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Remote Sensing of Coastal and Ocean Currents: An Overview

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DOI: 10.2112/JCOASTRES-D-11-00197.1

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 Journal of Coastal Research 28 3 576–586 West Palm Beach, Florida May 2012

Remote Sensing of Coastal and Ocean Currents: An Overview

Victor Klemas

School of Marine Science and Policy

University of Delaware
www.cerf-jcr.org
Newark, DE 19716, U.S.A.
klemas@udel.edu

ABSTRACT
KLEMAS, V., 2012. Remote sensing of coastal and ocean currents: an overview. Journal of Coastal Research, 28(3), 576–
586. West Palm Beach (Florida), ISSN 0749-0208.

Ocean currents influence the global heat transport; weather and climate; larval transport; drift of water pollutants;
sediment transport; and marine transportation. As a result, oceanographers, coastal managers, and ships need up-to-
date information on ocean and coastal currents. Arrays of current meter moorings can measure currents at local scales.
Shore-based high-frequency radars are able to map coastal currents over a range of up to 200 km. Ocean drifters can be
tracked to obtain circulation patterns over larger areas, but may take months to accomplish it. Only satellite remote
sensors can determine currents synoptically over extensive ocean and coastal regions. Satellite altimetry is one of the
essential remote-sensing techniques for monitoring dynamic ocean conditions, including surface currents, local wind
speed, and significant wave height. Satellite altimetry measures sea surface heights, providing data on geostrophic
circulation, including major ocean currents. Ocean currents can also be determined by satellite synthetic aperture radar
(SAR) or tracking the movement of thermal and color features in the ocean. The flow patterns of currents like the Gulf
Stream are being mapped with satellite infrared scanners. The objective of this paper is to review practical remote-
sensing techniques for measuring and mapping coastal and ocean currents.

ADDITIONAL INDEX WORDS: Coastal and ocean currents, remote sensing, SAR current mapping, satellite
altimetry, feature tracking, HF radar, ocean drifters.

INTRODUCTION Knowledge of the current and wave conditions is essential

On ocean basin scales, knowledge of oceanic circulation is a
significant component of planetary heat budget calculations for
global climate programs. One obvious example of the ocean
circulation’s influence on climate is the Gulf Stream, which
transports enormous amounts of heat from the Equator and the
tropics to northern Europe and southern Greenland. Thus the
average temperature in northern Europe is about 6 to 9uC
higher than at the same latitudes in North America (Pinet,
2009; Purkis and Klemas, 2011).
Ocean currents are also important to the distribution of
the ocean’s sea life. Many species of fish rely on currents to
move them to breeding grounds, areas with more abundant
prey, and more suitable water. The Humboldt Current is an
example of a current that affects the weather and fisheries
productivity. When this cold current is normally present off
the coasts of Peru and Chile, it helps maintain highly
productive upwelling waters and keeps the coast cool and
northern Chile arid. When it becomes disrupted by such
events as El Niño, Chile’s climate is altered and fish become
scarce (Briney, 2009; Klemas, 2011; Pinet, 2009; Polovina,
Kleiber, and Kobayashi, 1999; Santos, 2000; Siegel, McGilli-
cuddy, and Fields, 1999).
DOI: 10.2112/JCOASTRES-D-11-00197.1 received 1 November 2011;
accepted in revision 19 December 2011.
Published Pre-print online 04 April 2012.
’ Coastal Education & Research Foundation 2012
to ships and shipping companies to reduce shipping costs,
fuel consumption, and avoid powerful storms and disasters.
For instance, the Labrador Current, which flows south out of
the Arctic Ocean along the coast of Newfoundland, is known
for moving icebergs into shipping lanes in the North
Atlantic.
Debris and other pollutants get trapped and moved
around the world by currents, forming trash islands in
some cases. The extent and movement of these trash islands
and other pollutants, such as oil spills, can be tracked by
airborne and satellite sensors (Jha, Levy, and Gao, 2008;
Klemas, 2010).
Along the coast and offshore there are local currents
generated by tides, winds, storms, and waves. These currents
are important in studies and control of local problems, such as
harmful algal blooms and sediment transport. Since currents
influence so many marine-related activities and processes,
meteorologists, oceanographers, ships, coastal and fisheries
managers, and marine-related agencies need to have up-to-
date information on ocean and coastal currents. Arrays of
current meters and shore-based radar can provide current
measurements only at local scales. To map surface currents
and their influence on the environment over large ocean or
coastal regions it becomes necessary to use satellite remote
sensors (Clemente-Colon and Pichel, 2006; Han, 2005; Ikeda
and Dobson, 1995; Yan, 2011).
The objective of this paper is to review practical remote-
sensing techniques for measuring and mapping coastal and
 Remote Sensing of Coastal and Ocean Currents
ocean currents. The effectiveness of key remote-sensing
approaches will be illustrated by examples.
OCEAN AND COASTAL CURRENTS
There are various physical reasons for the movement of
water, such as wind stress, tides, and water density. The major
ocean surface currents are generated primarily by winds. On
the other hand, the atmospheric circulation, including winds, is
produced by convection due to variation of temperature with
latitude and the Coriolis effect caused by Earth’s rotation
(Pinet, 2009).
Surface currents are those found in the upper 400 m of the
ocean and contain about 10% of all water in the ocean. Surface
currents are primarily caused by wind friction as the wind
moves over the water. The speed of a current will be
approximately 3 to 4% of the speed of the generating wind.
Because the major surface currents travel over long distances,
the Coriolis force deflects them toward the right in the
Northern Hemisphere, causing these currents to move in
clockwise circular patterns or gyres. In the Southern Hemi-
sphere they spin counterclockwise. The speed of the surface
currents is greatest at the surface and decreases significantly
at about 100 m below the surface. Because the surface of the
ocean is higher in areas that form where the water meets land,
where water is warmer, or where two currents converge,
gravity pulls this water downslope and creates currents that
are perpendicular to the slope due to the Coriolis force (Briney,
2009; Ikeda and Dobson, 1995; Martin, 2004; Pinet, 2009).
Some of the major ocean surface currents include the
California, Kuroshio, and Humboldt currents in the Pacific;
the Gulf Stream, Labrador, Brazil, and Agulhas currents in the
Atlantic; and the Indian Monsoon Current in the Indian Ocean.
The more important coastal and offshore currents include
wave-driven, tidal, wind-driven currents and buoyant river
plumes. These local currents can be short-term (hourly) or long-
term (seasonal) currents. Coastal currents are important in
studies and control of local flooding, algal blooms, oil slick drift,
sediment transport, and ship navigation (Gelfenbaum, 2005;
Robinson, 2004).
Deepwater currents caused by thermohaline circulation are
found below 400 m and make up about 90% of the oceans.
Deepwater currents are caused by the effect of gravity on
density differences in the water. Density differences are a
function of temperature and salinity. Warm water is less dense
and rises to the surface, whereas colder, salt-laden water sinks.
Thermohaline circulation is the mechanism responsible for the
Global Conveyor Belt because its circulation of warm and cold
water acts as a submarine river and moves water through all
three major oceans (Briney, 2009; Ikeda and Dobson, 1995;
Pinet, 2009). However, deep ocean currents cannot be observed
by satellite or airborne remote sensors and will not be covered
in this paper.
EULERIAN TECHNIQUES
In situ current sensors are used in coastal areas, to calibrate
and validate remote-sensing measurements of currents, and
to obtain current data at depths beneath the sea surface.
Journal of Coastal Research, Vol. 28, No. 3, 2012
577
Oceanographers and coastal engineers distinguish been two
basic approaches to coastal and offshore current measure-
ments, the Eulerian and the Lagrangian methods (Morang
and Gorman, 2005). Eulerian techniques measure the velocity
of water flow past a point in the ocean. Lagrangian techniques
measure the movement of a parcel of water in the ocean by
tracking the position of surface and subsurface drifters or
chemical tracers.
The Eulerian method usually involves current meters on
buoy moorings that are fixed to the ocean floor and measure
currents at various depths, yet only at one specific site. Arrays
of such buoy moorings with current meters at various depths
are deployed for days up to months in coastal waters to measure
currents at specific sites, such as in tidal inlets or harbor
entrance channels. The impeller (propeller) current meters are
pointed into the current by a vane, just like moving air orients
a wind vane. Current speed is measured by an impeller that is
rotated by the force of the current. Thus its rotational velocity is
related to the current speed. These measurements of current
speed and direction are recorded into a computer-chip memory.
The current meter can be retrieved by a sound signal, which
activates an acoustic link that releases the cable and
instrument package from the anchor. The instrument system
with its data then floats to the sea surface, where it can be
located acoustically and retrieved (Pinet, 2009).
Acoustic systems, such as acoustic Doppler current profilers
(ADCP) and acoustic Doppler current meters, are more
expensive, but can be used in areas where heavy ship traffic
or storms might damage impeller current meter moorings.
Shipboard ADCPs are widely used to profile currents within
200 to 300 m of the sea surface while the ship cruises between
hydrographic stations. Acoustic Doppler current meters are
simpler than ADCPs, and transmit continuous beams of sound
to measure current velocity close to the meter, not as a function
of distance from the meter.
Doppler current sensors can be deployed on the sea bottom,
attached to an in-line mooring, mounted on the keel of a ship,
or in a buoy bridle. Narrow sound pulses are emitted by the
current meter in different directions. These pulses are reflected
from tiny particles or air bubbles suspended in the water that
lie within several meters of the current meter. Particles
drifting away or toward the meter with the current cause a
characteristic Doppler shift in the reflected sound echo that
allows the direction and speed of the current to be calculated
(Bourgerie, Garner, and Shih, 2002; Pinet, 2009). The current
direction is found by taking the measurements along two
orthogonal axes, x and y. These measurements can be
compensated for tilt by use of tilt sensors and referred to
magnetic north by means of an internal Hall-effect compass. A
microprocessor computes vector-averaged current speed and
direction over the last sampling interval. A low-frequency
acoustic transducer for data transmission is usually attached
to the system (Aanderaa, 2004; Davidson-Arnott, 2005).
Electromagnetic current meters measure the voltage result-
ing from the motion of a conductor (water flow velocity) through
a magnetic field according to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic
induction. Faraday’s law defines the voltage produced in a
conductor as the product of the speed of the conductor (water
flow velocity) times the magnitude of the magnetic field times
578
the length of the conductor. In this case, the conductor length
is the path between the sensing electrodes. The use of an
alternating magnetic field and synchronous detection tech-
niques to measure the voltage at the sensing electrodes
provides a very stable, low-noise current measurement. Two
orthogonal pairs of electrodes and an internal flux gate
compass provide the current vector. Data obtained by such
meters are usually stored internally in solid-state, nonvolatile
memories (InterOcean, 2007).
Many of the Eulerian current meters are part of a ‘‘package’’
that includes sensors for measuring current speed, direction,
wave, tide, conductivity–temperature–depth, turbidity, and
water-quality parameters. A major disadvantage of Eulerian
current meters is that they can cover relatively small areas
with measurements only at specific points. Also, moorings tend
not to last long enough to give accurate estimates of mean
velocity or interannual variability of the velocity. Fouling of the
sensors can require frequent maintenance.
LAGRANGIAN TECHNIQUES
Lagrangian techniques involve the release of ocean drifters
that are subsequently tracked acoustically, visually, or by radio
waves. The drifters are designed to float with the moving
water, allowing researchers to determine the speed and
direction of currents. Lagrangian current measurement tech-
niques are typically used in sediment transport studies, in
pollution monitoring, for tracking ice drift, and in global ocean
current studies.
Ocean drifters are specifically designed to track the
movement of water (currents) at various depths. A typical
design of such Lagrangian drifters includes a float or surface
buoy connected by a cable to a current drogue. The drogue, set
for a specific depth, acts like an underwater sail as it is pushed
by the ocean current. The drogue surface facing the current is
relatively large to ensure that the drifter tracks the water
movement, rather than being blown by the wind. The surface
float provides buoyancy, contains the electronics, and trans-
mits data to satellites. The satellites determine the drifter’s
position from the transmission signal and relay the data to
ground stations, where drift is calculated from the positions.
Drifting subsurface buoys can also be tracked acoustically by
surface floats that communicate with global positioning system
(GPS) satellites for determining exact positions (Fratantoni,
2001; Jenkins, 1992; Richardson, 1991; Uchida and Imawaki,
2003).
One of the important global drifter programs has been
the Argo program, a collaboration between 50 research and
operational agencies from 23 countries and a component of the
Global Climate Observing System and the Global Ocean
Observing System. The Argo program was originally designed
to operate on the same 10-day duty cycle to match measure-
ments of the ocean’s sea surface being conducted by the
TOPEX/POSEIDON and JASON-1 satellites. Whereas the
satellites measure changes in the surface topography of the
ocean, Argo floats measure subsurface changes in temperature
and salinity. Thus the float measurements are complementary
to the satellite altimetry, from which mass redistribution and
surface currents can be inferred.
Journal of Coastal Research, Vol. 28, No. 3, 2012
Klemas
By 2007, a total of 3000 Argo floats had been deployed by
ships and airdrops across most ocean regions. Argo floats drift
at a fixed pressure (around 1000- or 1500-m depth) for 10 days.
After this period, the floats move to 2000-m depth, then rise,
collecting instantaneous profiles of pressure, temperature, and
salinity. At the surface, the floats transmit the collected data
via satellite link back to a ground station, allowing the satellite
to determine their surface drift by comparing the float’s new
position with the previous one. Then the floats sink again and
repeat their mission. The buoyancy mechanism works by
changing the density of a liquid (e.g., oil) reservoir. When the
liquid is allowed to expand, it becomes less dense and the float
rises, and when it is compressed, the float sinks.
There was no large-scale collection of temperature and
salinity profiles before Argo started in 2000, since ships could
only cover small areas for short times. The real-time data
provided by the Argo observation system is now used in
climate, weather, oceanographic, and fisheries modeling and
research. For instance, the Argo system is providing a deeper
understanding of ocean dynamics and allowing much better
short- and long-term predictions of weather and climate (Feder,
2000; NIWA, 2010; NOAA/PMEL, 2011).
A nearshore example of the application of inexpensive ocean
drifters is a study of the drift and dispersion of ocean-dumped
industrial acid waste 64 km off the Delaware coast, conducted
in the late 1970s. The drifters were inserted from boats and
their current drogues adjusted to track the current flow near
the surface, just above the summer thermocline, and well below
the thermocline. The drifters radiated a 6-MHz signal that was
tracked from three shore stations using loop antennas. The
time sequence of drifter locations was established by triangu-
lation. The drifter data provided information on the local
currents at several depths and valuable insights into the rapid
drift of waste plumes above the thermocline and their slow
dispersion toward the bottom below the thermocline (Klemas
and Philpot, 1981).
Ocean drifters may also contain various instruments to
measure water temperatures and a variety of other parame-
ters. Ships and aircraft can drop these durable drifter buoys
into the sea, where they normally have a survival rate of
several hundred days (Breaker et al., 1994; Davis, 1985). For
instance, drifters designed to transmit for 2 to 4 years were
released from ships off Cape Blanco, Oregon. The great
distances travelled by the drifters showed how water parcels
and the material they contain (e.g., plankton) disperse from
Oregon’s coastal ocean. The detected seasonally varying ocean
circulation was found to have profound implications for the
biology off the Oregon coast. Data from this drifter project
were used in conjunction with other physical and biologi-
cal measurements as part of the Global Ocean Ecosystem
Dynamics (GLOBEC) program to help scientists to better
understand the northeast Pacific Ocean ecosystem (GLOBEC,
2006).
Drifters do not always stay in a parcel of water. External
forces, such as winds, can cause them to drift relative to the
water and fail to follow a parcel of water. Before GPS, there
could be errors in determining the exact positions of the
drifters. Drifters can also be captured in convergence zones of
fronts and gyres, instead of following the water flow.
 Remote Sensing of Coastal and Ocean Currents
Figure 1. New York Bight surface currents as measured with shore-based HF radar (courtesy of Coastal Ocean Observation Laboratory, Rutgers
University).
SHORE-BASED RADAR
Currents and waves strongly affect coastal ecosystems,
especially in the nearshore, which is an extremely dynamic
environment. Currents influence the drift and dispersion of
various pollutants and, together with breaking waves, mobilize
and transport sediments, resulting in erosion and morpholog-
ical evolution of natural beaches. Changes in the underlying
bathymetry, in turn, affect the wave and current patterns,
resulting in a feedback mechanism between the hydrodynam-
ics and morphology. The ability to monitor these processes is
necessary to understand and predict the changes that occur in
the nearshore region. Arrays of current meters are not always
practical for determining surface currents over larger, dynamic
coastal areas, since these instruments measure currents at a
point and are expensive, especially when large numbers of
sensors have to be deployed at considerable risk of losing them
(Morang and Gorman, 2005).
Over the past three decades shore-based high-frequency
(HF) and microwave Doppler radar systems have been
deployed to map currents and determine swell–wave param-
eters along the world’s coasts with considerable accuracy.
High-frequency radars operate in the 3–30-MHz frequency
range and use a ground-wave propagation mode of the
electromagnetic waves (Barrick, Evans, and Weber, 1977;
Bathgate, Heron, and Prytz, 2006; Essen, Gurgel and Schlick,
2000; Graber et al., 1997; Gurgel, Essen and Schlick, 2003;
Haus, Graber and Shay, 1997; Paduan and Cook, 1997;
Schofield, Kohut and Glenn, 2008). The radar surface current
measurements use the concept of Bragg scattering from a
Journal of Coastal Research, Vol. 28, No. 3, 2012
579
slightly rough sea surface, modulated by Doppler velocities of
the surface currents. When a radar signal hits an ocean wave it
usually scatters in many directions. However, when the radar
signal scatters off a wave that has a wavelength half of the
transmitted signal wavelength, Bragg scattering will return
the signal directly to its source, resulting in a very strong
received signal. Extraction of swell direction, height, period,
and current velocity from HF radar data is based on the
modulation imposed upon the short Bragg wavelets by the
longer faster-moving swell (Paduan and Graber, 1997; Plant
and Keller, 1990; Teague, Vesecky, and Fernandez, 1997).
Surface currents in the New York Bight, as measured with
shore-based HF radar for upwelling and downwelling favour-
able conditions, are shown in Figure 1. This figure also
demonstrates how integration of HF data with satellite
imagery provides a more complete picture of sea surface
dynamics.
Depending on the operating frequency selected, HF radars
can attain working ranges of up to 200 km and spatial
resolutions between 300 and 1000 m. Since they can perform
continuous measurements, e.g., at 10-minute intervals, HF
radars satisfy the high temporal resolution requirements for
tracking tidal and wind-driven currents required for pollution
monitoring, ship guidance, rescue operations, and coastal
management (Georges et al., 1998; Gurgel, Essen and Kingsley,
1999; Paduan and Graber, 1997; Shearman and Moorhead,
1988). Surface current fields have been mapped successfully
not only with shore-based but also with shipborne HF radars
(Gurgel, 1997; Skop and Peters, 1997). Rapid-response HF
radar units, such as the SeaSonde, are even being deployed
580
Figure 2. Terra-MODIS brightness temperature image for the eastern
seaboard of the United States acquired May 2, 2001. The warm waters of
the Gulf Stream, with its swirls and gyres, are depicted in reds and
yellows. Courtesy: NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center.
from helicopters to map currents along coastlines to improve
the modeling and operational prediction of oil slick drift
(Kjelaas and Whelan, 2011; Paduan and Rosenfeld, 1996).
High-frequency radars have also been applied in ecological
research of larval transport in upwelling areas (Bjorkstedt and
Roughgarden, 1997).
Although HF radar provides accurate maps of surface
currents and wave information for large coastal areas, their
spatial resolution, from hundreds of meters to kilometers, is
more suitable for measuring mesoscale features than small-
scale currents (Kosro, Barth, and Strub, 2008; Romeiser, 2007).
On the other hand, microwave X-band and S-band radars have
resolutions of the order of 10 m, yet have a range of only a few
kilometers (Braun et al., 2008; Helzel et al., 2011; Wu, Kao, and
Yang, 2010). Microwave radars are being used to remotely
sense ocean waves and currents close to shore. A new X-band
marine radar family (coherent and noncoherent) operating at
10-m scales can measure ocean currents and wave spectra at
distances out to a few kilometers (Trizna, 2007). Marine radars
are also used for tracking coastlines and detecting fixed harbor
objects and other ships, especially in low-visibility coastal fog,
to avoid collisions. All remote-sensing radars, including
satellite-borne systems, have the advantage of no instrumen-
tation moored in the open sea, where the instruments may be
damaged or lost to storms and ships passing by (Gurgel and
Schlick, 2008).
SATELLITE REMOTE SENSING
Thermal Infrared Mapping of Flow Patterns
Satellite measurements of ocean currents allow scientists
and operational users to get current data over large expanses
Journal of Coastal Research, Vol. 28, No. 3, 2012
Klemas
of the oceans in near-real time (Dzwonkowski et al., 2010;
Robinson, 2004; Wunsch, 1992). A current’s flow pattern and
other features, such as Gulf Stream eddies, can be mapped
using scanning thermal infrared radiometers on satellites.
High-resolution satellite-derived sea surface temperature
(SST) measurements are ideal for investigating western
boundary currents, such as the Gulf Stream and Kuroshio,
which exhibit displacements on large temporal and spatial
scales. A typical example of thermal infrared mapping of ocean
currents is illustrated in Figure 2, which shows the Gulf
Stream as it meanders northward along the East Coast of the
United States, generating warm core eddies (rings) along the
way. As shown in Figure 2, the temperature gradient across
the north wall of the Gulf Stream can be very strong, with
changes of 4uC across several hundred meters (Joyce and
Wiebe, 1983).
Accurate large-scale, long-time observations of SST are also
important to a wide range of global change studies. Sea surface
temperatures are necessary, for example, for estimating the
source of heat at the air/sea boundary. Sea surface temperature
data have been used by the fish and wildlife communities to
study marine habitats over many parts of the globe (Gente-
mann et al., 2003; Purkis and Klemas, 2011; Santos, 2000;
Yang, 2009).
Thermal infrared was the first method of remote sensing to
gain widespread acceptance by the oceanographic and mete-
orological communities. Thermal infrared sensors have been
deployed for over 40 years on operational meteorological
satellites to provide images of cloud top temperatures, and
when there are no clouds, they observe SST patterns. Thermal
infrared instruments that have been used for deriving SST
include the Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer
(AVHRR) on the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Adminis-
tration (NOAA) Polar-orbiting Operational Environmental
Satellites, along-track scanning radiometer aboard the Europe-
an remote-sensing satellite (ERS-2), the geostationary opera-
tional environmental satellite imagers, and moderate resolution
imaging spectroradiometer aboard National Aeronautics and
Space Administration (NASA) Earth Observing System Terra
and Aqua satellites (Conway, 1997; Cracknell and Hayes, 2007).
Cloud cover can limit thermal infrared sensing, hindering
frequent ocean current and temperature observations.
Current Velocities Derived from Visible and Thermal
Feature Tracking
Estimates of currents over large ocean areas, such as the
continental shelves, can also be obtained by tracking the
movement of natural surface features that differ detectably in
color or temperature from the background waters. In satellite
‘‘feature tracking’’, sequential satellite imagery is used to
determine the displacements of selected ocean features (e.g.,
chlorophyll plumes, patches of different water temperature,
and surface slicks) over the time intervals between successive
images to estimate surface flow fields. Thermal infrared
imagery from the AVHRR, ocean color images from sea-viewing
wide field-of-view sensor (SeaWiFS), and radar images from
Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) have all been used to perform
 Remote Sensing of Coastal and Ocean Currents
feature tracking (Kuo and Yan, 1994; Liu, Zhao, and Hsu,
2006).
Satellite feature tracking has been used to estimate the
surface circulation in such regions as the California Current,
the Gulf Stream, the Kuroshio Current, the Gulf of Mexico, the
English Channel, the west coast of Ireland, and the coast of
New Zealand. Because of the requirement for accurate spatial
alignment and coregistration of the imagery used in feature
tracking, the technique has been more often used in coastal
regions, where landmarks are available to renavigate the
satellite data (Breaker et al., 1994; Romeiser, 2007; Yan and
Breaker, 1993). A major disadvantage is that cloud cover
frequently obscures visible and thermal infrared ocean sur-
face features. There is also a need to improve ocean feature
detection and tracking techniques and to develop more reliable
operational procedures.
Current Mapping by SAR
Although point measurements can be obtained in various
ways, satellite radar techniques permit synoptic measure-
ments of surface current fields over hundreds of square
kilometers. This was first demonstrated by SEASAT SAR in
1982. Synthetic aperture radar instruments, such as the
advanced SAR, record microwave backscatter patterns to
identify roughness patterns, which are linked to varying
surface winds, waves, and currents on the ocean surface. By
using the Doppler shift information embedded in the radar
return signal, it is possible to determine how surface winds
and currents contribute to the Doppler shift. The Doppler shift
is introduced by the relative motion between the satellite
platform, the rotation of the earth, and particular facets of the
sea surface from which the SAR signal scatters back to the
satellite. The first two values are known for most satellites with
stable orbits and altitudes and can be subtracted to extract
the useful sea surface velocity information. However, more
work needs to be done on modeling and interpretation of SAR
signatures of ocean features associated with spatially varying
surface currents and development of retrieval algorithms for
future SAR missions (Robinson, 2004; Romeiser, 2007; Romei-
ser et al., 2005; Rufenach, Shuchman, and Lyzenga, 1983).
Spatial and temporal current variations measured with
SARs have been applied to the study of ocean fronts, eddies,
internal waves, risk management for coastal structures, and
ship operations. These measurements have been very useful for
advancing the understanding of surface current dynamics and
mesoscale variability, as well as for determining surface drift,
important for oil dispersion, pollution transport, and for wave–
current interaction capable of creating dangerous rogue waves
(Robinson, 2004; Romeiser, 2007).
A more recent technique, using along-track interferometric
SAR (InSAR), offers a higher spatial resolution and the flexi-
bility to acquire data anywhere in the world from satellites. It
permits imaging of line-of-sight surface velocity fields with the
spatial resolution of SARs, which is of the order of meters
within a swath width of tens to hundreds of kilometers for
satellites. Along-track interferometry exploits the fact that
two complex SAR images of the same scene, acquired from the
same antenna location with a short time lag of the order of
Journal of Coastal Research, Vol. 28, No. 3, 2012
581
milliseconds, show phase differences proportional to Doppler
shifts of the backscattered signal, thus to line-of-sight target
velocities. This permits a direct imaging of line-of-sight velocity
fields. To obtain two SAR images with a short time lag from a
moving platform, one needs two antennas separated by a
corresponding distance in the flight direction. The best data
quality is expected at time lags of several milliseconds at X-
band frequencies and tens of milliseconds for L-band, corre-
sponding to along-track antenna separations of tens to
hundreds of meters for space-borne systems (Romeiser, 2007).
The first demonstration of current measurements from space
with InSAR was given by the shuttle radar topography mission
in February 2000, which gave results consistent with numer-
ical model results and provided an accuracy of 0.1 m/s. At
the present time the German satellite TerraSAR-X is pro-
viding global ocean surface current measurements for many
applications.
Altimetry of Geostrophic Currents
A major category of ocean circulation that is discernible by
satellite altimetry is geostrophic circulation, wherein the
pressure gradient can be depicted by a difference in the ocean’s
dynamic height. A satellite altimeter is a radar that precisely
measures the range from the radar antenna to the ocean
surface. Satellite altimetry produces unique global measure-
ments of instantaneous sea surface heights relative to a
reference surface, and is one of the essential tools for
monitoring ocean surface conditions, including surface cur-
rents, local wind speed, and significant wave height. An overall
accuracy of a few centimeters is required for observations of
the dynamic sea surface elevation to be useful (Andersen, 1995;
Canton-Garbin, 2008; Ducet, Le Traon, and Reverdin, 2000;
Le Provost and Bennett, 1995; Ray and Cartwright, 2001;
Schrama and Ray, 1994; Shaw, Chao, and Fu, 1999).
As shown in Figure 3, a radar altimeter aboard a satellite
is a nadir-looking active microwave sensor. Its signal pulse,
transmitted vertically downward, reflects from the ocean
surface back to an altimeter antenna. The round-trip time
and the propagation speed of the electromagnetic waves are
used to compute the range between the antenna and the ocean
surface. From the altimeter-measured range, the instanta-
neous sea surface relative to a reference surface, such as a
reference ellipsoid, can be determined if the satellite orbit
relative to the reference surface is precisely known. With the
knowledge of the oceanic geoid, the displacement of the sea
surface from the geoid due to ocean dynamic circulation can
be mapped. Repeated altimetric observations can provide a
measurement of the temporal variability of the sea surface
height since the geoid can be treated as time invariant for
oceanographic applications. The measurements permit esti-
mation of variable geostrophic surface currents and changes in
their mass transport when combined with conventional data of
the internal density structure (Robinson, 2004).
A simplified explanation of geostrophic currents is that
seawater naturally wants to move from a region of high pres-
sure (or high sea level) to a region of low pressure (or low sea
level). The force pushing the water toward the low-pressure
region is called the pressure gradient force. In a geostrophic
582
Figure 3. Configuration for JASON-2 altimetry operation. Credits: The
COMET Program, EUMETSAT. A color version of this figure is available
in the online journal.
flow, instead of water moving from a region of high pressure
to a region of low pressure, it moves along the lines of equal
pressure (isobars). This occurs because the earth’s rotation
results in a force being felt by the water moving from the high to
the low, known as the Coriolis force. The Coriolis force acts at
right angles to the flow, and when it balances the pressure
gradient force, the resulting flow is known as geostrophic. The
direction of flow is with the high pressure to the right of the flow
in the Northern Hemisphere, and the high pressure to the
left in the Southern Hemisphere (Robinson, 2004; Wikipedia,
2011). The major currents of the world’s oceans, such as the
Gulf Stream, the Kuroshio Current, the Agulhas Current, and
the Antarctic Circumpolar Current, are all approximately in
geostrophic balance and are good examples of geostrophic
currents.
With a precision of a few centimeters, altimetric measure-
ments have improved tidal charts when coupled with tide-
gauge data and hydrodynamic models. Figure 4 shows global
mean tidal energy fluxes determined from TOPEX/Poseidon
altimeter measurements (Ray and Cartwright, 2001; Ray and
Mitchum, 1997). The information in Figure 4 was obtained by
analyzing altimeter-derived cotidal charts and it shows that
most tidal energy is dissipated in shallow seas. Only about 25 to
30% of the energy dissipation occurs in the open ocean (Egbert
and Ray, 2000). Some of the better-known altimetry missions
were conducted by satellites such as SEASAT, ERS-1 and 2,
TOPEX/POSEIDON, ENVISAT, and JASON-1 (Elachi and van
Ziel, 2006; Fu and Chelton, 2001; Han, 2005; Ikeda and Dobson
1995; Robinson, 2004; Wunsch and Stammer, 1998).
Scientific results from altimetric data have significantly
improved our knowledge of global ocean tides and mesoscale
circulation variability in the ocean. Transport vessels and
fishing fleets use altimetry products to identify wave heights
and wind speeds over large areas in near-real time and
determine which regions of the ocean have strong currents.
Having this information improves ship routing, saves fuel, and
Journal of Coastal Research, Vol. 28, No. 3, 2012
Klemas
Figure 4. Mean tidal energy fluxes of the M2 barotropic tide, determined
from TOPEX/POSEIDON altimeter measurements (Ray and Cartwright,
2001).
alerts ocean vessels about dangerous conditions. Furthermore,
strong eddies that can disrupt offshore oil platform and other
operations can also be detected by altimetric measurements
(Yan et al., 2006). Integrating altimetry measurements into
ocean forecast models helps with search and rescue operations
by predicting where ships in trouble are drifting. The three-
dimensional hydrodynamic models using satellite altimetry
data seem to be effective in reproducing the circulation features
as observed in situ, but there is a need for better spatial and
temporal resolution and improved ocean dynamics and tide
models, especially for shallow seas and nearshore areas
(Arnault, Morliere, and Merle, 1992; Dadou et al., 1996; Desai
and Wahr, 1995; Mellor and Ezer, 1991; Pereira-Cardenal
et al., 2011; Ray and Cartwright, 2001; Ray and Mitchum,
1997). Altimetry data are also used to model the drift of oil
slicks and determine where spills are likely to come ashore
(Han, 2005; Kelly, 1991; Morimoto, Yanagi, and Kaneko, 2000;
Yan et al., 1994).
At distances of about 50 km or closer from the coast, satellite
altimetry is of limited value because of land contamination in
the altimetry, large radiometric footprints of 10 km to 50 km,
and the fact that coastal currents are usually not geostrophic.
The radar echoes reflected off water, and off a combination of
water and land, will not be identical, and only the former
undergo processing. Also the computation of some required
corrections is more difficult, e.g., tides are much more complex
near the shore than in the open ocean, and require a very
precise knowledge of the coastal geography. Wet tropospheric
corrections are also less precise near the coast (ESA, 2011).
Nonetheless, there are many studies that are trying to enhance
the quality of altimetry data close to the coast. New processing
methods and applications are being developed for littoral and
shallow-water regions, which contain some of the most fragile
ecosystems in the world (Deng et al., 2002; Kouraev et al., 2004).
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
On ocean basin scales, knowledge of oceanic circulation is
a significant component of planetary heat budget calculations
for global climate programs. Global currents also influence the
 Remote Sensing of Coastal and Ocean Currents
circulation of the earth’s moisture, global heat transport,
weather and storm conditions, marine transportation, drift of
water pollutants, larval transport, and fish aggregation. Along
the coast and offshore there are short-term (hourly) and long-
term (seasonal) local currents generated by tides, winds,
storms, and waves. These currents are important in studies
and control of local flooding, algal blooms, oil slick drift,
sediment transport, ship navigation, etc. As a result, oceanog-
raphers, meteorologists, ships, coastal managers, and marine-
related agencies need to have up-to-date information on ocean
and coastal currents.
Surface currents are those found in the upper 400 m of the
ocean and affect about 10% of all water in the ocean. Surface
currents are primarily caused by wind friction as the wind moves
over the water. The speed of a current will be approximately 3 to
4% of the speed of the generating wind. Because the major
surface currents travel over long distances, the Coriolis force
caused by Earth’s rotation deflects them toward the right in the
Northern Hemisphere, forcing these currents to move in
clockwise circular patterns or gyres.
Deepwater currents caused by thermohaline circulation
are found below 400 m and contain about 90% of the ocean
water. Deepwater currents are caused by the effect of gravity
on density differences in the water. Density differences are
a function of temperature and salinity. Deep ocean cur-
rents cannot be observed by electromagnetic remote-sensing
techniques.
Coastal engineers and oceanographers distinguish between
two approaches to coastal current measurement, the Eulerian
and the Lagrangian methods. Eulerian current meters are
usually mounted on buoy moorings that are attached to cables
anchored to the sea bottom. Arrays of such moorings with
current meters at various depths are deployed for days up to
months in coastal waters to measure currents at specific sites.
The current meters can be of a mechanical, acoustic Doppler, or
electromagnetic type.
Lagrangian techniques involve the release of ocean drifters
that are subsequently tracked acoustically, visually, or by radio
waves. The drifters are designed to float with the moving
water, allowing researchers to determine the speed and
direction of currents. Ocean drifters may also contain various
instruments to measure water temperatures and a variety of
other parameters.
Shore-based HF and microwave Doppler radar systems are
being used to map currents and determine swell–wave
parameters along the world’s coasts with high temporal
resolution. The surface current measurements use the concept
of Bragg scattering from a slightly rough sea surface, modu-
lated by Doppler velocities of the surface currents. Depending
on the operating frequency selected, HF radars can attain
working ranges of up to 200 km and spatial resolutions between
300 and 1000 m. In contrast, microwave X-band and S-band
marine radars have resolutions of the order of 10 m, yet have a
range of only a few kilometers. Since they can perform
continuous measurements, e.g., at 10-minute intervals, shore-
based radars satisfy the high temporal resolution requirements
for tracking tidal and wind-driven currents required for
pollution monitoring, ship guidance, rescue operations, and
coastal management.
Journal of Coastal Research, Vol. 28, No. 3, 2012
583
Synthetic aperture radars can record microwave backscatter
from the ocean surface to identify roughness patterns, which
are linked to varying surface winds, waves, and currents.
Spatial and temporal current variations measured with SARs
have been applied to the study of ocean fronts, eddies, internal
waves, risk management for coastal structures, and ship
operations. These measurements have advanced the under-
standing of surface current dynamics and mesoscale variabil-
ity, as well as surface drift (important for oil dispersion),
pollution transport, and wave–current interaction (Young,
Rosenthal, and Ziemer, 1985).
Direct measurement of large-scale ocean currents with
current meter arrays is difficult and costly on an ocean basin
scale. Since large-scale currents are very nearly in geostrophic
balance, their velocity can be calculated from the pressure
gradient on an equigeopotential surface. The surface geo-
strophic current can therefore be calculated from the deviation
of sea level from the equigeopotential at the ocean surface
(marine geoid). Measuring sea level from space by satellite
altimetry thus allows one to determine the global surface
geostrophic ocean circulation and its variability. Coupled with
knowledge of the geoid and the ocean density field, satellite
altimetry provides a feasible approach for determining major
geostrophic currents in the open ocean. Scientific results from
altimetric data with a precision of a few centimeters, when
coupled with tide-gauge data and hydrodynamic models, have
significantly improved our knowledge of global ocean tides and
mesoscale circulation variability in the deep ocean. Some of
the better-known altimetry missions were conducted by
satellites such as SEASAT, ERS-1 and 2, TOPEX/POSEIDON,
ENVISAT, and JASON-1.
The flow patterns of surface currents and other features,
such as Gulf Stream eddies, can be mapped using scanning
thermal infrared radiometers on satellites. Thermal infrared
sensors have been deployed for over 40 years on operational
meteorological satellites to provide cloud temperatures and
observe SST patterns.
Ocean current velocities can also be obtained by tracking the
movement of natural surface features that differ detectably in
color or temperature from the background waters. In satellite
feature tracking sequential satellite imagery is used to
determine the displacements of selected ocean features (e.g.,
chlorophyll plumes, patches of different temperature, etc.) over
the time intervals between successive images to estimate
surface flow fields. Thermal infrared imagery from the
AVHRR, ocean color images from SeaWiFS, and radar images
from SARs have been used to conduct feature tracking.
To summarize, in coastal and offshore waters, shore-based
HF radar meets most user requirements for up to 200 km from
shore with a high temporal resolution. High-frequency radar
should be further developed to increase its range and spatial
resolution. The derived surface currents can be compared and
validated with in situ sensors in coastal areas and with satellite
SAR results. More work needs to be done on modeling and
interpretation of SAR signatures of ocean features associated
with spatially varying surface currents and development of
retrieval algorithms. Feature tracking with visible and
thermal infrared sensors is limited by cloud cover and needs
improvements in ocean feature tracking techniques and
584
development of more reliable operational procedures. On large
ocean scales, significant progress has been made measuring
geostrophic currents with satellite altimeters. However, satel-
lite altimetry needs better spatial and temporal resolution and
could use improved ocean dynamics and tide models, especially
for shallow seas and nearshore applications.
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