Industrial Circuit Application Note

Stepper motor and driver selection

Stepper motors are used in many different In data sheets for stepper motors, 57mm PM stepper is illustrated in
types of applications this makes it difficult the pull-in and pull-out torque are figure 1. In both cases the winding
to recommend a general step-by-step design given, as functions of stepping rate, and driver combination have been
flow chart. The design process is more an for different types of motor and driver designed to drive the maximum
iterative process, involving experience, cal- combinations. The pull-in torque current through the winding at stand
culation and experimentation. The purpose curve shows the maximum friction still without exceeding the maximum
of this application note is to show how torque with which, the motor can 7-watt power dissipation for this type
system performance is affected by motor and start, at different stepping rates, of motor.
driver selection. Some popular motors and without losing any step. In an actual From the chart, we see that the
drivers are dealt with, as well as the im- application, this curve has to be output power of the motor can be
portance of the gearing between the motor modified to account for the load increased by a factor of six, through
and the load. inertia. the use of a bipolar constant current
The pull-out curve is of more inter- driver, compared to the basic unipolar
est, because it shows the total avail- L/R-driver. The increased output
Limits to system able torque when the motor runs at power is a function of both the
performance constant speed at a given frequency. increased over-all pull-out torque and
In an application, this torque is used the increased stepping frequency
Torque and output power for overcoming the load fiction torque range.
The output torque and power from a and for accelerating the load and As we can see from the figure, the
stepper motor are functions of the motor inertia. maximum output power is available
motor size, motor heat sinking, work- One problem when selecting the at relatively high stepping rates,
ing duty cycle, motor winding, and right motor type and size is the big compared to the maximum pull-in
the type of driver used. In appli- influence that the driver has on the frequency, for this type of motor
cations with low damping, the usable output torque and power. The (approximately 150 to 400Hz, for
torque from the stepper motor can be difference in output torque, power, zero-load inertia, depending on driver
drastically reduced by resonances. and system efficiency for a 7.5-degree circuit). This fact, which is true for

Pull-out torque [mNm] Output power [W]

80 6

70
4.8W
60 4,5

50

40 3

30

20 1,5

10
0.8W
0 0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
Full-step stepping rate [Hz]

Torque PBL3770: Output Power PBL3770:

Torque L/R Output Power L/R

Figure 1. Pull-out torque and output power for a 57 mm PM stepper driven by a unipolar L/R-driver and a PBL 3770A bipolar
constant current driver.

1
 most stepper applications, shows that, bearing friction and magnetic losses.
Pull-out torque [mNm] to be able to get a high-performance Some driver and motor combina-
Efficiency [%] Output power [W] stepper motor system, we have to use tions have such low damping, at
80 6 ramping up/down when we start and certain stepping rates, that they do
70 Motor is no-load stop the motor and load. The use of not run without a high-damping load.
60 unstable for ramping opens up stepper motors for This condition is known as no-load
4.5
stepping rates instability.
50 above 325Hz.
power output applications, and does
3
not limit the usage of steppers to low-
40
performing low-output power system. Resolution and positioning accuracy
30 The resolution of a stepper motor
20 1.5 Damping and resonances system is affected by several factors—
10 In applications with low system the stepper motor full-step length,
0.8W the selected driver mode (full-step,
0 0 damping, the available output torque
0 500 1000 1500 half-step or microstepping), and the
and power can be drastically reduced
Full-step stepping rate [Hz]
by resonance. Resonances in stepper gear rate. This means that there are
Pull-out Torque several different combinations which
Efficiency
motor systems can arise at low-, mid-,
Output Power and high stepping rates. As a rule, can be used to get the desired resolu-
constant current drivers have the most tion. Because of this, the resolution
problems with resonances in the low- problem of a stepper design can
Figure 2. Performance curves for a 100 normally be dealt with after the
frequency region. These resonances
ohm unipolar 57 mm PM-motor driven can often be eliminated by using half- motor size and driver type have been
by a 20V L/R constant voltage driver. stepping or microstepping. Constant established.
voltage drivers normally have problems
with resonances at medium and/or Design time
high frequencies. At these frequen- Even though customization of step
cies, neither half- nor microstepping motors is possible, it requires both
can reduce the resonances. This limits engineering time and time for manu-
the usage of this type of drivers at facturing stepper motor samples.
medium and high frequencies to Using a more-flexible driver circuit,
driving high-damping loads. like the chopper constant current
Damping also depends on the driver can make it possible to select a
motor type—PM-motors have higher standard motor with no performance
damping than hybrids, due to slide loss.

Table 1. Unipolar constant voltage driver attributes

Features Drawbacks Applications

• Low electronic component cost. • Lowest motor output power. • Low speed and low power applica-
• For small motors very low cost • Maximum power dissipation at tions were the motor mainly is
transistor arrays can be used. stand still. used to produce a torque.
• Normally only used with small size
• Low electrical noise level. • Higher motor cost and larger size
motors.
for the same output power as from
other drives.
• Driver transistors have to withstand
twice the maximum supply voltage.
• Windings must be designed for the
used supply voltage.
• Regulated power supply normally
required.
• Holding torque depends on supply
voltage and motor temperature.
• Large torque ripple when driven in
half-step mode.

2
Cost Performance of drivers
In high-volume applications, the major In the following section, the perfor- Pull-out torque [mNm]
cost is the hardware—including mance of some commonly-used driver Efficiency [%] Output power [W]
power supply, driver, wiring, motor, configurations are compared when 80 6
and gearing. In this case, the engine- they drive a 57mm 7.5-degree PM- 70 Motor is no-load
ering cost is less important. In many unstable for
stepper motor. Driving voltage/ 60 stepping rates 4.5
applications, it is possible to lower the currents are selected so the stand-still 50 above 400Hz.
total system cost and increase the motor losses are kept at maximum 40 3
performance by using a more-complex rated 7 W. The performance curves
driver (with a slightly higher cost) and 30
show the pull-out torque, output
less-costly motor and power supply. 20 1.5
power (at the motor shaft), and the
In low- and medium-volume appli- system efficiency. Efficiency is defined 10 1.7W
cations, the engineering cost becomes as the mechanical output power from 0 0
a larger part of the total cost. In this 0 500 1000 1500
the motor divided by the input power Full-step stepping rate [Hz]
case the flexibility and high integra- to the driver. For each driver, features
tion of a constant current driver can and drawbacks are also listed. Pull-out Torque
help save engineering time and cost. Efficiency
Output Power
Unipolar constant voltage
Dynamic characteristics This is the classic low-end driver. It
In applications were the stepper must Figure 3. Performance curves for a 100
offers the lowest price for the driver
move from one position to another ohm unipolar 57mm PM-motor driven by
electronics—only four transistors are a 40V L/2R constant-voltage driver
then stop in the shortest possible used. To drive small-sized motors, a
time, the settling time becomes a very (2 × 100ohm external series resistors).
transistor array of ULN 2003 or
important factor. If the system is similar type can be used. For mid-
designed properly, the settling time sized motors, power darlington
can be kept to a minimum—if not, transistors, or transistor arrays can be
the settling time can easily require used. In figure 2, the performance of
several hundred milliseconds. this type of driver is shown. A motor
To get good dynamic behavior in winding with 100 ohm phase
an open loop system, it is important resistance has been selected. This
to have the correct gear rate and gives good control of winding current
precise control of the motor running and low losses in power transistors.
and holding torque. With well- With this driver, the motor has
designed gearing, it is possible to problems with no-load instabilities at
handle variations in both load inertia stepping rates above 325Hz.
and friction.

Table 2. Unipolar L/NR constant voltage driver attributes

Features Drawbacks Applications

• Low component cost • Low or very low efficiency. Lower • Low and medium speed and low
efficiency the higher Rext/R ratio. power applications.
• Low electrical noise level.
• Problems with heat dissipation
from the series resistors.
• Maximum power dissipation at
stand still increase by the L/nR
ratio compared to the normal L/R
driver.
• Large torque ripple in half step
mode.
• Holding torque depends on supply
voltage and winding temperature.

3
 Unipolar L/nR constant voltage above 400Hz. This limits the appli-
Pull-out torque [mNm] This driver is similar to the unipolar cations, at high frequencies, to
Efficiency [%] Output power [W] constant voltage but has external driving high-damping loads or to
80 6 series resistors in series with the operating in ramp up/down applica-
Motor is no-load
70 unstable for motor windings. This driver can be tions, were the motor does not run at
60 stepping rates from 4.5 configured with different L/R ratios. constant speed. It is possible to ramp
525 to 850Hz. L/2R means that the total resistance is through unstable frequencies, and use
50
40 3
equal to two times the motor’s the full pull-out torque (with normal
2.5W
internal resistance. A higher L/R-ratio safety margin) if the motor only runs
30
increases high-stepping-rate output a limited number of steps in the
20 1.5 torque, but reduces the system effici- unstable range.
10 ency. Figure 3 shows the performance
0 0 of this driver in the L/2R-mode, Unipolar timed Bi-level
0 500 1000 1500 driving the same 100 ohm unipolar This driver uses two voltage levels to
Full-step stepping rate [Hz]
motor. increase motor utilization. At every
Pull-out torque Compared to the L/R-driver we step taken, the voltage across the
Efficiency now gain higher output torque and winding is raised, for a short time, to
Output Power power. The maximum output power a higher level compared to the
has doubled, but the peak system effi- nominal voltage used at stand still.
Figure 4. Performance curves for a 100
ciency has decreased. During the remaining time, the
ohm unipolar 57mm PM-motor driven by
a 40/20V Bi-level constant-voltage driver This drive also shows the no-load nominal voltage is used. This driver
(High-voltage-on time = 4ms). instability, here for stepping rates can also be configured in the “run/

Table 3. Unipolar timed bi-level driver attributes

Features Drawbacks Applications
• Medium electronic component • Timing circuit or extra CPU over- • Low to medium speed and low to
cost head needed to control high voltage medium power applications.
• Medium electrical noice level. on time.
• 6 power transistors needed
compared to 4 for the standard and
L/nR unipolar drives.
• If large high to low driving voltage
ratio is used the control off holding
torque and step accuracy becomes
difficult as a result of variations in
winding currents.
• Holding torque depends on
winding temperature and supply
voltage.
Table 4. Unipolar constant current driver attributes
Features Drawbacks Applications
.
• Nearly the same high speed torque • Only 70% of holding and low speed • High speed and medium power
as bipolar chopper drive torque compared to bipolar constant applications.
current.
• Uses 6 power transistors
compared to 8 for bipolar • Power transistors have to withstand
constant current. twice the maximum supply voltage.
• Half stepping without torque • Winding leakage inductance have
ripple possible. to be considered when snubbing
circuit is designed.
• 6 lead wires add cost and space for
motor connectors and flexible
cables.

4
stop” bi-level mode, were the high efficiency is higher—and is not de-
voltage is used while the motor is creased by losses in series resistors as Pull-out torque [mNm]
stepped and the low voltage is used at the ratio Uhigh/Unom is increased. This Efficiency [%] Output power [W]
stand still. This driver can also be driver also has problems with no-load 80 6
combined with L/nR-series resistors instability, but in this case only the 70 4.8W
to give higher flexibility in selecting mid frequencies are affected. If used 60 4.5
stand-by holding torque. Ericsson’s in a ramp up/down application, this 50
PBD 3517 is a fully-integrated, bi- does not cause any problems, if the 3
40
level driver intended for use with constant speed is selected in the stable
30
small-sized motors. In figure 4, the area above 850Hz.
performance of the L/2R driver is 20 1.5
shown while driving the same 100- Unipolar constant current 10
ohm unipolar PM stepper. The torque This driver gives the best performance 0 0
0 1250 2500
curve for a given motor is a function of the unipolar drives—but it is lower Full-step stepping rate [Hz]
of both the high-voltage level and the than for the bipolar chopper driver. Pull-out Torque
high-voltage-on time. In this example The efficiency is reduced as a result of Efficiency
the high voltage is 40V (2 times the higher resistive losses caused by using Output Power
nominal voltage) and the high voltage only half of the windings at a time.
on time is 4ms. Compared to the At higher frequencies, power losses Figure 5. Performance curves for a 3.75
original L/R-driver, the maximum caused by leakage inductance and ohm bipolar 57mm PM-motor driven by
output power is three times higher. snubbing circuits also appear. PBL 3770A constant-current driver
Compared to the L/nR-driver, the (Chopper voltage 20V, winding current
960mA).
Table 5. Bipolar constant current driver attributes
Features Drawbacks Applications
• Maximum motor utilisation and • 8 power transistors needed to drive • For small and medium size motors
high efficiency. a motor. highly integrated drivers are
available.
• Maximum torque at low and high • Problems with electrical noise and
stepping rates. interference can occur. • High speed and high power
applications.
• Low losses stand bye mode • Power losses in current sensing
possible. resistors.
• 8-lead motors can be configured
for 3 different operating currents.
• No snubbing circuits required and
current turn off can be selected for
fast (return to power supply) or
slow.
• Highly integrated drivers avail-
able, second sourced drives also
available.

Table 6. Bipolar constant current microstepping driver attributes

Features Drawbacks Applications
• Same as for the bipolar constant • Same as for the bipolar constant • For small and medium size motors
current, plus: current, plus: highly integrated drivers are
available.
• Resonance free movement on low • Higher cost for the current control
step rates. electronics than for normal bipolar • High speed and high power
drive. applications.
• Increased stop position resolution.
• Applications were increased
resolution is required.
• Applications were resonance free
low speed characteristics is needed.

5
Bipolar constant current driver, but extra electronics for Snubbing and current turn off circuits
The highest output power and motor setting the sine/cosine current levels To assure trouble-free functioning of
utilization for a given motor is are used. Microstepping can be used all unipolar drives, especially when
achieved with the bipolar constant with different microstep lengths. A larger size motors are used, the
current driver. DC-losses is kept at a shorter step length than 1⁄32 of a full- winding and current turn-off circuit
minimum due to maximum utiliza- step normally does not make any has to be properly-designed.
tion of the copper in the winding and further improvement in the motor’s It is important that a unipolar
no power losses from leakage induc- motion. With most microstepping winding is bifilar wound—this means
tance and snubbing circuits since controllers, is it also possible to run the two wires that build up the coil
every winding only consists of one the normal full- and half-step modes. on each motor pole are wounded in
part. Microstepping can also increase parallel. This way, the leakage induc-
In figure 5, the performance for motor resolution and step accuracy. tance is kept to a minimum, even
this type of driver is shown driving though the energy stored in the
the same type 57mm PM-motor. Here winding has to be taken care of (or
a motor with a constant-current- General driver aspects moved to the other winding half)
adapted winding resistance of 3.75 when the current is turned off. This is
ohms has been selected. The winding Power supply design done by a current-turn-off circuit or a
current is selected to give the same For all drivers of constant-voltage snubbing circuit. If the current-turn-
resistive losses in the winding at stand type, regulated power supplies are off circuit works on the principle of
still as for the unipolar drives tested normally required. This means that current commutation from one
above. From the chart, we can see the the over-all system efficiency will winding half to the other, the energy
increase of output power, maximum decrease further, compared to the stored in the leakage inductance is
stepping rate, and system efficiency. values shown in the figures above, due handled by a snubbing circuit.
Due to the better utilization of the to losses in the power supply. This In the case of bipolar drive, separate
winding, the holding torque is also will increase transformer cost and snubbering circuits are never needed,
raised. heating problems. If unregulated since the windings only consist of one
The no-load instabilities in the supplies are used, large variations of part each and no leakage inductance
mid- and high-stepping rate regions holding and running torques occurs, can occur. The current-turn-off circuit
are no longer present. This increases thus making stop-time minimizing is of four diodes in opposition to the
the flexibility in selecting constant- more difficult or impossible. An four power transistors in the H-
speed running frequencies. However, unregulated power supply for a bridge.
a resonance at 100Hz is present. In a constant voltage driver also affects the
ramp up/down application, this does motor power dissipation making good Hysteresis losses in motors
not cause any problems as long as this motor utilization impossible. With some low-inductance motors,
frequency is not used as constant For a constant-current driver, it is chopper-type drivers can generate
speed frequency. normally possible to use an unregu- increased iron losses, caused by the
During the last 10 years, progress lated supply voltage. The motor winding current ripple. To minimize
in IC-technology has made it possible current, and thereby also holding this problem, use a high chopping
to develop fully-integrated bipolar torque and power dissipation, is frequency and do not use a lower in-
constant-current drivers, making this controlled by the driver itself. The ductance than needed to get maxi-
type of driver cost-effective for pull-out torque at high stepping rates mum-required step rate—it is also
driving small- and medium-sized is affected by the supply voltage but possible to use a lower chopping
motors. at low step rates, its influence is voltage. In most applications, the
small. hysteresis loss related to the chopping
Bipolar constant current microstepping It is difficult to calculate the power current ripple is low compared to the
This is an improved version of the consumption for a particular applica- hysteresis loss related to the stepping
basic full- and half- stepping bipolar tion. The best way to get this current changes. If chopping current
constant-current driver. Here, the information is to make a prototype ripple is kept at or below 10% of the
winding currents form a sine/cosine and measure the driver input current nominal current, this normally
pair. This greatly improves low- under different driving conditions. doesn’t cause a problem.
frequency stepping by eliminating Remember that the power
overshot movements, ringing, and consumption depends on input Interference problems
resonances. Performance at medium- voltage, current levels (if constant For all chopper-type drives, the in-
and high-stepping rates are close to current mode), load, motor creased risk of different interference
that of full- and half-stepping. temperature, duty cycle and so on. problems has to be considered. Sep-
This driver uses the same power arate and wide grounding lines, as
stage as the bipolar constant-current well as physical separation from sen-

6
sitive electronics on the PCB, can help The 57mm PM-motor is. for in- is plotted as a function of the
to avoid interference. Stepper lead stance, suitable to use as paper feed stepping frequency. This motor is
wires should also be separated from and carriage drive motor in medium- rated at 7 watts maximum power
sensitive signal wires to reduce performance matrix or daisy printers dissipation. The chart shows the
capacitive and inductive coupling. In a and in typewriters. Other applications power dissipation of the motor and
chopper application the capacitive are fax machines, sewing machines, driver together. At low step rates
coupling of the chopped voltage (this valve controls, and plotters. about a 3W-loss in the two PBL
is a square wave signal with the Other popular PM-motor sizes are 3770A circuits can be expected, as
amplitude equal to the supply voltage 35mm and 42mm. 20mm, 25mm and well as an additional 1W in the
and the frequency equal to the 63mm motors are also common PM current sensing resistors and approx-
chopping frequency) present at the motor sizes. The 20mm motor is pop- imately 1W in the external diodes. At
motor lead wires can cause serious ular as a head driver in 31⁄2" floppy- higher stepping rates, the driver losses
problems if not handled. disk drive applications. Commonly- decrease as the winding current de-
available full-step angles are 7.5 and creases and the switching stops. At
15 degrees but others are also avail- low step rates this gives a 7-watt loss
Performance of motors able (9, 11.25, and 18 degrees, for in the motor. At higher step rates, the
The maximum output torque and examples). total loss decreases indicating the
power from a stepper motor is limited In figure 6, the performance of this ability to get a higher output power
by the power losses of the motor. For motor is shown again. The power loss without exceeding the maximum
low stepping rates, most of the losses
are related to resistive losses in the
motor winding. At higher stepping Pull-out torque [mNm] Output power [W]
rates the hysteresis and eddy-current Efficiency [%] Power losses [W]
12W
losses become the major ones. 120 12
Especially for low-cost tin-can PM- 100 10
steppers, these losses can be high— 80 8

AA
AA A A AA
AA
A A A A
because of the absence of laminations
and the use of low performing 60 4.8W
6

AAAA
magnetic materials of the stator and 40 4
37%
rotor flow path. 20 2
From the above driver comparisons, 0
0
we can see that the maximum torque, 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500

A
efficiency, and output power from a Full-step stepping rate [Hz]
Pull-out Torque Efficiency Output Power Power losses
given motor is achieved with the bi-
polar chopper driver. We will now
examine the performance of some Figure 6. Performance curves for a 3.75 ohm bipolar 57 mm PM-motor driven by PBL
commonly-used stepper motor types 3770A constant-current driver. Power losses in motor and driver are also shown
when they are driven with a bipolar (Chopper voltage 20 V, winding current 960 mA).
chopper drive.
A drop in performance, similar that
of the 57mm PM-motor used above,
can be expected when other types of Pull-out torque [mNm] Output power [W]
drivers are used. Efficiency [%] Power losses [W]
120 12
100 10

AA
AA
A A A
AAAA A A
AA
A A A
57mm PM motor
PM-motors are a cost-effective alter- 80 7.3W 8

AA
AA
native in many low- and medium-
60 65%
6
performing applications. The motors
4

AA
uses slide bearings and a simple 40
mechanical design to keep cost low. 20 2

A
Compared to hybrid motors, the life 0
0
expectancy is shorter, step accuracy 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
and efficiency is lower. The slide Full-step stepping rate [Hz]

bearing can also cause problems if a Pull-out Torque Efficiency Output Power Power losses

belt drive is applied directly to the

motor shaft. Figure 7. Performance curves for a 25 ohm bipolar 42 mm square hybrid stepper driven
by PBL3770A constant-current driver (Chopper voltage 40V, winding current 280mA)

7
allowed motor losses of 7W. If a lower main feature of this type of motor, stand still. This motor type is rated
duty cycle or better heat sinking is compared to the 57mm PM-motor, is for 4 to 6W losses depending on
applied to this motor a peak output higher efficiency and step accuracy. In manufacturer. Compared to the
power of at least 10W can be many applications, the ball-bearings 57mm PM motor in figure 6, nearly
achieved. offer higher life expectancy and make doubled system efficiency is the most
PM-motors have one advantage the design of the gearing and interesting difference. From the power
over hybrid motors, they have a mechanics easier. This type of stepper losses curve, we see that at higher
higher internal damping and offer, in became very popular some years ago stepping rates the losses decrease.
some applications, a more-noise-free as head driver for 51⁄4" floppy and This indicates that an even-higher
operation than the hybrid motors. hard disk drives. It is suitable as a high-frequency performance can be
carriage driver for printers and achieved with a higher chopping
42mm square motor plotters, and for driving the print voltage or with a lower-inductance
This motor is normally manufactures wheel in typewriters and daisy wheel winding.
with 3.6-, 1.8- and 0.9-degree step printers. It is also a competitor to the
angle. Step accuracy is ±3% to ±7% small-sized PM-motors, if the appli- 57mm (size 23) hybrid motor
of a full-step. The motor uses ball- cation requires higher efficiency or This type of hybrid stepper motor is
bearings to maintain the very small ball-bearings normally available with a 1.8- and
air-gap required for high efficiency. Figure 7 shows the performance of 0.9-degree step angle and in a number
This type of stepper motor is avail- a 25-ohm bipolar 3.6-degree 42mm of different lengths from 40mm to
able from many manufacturers at a square motor driven by a constant- 100mm. This motor is more expen-
reasonable price, but the price is current driver. The current level is sive than the two other types des-
higher than the PM-motors. The selected to give 4W resistive losses at cribed above. On the other hand, a
much higher torque and output power
is available.
The performance of this motor type
Pull-out torque [mNm] Output power [W] is plotted in figure 10. A motor with
Efficiency [%] 31W Power losses [W]
160 32 5-degree step angle, 2.8-ohm bipolar
140 28 winding and with 42mm length has

AA
A A A A A
AAA AA A
AA
120 24 been selected. This is the smallest
100 20 motor size of this class. The 5-degrees

AA
AAAA A
AA
80 66%
16 step angle is interesting when high
65%
60 12 shaft speed is more important than
40 8 high holding torque.
20 4 The diagram shows the same high-

A
0 0 efficiency as for the 42mm square
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
Full-step stepping rate [Hz]
motor, but four-times-higher output
Pull-out torque Efficiency Output Power Power losses
power. A maximum of over 30W is
achieved in the area of 3000 to
3500Hz. At high step rates, the
Figure 8. Performance curves for a 2.8 ohm bipolar 57 mm hybrid stepper (length 42mm) power losses of the motor is approx.
driven by PBL 3770A constant-current driver (Chopper voltage 40V, winding current 12W (including driver 16W). This is
75mA). acceptable with normal cooling of the
motor and 100% duty cycle. At low
step rates, the losses decrease and at
Holding torque [mNm] DC-losses [W]
450 18 standstill the losses are only 3W. This
Hybrid holding torque shows the ability to increase the
Hybrid DC-losses motor current to get even higher
300 PM holding torque 12
284mNm output torque and power at low step
PM DC-losses
rates. On the other hand, decreasing
150 6
the low frequency torque can be a way
84mNm of decreasing noise levels and vibra-
tions in applications where the load
0 0 friction torque consumes a larger part
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800
Winding current of the motor torque than the load
inertia.
Figure 9. Holding torque and DC-loss as functions of winding currents for a 57mm PM This motor is suitable for paper
motor and for a 57mm hybrid motor. handling and carriage driving in high-

8
performance printers and plotters, or beyond the maximum rating without are the characteristics of the load?”
industrial motion control. The 5- causing too much saturation effect. In Too often, this question is given too
degree stepper, with per-formance figure 8, the torque from this motor little consideration. To get the best
shown in figure 8, is suit-able for shows a relativly-flat torque character- performance, it is important to do an
driving the print mechanism of laser istic for stepping rates below 3kHz. analysis before selecting motor and
printers. PBL3770A is a suit-able This is a result of the 750mA current driver and before designing the
driver for this size of stepper motor. level not using the full low-speed transmission and mechanical system.
capabilities of this motor. Increased
Power losses and holding torque current will raise the output torque at Friction or inertia loads
The limiting factor in high-perform- low speeds and make the region with If the system will have high dynamic
ance stepper motor designs is the maximum output power wider (to- performance, (high acceleration/
stepper power dissipation. wards low frequencies), but it will retardation), then most of the output
Stepper motor manufacturers often only increase the peak output power torque from the motor will be used to
specify the stepper motor windings by marginally. accelerate the system’s inertia. To get
the maximum-allowed power disipa- the maximum performance from this
tion at stand still. This gives the type of system, the gear rate should
nominal winding voltage and current Designing a system normally be designed so that the load
levels. In an application, the optimum inertia seen by the motor is close to
performance often is achieved at Analyzing the load the motor internal inertia. The load
different voltage and current levels. In When designing a stepper motor sys- inertia seen by the motor is:
figure 9, the holding torques of the tem, the first question to ask is “What
57mm PM and 57mm hybrid motors,
described above, are plotted as func-
tions of the the 2-phase-on current, as Pull-out torque [mNm] Output power [W]
Efficiency [%] Power losses [W]
are the resistive power losses in the 120 12
windings. 10
100
From the diagram, we can see that 8.4W
80 8

AA
A AA A A AAA AAA
AA
for the PM-motor, the holding torque
curve shows a knee at 600mA—indi- 60 6

AA A AAA
cating that magnetic saturation starts 4.3W
40 4
to occur at this current level, even 34%
though the resistive losses in the 20 2
winding is only 3W, compared to the 0 0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500

A
specified 7W. This indicates that Full-step stepping rate [Hz]
using the specified current level of Pull-out Torque Efficiency Output Power Power losses
960mA does not give the optimum
performance on low stepping rates. Figure 10. Performance curves for a 3.75ohm bipolar 57mm PM-motor driven by
Figure 10 shows the affect on PBL3770A constant-current driver. (Chopper voltage 20V, winding current 480mA).
motor and drivier performance when
the winding current is decreased to
480mA. (50% of the value used in Pull-out torque [mNm] Output power [W]
figure 6.) Comparing figure 6 and 10 Efficiency [%]
12.1W
Power losses [W]
shows the improved low-frequency 120 12
performance. Low-speed losses are 100 10
decreased to less than 50% and low-

AA
AAAA
AA
AAAA
AAAA
80 8
speed torque only dropps to 80%. In 5.5W
the high-stepping-rate region, only a 60 6

AAAAA
AAAAA AA
AAA
small loss in torque apears. In figure 40 34% 4
13 another combination of driving 20 2
current and voltage is used to increase
0 0
the output power to 5.5W with the

A
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
same maximum losses as in figure 6. Full-step stepping rate [Hz]

Now the losses occur where they are Pull-out Torque Efficiency Output Power Power losses

more motivated at the stepping rate

where the maximum output power
appears. Figure 11. Performance curves for a 3.75ohm bipolar 57mm PM-motor driven by
For the hybrid motor, we see that PBL3770A constant-current driver. (Chopper voltage 25V, winding current 600mA).
the winding currents can be increased

9
Jlm = Jl ÷ Gr2 where: However, in some applications, an compact mechanical design easier. A
increased inertia can be used to move smaller motor can also, if the motor is
Jl = load inertia without gearing
a resonance to a lower frequency. in a moving part of the mechanism,
Gr = the gear rate. make the design of the motion system
Selecting concept easier.
A friction torque is reduced by the
After analyzing the load, we know the In applications where long life ex-
factor 1⁄Gr by a gear mechanism.
output power needed, the maximum pectancy is needed, motors with ball
Friction torque/load power consumption and minimum stepping rates, and the bearings are required. Hybrid motors
To select the right motor size and resolution needed. use ball-bearings as a standard (to
driver type, it is necessary to calculate Depending on the importance of maintain the narrow air-gap), but
or measure the load friction torque. the different demands and the ability small-sized PM motors usually use
For most type of loads, this is fairly to fulfill them, the designer has a slide bearings. PM motors, with ball
constant at different speeds, which range of options in combining motor bearing as an option, are supplied by
makes measuring easy. If the system gearing and driver in a system. some manufacturers—but the addi-
involves a linear motion, a spring The design is normally an iterative tional cost for this is rather high.
scale can be used—and for a rotating process, with calculation and experi- If the motor drives a belt gearing or
system, a torque watch can be used. mentation. If highest-performance or a belt transmission directly, ball
From the measured force or torque, lowest-cost for a given performance is bearings are strongly recommended.
and information about the maximum essential, it is a good idea to compare This ensures proper lifetime and re-
speed of the motion, the maximum- a few different combinations of motor duces torque loss due to bearing
needed load power can be calculated: driver and gearing. friction caused by the belt tension.
A higher-step-rate driver and a
P[W] =v[m/s] × F[N] Cost
smaller motor, together with a
for linear systems and The motor cost depends on motor
suitable gearing, often gives better
P[W] = ω[radians/s] × T[Nm] type and size. Winding type and
performance —in efficiency and
for rotating systems. resistance do not affect the cost. As a
output power—than a large motor
Another way of estimating the load driving the load directly. rule, hybrid motors are more expen-
power consumption is to replace the sive than PM-motors. The motor cost
motor or motor and gearbox with a normally increases with motor size.
DC-motor with known current-to- Motor selection Another factor that influences the
torque function and drive the motor motor cost is the production volumes
at the desired speed while measuring Output power of a certain motor and the number of
the current consumption. If this This is the most important design manufacturers of that motor. This
technique is used, it is possible to criteria in getting the best price/ means that many times a “popular”
measure the power consumption at performance of a stepper motor type and size motor is the best choice
different speeds. system. Compare the power require- even if the motor output power is a
ments of the load with the data given little higher than required.
Damping above, or with the data in the manu-
As noted earlier, the usable torque facturer’s data sheet. If the manu- Customizing the motor
from a stepper motor can decrease at facturer’s data sheet is used be aware In medium- and high-volume appli-
certain stepping rates due to reson- of the big differences in performance cations, it is possible to customize the
ances. At which step rates, and to of the stepper motors due to different motor. Most manufacturers offers
what extent, this torque reduction drivers. Also remember that measur- customization on the following items.
appears depends on the application ing stepper motor pull-out and pull-
damping and inertia. The damping of Shaft Single- or double-sided
in torque is tricky. The measurement
the driver also influence the torque Length
is easily influenced by inertia and
reduction. Pinions
resonances in the measuring system,
Resonances at low stepping rates and the inertia and damping of the Winding Resistance
can normally be reduced by lowering application is normally different. As a Inductance
driver current and voltage levels, or result, the pull-out curves in the data
by selecting half- or microstepping Rotor Type of magnets
sheet are not always valid for an actual hybrid air-gap distance
mode drivers. At medium step rates application.
the constant-current drivers normally Lead wires Length
have the least problems with reson- Mechanical aspects Connector
ances, but here the characteristics of The physical dimension and weight of
the load have large impact. the motor are important criteria when From some manufacturers, other
Low system inertia normally creates a motor is selected. Often the choice parameters such as shaft diameter,
fewer problems with resonances. of a smaller motor can make a bearing types, mounting flange can be

10
customized but this is normally appli-
cable only in high-volume applica- Pull-out torque [mNm] Output power [W]
tions. Efficiency [%] Power losses [W]
120 12
100 10
Driver design 80 7.1W 8

A AAAAAAAAA
AA
Selecting driver type 60 6
3.8W
The performance curves at the begin- 40 4

A A
ning show the effect of the driver on 36%
20 2
the system. If only low stepping rates
0 0
are used and the use of gearing is not 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
a solution, the unipolar L/R-driver Equivalent full-step stepping rate [Hz]
offers the lowest cost for the electro- Pull-out Torque Efficiency Output Power Power losses
nics for a given output torque.
As demand for output power from Figure 12. Performance curves for a 3.75ohm bipolar 57mm PM-motor driven by
the stepper increases, more-effective PBL3770A constant-current driver. (Half-step mode fast current decay. Chopper voltage
drivers offer the best price perfor- 20V, 2-phase-on current 480mA).
mance ratio. The best motor utiliza-
tion is achieved with the bipolar
constant current driver and this driver Pull-out torque [mNm] Output power [W]
is the obvious choice for all high- 120 12
power applications. Pull-out 40V Output 40V
For applications in the low- and 100 10
Pull-out 30V Output 30V
medium-power range, several alter- 80 7.3W 8
natives exists. If system efficiency is
important, then the bipolar constant 60 6
current driver is the best choice. This 5.3W
40 4
driver offers higher flexibility in
selecting the motor winding, since 20 2
both the chopper voltage and the 0 0
current in the winding can be 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
changed to get the desired pull-out Full-step stepping rate [Hz]
torque curve from the motor. Power-
supply design gets easier and power- Figure 13. Performance as a function of chopper voltage for a 25ohm bipolar 42mm
supply losses decrease since regulated square hybrid stepper driven by PBL3770A constant-current driver (Chopper
supply normally is not needed for voltage 40/30V, winding current 280mA).
constant current drivers.
If minimum cost for the driver
electronics is the most important
design criteria, rather than the over Pull-out torque [mNm] Power losses [W]
all system performance, then the 120 12
different unipolar driver can be the 100 Pull-out 280mA 10
best choice. Pull-out 200mA
80 Losses 280mA 8
Selecting driver mode Losses 200mA
FULL-STEP MODE: This is the basic 60 6
stepper driving mode, it offers the 40 4
simplest control electronics and it is
recommended for high- and medium- 20 2
frequency operation. At these frequen- 0 0
cies, the inertia of the motor and the 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
load smooth out the torque, resulting Full-step stepping rate [Hz]
in less vibration and noise compared
to low-speed operation. Figure 14. Performance as a function of winding current for a 25ohm bipolar 42mm
square hybrid stepper driven by PBL3770A constant-current driver (Chopper voltage
40V, winding current 280/200mA).

11
HALF-STEP MODE: Half stepping with force) of the winding The optimum Selecting the current level
140% 1-phase-on current gives motor performance efficiency and out- In a constant-current driver the
smoother movement at low step rates put power is achieved close to the step driver-current level mainly affects the
compared to full stepping and can be frequency where the EMF peak value torque at the low frequencies.
used to lower resonances at low is equal to the driving voltage (chopp- Depending on the load torque de-
speeds. Half stepping also doubles the er voltage in the case of constant mand (friction and inertia) as a func-
system resolution. Observe that for current drive). As an example, the tion of stepping rate, it is often a
most steppers, the step accuracy speci- 42mm square motor, with perform- good idea to reduce the current level
fication only is valid for 2-phase-on ance as shown in figure 7, has an EMF to get a more-flat torque character-
positions. The accuracy is lower and constant of 20mV/Hz (full-step istics from the motor. This normally
the stop-position hysteresis is larger frequency) With a 40-volt chopping decrease resonances and power losses
for 1-phase-on positions. voltage, this gives a optimum stepp- and allows a lower-rated driver
Figure 12 shows the effects on per- ing rate of 2kHz. From figure 7, we circuit.
formance of the 57mm PM-motor see that at 2kHz both the efficiency In Figure 14, the effect of decreased
when half stepping is applied to this and the output power are at their winding current is shown—from the
motor. Compared to to full stepping maximum values. To design a wind- curve we can see that only the low
(reffer to figure 10 for the same ing for 20 volts, with a maximum and medium frequencies are affected
driving conditions), a slightly-higher output at the same stepping rate, a by the lower current. Power losses at
torque at low speed and a small de- winding with 10mV/Hz EMF low step rates have also decreased.
crease at higher step rates. The main constant should be used. This winding The peak output power, however, is
advantage is the lowered noise and will have half the number of turns and not affected as the torque at 2kHz is
vibrations at low stepping rates. If thus 1⁄4 of the resistance and induc- not decreased.
maximum performance at both low tance of the original winding. To get
and high step rates is essential, a the same holding torque and low-
switch to full-step mode can be done frequency performance the winding Summing up
at a suitable frequency. Change the current has to be raised to twice the The unipolar L/R-driver offers the
stepping mode this way will also original value. lowest cost for the electronics for a
lowers CPU-time requirement (step It is not possible to increase the given output torque, if the step rate is
rate reduced by 50% at high speeds) if optimum stepping rate for a motor to low.
the system use a microprocessor as very high values since then hysteris As demand for output power from
control unit. loss and rotor leakage inductance will the stepper increases, more effective
MICROSTEPPING: The smoothest move- decrease the efficiency. drivers offers the best price perfor-
ments at low frequencies is achieved The EMF constant for a motor is mance ratio. The best motor utiliza-
with microstepping. Higher resolu- measured by conecting the motor tion is achieved with the bipolar
tion is also offered. If resonance-free winding to an osciloscope and rotating constant current driver and this driver
movement at low step rates is impor- the rotor at a constant speed (by means is the obvious choice for all high-
tant, the microstepping driver is the of a DC-motor for instance) and power applications.
best choice. Microstepping can also be measuring the peak value and the
used to increase stop position accuracy frequency of the generated signal. The
beyond the normal motor limits. generated frequency corresponds to a
four-times-higher full-stepping rate.
From this the EMF constant can be
Designing the winding calculated.
For a constant current chopper type Figure 13 shows the affect on the
driver the winding design depends on torque and output power of the 42mm
the desired output power, maximum hybrid motor when the chopping
operation frequency, and chopper voltage is decreased. From the figure,
voltage. A simplified design method, we can see that the optimum
which in most cases when high operating frequency moves from
output power is important, gives a approximatly 2kHz to 1.5kHz when
good results is described below. the chopping voltage is decreased
from 40 to 30 volts. Using the EMF-
EMF selection rule we get the same result:
A good design criteria for winding
design is the EMF (electromotive 20mV/Hz × 1.5kHz = 30 Volts.

12