Earl Dominic I.

Porcincula
BSGE-2
Formulas:  Positioning is the accurate determination of coordinates for
points on earth, sea, or space with respect to a reference
a a−b system.
F-1 = F =  Determination of Position with reliability is the fundamental
a−b a
problem facing the reference frame of Geographic information
a−b a−b System (GIS) and the principal purpose of the science of
F’ = F’’ =
b a+b geodesy.
c  Determination of Position for points on the Earth’s surface
E2 = F2-2F E =
a requires the establishment of appropriate coordinates in the
selected geodetic reference system (DATTUM).
c
E’ =
b
C = √ a2 +b 2  The geographical position of a point on the earth’s surface
can be defined in relation to a mathematically defined
reference surface which is used in place of the true surface of
Relationship between latitude the earth.
b b2  Reference surface should have two fundamental
Tanφ= Tanβ = 2 tan Ф characteristics:
a a o Mathematically Defined
Tanφ=¿
o Closely fitting the true surface in the desired
location.
Prime Vertical Radius Meridian Radius

n=
a M= a(1−e2 ) Reference System and Reference Frames
¿¿ ¿¿ - Reference System is a set of prescriptions and
conventions together with the modelling required to
Gaussian Mean Radius Radius of Curvature define at any time a triad of coordinate axes.
R = MN RФ = NcosФ - Reference Frame realizes the system by means of
√ coordinates of definite points that are accessible directly
by occupation or by observation.
2
a2 +b2 2 2 - Reference System is about shape, size, position and
e = 2
or e = F -2F
a orientation of a reference surface, (e.g. Sphere or
Spheroid). It is defined in a superior, geocentric three-
Space Rectangular Coordinates dimensional coordinate system (for examples WGS84)
x= (N+H) cosФ cos λ - Reference Frame is a set of control points to realize a
Reference System.
y = (N+H) cosФ sin λ
Concept of Reference Frame and Reference System
z = (N( 1−e2 ) + H ¿ sin Ф - A frame cannot exist without a system, and a system is
of no practical value without a frame
Geodetic Datum
- Geodetic Datum is a set of parameters and constant that
Astronomical Geodesy defines a coordinate system, including its origin and its
- a branch of practical astronomy closely related to geodesy orientation and scale, in such a way as to make these
and cartography. accessible for geodetic applications.
- It studies the theory and methods of determining latitude - A Horizontal Geodetic Datum is a geodetic datum for
and longitude of a place as well as the azimuth of the horizontal geodetic control in which points are mapped
direction to a terrestrial object and local sidereal time points a specified ellipsoid.
from astronomical observation during cartographic and - A Vertical Geodetic Datum is geodetic datum for
geodetic work. vertical geodetic control in which points are mapped to
the geopotential.
Reference Systems
 Cartesian – in terms of X and Y
 Geographic – in terms of latitude and
longitude. It is measured in degree E/W from an
arbitrary meridian and N/S from the equator.
Three Types of Coordinates
 Astronomical Coordinates is physically defined
perpendicular, based of gravity.
 Geodetic Coordinates is mathematically defined
perpendicular, based on the reference surface, specifically
ellipsoid, used for large and medium scale mapping and in
geodesy.
 Geographic Coordinates is mathematically defined
perpendicular, based on the reference surface, typically
spheres, used for small scale mapping.
Reference Ellipsoid Datum
Ellipsoid Reference Ellipsoid Semi-major Semi-major • A datum is a reference point or surface against which
Local Clarke Spheroid of
6378206.4 6356583.8 position measurements are made, and an associated
Ellipsoid 1998
Global World Geodetic model of the shape of the earth for computing positions.
6378137 6356752.314
Ellipsoid System of 1984 • It is a smooth mathematical surface that fits closely to
the mean sea level surface throughout the area of
The Concept of Positioning interest.
Earl Dominic I. Porcincula
BSGE-2
Horizontal Datum
• Horizontal Datum is the reference frame for locating
points on Earth’s surface.
• It defines the origin and orientation of latitude and
longitude of lines.
• It is defined by spheroid and spheroid’s position relative
to Earth’s center.
• It is the model used to measure positions on the earth.
8 Defining Elements of Horizontal Datum
1. Semi-major Axis length
2. Flattening Ratio
3. Latitude of Initial Point
4. Longitude of Initial Point
5. Ellipsoid Height of Initial Point
6. Prime Meridian Deflection of the
Vertical at Initial Point
7. Meridional Deflection of the Vertical
at Initial Point
8. Geodetic Azimuth of a Line at Initial
Point
Types of Horizontal Datum
• Earth-centered or geocentric datum – uses the earth’s Φ, λ and h = geodetic latitude, longitude, and height above
center of mass as the origin.
• Local datum – A local datum aligns its spheroid to N = prime vertical radius
closely fit the earth’s surface in a particular area.
WGS 84
• The global geocentric reference frame and collection
of models known as the World Geodetic System 1984
(WGS 84) has evolved significantly since its creation in
the mid-1980s primarily due to use of GPS.
• The WGS 84 continues to provide a single, common,
accessible 3-dimensional coordinate system for
geospatial data collected from a broad spectrum of
sources.
• Some of this geospatial data exhibits a high degree of
“metric” fidelity and requires a global reference frame
which is free of any significant distortions or biases.
Clarke Spheroid of 1886
• The Clarke Spheroid of 1886 minimizes deviations in Desirable Map Projection Characteristics
the North America.
• It is the reference ellipsoid of the Philippine Reference
System of 1992.
PRS 92/ Philippine Reference System of 1992
• Philippine Reference System of 1992 is a homogenous
national network of geodetic control points, marked by
survey a monument that has been established using
Global Positioning System.
• E.O. 45 s. 1993. Adopting the Philippine Reference
System of 1992 as the standard reference system for
surveys in the Philippines.
• REFERENCE ELLIPSOID – CLARKE SPHEROID
OF 1886
• The standard datum of the Philippines is at
“BALANACAN” located at Marinduque which has:
• LAT = N 13 deg 33 min 41 sec
• LONG = 121 deg. 52 min 03 sec
• Geoid/Spheroid separation = 0.34 m
Vertical Datum
• Vertical datum is the reference values for a system of
elevation measurements.
• It is used for measuring the elevations of points on the
earth’s surface.
Types of Vertical datum
• Tidal datum – based on sea levels
• Gravimetric – based on a geoid or geocentric.
IMPORTANCE OF VERTICAL CONTROL
 to reduce amount of leveling required for surveying job
 to provide backup for destroyed bench marks
 to assist in monitoring local changes
 to provide a common framework
Coordinate Conversion
Conversion of Geodetic Latitude, Longitude and height to
Earth Centered Earth Fixed (ECEF Coordinates)
• X = (N + h ) cos Φ cos λ
• Y = (N + h ) cos Φ sin λ
• Z = [ N (1 - e2 ) + h ] sin Φ
• Where :
ellipsoid.
Map Projections
• A map projection is a systematic drawing to scale, on a
plane surface, of lines representing parallels and
meridians of the earth, for the whole earth or for some
portion.
• The science of map projections gives various schemes of
representing a sphere upon a developable surface.
• Those surfaces are cylinder, cone, and a plane
• Normal projection is when the axis of projection
surface coincides with that of the sphere.
• Transverse projection is when the axis of projection
surface is perpendicular to the sphere.
• Oblique projection is made when the axis of the
projection of the surface points to an arbitrary direction.
1. Conformality – geographical features on the map
should be represented in their true shapes.
2. Equal-area – The area of all geographical features on
the map and on the surface of the earth should be
comparable
3. Equidistance – Distances between points on the surface
of the earth and on the map should be comparable.
4. Azimuthality – directions measured on the map should
be true directions.
5. Great circles should appear on the map as straight lines.
6. The geographic latitudes and longitude of places
should be easily determined from their plotted positions
on the map.
Loxodrome and Orthodrome
• Orthodrome – shortest distance between points on the
earth’s surface which crosses successive meridians at
different angles.
• Loxodrome – is the line of constant compass direction.
- also known as rhumb line
Earl Dominic I. Porcincula
BSGE-2
Cylindrical Projections
• Also known as an Equirectangular projection
• It is one of the simplest projection composed of an
evenly spaced network of horizontal parallels and
vertical meridians.
• The concept of this projection considers the ellipsoid of
the Earth to be projected onto a cylinder which is
circumscribed about a sphere and tangent along the Conical Projection
equator.
• In this type of projection of meridians are all equally
spaced parallel lines with spacing proportional to their
true spacing on the equator.
• The parallels are also straight lines which are
perpendicular to the meridians.
• The scale is true on all meridians and on the central Polyconic Projection
parallel. Scale is different for different latitudes and the
scale along a parallel.
MERCATOR PROJECTION
• Mercator Projection is one of the most famous and
widely used. It was introduced in 1569 by Mercator, a
Dutch cartographer, as a world map designed for
navigation.
– In its conventional form loxodromes are
represented as straight lines.
– It has vertical meridians and horizontal parallel.
The parallels of latitude are expanded using
mathematically derived values so that the scale Bonne Projection
between latitude and longitude is the same.
• The projection enlarges areas at an exaggerated and
increasing rate towards the higher latitudes. Such
areas are distorted by the change in scale.
• It is not advisable to carry this projection beyond 70
degree latitude because of the great distortion. This
type of projection is of little use for purposes other Lambert Projection
than navigation.
GALL PROJECTION
• This projection is derived from a cylinder cutting the
sphere at the 45 degree N and 45 degrees S parallels or
the standard parallels of the projection.
• It was devised by James Gall, an Edinburgh
clergyman, in 1855 while working on an atlas of the Azimuthal projection
stars.
• The Gall projection shows parallels which are projected
from the antipodal point on the equator to any meridian.
• The choice of the standard parallels is reasonable since
it exaggerates the northern and southern geographical
features less than mercator’s projection.
• This projection neither equal-area nor conformal and the
resulting scale is not constant.
• Maps which are made by this projection are useful for
showing the distribution of climatic, economic, and
population data.
MILLER PROJECTION
• This projection resembles the Mercator projection but
shows less exaggeration of area in the higher latitudes.
• It was O.M Miller of the American Geographical Gnomonic Projection
Society, who worked out this projection.
• In this projection the intervals between latitudes of the
Mercator projection have been modified so as to have
them increase less rapidly with the continents and other
land masses still retaining their relative shapes and
natural sizes.
• The projection is neither conformal nor equal area and it
is widely used in atlases for climatic maps to portray
temperature and barometric pressure distributions,
as well as wind flow directions and velocities.
• Conical projections are derived from a tangent or secant
cone that can be developed.
• It is suitable for mapping geographical features which
are located in the middle latitudes.
• This projection was derived in 1820 by Ferdinand
Hassler, the first director of the U.S. Coast Survey.
• In polyconic projection, a series of cone with their
apexes all in the extension of the earth’s polar axis are
placed over a sphere.
• Polyconic projections are neither conformal nor equal
area.
• Scale error is small near the central meridian but it
increases away from it.
• Polyconic projection is not suitable for large scale
maps.
• This projection was named after Rigobert Bonne.
• It is very useful when an easily constructed equal-area
projection is desired for an area where tables needed to
construct it are not available.
• The Bonne projection is an equal-area projection.
• This projection was invented in 1772 by J.H. Lambert,
a native Alsace.
• It is conic based upon two parallels where the cone cuts
through the sphere at two chosen standard parallels.
• The projection is commonly used in portraying areas
running predominantly in an east-west direction.
• Azimuthal projection is that which the directions of all
lines radiating from the center of the map, have the same
directions as the corresponding lines on the surface of
the earth.
• In azimuthal projection, only one hemisphere can be
portrayed at a time.
Orthographic Projection
• This projection may be considered as a view of the
sphere as it would appear from infinity.
• It is projected upon a plane with parallel lines.
• The radial scale decreases rapidly toward the edge of the
map and only the centrally located area of the projection
are true scale.
• It may be considered a perspective projection upon a
plane tangent to the sphere at some point
• In this projection the eye point is at the center of the
sphere from which projection lines were drawn.