Chapter 2: Review of literature and associated patents

2.1. Introduction

This chapter focuses on the findings and the claims by the previous researchers

and the literature relevant to this research. The aerodynamic characteristics of both the

baseline constant chord straight leading edge model and the biologically inspired

humpback whale based LEP wings are discussed. Additionally, the importance of the

turbulence intensity on the aerodynamic characteristics is considered as well. Following

which, the plausible explanations provided by the several researchers for the potential

advantage of leading-edge protuberanced wing on stall delay characteristics are included.

Subsequently, the surface pressure distribution over the BSLEM and the modified

leading-edge protuberanced model configurations outlined in the previous studies are also

listed. In lieu of surface pressure distribution, the review of researches related to multi-

point surface pressure measurements are discussed in detail in the upcoming section.

Other than that the existing patents relevant to this title explaining the potential

advantages of the biologically inspired leading-edge protuberanced models are discussed

in detail to highlight the unique aerodynamic benefit offered by LEP Model. This chapter

provides an overview of the review of previous literature and patents.

2.2 Review of time-resolved surface pressure measurements:

One of the simple yet effective ways to know experimentally the flow around the

model is to measure the pressure. This is based on the fact that the global quantities like

lift and pressure drag can be deduced from the surface pressure measurements. Generally,

the pressure measurements are carried out using one of the earliest pressure measuring

instruments named U-tube manometer which is still widely used today by many people

because of its inherent accuracy and operational simplicity. All the pressure

measurements performed using U-tube manometer is differential and consists of glass

tubing, indicating fluids and level mounting requirements. 1 Later, with the digitalization,

microprocessor-based digital manometers have arrived. They are portable in sizes,

convenient to use and does not require installation panels etc. However, in all these

aforementioned measuring equipment the limitation is the measurement of discrete

pressure data. It is well known that the quantities/variables that represent or trace any

values changes with change in time. In contrast, the time series data which is currently

used by the researchers is a sequence of discrete-time data taken at a successive equally

spaced time. The use of time-series surface pressure measurements dates back to 1950s.

Several research literature reveals that surface pressure measurements have been carried

out on their wind tunnel measurements. 2-4 However, in all these studies single-point

surface measurements were only obtained. In the year 1958, Willmarth pioneered the

multi-point surface pressure measurements to report about the fluctuating surface

pressures in the wind tunnel measurements under the turbulent boundary layer. 5 With the

increase in the necessity of understanding the flow separation over the aerofoils, more

extensive studies were carried out to employ multi-point surface pressure measurements.

The time-series surface pressure measurements over the separated region and the shear

layer development over the aerofoil surface were the need of the hour at that time.

However, due to the complex nature of the surface over the aerofoil, it becomes necessary

to adequately place multi-point surface pressure measurements over the entire surface of

the aerofoil to effectively capture the location and the extent of the separated region.

Additionally, the flow separation region also changes with the change in the flow

conditions like angles of attack (α), turbulence intensity (TI) and Reynolds number (Re).

As a consequence, it becomes necessary for the researchers to instrument the aerofoil

with multi-point surface pressure measurements to study the flow separation at various

flow conditions. Even today, the use of multi-point surface pressure measurements over
the aerofoil is employed to understand the flow field characteristics prevalent over the

aerofoil.6-8

2.3. Review of research related to constant chord straight leading-edge wing

During the 1920s it was already established that the wing sections which exhibit

favourable aerodynamic characteristics in constant airflow work even better in the

flowing air subjected to constant periodical changes in its direction. Katzmayr showed

that the oscillating airflow considerably alters the aerodynamic properties. Later this

effect is defined as “Katzmayr effect”.9 Even though this is established knowledge, wind

tunnels do not replicate the turbulent environment representative of the real atmosphere.

“Turbulence intensity”. The turbulence intensity is defined as the ratio of the standard

deviation of the velocity (σ u) to the average of the velocity (ú). With the increasing use of

aerofoils in real-world applications like aircraft wings and wind turbine blades, it

becomes necessary for aerodynamicists and wind engineers to investigate the effects of

turbulence intensity on aerofoils. Generally, wind turbines operate in the turbulent wind

and with the increasing practise of installing wind turbine parks, downstream turbines

need to operate in the wake of other turbines. The wake of the wind turbine has been

found to increase the turbulence intensity.10 Naturally, there is a strong need to understand

the effect of turbulence intensity on aerofoil aerodynamics at a wide range of angles of

attack (α). However, some of the studies have also reported the consequences of not

considering turbulence intensity into account. Bustamante et al. reported that the

turbulence intensity acting on the wind turbine blade causes frequent changes in the stress

acting on the wind turbine blades eventually leads to the fatigue failure of the wind

turbine itself.11 Ismaiel et al. supported the statement by adding that turbulence of the

wind means intense fluctuation of the loads acting on the turbine leading to fatigue. 12
Therefore, turbulence is used as a primary wind turbine design parameter, substantially

describing the fatigue damage. Similarly, the NREL Ames wind tunnel test of the wind

turbines is one such evidence. Unfortunately, during the testing of a newly developed

untapered, twisted turbine blade the instrumentation boom broke off the wind turbine

because of the effect of the turbulence present on the inflow which is not taken in to

account. Based on the framework of the previous researches, it becomes clear that several

studies have been performed to investigate the effect of the turbulence intensity on the

aerodynamic characteristics of the aerofoil both computationally and experimental.

However, the first major study on the effect of turbulence over aerofoils was documented

by Stack et al. during the year 1931.13

Figure 2.1 NACA 0021 results with and without grid13

Stack et al. performed wind tunnel measurements over the NACA 0006 and NACA 0021

aerofoils in both the presence and absence of turbulence grids at variable density wind

tunnel of the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA).13 Artificial coarse

screens laid at right angles has been used to produce the turbulence in the wind tunnel.

Results revealed that the turbulent inflow tends to increase the maximum lift of the

aerofoil at Re=1.0×105 (Fig 2.1). In addition to that experimental results also indicated
that turbulence of the inflow tends to delay the stall characteristics of the test aerofoil.

Millikan et al. carried out wind tunnel measurements over the NACA 2412 aerofoil in

flows of varying turbulence level.14 From the results, it becomes clear that the C Lmax of an

aerofoil increases smoothly and continuously with increasing free stream turbulence

(FST) as claimed by Stack et al.13-14 Following that several researchers started

investigating the effect of turbulent inflow on the aerodynamic performance

characteristics of an aerofoil. A study featuring 3-dimensional wing sections tested under

unsteady flow exhibits large force overshoots owing to the strong influence of the

turbulence intensity. Brandon and Shah reported that the difference in the characteristics

of the overshoot was probably due to the presence of higher magnitudes of turbulence on

the wing models.15 Upon searching for the plausible reason behind the increase in the

aerodynamic loads Hancock found that increasing the freestream turbulence will increase

mixing over the aerofoil reinforcing the existing shear layer turbulence resulting in a

corresponding increase in the momentum.16 A detailed review on the influence of stall

delay characteristics with the increase in the freestream turbulence is documented by

Holmes, during the year 1988.17 Kunz et al.18 and Tulapurkara19 provided a detailed report

on the influence of turbulence on the instantaneous changes of wind velocity and

direction in CFD.18-19 Gradually, researchers started performing extensive work on the

effects of freestream turbulence on boundary layers, body shapes etc. 20-21 Kaplan et al.

have extensively studied the effect of turbulence on the commercial aviation accidents

and elaborated them in detail in his study21. Kaplan et al.21 reported that in-flight

turbulence is one of the leading cause of non-fatal accidents to airline passengers and

flight attendants as the pilots often do not know when severe turbulence is about to occur.

Jancauskas22 found that the addition of inflow turbulence tends to delay the stall

characteristics.22 Wind tunnel investigations were performed over NACA 0006 aerofoil at
various turbulence intensities ranging between 0.6% to 16% at a mean freestream velocity

corresponding to Re=2×105 (Fig 2.2). Results revealed that with the increase in the

turbulence intensity values, the stall was further delayed.

Figure 2.2 NACA 0006 aerofoil section in turbulence 22

Studies by researchers like Jancauskas22, Devinant et al23, Swalwell24 and Sicot et al. 25

were focussed on the assessment of aerofoil performance at higher levels of freestream

turbulence to find its application in wind turbine blades. Fugslang26 discussed the choice

of aerofoils for wind turbine blades in this recent study and noted that the NACA

aerofoils are popular among the wind turbine designers due to the abundant availability of

the wind tunnel measurements and data.26 However, they further added that the NACA

aerofoils are sensitive to roughness and edgewise vibrations accompanied with a dynamic

stall. Swalwell et al. carried out detailed surface pressure measurement over the aerofoils

at a wide range of angles of attack (α) in turbulent flows. Experiments have demonstrated

clearly that even a low turbulent inflow can affect the stall characteristics of the aerofoil.

Swalwell et al. concluded that the influence of turbulence should be considered while

designing and testing the aerofoil since it will affect the estimated power output of the
wind turbines.24 Similarly, in the wind farms, Hojstrup et al. and Hogstrom et al.

estimated that the turbulence effects are noticeable even at 10D and 12D downstream

where velocity deficits are almost negligible.27-28 Due to this change in turbulence level, it

has been observed experimentally by Leuven that in a wind turbine park the first turbine

produces full power whereas the downstream turbines show a significant decrease in

power production.29 For these reasons, it becomes crucial to plan the layout of wind

turbines in wind farms with consideration of the interference from each other. Maeda et

al. studied the changes in the wake flow generated behind the wind turbine with the

change in the turbulence intensity.30 The results are quite interesting that the increase in

the turbulence intensity associated with fluctuation in wind direction and velocity causes

fluctuations in the angle of attack over the blade results in an increase in the stall angle.

Additionally, Maeda et al. also reported that an increase in the turbulence intensity

reduces the hysteresis loop. Amandolese et al. performed wind tunnel experiments to gain

a better understanding of the influence of the small scale turbulence on a NACA 63(4)-

421 aerofoil under three flow turbulence levels 1.1%, 4.5% and 7.5%. 31 Experimental

results revealed that the angle of attack at which the stall appears associated with the lift

coefficient increase with increasing turbulence level due to the variation induced in the

mean pressure distribution on the upper surface of an aerofoil.

Sicot et al. performed wind tunnel testing of aerofoils under different turbulence

intensities for wind turbine blades.25 Since the incident flows on the wind turbine blades

are often highly turbulent because of the wake of the preceding turbines in the Windfarm

and Atmospheric Boundary Layer (ABL) it becomes necessary to study the influence of

turbulence over the aerofoils utilized in wind turbines. Wind tunnel testing confirmed that

there is an increase in the maximum lift coefficient with the increasing turbulence levels.

Sicot et al. also found that the increase in the maximum lift coefficient is attributed to the
change in aerodynamic loads acting over the test model at the same angle of attack with

the increase in the turbulence level. It was observed that the test model inclined at the

same angle of attack, the separation point moves towards the vicinity of the trailing edge

with the increasing turbulence intensity. These results are found in good agreement with

the claims made by Stack et al.13 Following that, based on the wind tunnel investigation,

Devinant et al. found that the effect of the inflow turbulence ranging from 0.5-16%,

generated using grids of square tubes can strongly influence the aerodynamic

characteristics of the test aerofoil both quantitatively and qualitatively. 23 In order to study

the aerodynamic loads acting over the aerofoil, Devinant et al. utilized the time-averaged

pressure measurements obtained over the aerofoil. Seddighi et al. performed an extensive

wind tunnel test to analyse the effect of turbulent inflow on the surface pressure variation

and aerodynamic performance of the oscillating test aerofoil at two different turbulence

intensities. It can be concluded from the results that increasing the turbulence intensity

tends to reduce the flow unsteadiness. This result in a reduction in flow separation region

over the model thereby making it advantageous in terms of stall delay characteristics. 32 To

get an insight of the wind turbine performance at different turbulence levels Abadi et al.

carried out wind tunnel investigations using different grids with different mesh sizes at

wind speeds ranging between 8 to 16 m/s. Their results revealed that for the wind turbine,

the power coefficient increases as the turbulence increases. The power coefficient is a

measure of wind turbine efficiency often used by the wind power industry and can be

represented as a ratio of the electricity produced by the wind turbine to the total energy

available in the wind. Additionally, with the increase in the tip speed ratio for the same

oncoming wind velocity, it becomes clear that the increase in the turbulence intensity

increases the rotational speed. Abadi et al. concluded that the turbulence enhances the

mixing of wake-surrounding flows helps in suppressing the tip vortex. Hence,

performance curves of the wind turbines increases with the increase in the turbulence

intensity for the same oncoming wind velocity.33 Maldonado et al. further proved that the

enhancement of mixing flows with the increase in the turbulence intensity delays stall

until higher angles of attack. In order to assess the aerodynamic load characteristics with

respect to the variations in turbulence intensity, surface pressure characteristics over the

wind turbine blades become crucial. Additionally, predicting the aerodynamic loads

acting over the aerofoil sections utilized in wind turbine blades play a vital role in

determining the power production of the wind turbines.34 Sheinman and Rosen studied the

emphasis of the dynamic nature of the wind and its dependence on the wind turbine

power production and found that neglecting the turbulence effects during the estimation

of energy production from the wind turbines may result in overprediction of more than

10%.35 Several authors performed experiments to identify the influence of parameters like

downstream distance, thrust coefficient of the wind turbine blade and ambient turbulence.

One of the recent studies by Sridhar et al. 36 stated that even though the results by

Jancauskas22 Devinant et al.23 Swalwell24 Sicot et al.25 are more relevant to the wind

turbine blades as they match the Reynolds number where the aircraft wing operates,

similar results can be considered for aircraft wings, helicopter blades and Marine rudders

also. Micro Aerial Vehicles (MAV) is becoming increasingly important in both the

military and civilian operations due to their potential for surveillance, information

gathering and logistics. Since they operate close to grounds and in between the buildings,

the local wakes induced by the influences of buildings and structures leads to change in

turbulence level thereby places a significant challenge for the operation of MAV. 37

Therefore, the assessment of the aerodynamic performance of MAV under different

turbulence intensities is critical as it has the potential to directly influence the attitude and

flight path of MAV. Wang et al. demonstrated that the knowledge obtained on the
aerodynamics of the aerofoils under oncoming turbulent flow is still inadequate due to the

developments in small wind turbines, UAV, MAV and NAV etc. 38 Wang et al. 38 analysed

the aerodynamics of NACA 0012 aerofoil and its flow structures at an oncoming

turbulent inflow varying between 0.6 to 6% at Reynolds number in the order of 10 4 to 106.

It was found that CL, CD, CL/CD and their dependence on the angle of attack, all vary with

the difference in the oncoming turbulent flow. Their results revealed that, as a result of

increases turbulence intensity, the onset of transition to turbulence on the upper shear

layer advances resulting in earlier reattachment. It is further noted that the turbulence

intensity has a pronounced effect at lower Reynolds number than at higher Reynolds

number on flow separation, transition and reattachment. The effect of turbulent inflow on

the aerofoil aerodynamics is largely associated with the increase in aerodynamic forces,

stalling angle and maximum coefficient of lift. Hoffmann investigated the effect of

freestream turbulence on the performance characteristics of NACA 0015 aerofoil.39 The

lift and drag characteristics of the test aerofoil subjected to freestream turbulence

changing from 0.25% to 9% are compared against the values obtained from the test

aerofoil in the absence of freestream turbulence. Aerofoil performance characteristics

obtained in the presence of freestream turbulence yields an increase in the overall peak

lift coefficient of about 30% with no drag penalty. Similarly, Mish and Devenport

investigated the aerodynamic performance characteristics of NACA 0015 aerofoil by

analysing the mean loading effects acting over the aerofoil from the surface pressure

measurements.40 Similar conclusions were made experimentally by Mish and Devenport

too. Huang and Lin claimed that other than dynamically increasing the lift coefficient, the

turbulence intensity also influences the flow separation characteristics. 41 Since the

freestream turbulence significantly affects the aerodynamic performance and surface flow

characteristics, Huang and Lee et al. experimentally tested NACA 0012 wing section in
the wind tunnel at different turbulence intensity ranging between 0.20% and 0.65% by

placing different wire-mesh screens between the entry of the test section and the model. It

was found that the increase in turbulence intensity TI < 0.45% tends to effectively delay

the stall.42 Subsequently, it is also found that the effect of turbulence intensity on the C L

became significant after TI < 0.45%. Similar conclusions are made for investigations on
23
other aerofoils, such as NACA 65(4)-421 and HQ17 etc by Devinant et al. Colman et
43 44
al. and Aftab et al. reported that the turbulence imparts high energy to oppose

separation in the boundary layer, thereby helps the flow remain attached over the surface

of the aerofoil. Based on previous literature, the methodologies adopted by the

researchers for generating desired TI in the wind tunnels are listed in Table 2.1.

Table 2.1 Methodologies utilized in generating turbulence in wind tunnel

TI
Mechanism Observation Reference
[%]
15 Low-cost simple construction and is a
Wind Hajen et al. 45
to function of porosity. Low porosity tends
barriers Wu et al. 46
28 to generate high turbulence intensities.
Wind characteristics can be controlled in Blessmann et al.

a wide range with artificially thickened 47

Cross-jets 0.3 boundary layer since there are no solid

obstacles and are free from blockage

effects.
1 to Turbulence level can be increased by
Jet grids Tassa et al. 48
3 increasing the injection rate.
Aerofoil 10 Provides a wide range of modest Lakshminarayana

cascades turbulence intensities as a function of et al. 49

 angle of attack with the turbulence

spectrum energy range in the order of 5-

10 kHz.
10 Suitable for producing moderate Roach et al., 50

Tube bundles turbulence intensities (in the order of

10%) while the decay rate is rapid.

TI
Mechanism Observation Reference
[%]
Square mesh
Primarily a function of grid Li Q. et al. 51
arrays of 0 to
porosity/solidity. Dependence on Reynolds Comte-Bellot et
round / square 10
number is reported. al. 52
bars
Parallel
0 to Turbulence downstream of the grid is more
arrays of Roach, 53
10 isotropic.
round bars
Possible to generate weak isotropic

Agitated bar 5 turbulence which exhibits long-distance Ling et al. 54

grids energy transfer characteristics

Highly flexible methods of turbulence

Perforated / generation since it is easy to control

Coppolo et al. 55
Blockage 12 turbulent Reynolds number and flow rate
Liu et al. 56
plates through simple geometrical parameters of

perforations.
Table 2.1 (Continued) Methodologies utilized in generating turbulence in wind tunnel

2.4. Review of research related to Leading-edge protuberanced wing

 Major discoveries always come with a story and the discovery of leading-edge

protuberances is no such an exception for that. Like Newton and apple, Archimedes and

Bathtub, the story of Leading-edge protuberances and Frank E. Fish started at a gift shop.

Frank E. Fish, a marine biologist, while shopping for a gift argued with the shop keeper

about the sculptor keeping the protuberances on the wrong side of the flipper. Moreover,

the shop keeper was so certain about the sculptor's work and upon further argument fish

eventually checked the details and found that the sculptor was right. But at the same time,

it ignited a spark on his mind about the science of fluid dynamics. Fortunately, the

question occurred to the right person: At that time, Fish was running the Liquid Life Lab

at West Chester University addressing how animals from tiny minnows to beavers and

whales swim. Frank E. Fish then discussed with his colleagues and collaborators to find

out the answer in terms of fluid dynamics. Until Fish asked this question, everyone

studying about aerofoils, hydrofoils and the like knew that the leading-edge of these

devices had to be smooth and streamlined. With the constant quest, what these bumps

were doing on those flippers, Fish set out to find answers. One of his collaborators

Juliann M. Battle decided to involve in this study along with Frank E. Fish. They decided

to analyse the flipper morphology of the Humpback whales quantitatively in terms of

hydrodynamically relevant parameters. Subsequently, Fish and Battle began investigating

the pectoral flipper removed from the Marine mammal stranding center field number 91-

108 beached on Island beach state park, New Jersey.57 Eleven tubercles were found along

the leading edge of the flipper which spans around 28% of the total length of the whale

(Fig. 2.3 [a]). It was found that the flipper planform was elliptical and tapered with a

slight sweepback of 19o. Further, it was also noticed that the intertubercular distance

varies along with all the eleven tubercles. i.e., the distance between each tubercle

decreases from root to tip. In order to quantify the hydrodynamically relevant parameters,
the intertubercular distances were expressed as a percentage of the flipper span (Fig. 2.3

[b]). Frank E. Fish and Battle found that the flipper of the humpback whale is unique

because of the presence of large, rounded structures located on the leading edge called

tubercles. Being understood that the morphology of the wing-like flipper has a huge

potential for engineering applications. Further Fish and Battle decided to compare the

performance capabilities of the flipper design with the well-streamlined engineered

hydrofoil. Results reported that the flipper model maintains lift even at greater angles of

attack. It is believed that the leading-edge protuberances present on the flippers function

as enhanced lift devices to control flow over the flipper at greater angles of attack.

Later, Dr Phillip Watts, fluid dynamists offered his help to Fish and they started

investigating the effects of such leading-edge protuberances on the aerofoil. Watts and

Fish performed a numerical investigation under both the viscid and inviscid conditions

using a panel method.58 A finite span NACA 63(4)-021 aerofoil with an AR=2.04 was

utilized in the study. Inviscid results show a 4.8% increase in the maximum lift

coefficient, 10.9% reduction in drag and 17.6% increase in the L/D ratio. However,

viscous calculations showed 11% increase in drag. Philip Watts and Frank E. Fish

patented this technology.59 The patent number: US6431498B1 titled “Scalloped Wing

leading edge” filed by Phillip Watts and Frank Eliot Fish is officially patented on August

13, 2002. Eventually, Watts and Fish opened up a company named “Whale power” which

develops wind turbine blades designed based on the humpback whale (Fig. 2.4). The bio-

inspired tubercled leading edge wind turbine blades developed by Whale Power

Corporation has been tested by Downer and Dockrill at Wind energy institute of

Canada.60 Their test report revealed that new design has 25% more airflow than the

conventional wind turbine blades and thereby produces 20% more energy.
 (a) (b)
Figure 2.3 (a) Flipper planform with eleven tubercles (b)Intertubercular distance expressed as
percentage of total flipper span57

Figure 2.4 Tubercled leading-edge wind turbine blades developed by whale power corporation59

Summers and Wynne reported that due to the presence of tubercles on the leading edge of

the flippers, the whale features a minimum turning diameter of 14.8m.61 Additionally,

they also reported that these tubercles tend to offer exceptional acrobatic manoeuvres for

humpback whales during feeding known as bubble netting which involves loops, rolls and

underwater somersaults. Considering the length of the flipper, they have estimated the
minimum and the maximum turning radius a humpback whale can create during bubble

net formation (Fig. 2.5).

Figure 2.5 Minimum and maximum turning radius of the humpback whale61

During the same year, Miklosovic et al. performed the earliest wind tunnel measurements

over the idealized humpback whale flippers with and without tubercles at various angles

of attack.62 The test model involves a smooth leading edge flipper model and the flipper

model with leading edge tubercles spanning along the 2/3rd of its length (Fig. 2.6 [d]).

Experimental results reveal that the lift and the drag characteristics of the flippers with

tubercles exhibit relatively better aerodynamic performance than the smooth leading edge

flippers (Fig. 2.6 [c]). Stall occurred at 12o for smooth leading-edge model whereas the

stall occurs at 16.3o for the leading-edge tubercled model (Fig. 2.6 [a]). Leading-edge

tubercled flipper model shows approximately 40% delay in the stall angle associated with

increased lift coefficient without the addition of any drag penalty (Fig. 2.6 [b]). The wind
tunnel results support the claim made by summers and Wynne (2004) that the leading-

edge tubercles offer the agility to perform underwater acrobatic manoeuvres for

humpback whales. Further, Miklosovic et al suggested that the full-span models having

infinite wings has a flat post-stall lift characteristic which might be beneficial for lifting

surfaces that are required to operate past their stall points. Since the benefit is

considerably large in the post-stall region, it was also suggested that the tubercles will

find an application in wind turbine blades, where the generation of lift at low wind speeds

is a challenge.

Figure 2.6 (a) Coefficient of Lift (CL) vs. Angle of attack (b) Coefficient of Drag (CD) vs. Angle of
attack (c) Lift/Drag ratio vs. Angle of attack (d) Flipper models with and without tubercles 62

Fish reported that even though the engineered systems possess characteristics, resemble

or function like living systems the differences between the engineered systems and

animal systems are apparent.63 Since the animal systems interact with their environments

in a multitude of behavioural and morphological pathways, Fish insisted that engineers

should completely understand the animal’s movement and its effect on the fluid

surrounding to exploit the mechanism for the development of advanced technologies.

Interested in humpback whale hydrodynamics, Fish and Lauder comprehensively

reviewed all aspects of its aquatic locomotion to understand how these whales control the

fluid flow around their bodies. Fish and Lauder (2006) concluded that the occurrence of

the morphological complexities i.e. tubercles on the leading edge reduces the pressure

variation at the tip and thereby resulting in reduced drag and a tendency to prevent tip

stall.64 The use of unique pectoral flippers by humpback whales makes it capable of

performing acrobatic manoeuvres like underwater rolls, sommer-saults and high speed

banked turns etc. Since drawing inspirations from nature for engineering real-time

problems have seen increased interest, Fish and Lauder suggested that these tubercles

present on the leading edge of the humpback whale flippers can act as a novel passive

flow control technique which functions in a similar way like the conventional vortex

generators thus providing an improvement in the lift performance associated with drag

reduction. On the contrary, Stein and Murray reported that the addition of leading edge

protuberances on the leading edge of the straight-wing results in the deterioration in

performance at pre-stall angles.65 Further, they compared the conventional vortex

generators with the modified leading edge tubercles and reported that the modified LEP

tend to act as the vortex generators thereby resulting in performance improvement.

Results reveal that aerofoil incorporated with leading edge tubercles experiences reduced

lift and increased drag whereas the conventional vortex generators provide a slight

improvement in the lift performance and negligible drag reduction. Murray et al have also

investigated three-dimensional flipper models with sweep angles.66 The results were

found to be promising with a 9% increase in the maximum lift coefficient and 4%

increase in the maximum lift coefficient for the 15 o and 30o sweep angles respectively, as
compared to the baseline model without leading edge tubercles. Therefore a better

understanding is sought to determine whether the aerodynamic performance

improvements resulted from the sectional characteristics of the test models like 2-D

effects (infinite span) or 3-D effects (Semi-span models). Considering the greater

applicability in mind, Miklosovic et al. performed an experimental investigation to

identify the effect of leading edge protuberances on the load characteristics of both the

rectangular full-span and semi-span test models.67 Experimental results revealed that the

LEP semi-span model offers aerodynamic benefit in terms of lift improvement and drag

reduction. Following which, a systematic investigation of the effect of leading edge

protuberance over various wing planform geometries became the limelight for the

researchers. In order to test the influence of leading edge protuberances on different wing

planform geometries Custodio et al. carried out wind tunnel testing over a rectangular

finite, infinite span, swept and idealized flipper models based on NACA 63(4)-021

aerofoil profile.68 The angle of attack was varied from -9o to 31.5o. Experimental

observations indicate that the incorporation of leading edge protuberances on the

rectangular models reduces the performance in the pre-stall angles. An overall

comparison shows that the addition of leading edge protuberances on the swept model

exhibits better aerodynamic performance when compared against the baseline rectangular

and other modified planform geometries. It is noteworthy that at post-stall angles the LEP

wing planform revealed 50% more lift than the baseline straight wing without tubercles.

2.4.1 Variation in the amplitude and Wavelength

Stein and Murray65 carried out experiments on a two-dimensional aerofoil with

leading edge protuberances whose amplitude and the wavelength are equivalent to the

average amplitude and wavelength of the humpback whale flippers. Instead of creating a

more efficient wing, this modified model results in a significant loss in lift accompanied
with a large increase in drag. Following which, Johari et al. conducted an experimental

investigation to understand the influence of the parametric variations like amplitude and

wavelength on the aerodynamic performance characteristics of the LEP wing. Six

different leading-edge tubercled aerofoil models with varying amplitudes ranging from

2.5% to 12% of the mean chord length (0.025c, 0.05c and 0.012c) with wavelength (λ) of

25% and 50% of the mean chord length (0.25c and 0.5c) were tested in a closed-loop

water tunnel at Re=1.83×105.69 Similar to the results obtained by Stein and Murray 65, loss

in the lift at the pre-stall angles was reported whereas at post-stall angles the leading-edge

protuberanced model exhibits greater lift coefficients, by as much as 50% over the

baseline straight wing constant chord aerofoil. Based on the experimental results Johari et

al.69 concluded that the change in the amplitude had a significant effect on the

performance when compared against the change in the wavelength which had a negligible

effect on the performance characteristics. Yoon et al.70 numerically investigated the effect

of waviness along the leading-edge by considering five different waviness ratios, 0.2, 0.4,

0.6, 0.8 and 1.0 keeping the amplitude and the wavelength fixed at 0.025c and 0.2c

respectively over the semi-span rectangular wings with low AR of 1.5. K-ω SST

turbulence model has been applied for the test range of 0 o to 40o.70 The results clearly

show that the wing with waviness ratio 1.0 i.e. addition of the leading edge protuberance

over the full span was the best among all the five different waviness ratios tested.

Aiming at identifying the influence of wavelength on the hydrodynamic characteristics

Kim et al.71 extended the study of Yoon et al.70 by considering five different wavelengths

for the fixed amplitude of 0.5c. Numerical investigations were carried out at different

angles of attack ranging from 0o to 40o. In contrast to the results obtained by Yoon et al. 70,

the LEP model exhibits a decrease in lift and an increment in the drag for all the cases. In

other words, the results reveal that the modified LEP model did not show any
performance improvement when compared against the baseline straight wing model

without leading edge protuberances. Even though the aerofoil section, aspect ratio (AR)

and the turbulence model utilized in the Kim et al. 71 study is similar to Yoon et al. 70

investigation, one of the important factors to be noticed is the difference in the amplitude.

Yoon et al.70 considered an amplitude value of 0.025c whereas in the case of Kim et al. 71

investigation it is 0.05c. These results clearly show that the selection of tubercle

parametric variations like right amplitude and wavelength for the particular aerofoil is

one of the important criteria to be considered for better performance enhancement.

Figure 2.7 Top view of rectangular wing with different waviness ratios70

Figure 2.8 Top view of rectangular wing with different wavelengths71

2.4.2 Underlying flow mechanism of LEP wing

 Several studies have investigated the potential benefits of LEP, but still, the

working mechanism by which it offers the benefit remains unclear. However, some of the

researchers proposed some hypothesis by which the LEP works. In this section, we will

discuss about those hypotheses which aim at exploring the underlying flow physics of the

LEP and the plausible reason behind their unique advantages. Experimental studies

claimed that leading-edge protuberances lead to an increase in stall angle by up to 40%

without compromising lift or drag.62 Additionally it is also noticed that the leading-edge

protuberances influence the onset of the stall to be much more gradual.65, 69

These

desirable properties of the leading-edge protuberanced wing sections make them a viable

design for aircraft wings, wind turbine blades etc, but the mechanism remains unclear.

Initially, majority of the researchers suggested that the leading-edge protuberances work

in a similar fashion to vortex generators. 64, 72

Fish et al.73 reported that the improved

performance over the leading-edge protuberanced wing sections is induced by the

modification of boundary layer through an increase in effective span by reduction of

spanwise flows and generation of the vortex. Subsequently, Wei et al. 74 performed

experimental investigations over leading-edge protuberanced wing sections in water

tunnel and particle –streak visualizations to identify the vortex generation and interaction

mechanism. Their analysis confirmed that the leading-edge protuberances act like vortex

generators based on the fact that, the cross-stream flow measurements indicate

streamwise counter-rotating vortex pairs generated over the tubercles which in turn

mitigates flow separation. It is also found that this Counter-rotating vortex pair formed

over each leading edge protuberances share similar characteristics with the vortices

formed by conventional vortex generators (Fig. 2.9 [a, b]). Further, it was also identified

that those vortex pairs meanders and interact with the adjacent flows induce momentum

in the flow, thereby energising the flow sandwiched between the tubercles.
 Figure 2.9 A typical vortex structure formed over leading-edge protuberanced wing section a) three-
dimensional view b) end-view74

Custodio et al.68 extended the study on the formation of counter-rotating vortex pairs over

the leading-edge protuberance aerofoil which offers aerodynamic benefit by improving

the boundary layer momentum exchange. They performed a series of wind tunnel

experiments and reported that the streamwise counter-rotating vortex pairs formed by the

leading-edge protuberances are also influenced by the variation in the chord distance

between the peak, mid and the trough section. This implies that the variation in the chord

along the wing causes a variation in the circulation. 68 In order to examine the effect of

circulation formed over the leading-edge protuberanced wing section, Rostamzadeh et

al.75 adopted Prandtl’s nonlinear lifting line theory. In spite of its simplified assumptions,

Prandtl’s nonlinear lifting line theory succeeded in identifying the variation of circulation

along the span. In contrast to the unmodified wing, the distribution of circulation along

the span assumes a fluctuating pattern similar to that of tubercles. Hansen et al. 76

estimated the circulation of each vortex core using numerical integration based on the

analytical velocity integral. The vorticity plot (Fig. 2.10) and plot of integration and

enclosed region (Fig. 2.11) further confirm the presence of the counter-rotating vortex
64, 68, 74
pairs. In contrast to the previous findings , Van Nierop et al.77, 78 claims that it is
implausible for these leading-edge protuberances to act as vortex generators since their

amplitude (A) and wavelength (λ) are much larger than the boundary layer thickness.

Figure 2.10 Vorticity contours for sequential Figure 2.11 Path of Integration and enclosed
chordwise planes76 region

Figure 2.12 Calculated pressure profiles and pressure distribution on top of a Idealized flipper

Being inspired by the agility provided by the leading-edge tubercles, Van Nierop et al. 77, 78

developed an aerodynamic model to explain the reason behind the improved aerodynamic
performance and proposed a different theory. They propose the explanation that the

greater downwash behind the tubercles compared to the troughs leads to a reduction in

the effective angle of attack and thus delayed stall in this region. In other words, it can be

put forward in such a way that the tubercles alter the pressure distribution across the

aerofoil offering its aerodynamic benefit of stall delay. The calculated pressure profiles

measured (Fig. 2.12) supports the previous statement. From the (Fig. 2.12), it is evident

that the maximum negative suction pressure can be seen in the troughs near the leading-

edge. Similarly, on a quest to understand the resulting flow in the presence of leading-

edge protuberances, Johari et al.69 performed wool tuft flow visualization. The results

revealed that the flow separated first at the troughs between the protuberances while it

was kept attached over the peaks at angles of attack higher than the stall angles. From

these aforementioned studies by Johari et al.69 and Nierop et al.78 it becomes clear that the

non-uniform separation characteristics are prevalent over the leading-edge protuberanced

aerofoil sections.

(a) α = 18o (b) α = 24o

Figure 2.13 Photograph of wool tuft flow visualization over straight leading-edge and leading-edge
protuberanced wing sections at (a) α = 18o and (b) α = 24o
Considering the explanation of altered surface pressure distribution over the leading-edge

protuberanced aerofoil sections, Skillen et al.79 tried to elucidate the underlying flow

mechanism associated with leading-edge protuberanced aerofoil sections. Skillen et al. 79

found that the oncoming free-stream flow is deflected by the leading-edge protuberances

(Fig 2.14) in such a way that the majority of the flow goes behind the chord minima (Fig

2.15). This, in turn, leads to a strong acceleration behind the chord minima thus

consequently forms an enhanced suction peak at the trough region relative to the peak i.e.

chord maxima. This altered surface pressure distribution is then further demonstrated by

Skillen et al.79 using plots of the pressure coefficient observed behind the peak i.e., chord

maxima and the trough i.e., chord minima (Fig. 2.16). However, this spanwise pressure

gradient formed between the peak and trough is believed to drive the development of a

secondary flow, whose influence appears as a key to attaining the intended aerodynamic

benefit.

The explanations provided by the Johari et al.69, Nierop et al.78 and Skillen et al.79 shows

that the aerodynamic benefit experienced by the leading-edge protuberanced wing

sections are due to the non-uniform separation characteristics induced by the altered

pressure distribution formed over the peak and the trough region. Nierop et al 78 concluded

that their aerodynamic model captured the main features of the leading-edge

protuberances, namely a more gradual stall and a higher overall stall angle. Gradual

stalling and the larger overall stall angles offer increased operating range over which the

flippers can contribute to humpback whales manoeuvrability. Henceforth, Nierop et al. 78

suggested that the flipper based biologically inspired design will soon be incorporated

into the design of special-purpose wings, hydrofoils, wind turbine and helicopter blades

etc. However, Nierop hypothesis contradicts the mechanism explained by Fish et al. 64,

Miklosovic et al.67, and Wei et al.78. Later Zhu79 pointed out that Van Nierop et al.78

neglected tip effects and applied the potential flow theory of an inviscid and irrotational

flow to a rotational flow problem. Hence, the results were different from those of the

Miklosovic et al.67
 Figure 2.14 Time-averaged streamlines
Figure 2.15 Time-averaged streamlines showing
showing deflection on oncoming free-stream
secondary flow feature
flow at the leading-edge region

Figure 2.16 Surface pressure coefficient over the peak i.e., Chord maxima and the trough i.e., Chord
minima region

Even though several explanations for the performance enhancements observed over the

aerofoils with leading-edge protuberances are made, the optimum configuration and the

exact working mechanism still remains unclear. As the implementation of the leading-

edge protuberances over the aerofoil sections shown promising results, the bio-inspired

leading-edge protuberance emerges as a viable design alternative to the conventional

straight leading-edge wings. Additionally, Pechlivanoglou 80 suggested that the

integration, operational reliability and the cost of implementing leading-edge

protuberances to the existing straight leading-edge wings are economically feasible.

2.5 Review of existing patents related to LEP

Inspired by the morphological advantages of the humpback whale flippers

leading-edge protuberance (tubercle) design, Phillip Watts and Frank Eliot Fish obtained

a patent (patent number: US6431498B1) titled “Scalloped Wing leading edge” on 2002. 59

In this patent, various specifications concerning the amplitude, wavelength, and

placement location etc of the smoothly varying forward-and-aft protrusions (leading-edge

protuberance) over the wing are described. They stated that these devices tend to enhance

the aerodynamic efficiency by maximising the lift of a given aerofoil. Additionally, they

are preferably separable from the wing allowing them to be manufactured separately and

possibly added to the existing wings on demand. Associated with Phillip Watts and Frank

Eliot Fish, Dewar extended the application of the tubercle leading-edge design to the

turbine and compressor rotors at 2005.81 Dewar claimed that this invention aims at

improvising the effective capture of force from wind and other moving fluids in the wind

and water turbines/compressors without a significant increase in scaling up cost

associated with improved resistance to stall. More specifically, increases effective capture

enables more power captured from the available fluid flow translating to increased

efficiency. Similarly, improved stall characteristics of the novel tubercle leading-edge

design will help permit the rotor blade to operate over a wider range of fluid flow rates at

a steeply pitched orientation thereby increasing the amount of power captured from the

available fluid flow. Since the fundamental operating principles of turbine generators and

compressors are identical, it was suggested that the tubercle leading-edge design can be

applied for a huge range of products such as compressors for jet engine turbines, air-

conditioning units, water turbines, nuclear and thermal steam turbines, rotary fans, pumps

etc. A schematic representation of the tubercle leading-edge design for the wind turbine is

also provided (Fig. 2.17).

 Figure 2.17 A plan view of a turbine rotor blade featuring tubercle leading-edge design81

Later during the year 2017, Edward McMahon and Lauren Hoffman patented the

implementation of ridges or tubercles on the twisted wind turbine blades for high torque

applications.82 They reported that adding more than 3 blades to a very large wind turbine

results in diminishing returns in energy production. Additionally, more blades on large

scale turbines result in a much noisier turbine due to the aerodynamic effects of the air

flowing over the blade surfaces. Edward McMahon and Lauren Hoffman took advantage

of the concept learned from the natural organism to improve the aerodynamic and the

aero-acoustic efficiency of the turbine blades. The inventors discovered that the addition

of tubercles on the leading-edge reduces the flow separation by delaying the boundary

layer separation helps improve the energy generation by as much as 10% compared to the

blades without tubercles. It is also found that the innovation on the blade shape produces

a lower noise level thus translating to a quieter wind turbine. Further, testing revealed that

the tubercles provided the best benefit along the edge at the root as opposed to other

regions of the blade. Technical details of tubercle arrangement like the amplitude of the

tubercle, the curvature of the blade root, twist angles etc were discussed in detail (Fig.

2.18).
 Figure 2.18 Profile view of wind turbine blade with the embodiment of tubercle technology

Figure 2.19 Improved wing configuration featuring different waviness along the span84

Subsequently, Phillip Watts and Frank Eliot Fish made modifications to their initial

patent during the year 2006 suggesting that the leading-edge protuberances can be used

for housing instruments. Several types of instruments like sensors, emitters, transmitters

and transceivers can be mounted on the leading-edge protuberance design providing them

with improved viewing position and ease of accessibility resulting in negligible

performance deterioration. Additionally, a deployable and retractable scallop mechanism

is also outlined for noise reduction purposes. Since, the noise reduction mechanism is

required in circumstances where stealth needs to be optimized, such as fins and propellers

that need to pass undetected.

Fransson83 filed a patent on 2013 based on the idea of using leading-edge protuberances

as miniature vortex generator (passive device) for controlling boundary layer transition.

The leading-edge protuberance design was mentioned as an array of substantial plate-

shaped elements protruding from a surface in the vicinity of the leading-edge.

Furthermore, it is reported that this passive miniature vortex generator design resembling

leading-edge protuberance induces turbulence to the base flow thereby stabilizes the

boundary layer. This miniature vortex generator design is passive in the sense that it

realizes a zero net energy exchange with the flow i.e. no driving power is required. Also,

the details of the miniature vortex generators such as the height of the element, distance

from the leading edge etc are also discussed in detail. Upon identifying the importance of

the leading-edge protuberance design over aerofoils, Richard Kelso filed a patent titled:

Improved wing configuration during 2013.84 It was mentioned that this invention can be

generally employed over aerofoil cross-sections like wings or blades. Kelso reported that

the conventional wings of streamlined aerofoil cross-sections perform well at low to

moderate angles of attack, however, at higher angles of attack suffers from separation and

an aerodynamic stall.
 Figure 2.20 Spanwise variation along the root to tip of the modified LEP wing configuration 84

Even though the patent by Watts and Fish59 discloses the similar idea of utilizing leading-

edge protuberances, the spanwise variations exist along the line of the leading-edge alone

and do not progress towards the trailing-edge. Similarly, there is no alteration in the angle

of attack between the peak and the trough spanning between root to tip. As a

consequence, the scallops or sweep variations need to be relatively large in order to

produce a significant effect on the flow. However, in the case of design proposed by

Kelso, the spanwise variations (Fig. 2.19) extend from the leading edge progressively

diminishes and disappears before reaching the trailing edge of the wing resulting in a

local angle of attack variations between the successive peak and trough (Fig. 2.20).

(a) (b)
Figure 2.21 (a) Plan view of a nozzle ring of the turbocharger (b) Perspective view of the nozzle
vane85
Caterpillar Inc patented the application of tubercles on the turbine/compressor nozzle

vanes used in turbochargers to improve their lift efficiency and stall resistance. 85 Internal

combustion engine houses turbochargers which compress the fluid to be supplied to the

combustion chamber typically includes a turbine, driven by exhaust gases from the engine

and a compressor driven by the turbine. In order to control the turbocharger to provide the

required level of pressure boost, the exhaust gas flow through the turbine of the

turbocharger needs to be controlled by varying the nozzle vanes. It has been identified

that the range of the operation of the nozzle vanes is improved by the tubercle design.

Zibkoff86 invention encompasses the application of leading-edge protrusions to the

bicycle wheel spokes (Fig. 2.22).86

Figure 2.22 Side perspective view of the bicycle wheel featuring leading-edge protrusion on the
spokes86

Zibkoff stated that the aerodynamic nature of the bicycle is prominently inhibited by the

rider, second to that a more malleable portion of the bicycle which creates more wind

resistance is the wheel. Even though various aerodynamic wheels configurations are

developed for bicycle racing with very few spokes, disc wheels etc the spokes are

irreplaceable and hence its aerodynamic shape optimization is crucial. In this patent,

Zibkoff addresses the aerodynamic drag reduction of the wheel by placing aerodynamic
protrusion on the leading-edge of the spokes. The protrusion on the leading-edge of the

spokes disrupts the airflow near the vicinity of the leading-edge and then joins near the

trailing-edge of the spokes. The disruption and the joining of the said airflows reduce the

aerodynamic drag on the wheels.

2.6 Miscellaneous applications of LEP

2.6.1 LEP in control surfaces

Weber et al.87 conducted water tunnel test over the marine rudder models with and

without leading edge protuberances to investigate the effectiveness of the leading edge

protuberances on the marine rudder applications. The test model comprises of two

configurations of three and five LEP sections. The models were tested in a closed circuit

water tunnel at Reynolds number ranging between 2×105≤ Re ≥ 8.8×105. The results

clearly show that there is no lift reduction in the pre-stall region since the LEP rudder

model was effective in keeping a high coefficient of lift (C L) and smooth stall relative to

the baseline smooth rudder configuration at low Reynolds number. Furthermore, the

experimental observation indicated that there is a reduction in the overall cavitation on

the LEP model when compared against the smooth rudder. Results revealed that the

leading edge protuberances avoid cavitation by causing a greater portion of the flow to

remain attached over the surface of the rudder.

Figure 2.23 3D Printed models of Straight leading edge, uniform LEP and non-uniform LEP
Marine rudders 89
Ibrahim and New88 found that the implementation of the leading edge protuberances on

the marine propellers shows thrust improvements by 1.5% when compared against the

smooth marine propellers at low advance ratios. Since most of the studies involve the

investigation of uniform leading-edge protuberances on the leading-edge of the rudder,

Shanmukha Srinivas et al.89 designed, developed and tested the rudders with non-uniform

distribution of leading edge protuberances in the water tunnel (Fig. 2.23). The application

of non-uniform leading edge protuberances on the marine rudders exhibits lower lift

coefficients in the pre-stall angles when compared to the basic rudders. However,

Acoustic Doppler Velocimetry results show that the modified model with non-uniform

distribution of leading edge protuberances are subjected to less flow separation on the

suction side at angles greater than 15 o thus providing better performance than the other

geometries.

2.6.2 LEP in tidal turbines

Shi et al.90 applied the tubercle designs on the tidal turbines (Fig. 2.24) and performed a

numerical investigation by systematically changing the amplitude and wavelength of the

protrusions. The application of leading edge protuberances proved to be effective in

maintaining high lift coefficients in the post-stall region than the plain model.

Comparison of the models with and without leading edge protuberances further

confirmed the significant benefits of the LEP. It is found that the peak lift to drag ratio of

the LEP blade increases by 5.8% as compared against the baseline smooth model. Gruber

et al.91 tried to reduce the cut-in speed of the tidal turbines by applying leading edge

protuberances to the tidal turbine blades. It is based on the fact that the application of LEP

on tidal turbine blades reduces the cut in speed by delaying the onset of stall associated

with an increase in the overall C p by increasing the amount of lift the blades can generate.

A plain model, and 1/3 protuberanced model and 2/3 protuberanced model were
experimentally investigated and the results indicate that 1/3 protuberanced configurations

show improved performance by around 15-85% hike in the C P values relative to the

conventional smooth blades. The marine tidal turbines are analogous to the wind turbines.

A variable pitch tidal turbine retrofitted with tubercled blades demonstrated increased

electrical generation when compared against the unmodified blades Howle92.

Recently, Shi et al.93 conducted a performance test over the leading-edge tubercles tidal

turbine blades to report the performance under real sea conditions. Tests were performed

under both the regular waves and irregular waves. The efficiency and the thrust

performances of the test models have been found to improve with the implementation of

leading-edge protuberances. Additionally, it is also reported that the leading-edge

protuberanced tidal turbine blades appear to be less sensitive to the change in the

Reynolds number compared to the baseline unmodified blades.

Figure 2.24 Leading-edge protuberanced tidal turbine models90

2.6.3 LEP in fan applications

Corsini et al.94 extended the application of leading-edge protuberances to the commercial

Exhaust fans which have widespread applications for railway tunnels and metro

ventilation. Corsini performed optimization studies to determine the number of sinusoids

required from root to tip and also its suitable configuration of amplitude and wavelength.

The results identified that leading-edge protuberanced exhaust fans perform efficiently
with a 1% increase in the operating pressure compared to the baseline smooth leading-

edge bladed fans. Subsequently, WhalePower Corporation also has developed and tested

new micro fan designs for computers and other applications namely “Bionic CPU fan”

(Fig. 2.25). Another interesting advantage of this Bionic CPU fan reported by Evologics,

2014 is that its design is unique that it reduces the noise levels in a computer system.

Figure 2.25 3D Printed leading edge protuberanced cooling fan blades95

Figure 2.26 3D Printed leading edge protuberanced HVLS fan blades97

The success of leading-edge protuberances in fans could also be seen from the

implementation of leading-edge protuberances on to commercial industrial fans, or High-

volume Low-speed fans (HVLS) fans. HVLS fans are predominantly used in large

buildings, factories, warehouses, arenas and diary barns etc. Generally, HVLS fans are

25% more efficient and 20% quieter than conventional fans. However, with the effective

incorporation of leading-edge protuberances on the HVLS fans, Hansen et al.96 identified

the suppression of the tonal noise further. Hansen et al. 96 tested various HVLS fan blades

with varying amplitude (A) and wavelength (λ) to find out the optimum configuration.

Results revealed that the leading-edge protuberances of larger amplitude (A) and smaller

wavelength (λ) suppresses the tonal noise to a greater extent. A 3D printed leading-edge

protuberanced HVLS fan blade designed by “Envira-North fans” and “Whale Power

Corporation” is presented (Fig. 2.26).

2.6.4 LEP in Propellers

Since the design of modern propellers, optimizing the blade geometries remains a

challenge in the area of propeller design. The implementation of leading-edge

protuberances creates significant changes to the aerodynamics. This motivated Ibrahim

and New88 to design LEP based propeller planform geometry shape. It is believed that the

utilization of LEP on the propellers acts like a passive flow control device which prevents

flow separations at higher angles of attack, thereby increasing the stall angle, creating

large advance ratios (J) and eventually better propeller performance. Ibrahim and New88

concluded that the leading-edge protuberanced propeller blades improve thrust values by

up to 1.5% at lower advance ratio values. As stated by Hansen et al.96 if the tonal noise

associated with the propeller noise signature is reduced by the incorporation of leading-

edge protuberances, it could be advantageous for stealth operations.

2.7 Scope of the research

Based on the framework of the previous researches investigated, to the extent of author’s

knowledge, presently no previous study has reported the effect of turbulence intensity on

the aerodynamic characteristics of Leading-edge protuberanced wings at a wide range of

turbulence intensities. As the turbulence tends to alter the flow characteristics over the

aerofoil both qualitatively and quantitatively. Virtually any potential benefit of leading-

edge protuberances like wings, wind turbine blades, marine rudders, propellers all benefit

from the aerofoil sections when subjected to turbulent inflow is beneficial. Therefore, it

becomes necessary to investigate the effect of turbulence intensity on the aerodynamic

characteristics of leading-edge protuberanced wings. Additionally, it becomes essential to

identify the underlying flow behaviour associated with the leading-edge protuberanced

wings to gain further insight, therefore pressure models were considered in this study.

2.8 References