The Weber test lateralizes the sound to the left ear, indicating a problem on the left side. The Rinne test shows that air conduction is better than bone conduction on the left, indicating a conductive problem on the left side. Therefore, the problem is a conductive defect in the left ear. The answer is B.
The Weber test lateralizes the sound to the left ear, indicating a problem on the left side. The Rinne test shows that air conduction is better than bone conduction on the left, indicating a conductive problem on the left side. Therefore, the problem is a conductive defect in the left ear. The answer is B.
The Weber test lateralizes the sound to the left ear, indicating a problem on the left side. The Rinne test shows that air conduction is better than bone conduction on the left, indicating a conductive problem on the left side. Therefore, the problem is a conductive defect in the left ear. The answer is B.
Sensation By Assistant Professor of Neurology Dr. Mufeed Akram Taha M.B.Ch.B. Iraq &Turkey Auditary system:- -The external ear, middle ear &the cochlea of the inner ear are concerned with hearing. -The semicircular canals, the utricle &the saccule of the inner ear are concerned with equilibrium. Physiology of Hearing:- The ear converts sound waves in the external environment into action potentials in the auditory nerves. Sound waves entering the external auditary canal move the tympanic membrane and this movement transmitted to the ossicles (Malleus, incus, and stapes) of the middle ear, which amplify and transform this movement of ear drum into smaller and more forceful movements of the footplate of the stapes which rests against the oval window Of the inner ear. Movement of the stapes against the oval window will produces travelling pressure waves in the perilymph of the scala vestibuli and subsequently by Reissner’s membrane (which separates the scala vestibuli from the scala media) to the endolymph of the scala media, then these waves transmit by the basilar membrane (which separates the scala media from the scala tympani) to the perilymph of the scala tympani and out through the round window. As the sound waves enter the perilymph of the scala vestibuli it will transmitted to endolymph of the scala media, this causes displacement of basilar membrane which inturn stimulates the Hair cells in the organ of corti. So movement of hair cells will generate electronic potential that are converted into action potentials in the auditory nerve fibers. Cochlear compartment Central auditory pathway
The afferent fibers in the cochlear division of 8th
cranial nerve ends in the dorsal and ventral cochlear nuclei in the medulla, from there auditory impulses pass by various routs to inferior colliculi in the midbrain and then pass by the medial geniculate body in the thalamus to the auditory cortex located mainly in the superior gyrus of temporal lobe (Broadmann's area 41). In the primary auditory cortex most neurons respond to input from both ears. Adjacent to primary auditory cortex is auditory association cortex which receive impulses from primary auditory cortex. Deafness
Deafness is usually divided into two types:
Conductive deafness: This type is caused by impaired sound transmission in the external or middle ear. Nerve deafness: This is caused by damage to the cochlea or the auditory nerve of the central neural pathway. These two types of deafness can be differentiated by a number of simple clinical tests using a tuning fork 512 HZ. Weber Test Rinne Test Vestibular system:- The vestibular structures provide the nervous system with information about gravity, rotation and acceleration that is necessary for maintenance of balance and equilibrium. The receptors of the vestibular sense organ are located in the semicircular canals, utricle, and saccule in the inner ear. The utricle and saccule are located in the main cavity of the bony labyrinth while the semicircular canals 3 in No. are extensions from the utricle. The utricle & saccule contain endolymph. Specialized areas of epithelium called macula are present in their walls. Each macula is a tuft of ciliated columnar epithelial cells embdded in a gelatinous matrix containing small calcified particles (otoliths). When the head is tilted from the vertical position, gravitational pull on the otolith distorts the hair cells and initiates an action potential in the vestibular nerve. So Utricle & saccule are responsible for linear acceleration of the body. At one the end of each simicircular canal is an enlargement called the ampulla which contains a specialized region of epithelium called crista which is similar to maculae in saccule & utricle, during rotational movement, the endolymph in the semicircular canal moves and distorts the crista, thus stimulating the hair cells and initiating action potentials. So semicircular canal responsible for angular acceleratrion of the body. The adequate stimulus to discharge hair cells is movement of the cupula which bends or deforms the stereocilia as bending of stereocilia toward the kinocilium increases the frequency of resting discharge, where as bending the stereocilia away from the kinocilium lowers the frequency. Under normal resting conditions the nerve fibers from hair cells transmit continuous nerve impulses. Neural pathways: Stimulation of hair cells in vestibular apparatus activate sensory neurons of 8th cranial nerve (vestibular branch). Fibers of vestibular nerve pass to the vestibular nuclei of brain stem and also to the cerebellum, From the vestibular nuclei neurons pass to occulomotor center to control eye movement and also to the spinal cord to stimulate movements of the head, neck and limbs. Also nerve signals pass upward to the cerebral cortex terminating in a primary cortical center for equilibrium located in the parietal lobe, these signals appraise the conscious awareness of the equilibrium status of the body. Vertigo:
Is the sensation of rotation of the body in
the absence of actual rotation. It is caused either by lesions in vestibular apparatus or a lesion in the central neural pathway in brainstem or cerebellum. Taste Taste receptors are located within taste buds in the tongue (circumvallate and fungiform papillae), as well as in the soft palate, oropharynx and epiglottis. Taste Buds:- are barrel like structures composed from receptor cells, supporting cells, basal cells and nerve fibers. Physiology of Taste -humans have five primary tastes sweet, sour, bitter, salt and umami. - A person can perceive hundred of different tastes but they are all are result of combinations of the of the primary taste sensations. Sour taste is caused by acid that is the (H) ion concentration. Salty taste is elicited by ionized salts mainly by Na ion concentration. Sweet taste is not caused by any single class of chemicals. Example of substance that cause this taste includes sugars , glycoli ,alcohols, aldehydes , ketons , some amino acids . most are organic chemicals. Bitter taste is also not caused by any single type of chemicals agent. two particular classes of substances cause bitter taste : 1. long chain organic substance that contain nitrogen. 2. Alkaloid; this include many drugs. The bitter taste when occur in high intensity usually cause the person to reject the food this important function of the bitter taste because many deadly toxics found in poisonous plants are alkaloids. Umami is a Japanese word meaning (“delicious”) designating a pleasant taste sensation that is qualitatively different from sour, salty, sweet or bitter. Umami is the dominate taste of food contain L- glutamate such as meat extracts and aging cheese. Mechanism of stimulation of taste Buds
The mechanism by which most stimulating
substances react with taste villi to initiate The receptor potential is by binding of the taste chemical to a protein receptor molecule that lies on the outer surface of the taste receptor cell near to or protruding through a villus membrane, this in turn opens ion channels which allow positively Charged ions to enter and depolarize the normal negativity of the cell, then the taste chemical it self is gradually washed away from the taste villus by the saliva which removes the stimulus. Quiz • A Weber test is performed: the subject reports the tuning fork vibration is heard more loudly in the left ear. Then a Rinne test is performed on the left ear: the subject can hear the tuning fork vibrate for 10 seconds with the base of the tuning fork on the left mastoid process, and then does not hear it when the tuning fork is held in front of the left auditory canal. This patient problem is? A. Sensorineural defect in the left ear. B. Conductive defect in the left ear. C. Sensorineural defect in the right ear. D. Conductive defect in the right ear.