Geometric Rectification of

Remote Sensing Images

Airborne TerrestriaL
Applications
Sensor (ATLAS)

Nine flight paths were recorded

over the city of Providence.

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True color ATLAS image
(bands 4, 2, 1 in RGB)

Distortions?
Color balancing?
Mosaicking?
Subsetting?

Geometric Rectification or Georectification

Raw remotely sensed data gathered by satellite or aircraft are
representations of the irregular surface of the Earth. Remotely
sensed images are distorted by both the curvatures of the Earth
and the sensor being used. The process of shifting pixel
locations to remove distortion is known as rectification or
georectification.

Map Projection and Georeferencing

A map projection system is any system designed to represent the
surface of a sphere or spheroid on a plane (UTM, State Plane,
Geographic Coordinates…). The process of assigning geographic
coordinates to an image is known as georeferencing.

Often the process of rectification includes georeferencing,

because one can both shift the pixels to remove distortion and
assign coordinates to those pixels at the same time.

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Internal and External Geometric Error

Remotely sensed imagery typically exhibits internal and

external geometric error. It is important to recognize the
source of the internal and external error and whether it is
systematic (predictable) or nonsystematic (random).

Systematic geometric error is generally easier to identify

and correct than random geometric error.

Internal Geometric Error

Internal geometric errors are introduced by the remote sensing

system itself or in combination with Earth rotation or curvature
characteristics. These distortions are often systematic
(predictable) and may be identified and corrected using pre-
launch or in-flight platform ephemeris (i.e., information about
the geometric characteristics of the sensor system and the Earth
at the time of data acquisition).

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Image Offset (skew) caused
by Earth Rotation Effects

Earth-observing Sun-synchronous
satellites are normally in fixed
orbits that collect a path (or swath)
of imagery as the satellite makes its
way from the north to the south in
descending mode. Meanwhile, the
Earth below rotates on its axis from
west to east making one complete
revolution every 24 hours. This
interaction between the fixed
orbital path of the remote sensing
system and the Earth’s rotation on
its axis skews the geometry of the
imagery collected.

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 Image Skew
a) Landsat satellites 4, 5, and 7 are in a
Sun-synchronous orbit. The Earth
rotates on its axis from west to east as
imagery is collected.
b) While the matrix (raster) may look
correct, it actually contains systematic
geometric distortion caused by the
angular velocity of the satellite in its
descending orbital path in conjunction
with the surface velocity of the Earth
as it rotates on its axis while collecting
a frame of imagery.
c) The result of adjusting (deskewing) the
original Landsat TM data to the west
to compensate for Earth rotation
effects.

External Geometric Error

External geometric errors
are usually introduced by
phenomena that vary in
nature through space and
time. The most important
external variables that can
cause geometric error in
remote sensor data are
random movements by the
aircraft (or spacecraft) at
the exact time of data
collection, which usually
involve:
- altitude changes, and/or
- attitude changes (roll,
pitch, and yaw).

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Ground Control Points
Geometric distortions introduced by sensor system attitude (roll,
pitch, and yaw) and/or altitude changes can be corrected using
ground control points and appropriate mathematical models. A
ground control point (GCP) is a location on the surface of the
Earth (e.g., a road intersection) that can be identified on the
imagery and located accurately on a map.

QuickBird Satellite Image Ortho-rectified photograph

Ground Control Points

The image analyst must be able to obtain two distinct sets of

coordinates associated with each GCP:

• image coordinates specified in i rows and j columns, and

• map coordinates (e.g., x, y measured in degrees of latitude and
longitude, feet in a state plane coordinate system, or meters in a
Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) projection).

The paired coordinates (i, j and x, y) from many GCPs (e.g., 20)
can be modeled to derive geometric transformation coefficients.
These coefficients may be used to geometrically rectify the
remote sensor data to a standard datum and map projection.

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Ground Control Points
Obtaining accurate ground control point (GCP) map coordinate
information for image-to-map rectification include:

1. hard-copy planimetric maps (e.g., USGS 7.5-minute

1:24,000-scale topographic maps);
2. digital planimetric maps (e.g., the USGS digital 7.5-
minute topographic map series) where GCP coordinates
are extracted directly from the digital map on the screen;
3. digital orthophotoquads that are already geometrically
rectified (e.g., USGS digital orthophoto quarter
quadrangles —DOQQ); and/or
4. global positioning system (GPS) instruments that may be
taken into the field to obtain the coordinates of objects.

Image to Map Registration

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 Image to Image Registration
In image-to-image registration the reference is another image.
If a rectified image is used as the reference base, an image
registered to it will inherit the geometric errors existing in the
reference image.

How to do it?
Image to Map Geometric Rectification Logic

Two operations must be performed to geometrically

rectify a remotely sensed image to a map coordinate
system:

– Spatial interpolation

– Intensity interpolation

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Spatial Interpolation (find accurate spatial locations)

The geometric relationship between the input pixel coordinates

(column and row; referred to as x, y ) and the associated map
coordinates of this same point (X, Y) must be identified.

A number of GCP pairs are used to establish the nature of the

geometric coordinate transformation that must be applied to
rectify or fill every pixel
in the output image (x, y)
with a value from a pixel
in the unrectified input
image (x, y ).

This process is called

spatial interpolation.

Order of Transformation

Polynomial equations are used to convert source file

coordinates into the referencing map coordinates.

Depending upon the distortion in an image, the number of

GCPs used, and their locations relative to one another, complex
polynomial equations may be required to express the needed
transformation.

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 Order of Transformation

Concept of how different-order transformations fit a hypothetical

surface illustrated in cross-section.

a) Original observations.
b) First-order linear
transformation fits
a plane to the data.
c) Second-order quadratic fit.
d) Third-order cubic fit.

The degree of complexity of the

polynomial is expressed as the
order of the polynomial. The order
is simply the highest exponent
used in the polynomial.

Transformation Matrix

A transformation matrix is computed from the GCPs. The

matrix consists of coefficients which are used in polynomial
equations to convert the coordinates. The size of the matrix
depends on the order of transformation.

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Linear Transformation

The transformation matrix for a 1st-order transformation consists

of six coefficients, three for each coordinate (X,Y)…
a1 a2 a3
b1 b2 b3
which are used in a 1st-order polynomial as follows:

x0 = b1 + b2xi + b3yi

y0 = a1 + a2xi + a3yi

where,
xi and yi are source coordinates (input)
x0 and y0 are rectified coordinates (output)

RMS Error: Polynomial Curve vs. GCPs

It is almost impossible to derive coefficients that produce no

error. Every GCP influence the coefficients.

The distance between the GCP reference coordinate and the

curve is called RMS error.
Reference X Coordinate

GCP
Polynomial curve

Source X Coordinate

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 Transformation Example: 1st order

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Reference X Coordinate

12
xr = (25) + (-8)xi

8
4
0

0 1 2 3 4 Source X Coordinate

What if the second GCP changed from 9 to 7?

Source X Coordinate Reference X coordinate

(input) (output)
1 17
2 9
3 1

Transformation Example: 1st order

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Reference X Coordinate

12

xr = (25) + (-8)xi
8
4
0

0 1 2 3 4 Source X Coordinate

What if the second GCP changed from 9 to 7?

Source X Coordinate Reference X coordinate

(input) (output)
1 17
2 9 to 7?
3 1

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 Transformation Example: 1st order

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Reference X Coordinate

12
xr = (25) + (-8)xi

8
4
0

0 1 2 3 4 Source X Coordinate

What if the second GCP changed from 9 to 7?

A line cannot connect these points, which illustrates that

they cannot be expressed by a 1st-order polynomial, like the
one above. In this case, a 2nd-order polynomial equation will
be necessary to express these points.

Transformation Example: 2nd order

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Reference X Coordinate

12

xr = (25) + (-8)xi
8

xr = (31) + (-16) xi + (2) xi2

4
0

0 1 2 3 4 Source X Coordinate

A line cannot connect these points, which illustrates that

they cannot be expressed by a 1st-order polynomial, like the
one above. In this case, a 2nd-order polynomial equation will
be necessary to express these points.

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 Transformation Example: 2nd order

16
Reference X Coordinate

12
xr = (31) + (-16) xi + (2) xi2

8
4
0

0 1 2 3 4 Source X Coordinate

Source X Coordinate Reference X coordinate

(input) (output)
1 17
2 7
3 1

Transformation Example: 2nd order

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Reference X Coordinate

12

xr = (31) + (-16) xi + (2) xi2

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What if one more GCP is added?

4
0

0 1 2 3 4 Source X Coordinate

Source X Coordinate Reference X coordinate

(input) (output)
1 17
2 7
3 1
4 5?

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 Transformation Example: 3rd order

16
Reference X Coordinate

12
8
4
0

0 1 2 3 4 Source X Coordinate

As illustrated, this 4th GCP does not fit the curve of the 2nd-
order polynomial equation. In order to have all of the GCPs
fit into a curve, a higher order polynomial equation will be
needed.

Transformation Example: 3rd order

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Reference X Coordinate

12

xr = (25) + (-5) xi + (-4) xi2 + (1) xi3

8
4
0

0 1 2 3 4 Source X Coordinate

As illustrated, this 4th GCP does not fit the curve of the 2nd-
order polynomial equation. In order to have all of the GCPs
fit into a curve, a higher order polynomial equation will be
needed.

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 Transformation Example: 3rd order

16
Reference X Coordinate

12
xr = (25) + (-5) xi + (-4) xi2 + (1) xi3

8 Source X Reference X
Coordinate coordinate
(input) (output)
4

1 17
2 7
0

0 1 2 3 4 3 1
4 5?

Although mathematically this could be done, it may increase

the unnecessary complexity and cause distortion in image
processing.

Minimum Number of GCPs

Higher orders of transformation can be used to correct more
complicated types of distortion. However, to use a higher
order of transformation, more GCP’s are needed. The
minimum number of points required to perform a
transformation of order t equals:
(( t+1)(t+2))
2

Order of Transformation Minimum GCPs Required

1 3
2 6
3 10
4 15
5 21
6 28
7 36

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 Compute the Root-Mean-Squared Error of the Inverse
Mapping Function

Using the six coordinate transform coefficients that model

distortions in the original scene, it is possible to use the
output-to-input (inverse) mapping logic to transfer (relocate)
pixel values from the original distorted image x, y to the grid
of the rectified output image, x, y.
However, before applying the coefficients to create the
rectified output image, it is important to determine how well
the six coefficients derived from the least-squares regression
of the initial GCPs account for the geometric distortion in the
input image.
The method used most often involves the computation of the
root-mean-square error (RMSerror) for each of the ground
control points.

RMS Error per GCP

A way to measure the accuracy of a geometric rectification
algorithm (actually, its coefficients) is to compute the Root
Mean Squared Error (RMSerror) for each ground control
point using the equation:
Where:
Ri = the RMS error for GCPi
XRi = the X residual for GCPi
YRi = the Y residual for GCPi

Source GCP X residual

RMS error
Y residual

Retransformed GCP

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Since the grid of pixels in the source image rarely matches the
grid for the reference image, the pixels are resampled so that
new data file values for the output file can be calculated.

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Intensity Interpolation (obtain accurate pixel values)

Pixel brightness values must be determined. Unfortunately,

there is no direct one-to-one relationship between the
movement of input pixel values to output pixel locations. It will
be shown that a pixel in the rectified output image often
requires a value from the input pixel grid that does not fall
neatly on a row-and-column
coordinate. When this occurs,
there must be some
mechanism for determining
the brightness value (BV )
to be assigned to the output
rectified pixel.
This process is called
intensity interpolation.

Intensity Interpolation (obtain accurate pixel values)

Intensity interpolation involves the extraction of a brightness value

from an x, y location in the original (distorted) input image and its
relocation to the appropriate x, y coordinate location in the rectified
output image.
This pixel-filling logic is used to produce the output image line by
line, column by column. When this occurs, there are several
methods of brightness value (BV) intensity interpolation that can be
applied. The practice is commonly referred to as resampling.

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Intensity Interpolation

There are several methods of brightness value (BV) intensity

interpolation that can be applied, including:

1. nearest neighbor,
2. bilinear interpolation, and
3. cubic convolution.

Nearest-Neighbor Resampling

The brightness value closest to the predicted x’, y’ coordinate is

assigned to the output x, y coordinate.

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 Nearest Neighbor Resampling
Advantage Disadvantage
Transfers original data values When this method is used to resample
without averaging them, as the other from a larger to a smaller grid size, there
methods do, therefore the extremes is usually a “stair stepped” effect around
and subtleties of the data values are diagonal lines and curves.
not lost.
Suitable for use before classification. Data values may be dropped, while
other values may be duplicated.

The easiest of the three methods to Using on linear thematic data (e.g.,
compute and the fastest to use. roads, streams) may result in breaks or
gaps in a network of linear data.
Appropriate for thematic files, which
can have data file values base on a
qualitative (nominal or ordinal) or a
quantitative (interval or ratio) system.
The averaging interpolation and
cubic convolution is not suited to a
qualitative class value system.

Bilinear Interpolation

Assigns output pixel values by interpolating brightness values in

two orthogonal direction in the input image. It basically fits a
plane to the 4 pixel values nearest to the desired position (x’, y’)
and then computes a new brightness value based on the weighted
distances to these points.

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 Bilinear Interpolation Resampling
Advantage Disadvantage
Results in output images that Since pixels are averaged,
are smoother, without the bilinear interpolation has the
“stair stepped” effect that is effect of a low-frequency
possible with nearest neighbor. convolution. Edges are smoothed,
and some extremes of the data
file values are lost.
More spatially accurate than
nearest neighbor
This method is often used
when changing the cell size of
the data, such as in resolution
merge.

Cubic Convolution
Assigns values to output pixels in much the same manner as
bilinear interpolation, except that the weighted values of 16
pixels surrounding the location of the desired x’, y’ pixel are
used to determine the value of the output pixel.

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Rectification
Is the process of transforming the data from one grid system
into another grid system using the nth order polynomial.
Since the pixels of the new grid may not align with the
pixels of the original grid, the pixels must be resampled.
Resampling is the process of extrapolating data values for
the pixels on the new grid from the values of the source
pixels.

Georeferencing
Refers to the process of assigning map coordinates to image
data. The remote sensing data may already be projected onto
the desired plane (resampled), but not yet referenced to the
proper coordinate system.

Geometric Rectification
Mosaicking
Subsetting
Seamless Working Data

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