words, translators risk to misuse
the words in the target language. It is especially important to check them while using
the descriptive (explanatory) method of translation. This method is seen as the most
productive in English-Ukrainian translation due to absolutely different means of
expression in both languages.

The so-called “language conciseness” typical for English makes the translators to use
two other methods: transliteration and transcription. Transcription helps to maintain
the sound form of the source word with the help of another script, while
transliteration implies transformation of letters into another alphabet. In practice, both
methods are often combined. It is worth mentioning that many English letters and
sounds do not have exact analogues in Ukrainian and, thus, some words can have two
or more transliterated variants in the target language.

Loan translation does not change the original word at all. This method concerns the
borrowings from different languages which preferably need to be preserved due to
the absence of the original concepts and notions which are borrowed as well.