n Interact ve A n ~ r o a c h

t o I angua
SECOND EDITION

H. DOUGLAS BROWN
S a n Francisco S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y
Teaching by Principles: An Interactive Approach to Language Pedagogy, Second Edition

Copyright 6 2001 hy Addison Wesley L o n ~ a nInc.

,
A Pearson Education Company.
All rights reserved.
N o par1 of this puhlicztion mzy be reproduced,
stored In a retrieval system, or tclnsmitted
in any limn or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording,or otherwise,
without the prior permission of the publisher.
Preface
I'earsoll Education, 10 Rank Street,V%itePlains, NY 10606 Text Credits
Vicc P~.esident,director of publishing: Allen Ascher
Editori~ldirector: Louisl Hellegers PART I. FOI JNDATIONSFOR C W S R O O M PRACTICE
Acquisitions editor: Louisa Hellegers
Senior development manager:Penny Laporte Chapter 1 Getting Started
Develc~pmenteditor:Janet Johnston
Vice President,director of design xnd production: Rhea Banker A Classroom 01-,servation, 3
hssoclate director of electronic production: A1i.l~Greenblatt Beneath t h e Lesson, 9
Iixccutivc managing editor: Linda Moser
Production manager: b y Krating Topicsfor Disc; ssion, Action, and Reseclrch, 1 I
Senior production editor: Virginia Bernard For Ybzlr Fzrrtbc r Reading,12
1)irecror of manufircturing: htrice Fraccio
Senio~manufacturing manager Edith Pullman Chapter 2 A "Methodical"History of Ianguage Teaching
C.ovcr design. Trzcy Munz Cataldo 13
'Text design. Wendy Wolf Approach, Meth :)d,and Techi~iqur.14
Text composition:Wcndy Wolf Changing W i n d and Shitiing Sands, 1 6
Text (.redits:See p. xvi T l ~ Grammar
e T~anslationMethod, 18
Gouin and the Series Method, 19
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data The Direct Method, 2 1
The Audiolingual Method. 2 2
Brown, H. Douglzs. Cognitive Code Learning, 21
Tt:aching by principles: and interactive approach to language pedagogy/ "Designer" Methods of the Spirited Seventies, 24
H. Douglas Brown-2nd ed. Commuriity Language Learning, 25
p. CIJl
Suggestopedia, 27
ISBN: 0-1 3-028283-9 (dk. p"~"f)
The Sileat Way, 28
1. language and languages-Study and teaching. 2. English language-Study and
Total Physical Response, 2:)
tm:hing-Foreign speakers. 3. Intenction analysis in education. I. Title.
The Natl-~ralApproach, 3 1
Beyond Method. Notional-Functiond Sylklbuses, 32
Topicsfor Discussion, Actiorr, and Research, 36
For Your Further Reading, 37
Chapter 3 The Present: A n Informed "Approachn PART U. CONTEXTS OF TEACHING
An Enlightened, Eclectic Approach, 40 Chapter 6 Learner Variables I: Teaching Across Age Lwels 86
Communicative Language Teaching, 42 Teaching Children, 87
Learner-Centered Instruction, 46 Intellectual Development, 8 7
Cooperative and Collabontive Learning, 47 Attention Span, 88
I~lteractiveLearning, 48 Sensory Input, 89
Whole Language Education, 48 Affective Factors, 89
Content-Based Instruction, 49 , Authentic, Meaningful Language, 90
Task-Based Instruction, 50 Teaching Adults, 90
Topicsfor Discussion, Action, and Research,51 Teaching Teens, 9 1
For Your Further Reading, 5 2 Topics for Discussion, Action, and Research,93
Chapter 4 Teaching by Principles 54 For Your Further Reading, 94

Cognitive Principles, 55 Chapter 7 Learner Variables II: Teaching Across

Automaticity, 55 Proficiency Levels
Meaningful Learning, 56 Defining Proficiency Levels, 96
The Anticipation of Reward, 57 Teaching Beginning Levels, 98
lntrinsic Motivation, 59 Teaching Intermediate Levels, I03
Strategic Investment, 59 Teaching Advanced Levels, 110
Affective Principles, 61 'Ibpicsfor Discussion, Action, and Research, 1 I 3
Language Ego, 61 For Your Further Reading, 114
Self-confidence, 62
Risk-Taking,63 Chapter 8 Sociopolitical and Institutional Contexts
'fie ~anguage-cultureConnection, 64 Sociopolitical Contexts, I1 5
Linguistic Principles, 65 Second and Foreign Language Contexts, 1I6
The Native language Effect, 65 English as an International Language, 118
Interlanguage, 67 Language Policy Issues. 1 19
Communicative Competence, 68 Institutional Contexts, 120
Topics for Discussion, Action, and Researcl?, 70 ElemenVdry and Secondary Schools, 12 I
For Your Further Reading, 71 lnstitutions of Higher Education, 122
Chapter 5 Intrinsic Motivation in the Classroom Topics for Discussion, Action, and Research. 125
For Your Further Reading, 126
Defining Motivation. 72
A Behavioristic Definition, 73
Cognitive Definitions, 73
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation. 75 Chapter 9 Techniques, Textbooks, and Technology 128
Intrinsic Motivation in Education, 77
Techniques Redefined, 128
lntrinsic Motivation in the Second Language Classroom, 80
Categorizing Techniques: A Bit of History, 130
Topicsjbr Discussion,Acliotz, and re sear^.)?, 83
ATaxonomy ofTechniques, 133
For K,ur Further Reading, 84
Textbooks, 136
Other WrittenTexts, 141
Technology in the Language Classroom, 143
(;omp~~tcr Assisted Linguage Learning (CALL), 145
TopicsJor Discussion, Action, and Research, 147
f i r R ~ u F~crth~r
r Reading, 148
Chapter LO How to Plan a Lesson
E'ormat of a Lesson Plan, 149
(hidelines for Lesson Planning. 152
Sample Lesson Plan, 156
Topic3 for Discussion, Action, and Research, 161
For Blur Further Reading, I62
Chapter 11 Interactive Language Teaching 1:
Initiating Interaction
What Is Interaction?, 165
I n t e ~ ~ c t i vl'rinciples,
e 166
Roles of the lntenctiveTeacher, 166
I;oreign hnguagc Inte~ictionAnalysis, 168
()uestioning Strategies for Intemctive Learning, 169
Topicsjiw L)isctlssion,Action, and Research, 174
For klmr Further Reading, 175
Chapter 12 Interactive Language Teaching 11:
Sustaining Interaction Through Group Work
Adv;lntages of Group Work, 177
Excuses for Avoiding Group Work, 179
Implementing Group Work in Your Classroom, 182
Selecting Appropriate Group Techniques, 182
Planning Group Work, 187
Monitoring the Task, 189
Debriefing, 189
Toprcs for Discussion,Action, and Research, 190
For Your Further Reading, 191
Chapter 13 Classroom Management
The Physical Environment of' the Classroom, 192
Your Voice and Body Language, 194
Unplanned Teaching: Midstream Lesson Changes, 195
Teaching Under Adverse Circumstances, 196
Trat:hers' Roles and Styles, 200
Credting a Positive Classroom Climate, 202
Tc)picsfor Discussion, Action, and Research, 204
For Your Further Reading, 205
Chapter 14 Strategies-Based Instruction
Strategic Investment, 208
Good Languagt Learners, 205)
Styles of Succehsfi~lLanguage Learning, 210
Developing Student Self-awareness of Styles, 2 11
How to Teach Strategies in the Cl:issroom, 2 17
"Packaged" Motlels of SRI, 220
Topic.for Disctmion, Action, and Research, 227
For Your Furthr Reading, 228
PART IV. TPACHING LANGUAGE SKILLS
Chapter 15 Integrating the "Four Skills"
Why Integratior~?, 233
Content-Based instruction, 234
Theme-Based Illstn~ction,235
Experiential Le irning, 238
The Episode H!rpothesis, 240
Task-RasedTeac hing, 242
Topicsfor Disarssion, Action, crnJ Re.search,245
For Your Further Reading, 246
176
Chapter 16 Teaching Listening
Listening Comllrehension in Pedagogical Research, 247
An Interactive Model of Listening Coniprehension, 249
Types of Spoken Ianguag, 250
What Makes Listening Difficult?,252
Microskills of Listening Comprehension, 255
Types of Classr~>omListening Performance, 255
Principles for Ilesigning Listening Techniques, 258
Listening Techniques from Beginning to Advanced, 260
Topicsfor Disc~cssion, Action, and Research, 265
For Your Further Reading, 266
Chapter 17 Teaching Speaking
Oral Communi~.atlonSkills in Pedagogical Research, 267
Q p e s of Spoken Language, 269
What Makes Speaking Difficult?,270
Microskills of Oral Communication, 2'1
Types of Classroom Speaking Performance, 271
Principles for Ilesigning Speaking Techniques, 275
Teaching Convl:rsation, 276
Teaching Pronunciation, 283 PART V. ASSESSING LANGUAGE SKILL!!
A Model for Correction of Speech Errors ,288
Topics'for Discussion, Action, and Research, 294 Chapter 21 Language Assessment 1: Basic Concepts
For K)ur Furtbw Reading, 295 in Test Development
What Is a Test?, 384
Chapter 18 Teaching Reading PracticaIity, 386
Research on Reading a Second Language,298 Reliability, 386
Types of Written Language, 302 Validity, 387
Chancteristics of Written Language,303 Content Validity, 388
Microskills for Rcading Comprehension, 306 Face Validity, 388
Strategies for Reading Comprehension, 306 Construct Validity, 389
Types of Classroom Reading Performance, 3 12 Kinds of Tests, 390
Principles for Designing Interactive ReadigTechniques, 3 13 Historical Developments in Language Testing, 392
Two Reading Lessons, 3 16 Large-Scale Language Proficiency Testing, 394
Topics/or Discussion, Action, and Research, 331 Oral Proficiency Testing, 395
For Your Further Reading, 332 Critical Language Testing: Ethical Issues, 397
Topicsfor Discussion, Action, and Research, 399
Chapter 19 Teaching Writing For Your Further Reading, 400
Research on Second Language Writing, 334
Types of Written Language,341
Chapter 22 Language Assessment II: Practical
Chardcteristics of Written Language:A Writer s Vicw, 341 Classroom Applications
Microskills for Writing, 342 Assessing,Testing,and Teaching, 401
Types of Classroom Writing Performance, 345 Recent Developments in Language Testing, 403
Principles for Designing Writing Techniques, 346 Principles for Designing Elective Classroom Tests, 408
Evaluating Student Writing, 356 Some Practical Steps to Test Construction, 4 1 1
Topicsfor Discussion, Action, and Researci~358 Alternative Assessment Options, 41 5
For Your Further Reading, 360 Self- and Peer-Assessments,4 15
Journals, 4 18
Chapter 20 Form-FocusedInstructiorl Conferences, 4 18
The Place of Grammar, 362 Portfolios, 418
ToTeach or Not toTeach Grammar, 363 Cooperative Tea Construction, 41 9
Issues About How toTeach Grammar, 365 Assessment andTeaching: Partners in the Learning Process, 420
Grammar Techniques, 368 Topicsfor Discussion, Action, and Reseurch, 42 1
Grammar Sequencing inTrxtbooks and Curricula, 373 For Your Further Reading, 422
A "Word"About VocabularyTeaching, 375
Topicsfor Discussion, Action, and Researct~,380 PART VI. LIFELONG LEARNING
For Your Further Reading, 382
Chapter 23 Continuing Your Teacher Education
Peak Performers, 427
The "Good" Language Teacher, 429
Classroom Observation, 429
Classroom Research, 43 1
Teacher Collabordtion: karning from Each Other, 440
Age~:ellLsfor Change, 445
Topicsfijr Discussion, Action, and Research, 445
For Your Further Keading, 4.17

Bibliography
Name Index
Subject Index

As we now gradually travel beyond the millemial milepost, we can look back with
some pride at the recently completed century's accumulation of knowledge about
second la~iguagelearning and teaching. Such was not always the case. The first
forty yean. of the twentieth century saw little if any development of a field of lan-
guage ped~gogy.But by the middle of the century, language teachers witnessed the
"birth" of a disciplined approach to second language learning and teaching:
methodological frameworks were the subject of applied linguistic research on the
nature of language learning and the successful acquisition of languages in class-
rooms. Yet the nascent profession was hard put to come up with viable answers to
questions about how to teach interactive skills in the classroom. By the 1970s,
second lar.guage acquisition was establishing itself as a discipline in its own right,
asserting its place not merely as an offshoot of linguistics or psychology. The
resulting rcLsearchof this aclolescent profession was beginning to provide some p r e
found obscnations about communicative language teaching. As the field gathered
momentuni, journals, professional organizations, university departments, and
research studies grew with amazing speed.
By thc last decade of the twentieth century, our storehouse of information about
how to successfully teach foreign languages had attained a remarkable level of sophis
tication. Dozens of respected periodicals and hundreds of textbooks and anthologies
currently c'ffer ample evidence that language teachers must be technicians, well
versed in the pedagogical options available to meet the needs of the various ages,pur-
poses, proficiency levels, skills, and contcxts of langudge learners around the globe.

PURPOSE AND AUDIENCE

This Second Edition of Teaching by Principles: An Interactive Apjroach to
Language Pedagogy synthesizes that accumulation of knowledge into a practical,
principled approach to teaching English as a second or foreign language. It is a
book for prospective and new teachers who need to learn how to walk into a class
xii PREFACE fnma xiii

room and effectively accomplish communicative objectives. It primarily addresses

the needs of those in teacher education programs who havc never taught before,
I4 A stepby-step approach to teaching language interactively that h ~ l p the
novice teacher to become confident in directing interactive,stud(-nt-
s

centered, cooperative classrooms.

but it secondarily serves as a refresher course for those who have had some expe-
rience in the classroom. The book speaks both to those wlio are in English as a
j Separate treatment of the four skills of listening, speaking, reading, and
i writing, but with special emphasis on the integrat~onof skills.
Second Language contexts (in English-speakingcountries) and to those who are in i
? End-of-chapter topics for discussion, action, and research, many ol which
English as a Foreign Language situations. And the book is designed to be read and
model an interactive classroom by providing tasks for pairs or sm~llgroups.
studied and enjoyed by those with little or no previous work in linguistics, psy- i Suggestions for further reading at the end of each chapter, annotaced to
chology, or second language acquisition.
The use of the term approach in the subtitle of the book signals an important facilitate judicious choices of extra reading.
characteristic of current language-teaching pedagogy. For a significant part of the
twentieth century, teacher education programs were expectt d to deliver a handful
of different methotls-relatively homogeneous sets of c1a:sroom practices that IMPROVEMENTS IN THE SECOND EDITION
sprang from one particular theoretical perspective. Thus, tht Audiolingual Method, !
A number of improvements have been made in this Second Edition, following the
with its behavioristic underpinnings, was at one time toutcd as a method for all
comments and suggestions of teachers, students,and reviewers who have used TBP
occasions. Or teachers would learn how to use the Silent Way, Community
in its First Edition. Here are the major changes:
Language Learning,or Suggestopedia,each with its own "formulanfor success and its
own theoretical bias. We have today graduated beyond suclk a restrictive concept
Updated references throughout. In six years, the field of language peda-
of classroom practice. While we may indeed still approprialely refer to classroom
gogy has made some significant advances that are reflected in every
"methodology,"the various separately named methods are no longer at the center of
chapter of the book. Especially noticeable are new and updatetl sugges-
our concern. Instead, our current-and more enlightened-foundations of lan-
tions for further reading at the end of each chapter.
guage teaching are built on numerous principIes of language learning and teaching
New topics. Some new areas of focus include technology in language
about which we can be reasonably secure. A principled appr~achto interactive lan-
classrooms (Chapter 9); form-focusedinstruction (Chapter LO);a nc:w
guage pedagogy is one that is built on such principles.
So, Teacbirlg By Principles (TBP) is a book that helps te;tchers to build a reper- model for error treatment (Chapter 20); basic concepts in lang~ngl-assess-
ment (Chapter 2 I , a revised version of Principles of.Lunguuge L e ~ l r n i n ~
toire of classroom techniques that are firmly embedded in well-established princi-
and Teaching, Third Edition, Chapter 10,"LanguageTestingn);pr;~ctical
ples of second language acquisition. Most of these principles are treated
classroom assessment options (Chapter 2;!); teacher collaboration Chapter
comprehensively in my companion voIume, Principles of Language Learning and
23); and critical pedagogy (Chapter 23).
Pncbing (PLLT) (Pearson Education, 2000), now in its fourth edition. Those who
Permuted chapter sequences. Feedback from teachers ant1 rcvit:wers
use the present book in their teacher-training program mould benefit from (a)
prompted some changes in sequence of chapters In Part 1,the history of
having first read Principles of Langi~ageLearning and Tt)acbing (PLLT), or @)
language teaching and current approaches are now placed before I he two
using PLLT as a companion text. However, Teacbi~lgBy Principles (TBP) can be
chapters on the 12 principles and intrinsic motiv;~tion.'The chaptus on
used effectively without its companic~n,since major principles on which current
lesson planning and classroom management have been moved fronl the
pedagogical practice are based are summarized here in the (arly chapters.
end of the book to to the earlier discussion of designing and implementing
classroom lessons (Part III), where they more appropriately brlollg
PRINCIPAL FEATURES
The features of the first (1994) edition art all retained: ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Teaching by Principles is in many ways a product of my three decades of instruc-
A practical focus grounded in fundamental principle: of second language
tion and research in teaching English as a Second/Foreign Language. During that
acquisition.
time, it has been my pleasure and challenge to teach and to learn from hundreds of
Reader-friendlyprose that talks to teachers in plain. I nderstandable lan-
students in my courses. I am grateful for all those inquisitive minds-now xattered
guage, with a minimum of distracting references to the dozens of poten-
around the world-whose insights are well represented here.
tially related research studies.
xiv CONTENTS
9
1
I am also indebted to teachers in many countries of the worlrl, especially in
those countries where I have had the honor of lecturing and teaching: Brazil, the
-~olninic:ln Kepublic, Egypt, Hong Kong, Italy, Japan, Korea, Mexico, Portugal,
Singpore, ~~ain,Taiwan,Thailand,Turkcy,Yugoslavia, and of course the US. I learn
so much from the exchanges of ideas and issues and stories From these contacts!
Special thanks go to my graduate assistant, Kaoru Koda, who was most efficient
in her help in an extensive bibliographical search. Fiwdlly, I wish to acknowledge
the feedback I received from my faculty associates, Professors Jim Kohn,Tom Scovel,
May Shih, m d Barry Taylor. The nurture and camaraderie among these and other
colleagues at the American Language Institute and San Fnncisco State University are
a sjurce of professiowdl stimulation and of personal affirmation that what we are all
trying to do is most certainly worth the effort.
H. Douglas Brown
San Francixo, California
June 2000
Grateful acknowledgment is made to the following publishers and authors for per-
mission to reprint copyrighted material.
Amencan Council on Teaching Foreign Languages (ACTFL), for material From:
ACTFL Prc~ficiencyGuidelines (1986); G. Moskowitz,"Intenction analysis usage for
supervisors: Foreign Langu~rgeArlnu[s 5 (1971): 2 11-21.
Cambridge University Press, for material from J. C. Richards and T.S. Rodgers.
Approachts and Methods in Lan~uageTeaching (1986); D. Nunan, Designing Tasks
for the C~mmunicativeC:icrria~lzdm(1989); G. Ellis and B. Sinclair, Learning to
Learn English (1989).
Georgetown University Press, for miicerial from M. Swain, "The language of
French imlnersion students: 1mplic;itions for theory and practice: in J.E.Alatis (ed.),
Georgetou'n University Round lbble on Languages and Linguistics (1990).
Heink: & Heinle Publishers, for material from R. Mackay, "Teaching the infor-
mation garhering skills," in M.H. Long and J.C. Richards, Methodology in TESOL
(1987);A.F Kruse,"Vocabulary in context," in Long and Richards (1987); G. Crookes
and C. Chaudron, "Guidelines for classroom teaching," in M. Celce-Murcia (ed.),
Teaching Ifnglish ~ L Sa Secorrd or Foreign Language (1991); P W P e t e r ~ o n , ~syn-
A
thesis of n~odelsfor interactive listening: in Celce-Murcia (1991);A. Chamot, J. M.
O'Malley, and L. Kupper, Building Bridges (1992); R. Oxford, Language Learning
Strategies:What Every Teacher Should Know (1990).
Language Learning, for material from R. B. Kaplan,"Cultural thought patterns in
interculturJl education:' Language Learning 16(1) (1966): 1-20.
Oxford University Press, for material from M. Finocchiaro and C. Brumfit, The
Functions!-Notational Approach: From Theory to Practice (1983); R. Nolasco and
L. Arthur, ('onversation (1987).
Pearscln Education, for material from H. D. Brown, Principles of Language
Learning rind Teaching, Fourth Edition (2000); H. D. Brown, Kstas:An Interactive
Course in .English (Prentice-Hall Regents 1992); H. D. Brown, D. Cohen, and J. O'Day,
Challenges: A Process Approcrch to Academic English (Prentice-Hall Regents 1991);
I. Boone, J. Bennett. and L. Motai, Btrsics in Reading:An Introduction to American
X V ~ CONTENTS

Magazines (Iatenl Communications 1988); R. Wong, Teaching Pronunciation:

Focus on English Rhythm and Stress (Prentice-Hall 1987); L). L. F. Nilsen and A. E!
Nilsen, Pronunciation Contrasts in English (Regents 1971).
Simon & Schuster International, for material from I). Nunan, Language
Teaching Methodo1o~:ATextbookfor Teachers (Cassell 1991); D. Cross,A Practical
Handbook of Language Teaching (Prentice-Hall 1991); S. McKay, Teaching
Grammar:Form, Function, and Technique. (Pergamon 1985'.
Teachers of English to Speakers of' Other Languages (TESOL),for material from
J.C. Richards, "Listening comprehension: Approach, desigr~,procedure," TESOL
Quarterly 17 ( 2 ) (1983); M. Celce-Murcia,'Grammar pedagogy in second and for-
eign Language teaching: TESOL Quarterly 25 (3) (1991); S. Bassano and M.A.
Christison,"Teacher self-observation: 1ESOZ Newsletter (Aug~lst1984).
University of Minnesota Press, for material from B.W. Robinett, Teaching
English to Speakers of Other Languages:Substance and Technique (1978).
Donna Jurich, Kate Kinsella,Tim Murphey, KarenTenney,and Lauren Vanett,for
unpublished material.

ICE
 CHAPTFR 1 CHAPTER
A CLASSROOM OBSERVATION
S o you've decided to be a language teacher! Welcome to a profession that will guar-
antee you n-lore than your fair share of challenges, growth, joy, and fufillment.
Challenges await you at every turn in your professional path because the discipline
I of language teaching has only begun to solve some of the perplexing questions
about how people learn foreign languages successfully. Opportunities for growth
abound because, for ;is long as you continue to teach, you will never run out of new
questions, new possibilities, new ways of looking at your students, and new m y s of
looking at yoilrself. The joy of teaching lies in the vicarious pleasure of witnessing
your students' ;ittainment of broader and broader vistas of linguistic proficiency and
I in experiencing the communal bond that you have been instrumental in creating in
your classn)om. And. ultimately, few professions can offer the fulfillment of
~ knowing that your seemingly insignificant work really can make a difference in a
world in need of communication that transcends national borders and interests.
i 1' At presentiall thoseJom ideals notwithstanding, you may be a little apprehen-
I ' sive about what sort of a Ghcher you are going to be: What will it be like to be in
1
front of a cl;~ssroomfull of expectant ears and eyes, hanging on my every word and
1 action, ready and waiting to p_ounce on me if I make a false move? How will I
1, -:
' 4 0 :c, c. i ''' I.
develop the composure and poise that I've seen modeled by "master" teachers? Will
1 ,- b7,.LtL. - # .,,,;,,,..Ibe able to take the sea of theoretical information about second language acquisi-
.! '
tion that 1 have studied and by some miracle transform it into pnctical classroom
i. . applications? How do 1 plan a lesson? What do I do if my lesson plan falls apart?
ii,; , ' '
r:K\
Where do I begin?
Before you ask any more questions, which might at this stage overwhelm you.
sit 1)ack for a moment and tell yourself that you can indeed become a teacher who
will fully meet the challenges ahead and who will grow in professional expertise,
thereby opening the doors of joy and fulfillment. This textbook is designed to help
you take that developmental journey one step at a time.
The first step in that journey is to come with me into a language c}assroom and
obscrve what happens. Take speci;ll note, as the lesson unfolds, of each choice that
the teacher makes: choices about how to begin the lesson,which activity will come
1
i
1 Gening Started
next, how long to continue an activity, whom to call on, whether to correct a stu-
3
dent, and io on. Everything a teacher says and does in the classroom is the result of
conscious or subconscious choices among many alternatives. Many of these
choices ale-or should be-the result of a careful considention of a host of under-
lying principles of second language learning and teaching.
The classroom we are about to enter is in a private language school in a metropol-
itan area ill the US. Inside the classroom, a course in English as a Second language
@SLY is t:iking place. The fifteen students in the course are relatively new arrivals.
They come from seven1 different countries. One or two of them have already man-
aged to find employment; most are still searching. This is a beginning level class;
students cdme into the class with minimal survival English proficiency. They are lit-
erate in their native languages. Their goal in the class is to be able to use English to
survive in the country and to finti some sort of employment. They are highly moti-
vated to It arn.
'I'lle course is a2'wholelilnguage" course integrating the four skills of speaking,
listening, reading, and writing. The textbook for the course is Vistas: An
Interucti~.~ Course in English (Brown 1992). At this stage, ten weeks into the
course, tho: students have m:lde good progress. They are able to engage in sinlple
social conversations, make rwnlcrous pnctical requests, and negotiate uncompli-
cated business transactions c:shopping, travel, etc.) and other routine daily uses of
English.
The 11.ssonw e are about to observe is reasonably well planned, efficiently exe-
cuted, and characteristic of current communicative language-teaching methodology.
It is not, however, necessarily "pe~fect" (are there ever any perfect lessons?), so what
you are about to see may have a few elements that you or others could take iss~le
with. Please remember this as you read on and, if you wish, take note of aspects of
the lesson that you might question; then compare these notes with the comments
following r he lesson description.
* ESL is u x d in this book in two ways: (a) as a generic acronym to refer to instruction
of English , o speakers of other languages in any country under any circumstance, and
(b) to refel to English as a Second Language taught in countries (such as the US, the
1!K, or India) where English is a major language of commerce and education, a lan-
guage that students often hear outside the walls of their classroom. Most instances of
reference in this book to "ESL"are in the generic sense. EFL (English as a Foreign
language) dlways refers specitically to English taught in countries (such as Japan,
Egypt, orX:nezuela) where English is not a major language of commerce and educa-
tion. See <.hapter8 for important pedagogical and curricular implications of each
type of English language teaching.
4 CHAPTER 1 Getting Started CHAPTER 1 &Ring Started 5

We take our seats in the rear of the classroom and observe the following
sequence of activities. Keiko is a secretary. She enjoys her work, and she always works hard.
She is always on time for work. In fact, she is often early. She is never
1. Ms. Miller,the teacher (hereafter "T"),begins the 50-minute class hour with late, and she is never sick.
some small-talk with the students (hereafter "Ss"),com~entingon the Keiko usually types letters and answers the telephone. She some-
weather, one S's previous eveniilg's shopping attempts, c:tc. times files and makes copies. She seldom makes mistakes when she
2. She then asks the Ss to keep their textbooks closed and directs them to the types or files. She always answers the phone politely.
chalkboard, where she has already written the followinp: Keiko is intelligent, and she has a good sense of humor. She is nvver
angry. Everybody in the office likes Ke~ko.
How often do you ?
How often does hefshe ?-
8. T directs Ss to the picture of Keiko and asks questions to establish tht context.
How often do they ?
= all of the time Who do you see in the picture?
always
usually = generally; most of the time Where is she?
often = frequently; rnuch of the time What's she doing?
sometimes = at times; every now and then What's Keiko's occupation?
seldom = not often; rxely 9. Ss are then encouraged to ask each other questions about the picturt After
never = not ever; none of the time some silence, two Ss venture to ask questions: "What's this?"(pointing to the
typewriter) and "How much money she makes?"(other Ss laugh). 'r cluicklv
moves on.
3. T calls on individual Ss and asks them questions about their lives. For 10. T then calls Ss' attention to some vocabulary items in the passage: enjoys, iitr
example: fact, early, late, sick, makes copies, makes mistakes, poiitely, intelligcvrt,
How often do you come to class, .Ul~erto? sense of humor angry. T calls on Ss to attempt definitions or synon! ms lor
Yoko, how often does Sook Mi drive to class? each word. A couple of words-politely and sense of hzrmor-itre difficult to
Katherine, how often do you cook dinner? define. T clarifies these.
etc. 11. T reads the passage aloud twice. Ss listen.
4. Ss respond with a few prompts and selected correctioni from theT. In two 12. Next, she makes statements, some right and some wrong, about Keiko and
or three cases, Ss make errors (e.g.,"She usually drive tc school") which T asks Individuals to volunteer their response by saying either "That's riqht" or
chooses not to correct. "That's wrong." If the information is wrong, Ss are told to glve the correct
5. After a few minutes of this conversation,T directs them to the meanings of information. For example:
the six adverbs of frequency listed on the board, explaining one or two of T: Keiko's a lawyer.
them further. S1: That's wrong. She's a secretary.
6. Ss are then directed to work in pairs and make up their own questions using
the three "how often" question models on the board, and to respond appropri- T: She enjoys her work
ately, in complete sentences, using one of the six frequt ncy adverbs. Before S2: That's right.
splitting Ss into pairs,T models some of the questions and responses that they 13. T next directs Ss' attention to the next page of the textbook, on which an
have just gone over. During the pair work,T circulates md listens in, offering exercise is found:
an occasional comment here and there.
7. Following the pair work, Ss are told to open their textbcoks to Unit 8,page 98.
Here they see the following passage accompanied by a picture of a secretary
typing a letter:
6 CHAPTIK I (;enrng Started CHAPTER 1 Getting Started 7

19. In thc next exercise, the textbook shows six little scenes with frames of p o s
sible :,tatements about each scene. For example, itenis 4 and 5 look like this:
-
hrod+heparagraphs on page 98 againmen choose the appropriate adverb of frequency ( i

1. Keiko works hard.

2. She is on time for work.
3. She is late or sick.
4. She is early for work.
5. She types letters.
6. She files.
7. Sht: makes copies.
8. She makes mistakes when she types. 4. Pravit is a mc chanic. 5. Marco is a security guard.
9. She answers the phone politely. He is -azy. He is -- busy.
10. She is angry. He w e a r s dirty clothes. He sits down.
how sav the cornplete sentences.
He w o r k s in a garage. He - does dangerous work.
He -fix 3s cars. He _- works alone.
1. Keiko always works hard.
2. She is always on time for work.
20. T asks Ss to def ne o r explain certain vocabulary words that may be difficult:
tired, ,,:arage, security guard, ilangerous.
21. T tells Ss to work in the same pairs as before and to use their imagination as
they fill in the blanks with different adverbs. AgainT circulates and offers
assistai~cehere and t h e n , bur most pairs seem quite able to do the activity
w i t h o ~ help
~ t fromT.
14. T calls on a S to read aloud the directions, followed by other Ss reading aloud 22. T calls on pairs to say their responses aloud and, in some cases, to explain
the ten sentences about Keiko. why tltey chose a particular adverb. Ss who had different adverbs are asked
15. T calls on two other Ss to do items I and 2 aloud. h third S is asked to do to say their responses and explain. Ss display quite a bit of pleasure in noting
iten1 3 aloud. With itcm 1, the S mispronounces the word work (S pro- differences in their responses and in carrying out little mock arguments to
nounces it /wak/). T models the correct pronunciation and has the S make suppo!I their conclusions (for example: 'Marco is seldom busy," claims one S,
seven1 attempts at a correct pronunciation. She then turns to the class and while mother S-who currently works part time as a night security guard-
says.'Class, listen and repeat: work:' Ss' initial cacophonous attempts to argues that he has many duties to perform).
respond in unison improve by the third or fourth repetition. 23. T then skips the next several exercises in the textbook, which offer practice
16. T tclls Ss to write thr responses to items 3-10 in their books, which they do in the \Ise of frequency adverbs in various contexts. One pair of activities
in silence for a few minutes. depicb, a waiter in a French restaurant who, in the first activity,'seldom does
17. Individual Ss are called on to read their answers aloud. Other Ss are asked to a good job,. . . is never polite to his customers,. . . sometimes drops food on
make any corrections or to ask questions. his customers:'etc. In the second activity, however, the waiter's boss is in the
18. For item 5, one S says: "She types usually letters." T explains that with the verb restaurant, so now the waiter 'always speaks politely, . . . never drops food,"
be, the frequency adverb usually follows the verb, but in affirmative statements etc. (7 later explains to us that because of time constraints-the school
with other verbs, the frequency adverb usually precedes the verb. T writes wants !he book to be completed by the end of the session, two weeks
examples on the board: hence--she isn't able to cover every exercise in the textbook.)
24. The next exercise of this class period shows eight different characters (see
Keiko is always on time. Exercke 7 on the following page), each with a different emotion. T asks Ss to
look at the pictures, and then asks for volunteers to define the eight adjec-
Keiko alw,iys works hard.
tives, uiing other words or gestures.
8 CHAPTER 1 Getting Started

28. While Ss are mingling and asking q11estions.Tcirculates and assists l~ereand
25. T explains that it's common to ask questions like "Are y ~u ever nervous?"and
there with pronunciation, vocabulary, or grammar problems.
that the response usually contains a frequency adverb.
29. For the final activity, selected Ss (a few volunteers to begin with and a few
26. T then modcls several cxchanges, asking Ss to repeat ct orally:
that T calls on) give their findings. For cxamplc, S1 says,"Yoko is often tired.
T: Are you ever angry? She is never angry. And she is sometimes nervous, especially in the English
Ss: Are you ever angry? class!" Other Ss laugh sympathetically.
30. As the bell sounds, this activity is cut a bit short. 'I' reminds Ss that li)r home-
T: Yes, I'm often angry.
work, as usual, they are to write up the Workbook exercises for Unit 8,Lesson
Ss: Yes, I'm often angry.
1. Ss scurry about to gather books and leave the classroom; one or ~ w olinger
T: Is Alberto ever nervous? to ask thc T some questions.
Ss: 1sAlberto ever nervous?
T: No, he's seldom nervoils.
Ss: No, he's seldom nervolls. BENEATH THE LESSON

This choral drill continues for, at most, one minute.
27. T next has all the Ss leave their seats with a pad of paper and pencil in hand
and "interview"at least five other people in the class to find out three things
about cach person (for example,whcther they are ever "angry"or"1onely")
and to be prepared to give a "report" of their findings aiterward.
1 Find out about different people in your class. A bered "statement"that follows.
You have just observed a relativeIy effective class hour in which the teacher com-
petently planned a lesson around a textbook, managed everything with no major
problems, and carried out the activities with some warmth and enthusiasm. easy:
right? Well, maybe not. What you have just witnessed is the product of a teacher's
experience and intuition grounded in reasonably sound theoretical pri~lciplesof
learning and teaching. For every tiny moment of that classroom hour, certain
choices were m d e , choices that can for the most part be jt~stttiedby our c.ollective
knowledge of second language acquisition and teaching. Think abonl thosc choices
as you contemplate the numerous pedagogical questions that arise out of c;~chnum-

1. Why the small-talk (vs. just getting stnight to the lesson)? What tm-hing
principle justfies such an opening? How long should such chatter c;)ntinue?
2. Why didT ask for closed textbooks? Isn't the written word reinforcirig? Of
what advantage was the chalkboard material! 'JC'hy dill she write it on thz
angry board before class (instead of on the spot)?
3. What are the pros and cons of asking Ss "real"questions-about theil own
lives, not a fictitious textbook character-in the classroom, especially at this
early stage in the lesson, before Ss have had any mechanical practice of thr
tired forms? What if a S who is called on can't respond at all?
4. T made "selected"corrections. How did she select which errors tu 0 ~rrect
1 SICK
and which not to correct? Shouldn't all errors be corrected?
5. Why weren't these words explained earlier? What if some Ss didn't !.now
thirsty
them? Or do they need explaining at all? What is the advantage of \n aiting
until after some practice time to explain such words?
bored
A Are you ever c
B: Yes. l'm often a n m . Notice, before you press on, that each question implies that a choice was t.xercised
by the teacher. Among dozens of possibilities for teaching this lesson on frequency
adverbs, Ms. Miller has chosen, either consciously or subconsciously,a parttcular set
VOUS
10 CHAPTER 1 Gett~ngStdrted
of activities, a particular order, and a particular tone for each. A relatively stnight-
forward lesson is undergirded by a plethon of principles of learning and teaching.
To further complicate matters, some of those principles are disputable. For
example, the issue of when to offer a deductive explanation (5) and when to allow
for inductive absorption of concepts is not always clearly dictated by the context.
6. Is this too soon for pair work? Before the pair work, why did T model ques-
tions and responses? Was that sufficient for all students, even those with
lower than avenge proficiency? If some of the pairs are silent, what shouldT
do? If only one person in a pair is talking, is that okay? If not, how can aT get
both partners to talk? W a t i€ they talk to each other in their native language?
7. Wl~ydidT wait until now to "present"the paragraphs about Keiko?
8. What purpose do the questions accomplish? Isn't it obvious who is in the
picture and what she is doing?
9. Why didT encourage Ss' questions? Why did she quickly move on to the next
step?
10. Ag:dn,T chose a deductive mode of dealing with vocabulary. Why? What are
the advantages of encouraging students to attempt definitions?
11. T reads the paragraphs,but why didn't she have Ss repeat the sentences after
her in :I chon1 drill? Or have students read the passage?
12. What purpose did the right and wrong statements Fulfill? Why didT ask Ss to
volunteer here rather than calling on them?
13. Were Ss ready for this exercise?
14. What purpose did reading aloud serve? Why didT call on Ss rather than get
volunteers? Could this just as well have been a silent activity?
15. At this point,T chooses to focus on the pronunciation error. Why now, when
some other errors have gone untreated?
16. Is it helpful to write down such responses? Why?
17. Whv didl' ask Ss to correct each other? Under what circumstances is this
appropriate (vs.T directly correcting)?
18. This explanation could have been made at the beginning of the lesson. Why
did T wait until now?
19. Wllile this exercise is provided by the textbook, why didT choose to include
it? What Further practice did it offer Ss?
20. T asks Ss to define words again. Why not just give the definitions?
21. What is the advantage of pair work? Can aT control pair work even if classes
are large (this class, of course, is not)?
22. What research principles justify this sort of sharing and comparing? What
affective and linguistic purposes did it serve?
23. Do Ss miss vital information whenTs choose to skip certain exercises?
21. Why volunteers here instead of calling on certain Ss?
25. Is this explanation appropriate? Is it sufficient?
CHAPTER 1 Getting Started 11
26. What is the function of .I choral drill? Shouldn't this kind of drill come earlier
in the class hour? Did it go on long enough? too long?
27. Why tlidT choose to do an activity that got everyone out of their seats? Were
direct~onsclear? Was the acrivity too chaotic? What if a S didn't participate?
28. When shouldT circulate like this and when is it wiser not to do so, allowing
Ss to I)e less inhibited? How much input shouldT give at this point?
29. What affective and linguistic purpose does this final activity serve?
30. What do you do if an activity is cut short by the end of a period? What is the
value of homework for ;r class like this?
You have now skimmed through some (not all!) of the many questions that one
could ask about why certain choices were made about how to teach this lesson.
Some of the answers are forthright, with few countenrguments. Other answers
would finrl even the best of teachers disagreeing. But the answers to all these ques
tions can toe found, in one form or another, in the huge stockpile of second language
acquisitior~research and collective experience of language teachers around the
world. And all those answers will probably appear in the chapters ahead of you in
this book.
Your lob, as you continue this journey, is to make the connections between
research/tl~eory/principles, on the one hand, and classrooms/teachin~practice on
the other. By making those connections as you learn to teach, you will perhaps
avoid some of the pitfall; of haphazard guesswork and instead engage in teaching
that is enlightened by reseanrharld theory, that is, teaching by principles.
I
tp., ' i I
TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION, ACTION, AND RESEARCH
[Note (I) Individual work. (G) group or pair work; (C) whole-class discussion.]
1. (G) A 40od activity for the beginning of a course on teaching methodology is
to ask the members of small groups of three or four to talk about who was
the "b,:st" teacher they ever had. In the process, each should specify wky that
teacht r was the best. As each group reports back to the whole class, make a
chalkttoard list of such reasons, which should reveal some attributes for all to
emulace. (This activity also serves the purpose of (a) getting students to talk
early on, and (b) giving students in the class a chance to get to know each
other. To that end, group reports could include brief introductions of group
members.)
2. (G/C) On pages 2-3, it was noted that teachers are constantly making choices
in the course of a class hour. Assign to pairs one or two of the numbered
items through ~ 3 0 They
. should talk about (a) what the teacher chose to do,
(b) wily she made that choice, and (c) what alternative choices she could
12 CHAPTER 1 Getting Started

have made. Make sure they refer to the second matched set of items in
which certain questions were posed, and try to answer the questions. Pairs
can then report their conclusions to the whole class. All should then begin to
appreciate the complexity of teaching.
3. (T) As soon as possible, arrange to observe an ESL (or EI'L) class somewhere
near you, and use the following guidelines: Don't go in with a checklist or
ICALrr HISTORY --
agenda. Just sit back and get a feel for the dynamics of the classroom. If, as
you observe, some questions occur to you about why the teacher made cer-
tain choices, jot down your questions and discuss them later in a small group OFLANGUAGFTEACHING_-----
or as a whole class.
4. O/G) On your own or with a partner, fi nd some currently popular textbooks
in ESL and spend some time leafing through them, without a specific
The first step toward developing a principled approach to language tcac hing will
agenda-just noting things that you like and don't like lbout each. Share
be to turn back the clock about a century in order to learn from the historical
those ideas later with the rest of the class.
cycles and trends that have brought us to the present day. AFter all. it is difficult to
completely analyze the class session you just observed (Chapter 1) wir hout the
backdrop of history. In this chapter w e focus on methods as the identifying char-
FOR YOUR FURTHER READING acteristics of a century of "modern" language teaching efforts. What do we mean
by the term "method" by which we tend to characterize tlrat history? How do
brown, H. Douglas. 2000. Principles of Langzluge Ler,ming and Teaching. methods reflect various trends of disciplinary thought? How does currenl research
Fourth Edition. White Plains, Nk': Pearson Education. on language learning and teaching help us to distinguish, in our history, between
passing fads and "the good stuff"? These are some of the questions we will address
This book (PLLT) prol~idesa comprehensive szinJeyof i5sues in second Ian-
in this chapter.
guage acq~iisitiona they apply to lar~,quageteaching. I I PLLT you willfind
In the next chapter, this historical overview culminates in a close look at the
Jiiller capbnations of the princ@les ihat are described in Chapter 4 of the
current state of the art in language teaching. Above all, you will come to see how
present book (TBP). lfyozi have not c~lreaiiyread PLLT it is recommencied
our profession is now more aptly characterized by a relatively unified, co~nprel~en-
thclt you read it along with 7131'.
sive "approachn rather than by competing, restricted methods. That general
Richard-Amato, Patricia A. 1996. Making I t Happen: Intcfraction i n the Second approach will be described in detail, along with some of the current pn)fessional
Language Classroom: From Thcbory to Practice. Whi,:e Plains, NY: Addison- jargon associated with it.
Wesley. As you read on, you will encounter references to concepts, construcLs, issues,
and models that are normally covered in a course in second language ac.cluisirion
For a secotld petspective on hr~guagcl-teachir~g me tho do lo^, you mayfind (SW). I am assuming that you have already taken or are currently takir~gsuch a
it zisejirl to consult Richard-Amato's book. hiany of the iame topics are ~ 0 1 1 -
course. If not, may I recommend that you consult my l'rinciples of lungitage
ered there. hut z~~ith dyferent supporting details and injormation.
Learning and Teaching, Fourth Edition (2000), or a book like Mitchell and
Richards, Jack C. (Ed.) 1998. Tecrching in Action: Case Studies from Second Myles Second Language Learning Theories (1998) that summarizes current topics
Language Clussrooms. Alexandria, VA: Teachers of Ibglish to Speakers of and issues in SLA. Throughout this book 1 will refer here and there to specified
Other Languages. chapters of my Principles book (PLL7) for background review or ~ a d i n gshould ,
you need it.
This hook o&n 76 clussroom scenatios: techrriqz~es.tirsb, and innouative
procedures (written by teachets clround the world) rf ~ictuulclasses of zlar-
iotls levels and skill a r e a . Each description is jollowed by a very brief'com-
mentary j ~ o ma n "evert" in the jieli. These scenario5 provide glimpses of
actual classroonz activity with comments on t~tbycertain things worked or
didn 't work, thereby oJ;fkringa bridge between theov a1 zci practice.
 14 CH4l'TEK 2 A 'Methodrcdl" History oiL,lnguage Teach~ng

APPROACH, METHOD, AND TECHNIQUE

j
:
CHAPTER 2 A "Methodical" History of Language lee,lching

syllabus (criteria for selection and organization of linguistic and subject-

15

matter content), activities,learner roles, teacher roles, and the role of instruc-
tional materials. The latter three features have occupied a significant
In the century spanning the mid-1880s to the mid-1980s,the language-teachingpro
prop(-rtion of our collective attention in the profession for the last decade or
fession was involved in a search. That search was for what was popularly called
so. A ready in this book you nlay have noted how, for example, learner roles
"n~ethods;'or ideally, a single method, generalizable across widely varying audi-
(style:;, individual preferences for group or individual learning, student input
ences, that would successfully teach students a foreign language in the classroom.
in determining curricular content, etc.) are important considerations in your
tfistorical accounts of the profession tend therefore to describe a succession of
teach1ng. ,
methods, each of which is more or less discarded as a new method takes its place. ,!, t L,

2. Richaxis and Rodgers nudge*us into at last relinquish'ing\thenotion that s e p

We will turn to that'rnethodical" history of language teaching in a moment, but first,
arate, definable. discrete methods are the essential building blocks of method-
we should try to undcrstand what we mean by method.
What is a method? About four decades ago Edward Anthony (1963) gave us a
ology. By helping us to think in terms of an approach that undergirds our
langui~gedesigns (curricula), which are realized by various procedures (tech-
definition that has admirably withstood the test of time. His concept of "method"
was the second of three hierarchical elements, namely approach, method, and tech- nique $), we could see that methods, as we still use and understand the term,
are to restrictive, too pre-programmed,and too "pre-packaged:' Virtually all
niqiie. An apprpach, according tohthony, was a set of assumptions dealingpAh
languilge-teaching methods make the oversinlplified assumption that what
the naturc of language, learning, and teaching. Method was described as an overall
teac11c.r~"do"in the classroom can be convention;llizrd into a set of proce-
plan for systematic presentation of language based upon a selected approach.
dures that tit all contexts. We are now all too aware that such is clearly not
Techniques
. --
-
were the specikic-- activities manifested in the classroom that were con-
sistent with a method and therefore were in harmony with an approach as we~.--' the case.
To this day,for better or worse, Anthony's terms are still in common use among
As wr shall see in the next chapter, the whole concept of separate methods is
language trachers. A teacher may, for example, at the approach Level, affirm the ulti-
I no longer ;I central issue in language-teaching practice. Instead, we currently make
mate in~portanceof learning in a relaxed state of mental awareness just above the
ample reference to"methodology"asour si~perordinateumbrella term, reserving the
threshold of consciousness. The method that follows might resemble, say,
term 'metlrod" for somewhaf specific, identifiable clusters of theoretically compat-
Suggestopedia (a description follows in this chapter). Techniques could include
I ible classrc>omtechniques.
1
plqing baroque music while reading a passage in the foreign language,getting stu-
dents to sit in the yoga position while listening to a list of words, or having learners So,Rir hards and Rodgers's reformulation of the concept of method was soundly
adopt a new name in the classroom and role-play that new person. conceived;however, their attempt to give new meaning to an old term did not catch
A couple of decades later, Jack Richards and Theodore Rodgers (1982, 1986) on in the pedagogical literature. What they wanted us to call "method"is more com-
fortably relerred to, I think. as 'methodology" in order to avoid confusion with what
proposed a reformulation of the concept of "method." Anthony's approach,
method, and technique were renamed, respectively, approach, design, and proce- we will nc*doubt always think of as those separate entities (like Audiolingual or
Suggestoptdia) that are no longer at the center of our teaching philosophy.
dure, with a superordinate term to describe this three-step process, now called
"method:' A method, according to Richards and Rodgers, was'an umbrella term for Another terminological problem lies in the use of the term designs;instead,we
' more comlortably refer to curricula or syllabuses when we refer to design features
the specification and interrelation of theory and practice"(1982: 154). An approach - .
defines assumptions, beliefs, and theories about the nature of language and language of a language program.
. 11 What ;[rewe left with in this lexicographic confusion? It is interesting that the
learning. Llesigns specify the relationship of those theories to classroom materials
terminology of the pedagogical literature in the field appears to be more in line with
and activities. Procedures are the techniques and practices that are derived from
one's approach and design. Anthony's original terms, but with some important additions and refinements.
Through their reformulation,Richards and Rodgers made two principal contri- Following is a set of definitions that reflect the current usage and that will be used
butions to our understanding of the concept of method: in this book.

1. They specified the necessary elements of language-teaching designs that had Methodology: Pedagogical practices in general (including theoretical under-
heretofore been left somewhat vague. Their schematic representation of pinnings and related research). Whatever considerations are involved in "how to
method (see Fig. 2.1) described six important features of designs: objectives, teach" are rnethodologicaL
 Approach: Theoretically well-illformed positions and neliefs about the nature
of language, the nature of language Iearn~ng,and the applicability of both to peda-
gogical settings.

Method: A generalized set of classroom specification:; for accomplishing lin-

guistic objectives. Methods tend to be concerned prim:lrilr. with teacher and stu-
dent roles and behaviors and secondarily with such features as linguistic and
subject-matter objectives,sequencing, and materials. They x r almost always thought
of as being broadly applicable to a variety of audiences in a iariety of contexts.

Curriculum/syllabus: Designs for carrying out a particular language p r e

gram. Features include a primary concern with the specification of linguistic and
subject-matter objectives, sequencing, and materials to meet the needs of a desig- .-C
3
nated group of learners in a defined context. (The term "byllabusnis usually used
more customarily in the United Kingtlom to refer to what is called a'curriculum" in
the United States.)
-:
-
.-
X
-0.
0

kar
-8 z : $ s
.- VIS

Technique (also commonly referred to by other terms,:*Any of a wide variety car,,

of exercises, activities, or tasks used in the language c1assn)om for realizing lesson & c .'\3 .ar
:8 k.5
objectives. 7m gm -.s
b0t2
m .?
c arg
E f g.2.i
.GuB: E
CHANGING WINDS AND SHIFTING SANDS $ h.2
- 0 c u
2:;;s
ar L
A glance through the past century or so or' language teachin): will give an interesting sp.Z3 E
1 picture of how varied the interpretations have been of the best way to teach a for- $ : :.zz
a83 s,ij
eign language. As disciplinary schools of thought-psycliology, linguistics, and
education, for example-have come and gone, so have lan~uage-teachingmethods .-2
-
.!?L .-
U

.L"
X 0 Z k
O G Z 2
3 3.5 'x E
1, ! . a . . .-liiluwaxed'diidwan&fin
, popularity. Teaching niethods, asUapplaachesin action,"are of I
G 044x5 rn
&I 2
, : 'Eourse the practical application of theoretical findings and positions. In a field such
as ours that is relatively yollng, it should come as no surprise to discover a wide
variety of these applications over the last hundred years, sonie in total philosophical
1
3 1
I
opposition to others.
i
Albert Marckwardt (1972: 5) saw these "changing winds and shifting sandsnas
! a cyclical pattern in which a new method enierged about every quarter of a century.
I Each new method broke from the old but took with it somc. of the positive aspects
I '

*There is currently quite an intermingling of such terms as "te,:hnique:'task:"'proce-

dure,""activity,"and "exercise,"often used in somewhat free variation across the profes
sion. Of these terms, task has received the most concerted attention, viewed by such
scholars as Peter Skehan (1998a) as incorporating specific con~municativeand peda-
gogical principles. Tasks,according t o Skehan and others, shot~ldbe thought of as a
special kind of technique and, in Bct, may actually include m o p than one technique.
See Chapter 3 for a more thorough exl)lanltion.
1 C I ~ A I V E2R A "hlt~thodicai"'History oi Language Te.~ching
of the previous practices. A good example of this cyclical nature of methods is
found in the "revolutionary"Audiolingual Method (ALM) (a description follows) of
the mid-twmtieth century. The ALM borrowed tenets from its predecessor the
Direct Method by almost half a century while breaking away entirely from the
Gramm:~rTranslatioo Method. Within a short time, however, ALM critics were
advocating more attention to thinking, to cognition, and to rule learning, which to
some smacked of a return to Grammar Translation!
What follows is a sketch of the changing winds and shifting sands of language
teziching over the years.
?'HE GRAMMAR TRANSLATION METHOD
A historic;~lsketch of the last hundred years of language-teaching must be set in the
context of a prevailing, customary language-teaching "tradition."For centuries, there -
were few if any theoretical foundations of language learning upon which to base
teaching methodology. In the Western world,"foreignnlanguage learning in schools
was svnollymous with the learning of Latin or Greek. Latin, thought to promote
intel1ectu;ility through "mental gymnastics," was until relatively recently held to be
indispens;~bleto an adequate higher education. Latin was taught by means of what
11;~sbecn called the Classical Method: focus on grammatical rules, memorization of
vocabulary and of various declensions and conjugations, translations of texts, doing
written exercises.
As other languages began to be taught in educational institutions in the eigh-
teenth and nineteenth centuries, the Classical Method was adopted as the chief
means for taching foreign languages. Little thought was given at the time to
teaching someone how to speak the language; after all, languages were not being
taught primarily to learn oral/aural communication, but to learn for the sake of
being "scholarly" or, in some instances, for gaining a reading proficiency in a foreign
language. Since there was little if any theoretical research on second language
acquisition in general or on the acquisition of reading proficiency, foreign languages
were taught as any other skill was taught.
In the nineteenth century the Classical Method came to be known as the
G r a n l m a r Translation Method. There was little to distinguish Gramnlar
Translation from what had gone on in foreign language classrooms for centuries
beyond a focus on grammatical rules as the basis for translating from the second to
the wative language. Remarkably, the Grammar Translation Method withstood
attempts at the turn of the twentieth century toUreform"language-teaching method-
ology (see Gouin's Series Method and the Direct Method, below), and to this day it
is practiced in too many educational contexts. Prator and Celce-Murcia (1979: 3)
listed the major characteristics of Grammar Translation:
1. Classes are taught in the mother tongue, with little active use of the target
language.
CHAPTER 2 A "Methodical" Hlrrlory o l Language Tedching 19
2. Much vocabulary is taught in the form of lists of isolated words.
3. Long elaborate explanations of the intricacies of grammar are given.
4. Grammar provides the rules for putting words together, and instruction often
focuses on the form and inflection of words.
5. Read~ngof difficult classical texts is begun early.
6. Little attention is paid to tht: content of texts, which are treated as exercises
in gficmmatical analysis.
7. Ofteri the only drills are exercises in translating disconnected sentences from
the t q e t language into the mother tongue.
8. Little or no attention is given to pronunciation.
It is ;ronic that this method has until very recently been so stalwart among
many con~petingmodels. It does virtually nothing to enhance a student's commu-
nicative ability in the language. It is "remembered with distaste by thousands of
school learners, for whom foreign language learning meant a tedious experience of
memorizirlg endless lists of ~rnus:iblegrammar rules and vocabulary and attempting
to produce perfect translations of stilted or literary prose" (Richards Sr Kodgers
1986: 4).
On t11e other hand, one can understand why Grammar Translation remains so
popular. I t requires Few slletrialized skills on the part of teachers. Tests of gnmmar
rules and ,f translations are easy to construct and can be objectively scored. Many
standardized tests of foreign languages still do not attempt to tap into communica-
tive abilities, so students have little motivation to go beyond gramlnar analogies,
translatior s, and rote exercises. ~ h l dit is sometimes successful in leading a student
toward a eading knowledge: of a second language. Hut, as Richards and Rodgers
(1986: 5) pointed out, "it has no advocates. It is a method for which there is no
theory. Tllere is no literature that offers a rationale or justification for it or that
attempts to relate it to issues in linguistics, psychology, or educational theory." As
you conti~lueto examine language-teaching methodology in this book, I think you
will understand more fully thei'theory-1essness"of the GrarnmarTranslation Method.
GOUIN AND THE SERIES METIIOD
The histor v of "modern"foreign language teaching may be said to have begun in the
late 1800s with Fragois Gouin, a French teacher of Latin with remarkable insights.
History doesn't normally credit Gouin as a founder of language-teaching method-
ology bec.~use,at the time, his ~nfluencewas overshadowed by that of Charles
Berlitz, the. popular German founder of the Direct Method. Nevertheless, some
attention lo Gouin's unusually perceptive observations about language teaching
helps us tc set the stage for the development of language-teaching methods for the
1
century following the publication of his book, The Art of Learning and Studying
Foreign Lurrguuges, in 1880.
20 CHAPTER2 A "Methodrcal" Hrslory of Language Teachrng
Gouin had to go through a very paintul set of experic:nces in order to derive
his insights. Having decided in mid-life to learn German, he took up residency in
Hamburg for one year. But rather than attempting to converse with the natives, he
engaged in a rather bizarre sequence of attempts to umas~ern the language. Upon
arrival in fkdmburg,he felt he should mernorize a German gammar book and a table
of the 248 irregular German verbs! He did this in a matter of only ten days, and hur-
ried to "the academy" (the university) to test his new knowledge. "But alas!" he
wrote,"I could not understand a single word, not a single word!" (Gouin 1880: 11).
Gouin was undaunted. He returned to the isolation of his room, this time to mem-
orize the German roots and to remrmorize the p m r n a r book and irregular verbs.
Again he emerged with expectations of success. "But alas . . ." the result was the
same as before. In the course of the year in Germany, Gouin memorized books,
translated Goethe and Schiller, and even memorized 30,00(1words in a German dic-
tionary, all in the isolation of his room, only to be crushett by his failure to under-
stand German afterward. Only once did he try toUmakeconversationnas a method,
but this caused people to laugh at him, arid he was too emb lrrassed to continue that
method. At the end of the year Gouin, having reduced the Classical Method to
absurdity,was forced to return home, a failure.
Hut there was a happy ending. After returning home, ( ;ouin discovered that his
three-yearuld nephew had, during that year, gone througl~the wonderful stage of
child language acquisition in which he went from saying irirtually nothing at all to
becoming a veritable chatterbox of French. How was it that this little child suc-
ceeded so easily, in a first language, in a task that Gouin, i r i a second language, had
found impossible? The child must hold the secret to learning a language! So Gouin
spent a great deal of time observing his nephew and other 2hildren and came to the
following conclusions: language learning is primarily a matter of transforming per-
ceptions into conceptions. Children use language to represent their conceptions.
Language is a means of thinking, of representing the wo~.ldto oneself (see PLLT,
Chapter 2). These insights, remember, were formed by : language teacher more
than a century ago!
So Gouin set about devising a teaching method that would follow from these
insights. And thus the Series Method was created, a method that taught learners
directly (without translation) and conceptually (withouc grammatical rules and
explanations) a 'series" of connected sentences that are e;tsy to perceive. The first
lesson of a foreign language would thus teach the folloaing series of fifteen sen-
tences:
I walk towards the door. t draw near to the door. 1 draw nearer
to the door. I g t to the door. I stop at the door
I stretch out my arm. 1 take hold of the handle. I turn the
handle. I open the door. I pull the door.
I CHAPTER 2 A "Method;cal" Iirstory of Langudge Te.~chrng 21
F1: The door moves. The door turns on its hinges. The door turns
and turns. I open the door wide. I let go of the handle.
i
1 The f i e e n sentences have an unconve~ltionallylarge number of gramm;~tical
properties, vocabulary items, word orders, and complexity. ?his is no sirnple Voici
j la table lesson! Yet Godn was successful with such lessons because tht. language
was so easily understood, stored, recalled, and related to reality. Yet he was a man
unfortunately ahead of his time, and his insights were largely lost in the shuffle 01'
i Berlitz's popular Direct Method. But as we look back now over more than a cen-
, tury of language-teaching history, we can appreciate the insights of this most
! unusual language teacher.
t
' THE DIRECT METHOD
,
The "naturalisticn-simulating the "natural" way in which children learn first I:ln-
guags-;lpproaches of Gouin and a few of his contemporaries did not rake hold
immediately. A generation later, applied linguistics finally established the c.redil>ility
of such approaches. Thus it was that at the turn of the century, the Direct M e t l i d
became quile widely known and practiced.
The basic premise of the Direct Method was similar to that of Gouin's Series
Method, namely, that second language learning should be more like first lang~iage
learning-lots of oral interaction, spontaneous use of the language, no tl-;lnslation
between first and second languages, and little or no analysis of grammatical rules.
Richards and Rodgers (1986:9-10) summarized the principles o f the Ilirec: Method:
1. Classroom instruction was conducted exclusively in the target language.
2. Only everyday vocabulary and sentences were taught.
3. Oral communication skills were built up in a careh~llytraded pn)gres,ion
organized around question-and-answerexchanges between teachers ;~ndscu-
dents in small, intensive classes.
4. Grammar was taught inductively.
5. New teaching points were taught through modeling and practice.
6. Concrete vocabulary was taught through demonstration, ol>jecrs.and pictiires;
abstract vocabulary was taught by association of ideas.
7. Both speech and listening comprehension were taught.
8. Correct pronunciation and grammar were emphasized.
The Direct Method enjoyed considerable popularity at the beginning of the
twentieth century. It was most widely accepted in private language schools where
students were highly motivated and where native-speaking teachers c ould be
employed. One of the best known of its popularizers was Charles Berlttz (who
never used the term Direct Method and chose instead to call his merhod the Berlitz
22 2R
CH~~TE A f ~ c ~ t h o d ~ cHao/ t"o y of Language Teachrng
Method). To this day uBerlitz" is a household word; Berlitz language schools are
thriving in every country of the world.
But almost any "method" can succeed when clients are willing to pay high
prices for small classes, individual attention, and intensive study. The Direct Method
did not take well in public education, where the constraints of budget, classroom
size, time, and teacher backgrot~ndmade such a method difficult to use. Moreover,
the Direct Method was criticized for its weak theoretical foundations. Its success
may have been more a factor of the skill and personality of the teacher than of the
methodology itsrlf.
By the end of the first quarter of the twentieth century, the use of the Direct
Method h:td declined both in Europe and in the US. Most language curricula
returned to thc <;rammarTranslation Mcthod o r to a "reading approachnthat empha-
sized re;~dingskills in foreign languagrs. But it is interesting that by the middle of
thc twentieth century, the Direct Method was revived and redirected into what was
pn~bablythe most visible of all language teaching "revolutions" in the modern em,
the Ai~diolingualMcthod (see below). So even this somewhat short-lived movement
in languagr teaching woi~ldreappear in the changing winds and shifting sands of
history.
1 N E AUDIOLINGUAL METHOD
In the first half of the twentieth century, the Direct Method did not take hold in the
US the way it did in Europe. While one could easily find nativr-speaking teachers
of modern foreign languages in Europe, such was not the case in the US. Also,
European high school and university students did not have to tnvel far to find
opportunities to pilt the oral skills of another language to actual, pnctical use.
Moreover, US education;ll institutions had become firmly convinced that a reading
approach to foreign langruages was more useful than an oral approach, given the
perceived linguistic isolation of the US at the time. The highly influential Coleman
Report (Colcman 1929) had persuaded foreign language teachers that it was imprac-
tical to teach oral skills and that reading should become the focus. Thus schools
rcturnetl in the 1930s and 1940s to Grammar Translation, "the handmaiden of
reading" (Bowen, Mildseu, & Hilferty 1985).
'The~lWorldW.~r 11 broke out, and silddenly the US was thrust into a worldwide
conflict, heightening the need for Americans to become onlly proficient in the lan-
guages of both their allies and their enemies. The time was ripe for a language-
teaching revolution. The US military provided the impetus with funding for
special, intensive language courses that focused o n aural/or,~lskills; these courses
came to be known as the Army SpecializedTraining Prowam (ASTP) or, more collo-
quially, the "Army Mcthod." Characteristic of these courses was a great deal of oral
activity-pronunciation and pattern drills and conversation practice-with virtually
none of the grammar and translation found in traditional classes. It is ironic that
Q~APTER 2 A "Methodical" H~storyof Language Teach~ng 23
numerout, foundation stones of the discarded Direct Method were borrowed and
j
injected into this new approach. Soon, the success of the Army Method and the
i revived national interest in foreign languages spurred educational institutions to
adopt the new methodology. In all its variations and atlaptations, the Army Method
came to tle known in the 1950s as the Audiolingual Method
The ~\udiolingualMethod ( A N ) was firmly grounded in linguistic and psyche
logical thzory. Structural linguists of the 1940s and 1950s were engaged in what
they clainled was a "scientific descriptive analysis" of various languages; teaching
methodologists saw a direct application of such analysis to teaching linguistic pat-
terns (Fric.s 1945) At the same time, behavioristic psychologists (PLLT, Chapter 4)
advocateti conditioning and hab~t-formationmodels of learning that were perfectly
married with the mimicry drills . ~ n dpattern practices of ai~diolingualmethodology.
The characteristics of the ALM may be summed up in the following list
(adapted ;ram Prator Sr Celcc-Murcia 1979):
1. New material is presented h~ dialogue form.
2. Therc. is dependence on mimicry, memorization of set phrases, and over-
lear~lng.
3. Structures are sequenced by means of contrastive analysis and taught one at a
time.
4. Strucrunl patterns are taught using repetitive drills.
5. T h e n is little or no grammatical explanation. Gnmmar is taught by inductive
analogy rather than by tleductive explanation.
6. Voca1)ulary is strictly limited and learned in context.
7. There. is much use of tapes, language labs, and visual aids.
8. Great importance is attached to pmnunciqt'[on.
9. Very ittle use of the mother tongue by teachers is permitted.
10. Succc.ssfu1responses are immediately reinforced.
11. Then is a great effort tc~get students to produce error-free uttennces.
12. Thert is a tendency to manipulate language and disregard content.
For a number of reasons, the ALM enjoyed many years of popularity, and even
to this da!; adaptations of the ALM are found in contemporary methodologies. The
ALM was firmly rooted in respectable theoretical perspectives of the time.
Materials were carefully prepared, tested, and disseminated to educational institu-
tions. "Success" could be overtlv experienced by students as they pncticed their
dialogues in off-hours. But the popularity was not to last forever. Challenged by
Wilga Rivt:rs's (1964) eloquent criticism of the misconceptions of the ALM and by
its ultimate failure to teach long-term con~municativeproficiency, ALM's popularity
waned. l ' e discovered that language was not really acquired through a process of
habit fornration and overlearning, that errors were not necessarily to be avoided at
all costs, aqd that structural linguistics did not tell us everything about language that
w e needed to know. While the ALM was a valiant attempt to reap the fruits of lan-
guage-teaching methodologies that had preceded it,in the end it still fell short, as all
24 CHAPTER 2 A "Merhotiical" History of Language Te,iching
methods do. But we learned something from the very Etilure of the ALM to do
everything it had promised, and we moved forward.
COGNITIVE CODE LEARNING
The age of audiolingualism, with its emphasis on surface forms and on the rote prac-
tice of scientifically produced patterns, began to wane when the Chomskyan revo-
lution in Linguistics turned linguists and language teachers toward the "deep
structure" of language. Increasing interest in generative tr.tnsformationa1 p m m a r
and focused attention on the rule-governed nature of language and language acqui-
sition led some language-teaching programs to promote a deductive approach
rather than the inductivity of the ALM. Arguing that children subconsciously
acquire a system of rules, proponents of a cogtlitive code learning methodology
(see Carroll 1966) began to inject more deductive rule learning into language
classes. In an amalgamation of Audiolingual and Grammar Translation techniques,
classes retained the drilling typical ofALM but added healtl~ydoses of rule explana-
tions and reliance on grammatical sequencing of material.
Cognitive code learning was not so much a method as it was an approach that
emphasized a conscious awareness of rules and their applications to second lan-
guage learning. It was a reaction to the strictly behavioris~icpractices of the ALM,
and ironically,a return to some of the practices of Grammar Translation. As teachers
and materials developers saw that incessant parroting of :>otentially rote material
was not creating communicatively profic.ient learners, a new twist was needed, and
cognitive code learning appeared to provide just such a twist. Unfortunately, the
innovation was short-lived,for as surely 21s rote drilling bored students, overt cogni-
tive attention to the rules, paradigms, intricacies, and exceptions of a language over-
taxed the mental reserves of language students.
The profession needed some spice and verve, and inncvative minds in the spir-
ited 1970s were up to the challenge.
"DESIGNERnMETHODS OF THE SPWI'ED 1970S
The decade of the 1970s was histor~callysignificant on t n o counts. First, perhaps
more than in other decade in "modern" language-teaching history, research on
second language learning and teaching grew from an offshoot of linguistics to a dis-
cipline in its own right. As morc and more scholars sptrialized their efforts in
second language acquisition studies, our knowledge of how people learn languages
inside and outside the classroom mushroomed. Second, in this spirited atmosphere
of pioneering research, a number of innovative if not revolutionary methods were
conceived. These "designer" methods (to borrow a term from Nunan 19892: 97)
were soon marketed by entrepreneurs as the latest and grcatest applications of the
multidisciplinary research findings of the day.
F CHAPTER 2 A "Mehiod~cal"Hishw of Language Te,ich,ng
Today, as we look back at these methods, we can applaud them for rheir inn*
25
vative flair, for their attempt to rouse the language-teaching world out ol its audio-
lingual sleep, and for their stimulation of even more research as we sought to
discover why they were not the godsend that their inventors and marketers hoped
they would be. The scrutiny that the designer methods underwent has tnabled us
today to incorporate certain elements thereof in our current comnlunic;~tivc
approaches to language teaching. Let's look at five of these products o f the spirited
1970s.
!
.: 1. Community Language Learning
By the decade of the 1970s, as we increasingly recognized the importance of
the affective domain, some innovative methods took on a distinctly affective nature.
Community Language Learning is a classic example of an affectiv1.1y b ~ s e d
method.
In what he called the "Counseling-Learning" model of education, Ch~rles
Curnn (1972) was inspired by Carl Rogers's view of education (PLLl.,Chapter 3) in
which learners in a classroom were regarded not as a 'class" but as a "group"-a
group in need of certain therapy and counseling. The social dynamics of such a
group were of primary importance. In order for any learning to take plalr, group
members first needed to interact in an interpersonal relationship in which students
and teacher joined together to facilitate learning in a context of valuing e;~chindi-
vidual in the group. In such a surrounding, each person lowered the dcfei~scsthat
prevent open interpersonal communication. The anxiety caused by t h ~educa-
tional context was lessened by means of the supportive community. The reachcr's
presence was not perceived as a threat, nor was it the teacher's purpose to impose
limits and boundaries, but rather, as a true counselor, to center his or her attention
on the clients (the students) and their needs. "Defensive"1earning was madr unnec-
essary by the empathetic relationship between teacher and students. (;urc~n's
Counseling-Learning model of education thus capitalized on the primacy of the
needs of the learners-clients-who gathered together in the educational c:omlrlu-
nity to be counseled.
Curran's Counseling-Learning model of education was extended to language-
learning contexts in the form of Community Language Learning (CLL). Wiile par-
ticular adaptations of CLL were numerous, the basic methodology wah explicit. Thc
group of clients (for instance, beginning learners of English), having first est;~blishctl
in thcir native language (say,Japanese) an interpersonal relationship ancl trust, wcrc
seated in a circle with the counselor (teacher) on the outside of the circle Whcn
one of the clients wished to say something to the group or to an individu;~l,he or
she said it in the native language uapanese) and the counselor translated tf,c uttrr-
ance back to the learner in the second language (English). The learn~:r thcn
repeated that English sentence as accurately as possible. Another client respondcd,
in Japanese; the utterance was translated by the counselor into English; th~:client
repeated it;and the conversation continued. If possible the conversation was taped
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plnos Jolasunon ayl w o ~uopsa~!p
j aa!uasse lnq aa!uoddns .aYen8ucl U ~ ! ~ J O . aq]J
U!~I!M al%%ruls ssalpua dl8u!waas qsns sem aJay1 qgqm u! 'a%cisi s ~ garp u! dlle!:,
- a d s 'uo!lsa~!p papaau uayo luapnls ayL .aa!lsaJ!puou ool awosaq plnon Jayseal
-Jolasunos a u '773 ql!M swalqo~dles!laJoayl pUl! [es!lor~dawos 3JaM 3Jay.J.
.uopea!1ow s~suulu!uo az!lel!des pue uo!lea!low aq1 p!u 01 JoIasunos I!
awesaq pue u! paddals o y ~ ~a u ~ e a l - l uaql a ! ~uago
~ seM I! 'alq!ssodw! aq 01 pawaas
uo!lePuwl JO uo!leue~dxa q s ! y ~ u! suo!lenl!s u~ i~aa!lsnpu! aBenYuel rrY!a~oj
ayl azd~eue01 pue UO!]I?SJaAUOJ jo adD aql au!wJalap 01 JauJesl ayl pamolll: Jolas
-unos ayL .paaowaJ dlqewnsa~d9~9~-dsenbapeu!pue uo!leua!le jo %u![aaJe 01
peal ues leql sleaJyl 11e-s~aad lsu!e8e %u!ladwosjo 'salewssels jo l u o ~u!j a%en%u~:l
u81a~ojayl u! sJapunIq 8u!y1!w jo '~aqsealBu!~ouy-~le ayljo 1eaJyl 2y.L .%u!rnea~
aSen8ue1puosas u! s~olsejaapsajje %u!ualea~ylaql jo aruos awosJaao 01 pue uo!lse
olu! dydosol!yd s , s ~ a S olnd ~ 01 ldwalle ue s e a 773 .luap!aa aJaM sa%elueape
aa~lsajjeayL 7 7 3 ayq poylaw e ol sa%elueapes!ppue saYelueape 9JaM 2Jaq.L
.asur~nsse-gaspue asuapuadapu! 01 ssaussaldlaq pue
asuapuadap w o ~Su!aowj ~~
u! lua!ls ayl spy 'spaau s,lua!ls ayl 01 U O ! I U ~ I InJaJEJ
y8no~yl'~olasunonayl y s ! y ~U! Bu!lasunos jo ss!rueudp ayl jo sald!su!~d.>!s~:qosle
lnq 'uo!lesnpa jo Map s , s ~ a S 1 o~~133jo sa[d!su!~d aql dluo lou palsaIjaJ 77:)
.luapu>dapn!
awosaq lu!od ley1 le pey JauJeal a u .a%enfueluayods aql u! d s u a n ~paaa!qop.
JauJeal ayl hale1 s~eadJO sqluow duew sdey~ad'suo!ssas duew J a m 'uo!leruJoju!
pue uo!lelsuerl lsa~!pssaI pue ssaI %u!p!ao~dJoIasunos aql y l ! 'ascld ~ aye1 plnos
uo!les!unwwos lsaJ!p aJow pue a ~ o w'a8en8uel U%!~JOJ aql q l ! h!Je!l!wy
~ aJow
pue aJow pau!e8 sJauJea1 ayl sy .Jolasunos ayl uo asuapuadap alaldruon WOJJ
b ~ %u!aowe s,JauJeal ayl jo u8!s f i ~ gayl seM s ! q ~.uo!lepuer1 lnOql!M 'a%en%u1:1
u8!a~ojaql u! dpsa~!paseryd JO ~ J O Me yeads 01 alqe awesaq JauJeaI ayl dllenp~t)
.slua!Is Mollaj ayl jo pue Jolasunos ay] jo uoddns ayl ql!M S ~ E M ( Clnq S ' UO!s
sas duew JOJ anuyuos 3y8!w uo!syuos pue a188n~lsasualu! jo Bels I S J ~aqL
JO sapu
s!ls!n%u!l u!euas jo uo!leueldxa awos ap!ao~dp m aloJ aA!]saJ!p aJ0W e aye1 l@!w
Jolasunos ay] 'a~qr^r!sapj1 .a8en%mlMaU aql lnoqe uo!lewJoju! ueap 01 ~aq1a8ol
paldwalle dlaa!lsnpu! sJauJsa1 ayl 'uo!ssas ysea jo pua ayl le pue 'Yu!uals!l J ~ W
JoJ
 CH{APTER -I A "Meihodical" H~storyof language Te'gcl~in,y
28
Before thc beginning of the second part of the ~:oncert,there are
again seven1 minutes of silence and some phr~se.;of the music are
heard again before the teacher begins to read the 1 ext. Now the stu-
dents close their textbooks and listen to the teacher's reading. At the
end,the students silently leave the room. They are not told to do any
homework on the lesson they h ~ v just
e had except for reading it cur-
sorily once before going to bet1 and again befort getting up in the
morning.
Suggestol3edia was criticized on a number of fronts. Scovel (I'%)) showed
quite eloquently that Lozanov's experimental data, in which he reported astounding
results with Suggestopedia, were highly questionable. Mor~:over, the practicality of
u m g Suggestopedia is an issue that teachers must face wllere music and comfort-
able chairs are not available. More serious is the issue of the place of memorization
in language learning. Scovel(l979: 260-61) noted that Loianov's 'innumenble ref-
erences to . .. memorization . . .to the total exclusion of refel ences to'understanding'
and/or ‘creative solutions of prohlrms' convinces this rrviewer at least that sug-
gestopedy . . is an attempt to tcach menloriz:~tion techniql~esand is not devoted to
the L r more comprehensive enterpriw o f Imgaage acql~isition."On the other hand.
other researchers, including Schiffler (1992: x,.), have supgested a more modente
nosition
r - - -- -
on Suwestopedia, hoping "to prevent the exalgerated expectations of
Suggestopedia that have been promotetl in some publications."
L~kesome other designer methods (CLL and the !dent Way, for example),
Sug,estopedia became a business enterprise of its own, and it made promises in the
advertising world that were not completely supported by research. D~apitesuch
dtlbious claims, Suggestopedia gave the laoguage-teaching profession some insights.
We learned ;I bit about how to believe in the power of the human brain. We learned
that deliberately induced states of r e h a t i o n may be beneficial in the cla~Sr00m.
And numerous teachers have at times experimented with various forms of music as
a way to ger students to sit back and relax.
3. The Silent Way
Like S~~ggestapeda, the Silent Way rested o n mole cognitive than affective
arguments for its theoretical sustenance While Caleb Sattegno. its founder, was
said to be interested in a "humanisric"approach (Chamot Sr McKeon 1984: 2) to edu-
cation, much of the Silent Way was ch;~ncterizedby a problem-solving approach to
learning. Richards and Rodgers (1986: 99) summariud the theory of learning
behind the Silent Way:
1. Learning is hcilitated if the learner discovers or creates rather than remem-
bers and repeats what is to be 1e;irned.
2. Learning is facilitated by accompanying (mediating J physical objects.
3. Learn~ngis facilitated by problem solving involving the material to be learned.
CHAPTER 2 A "Metliod~caI"H~story 1dng~111gc
Ted, hlrlg 29
"Discovery learning: a popular educational trend of the 1960s, advocated less
learning "by being told" and more learning by discovering for onesell. va~.ioushcts
and principles. In this way, students constructetl conceptual hierarchies of their
own that were a product of the time they invested. Ausubel's'subsumptic~n"(I'LLT.
?
Chapter 4) was enhanced by discovery learning since the cognitive categories w c ~
created meaningfully with less chance of rote learning taking place. Intluctivc.
processes were also encouraged more in discovery-learning n~ethods.
The Silent Way capitalized on such discovery-learning procedures. (httcgno
(1972) believed that learners should develop independence, autonom): 3rd respon-
sibility. At the same time, learners in a Silent W;lv classroom had to coopc.nte with
each other in the process of solving language problems. Tlle teacher-a :,timulator
but not a hand-holder-was silent much of the time, thus the name of t h method ~
~ e a c h e r shad to resist their instinct to spell everything out in black and white, to
come to the aid of students at the slightest downfall; they had toUgetout or the wiy'.
while students worked out solutions.
In a language c1assn)om. the Silent Way typically utilized as materiais a s ~ oft
Cuisenaire rods-small colored rods of varying lengths-and a series of c o l o h ~ l
wall charts. The rods were used to introduce vocabulary (colon. numht:rs adjec-
tives [long,short, and so on]), verbs (Xiue, take,pick up, drop), and svnt:tx (tense,
comparatives, pluralization, word order, and the like). The teacher provided single-
word stimuli, or short phrases and sentences, once or twice, and then tht. sturlents
refined their understanding and pronunciation among themselves with mir limal tor-
rective feedback from the teacher. The chlrts introduced pronunciatio~~ nlodcls,
grammatical paradigms, and the like.
Like Suggestopedia, the Silent Way has had its share of criticism. In one scnse.
the Silent Way was too harsh a method, and the feacher to(] distant to cn~.ooslge:I
conlmunicative atmosphere. Students often need more guidance and overt correc-
tion than the Silent Way permitted. There are a number of aspect nf 1;lngu:lge that
can indeed be utold"to students to their benefit: they need not, as in CLI. as well,
struggle for hours or days with a concept that c o d d bc easily c1arift.d by the
teacher's direct guidance. The rods and charts wear thin after a few Ie?sons, and
other materials must be introduced, at which point the Silent Way cl;~ss'-oomcan
look like any other language classroom.
And yet, the underlying principles of the Silent Way arc valid All ~ o oofien
we~retempted as teachers to provide everything for our students, ncatlv serve11up
on a silver platter. We could benefit from injecting healthy doses o f Jiscoverg
learning into our classroom activities and from providing less teacher tall.<than we
usually do to let the students work things out on their own.
4. Total Physical Response
James Asher (1977). the developer of Total Physical Response (TPR ), actually
began experimenting withTPR in the 1960s, but it was almost a decade before the
CHAPTER 2 A "hlelhodical" History of Language Teaching CHAPTER 2 .4 "Methodical" History of Langu,lge Te~ching
31

n~cthodwas widely discussed in professional circles. Today TPR, with simplicity as

its most appealing facet, is a household word among language teachers. 1 of the ilsr of dnma in foreign Ii~nguageclassrooms.) Hut soon learners' needs for
spontanei :y and unrehearsecl language must be met.
You will recall from earlier in this chapter that more than a century ago, Gouin
designed his Series Method on the premise that language associated with a series of
[ 5. The Natural Approach
Stepken Knsi~en's(1982, 1!)97) theories of second language acquisition have
simple actions will be easily retained by learners. Much later, psychologists devel-
been wid1.1~ discussed and hotly debated over the years (PLLT, Chapter 10). Tlle
oped the "tnce theory" of learning in which it was claimed that memory is "
major me~hodologicaloffshoot of Krdshen's views was manifested in the Natural
increased if it is stimdated, or "traced." through association with motor activity.
Approach, developed by one of bashen's colleagues, Tracy Terrell (Knshen &
over the vears, language teachers have intuitively recognized the value of associ-
Terrell1983). Acting on many of the claims that Asher made for a comprehension-
ating language with physical activity. So while the idea of building a method of lan-
based approach such as V R , Krashen and TerreU felt that learners would benefit
guage teaching on the principle of psychomotor associations was not new, it was
from delaj ing production until speech "emerges:' that learners should be as relawed
this very idea that Asher capitalized upon in developing TPR.
as possiblt in the c1assroorr1,andthat a great deal of communication and "acquisition"
TPR combined a number of other insights in its rationale. Principles of child
should take place, as opposed to analysis. In fact, the Natural Approach advocated
language ;icquisition were important. Asher (1977) noted that children, in learning
the use of TPR activities at the beginning level of language learning when "compre-
their first language, appear to do a lot of listening before they speak, and that their
hensible ir put" is essential for triggering the acquisition of language.
listening is accompanied by physical responses (reaching, grabbing, moving,
There are a number of possible long-range goals of language instruction. In
looking, and 50 forth). He also gave wme attention to right-bnin learning (PLLT,
some case i second languages are learned fi~roral communication; in other cases for
Chapter 5 ) . According to Asher, motor activity is a right-brain function that should
written communication; and in still others there may be an academic emphasis on,
precede left-brain language processing. Asher was also convinced that language
say, listeni-lg to Icctures, speaking in a ck~ssroomcontext, or writing a research
classes were often the locus of too much anxiety, so he wished to devise a method
paper. Thl: Natural Approacl~was aimed at the goal of basic personal con~munica-
that was as stress-free as possible, where learners would not feel overly self-
tion skills, that is, everyday language situations-conversations, shopping, listening
conscious and defensive. TheTPR classroom, then, was one in which students did
to the r~dio,and the like. The initial task of the teacher was to provide compre-
a great deal of listening and acting. The teacher was very directive in orchestrating
hensible input, that is, spoken language that is understandable to the learner or just
a performance: "The instructor is the director of a stage play in which the students
a little bey1)nd the learner's level. Learners need not say anything during thisUsilent
are the actors" (Asher 1977:43).
period" until they feel ready to do so. The teacher was the source of the learners'
l'ypic;~lly,TI'Rheavily utilized the imperative mood, even into more advanced
input and the creator of an interesting and stimulating variety of classroom activi-
proficiency levels. Commands were an easy way to get learners to move about and
ties-cormnands, games, skits, ancl small-groupwork.
to loosen up: Open the iclittrioicl.Close the door, Stund up, Sit down, Pick up the
In the Natural Approach, learners presumably move through what Knshen and
book. Gize it toJobri,and so on. No verbal response was necessary. More complex
Terrell defined as three stages: (a)'The preproduction stage is the development of lis-
syntax could be incorporated into the imperative: Dmul LZ rectungle on the chalk-
tening corriprehension skills. @)The early production stage is usually marked with
board. Whlk quickly to the &or a n ~ lbit it. Humor is easy to introduce: WWk
errors as tlk student struggles with the language. The teacher focuses on meaning
sloroly to the wittrlow and jump, Put your toothbrush in your hook (Asher 1977:
here, not an form, and therelhre the teacher does not make a point of correcting
55). Interrogatives were also easily dealt with: Where is the book? Who is John?
errors during this stage (unless they are gross errors that block or hinder meaning
(students pointed to the book or to John). Eventually students, one by one, would
entirely). (c)The last stage is one of extending production into longer stretches of
feel comfortable enough to venture verbal responses to questions, then to ask ques-
discourse i:lvolving more complex games, role-plays,openended dialogues, discus-
tions themselves, and to continue the process.
sions, and cxtended small-group work. Since the objective in this stage is to prtr
Like every other metl~odwe have encountered, TPR had its limitations. It
mote fluency, teachers are asked to be very sparse in their correction of errors.
seemed to be especially effective in the beginning levels of language proficiency, but
The most controversial aspects of the Natunl Approach were its advocacy of a
it lost its distinctiveness as learners advanced in their competence. In a TPR class
"silent peri6)d"(delay of on1 production) and its heavy emphasis on comprehensible
room, after students overcame the fear of speaking out, classroom conversations and
input. The delay of oral production until speech "emerges"has shortcomings (see
other activities proceeded as in almost any other communicative language class-
Gibbons 1985). What about the student whose speech never emerges? h d with
room. In TPR reading and writing activities, students are limited to spinning off
all student; at different timetables for this socalled emergence, how does the
from the on1 work in the classroom. Its appeal to the dnmatic or theatrical nature
teacher manage a classroom efficiently? Furthermore, the concept of comprehen-
of language learning was attractive. (See Smith 1984 and Stern 1983 for discussions
sible input is difficult to pin down, as Langi (1984: 18) noted:
32 (~HAPTER2 A A'M~thodical"
History of Language Teaching
*:
9 feeling. Within the general notion of space and time, for example, are the concepts
How does one know which stnlctures the learners are to be provided
with7 From the examples of 'teacher talk* provided in the book
(Knshen andTerrell, 1983), communication interlctions seem to be
guided by the topic of conversation rather than t y the structures of
the language The decision of which structures to use appears to be
left to some mysterious sort of intu~t~on,
which lnany teachers may
not possess
On a more positive note, most teachers and researchc rs agree that we are all
too prone to insist that learners speak right away. and sc we can take from the
Natural Approach the good advice that for a period of tin~e,while students grow
accustomed to the new language, their silence is beneficial. ThroughTPR and other
forms of input, students' language egos are not as t.;~silythreatened, and they aren't
forced into immediate risk-taking that t ould embarrass them. The resulting self-
confidence eventi~allycan spur a student to venture to spelk out.
Illnovative methods such as these fke methods of the 1970s expose us to prin-
ciples and practices that you can sift through, weigh, and ad.lpt to multiple contexts.
Your responsibility as a teacher is to choose the best of what others have expeti-
mented with and adapt those insights to your own situation. Those insights and intu-
itions can become a part of your own principled approach to language teaching.
BEYOND METHOD: NOTIONAL-FUNCIIONAL SYLLtIBUSES
AS the innovative methods of the 1?70s were being touted by some and criticized
by many, some significant foundations for future growth were being laid in what
soon came to be popularly known as the Notional-Functional Syllabus.
Beginning with the work of the Council of Europe (Van EL. &Alexander 1975) and
later followed by numerous interprt:tations of "notional" s! Ilabuses (Wilkins 1976),
Notional-Functional Syllabuses (hereafter referred to as NFS) began to be used in the
United Kingdom in the 1970s.
The distinguishing characteristics of the NFS were i ~ attention
s to functions
(see PLLT, Chapter 9) as the organizing elements of English language curriculum,
and its contrdst with a structural syllabus in which sequt nced grammatical struc-
tures served as the organizers. Reacting to methods that attended too strongly to
grammatical form, the NFS focused strongly-and in sonie of its interpretations,
exclusively-on the pragmatic purposes to which we put language. As such, it was
not a method at all. It was close to what we can call "appr1)achn(see next chapter),
but it was more specifically focused on curricular structixe than a true approach
would be.
'.Notions: according to Van Ek ~ n Alexander
d ( 1975),itre both general and spe-
cific. General notions are :tbstnct concepts such as existellee, space, time, quantity,
CHAPTER 2 A X M e t l i ~ d i ~H15tory
~ ~ I " o i Language Je ~chrn~q 33
and quality. They are domains in which we use language to express thought ant1
of location, motion, dimension, speed, length of time, frequency. etc. "Specfic
notions" correspontl more closely to what we have become accustomed to calling
"contexts" or "situations." Personal identification, for example, is a specific notion
under which name, address, phone number, and other personal inform;^ ticjn arc sub-
sumed. Other specific notions include travel, hcalth and welbre, educat~on,shop-
ping, services, and free time.
The "functional" part of the NFS corresponded to 1angu;tge junctions.
Curricula were organized around such functions as identifying,reporting. denying,
accepting, declining, asking permission, apologizing, etc. V:cn Ek and 'Uexander
listed some seventy different language functions.
The NFS quickly provided popular underpinnings for the developme~~t of conl-
municative textbooks and materials in English language courses. The functional
basis of language programs has continued to the present d;iy In Brown ( 1 999).for
example, the following functions are covered ~n the first seven1 lessc2ns ol :In
advanced beginner's textbook:
1. Introducing self and other people
2. Exchanging personal information
3. Asking how to spell someone's name
4. Giving commands
5. Apologizing and thanking
6. Identifying and describing people
7. Asking for information
A typical unit in this textbook includes an eclectic blend o f conversat~onpmc-
tice with a classmate, interactive group work,role-j,l;lys,grammar:lnd l~ron~rnciation
focus exercises,information-gap techniques, Internet activities,and extra cl ~ s inter-
s
acti1.e practice.
It is important to emphasize, in this historical sketch of' methodology, that the
NFS did not necessarily develop communicative competence in learners First, it
was not a method, which would spec@ how yo11 would teach something; it was a
syllabus. And while it was clearly a precursor to what we now call (:ommirnicative
Language Teaching (see Chapter 3), as a syllabus it still presented langua;:e as an
inventory of units-functional rather than gnmm;~ticalunits--but units nonetllr-
less. Communicative competence implies a set of strategies tor getting messages
sent and received and for negotiating meaning as an interactive participartt in dis-
course, whether spoken or written. Therefore, the danger that the NFS could
simply be "structural lamb served up as notion:ll-functiond mutto~l"(C.lrnpbell
1978: 18) was ever-present. However, the NFS ditl indeed set the stage for bigger
and better things. By attending to the functional purposes of hnguagr, and by pro-
viding contextual (notional) settings for the realization crf those puq>ose: it pro-
 $
-
T,ible 2.1. Approaches and methods-an overview (adapted from Nunan 1989)

- Theory of language
language is ~r system of
Theory of learning
Habit formation; skills
Objectives
Control of dructures of
Syllabus
Graded syllabus of
& rule-governed structures are learned more effec- sound, form, and order, phonology, morphology, etition and memorization, alrected 11y skilled teacher-dominated Tapes a"d visuals,al.;
3 I i i r . r a r c h i ~ ~arranged.
ll~ tively ~toral precedes mastery over symbols of and syntax. Contrastive pattern prac ice. tr~~nin tr:chniclues
g to method. Provides model, guage lab often used.
5 written; analogy, not
analysis.
the language; goal:
native-speaker mastery.
analysis.
produce correct
responses
controls direction anrl
pace.
~

- T

-2 K ~ s i c a lal ~structuralist,
gr.~mrn.~~-ba,edview of
L2 learning is the same as Teach oral proficiency to Sentence-based syllabus
L1 learning comprehen- produce learners who with grammatical and
Imperative crills to elicit
physical actons.
Listener and performer,
little influence over the
Active and direct role;
"the director of a stage
No basic text; materials

;. %c language slon before production, is can communicate unin- lexical criteria being pri- content of learning. play" with students as
and media have an
Importatit role later.
-E o "~mprinted"through car- hibitedly and intelligibly mary, but focus on
5
24
3 rying out commands with native speakers. m e a n i n ~not form.
actors. Initially voice, action, and
gestures ,Ire sufficient.
2 (right-brain functioning);
reduction of stress.

E.1t.h language i!,com-
p~)sedof elements that
glve 11.I unique rhythm
and spirit. Funclional
vvcabularv ,~ntlcore
structure are kcv to the
sllirit o i the language.
Processes of learning a Near-nat~vefluency, cor- Basically structural Learner resp Irises to Learning is a process of Teachers must (a) teach Unique materials: col-
second language are fun- rect pronunciation, basic lessons planned around commands, questions, personal growth. Learners (b) test (c) get out of the ored rods, color-coded
damentally different from practical knowledge of grammatical items and and visual clres. Activi- are responsible for their way. Remain impdssive. pronunciation and vocab-
1 ~ 1learning. L2 learning the grammar of the L2. related vocabulary. Ifenis ties encoura;:e and shape own learning and must Resist temptation to ulary charts.
is an intellectual, cogni- Learner learns how to are introduced according oral respons1.s without develop iridependence, model, remodel, assist,
tive 1)rocess.Surrender to learn a language. to their grammatical grammatical explanation autonomy. and responsi- direct, exhort.
the music of the lan- complexity. or modeling by teacher. bility.
guage, silent awareness
then active trial.

E
.Qc L.lngusge is rnorr t h ~ n,I \.earning involvrs the N o specific objectives. N o set syllabus. Course Combinatior of innova- Learners are members of t:ounseling/parentdl
No textbook, which
.-, sv~temior comlnunic~. whole person. It is a Near-nat~vemastery is progression is topic- tive and con /enr~onal. a commuliity. Learning is analogy. Teacher pro-
would inhibit growth.
tion. It ilivoives whole social process 01 growth the goal. based; learners provide Translation, i:roup work, not viewed as an indi- vides a safe environment Materials are developed
5& person, trulture, educa- from childlike depen- the topics. Syllabus recording, tr~~nscription, vidual actompl~shment, in which students can
reflection an.1 observa- but something that is learn and grow.
as course progrwses.
?j 3 tional, developtnental tience to self-direction emerges from learners'
$ commuriicative and independence. intent~onand the tion, listenin):, free achieved I-~llabor~~tively.
2 processes. teacher's reformulations conversation

The essrncl*o i I'lnguage
i', meanlng. Voc:abulary,
not gr.lrnm~lr,is the heart
-- P
oi I~nguage.
There are two ways of L2
language development:
"acquisition"-a natural
subconscious process,
and "learning"-a con-
scious process. Learning
Designed to give begin-
ners and intermedidte
learners basic commu-
n~cativeskills. Four brodd
areas; basic personal
communicative skills
Based on selert~onof
communicdtive activities
and topics derived from
learner needs.
Activities ~ll(1wingconi- Should not try 11)learn The teacher is the pri- MJteridls come from
prehensihle i.iput, about language In the usual mary source of compre- realia rather than text-
things in the iiere-and- sense, hut should try to
11ow. Focus c n meaning, lose themselves in activi-
not form. ties involving meaningful
communication
hensible input. Must
create positive low-
anxiety climate. Must
choose and orchestrate a
books. Primary aim is to
promote comprehension
and communic~tion.

9 cannot lead to acquisi- (oraliwritten); academic rich mixture of classroom

tion. learning skills activities.
E (orallwrittenl.

Rather convenliolidl, Learning occurs through To deliver advanced con- Ten unit courses con- Initiatives, qbestion and Must maintain a p.~ssive To create situations in Consists of texts, tapes,
$ .~lthoughmemorization suggestion, when learners versational competence sist~ngof 1,200-word answer, role-lilay, lis- state and allow the mate- which the learner IS most classroom fixtures, and
01whole meaningful are in a deeply relaxed quickly. Learners are dialogues graded by tening exerci. es under rials to work on them suggestible and present
-3
u music. Texts should have
texts is recommended. state. Baroque music is required to master prodi- vocabulary and gr'lmmar. deep relaxation. (rather than vice versa). material in a way most
m force, literary quality, and
used to induce this state. gious lists of vocabulary likely to encourage posi- ~nterestingcharacters.
pairs, although the goal is tive reception and reten-
understanding, not meln- tion. Must exude author-
orization. ity and confidence.

Activities ~nvolvingreal Objectives will reilect the Will include somelall of Engage learnus in com-
.F [Language is a svstem for
the expression of communication; carrying needs of the learner; they the following: structures, munication, i.ivolve
Learner as negotiator,
interactor, qiving as. well
Facilitator of the commu-
nication process, partici-
Primary role in promoting
communicative language
$5 meaning; primary func- out meaningful tasks; and will include functional functions, notlons, processes such as as taking. pants' tasks, and texts; use; task-based materials;
tion-interaction and using language which is skills as well as linguistic themes, tasks. Ordering information s iaring, needs analyst, counselor, authentic.
5a cotnniunication. meaningful to the learner objectives. will be guided by learner I negotiation o meaning, process manager.
E3 promote learning. nerds. and interactic n.
5;
36 CHAPTER 2 A "Mt>!hodical" History of Language fi~aching
vided a link between a dynasty of methods that were perisj~ingand a new e n of lan-
guage teaching that is the subject of the next chapter.
As an aid to your recollection of the characteristics of some of the methods
reviewed earlier, you may wish to refer to Table 2.1 (pp. 34-35), in which the
Audiolingual Method, the five"designernmethods,and the (:ommunicative Language
Teaching Approach are summarizetl according to eight dilferent criteria.
On looking back over this meandering history, you can no doubt see the cycles
of changing winds and shifting sands alluded to earlier. In some ways the cycles
were, as Marckwardt proposed, each bout a quarter o!' a century in length, or
roughly a genmtion. In this remarkable succession of cllanges, we learned some-
thing in each generation. We did not allow history sim[sly to deposit new dunes
exactly where the old ones lay. So our cumulative history has taught us to appre-
ciate the value of "doing" language interactively, of the en~otional(as well as cogni-
tive) side of learning, of absorbing language automaticall), of consciously analyzing
it, and of pointing learners toward the real world where they will use English com-
municatively.
In the next chapter we look at how we reaped thost benefits to form an inte-
grated, unified,communic;~tiveappro~achto language tellck'ing that is no longer char-
acterized by a series of methods.
TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION, ACTION, AND RESEAK<:H
[No~e:(I )
lndiviiiual work; (G) group or pair work; (C) wholeclass discussion.]
1. (I) Since this chapter refers to some basic principles and issues that are nor-
mally covered in a course in second language acquisition (and in books like
PLLT and Mitchell and Myles it is quite imponant at this point for you
to review such material. For example, varied theories of learning are implied
in all the methods just reviewed; the role of affectiv~:factors in second lan-
guage acquisition is highlighted in some methods; c')nscious and subcon-
scious (or focal and peripheral) processing assumes various roles, depending
on the method in question. If you encountered conc:epts or issues that you
needed to brush up on as you read this chapter, makc some time for a thor-
ough review.
2. (G) Given the choice of Richards and Rodgers's orklthony's earlier model of
looking at the concepts of approach, method, design. procedure, and tech-
nique, which is preferable? Direct small groups to d~scusspreferences. If
there is disagreement, groups should try to come to I consensus. Make sure
groups deal with Richards and Rodgers's rationale for the change.
3. (G) Consider the Series Method, the Direct Method, xnd the Audiolingual
Method. Assign a different method to each of several small groups. The task
is to list the theoretical found;~tionson which the method rested and share
findings with the whole class.
CHAPT~-K 2 A "Methodical" History of Languages E,~ching 37
4. (C) Richards and Rodgers (1986: 5) said Gr,~mmarTnnslation.'is a rrrethotl for
which there is no theory." Is this too harsh a judgment? Ask students if they
agree with the theorylessness of Grammar Translation arld why
5. (G/C) Review the five "designer" niethods. If class size permits, assign a
method to each of five different small groups, where each group will "defcnd"
its method against the others. The group task is to prepare argumellts in
favor of its method, questions to ask of other methods, and counter-i~rguments
against what other groups might ask them. After a motlified debate, end with
a whole-class discussion.
6. (C) Three of the five "designer"methods (CIL, Silent Way. and Sc~ggestopedia)
were (and still are, to some extent) proprietary, with their own com~llercial
publishing and educational company. Ask students to consider how that Pact
niight color (a) the objectivity with which its backers promote each method
and (b) public reception to it?
7. (C) Chapter 1 described a classroom lesson in English as a second larlguage.
Ask students to look back through that lesson now and, in light of tht: various
methodological positions that have occupied the last century or so oi lan-
guage teaching, to determine how the activities/techniques in the lesson
reflect some of the theoretical foundations on which certain nlethodr were
constructed. For example, when the teacher did a quick choral drill ,#26j.
how w o d d one support that technique wit11 principles that lay b e h i ~ ~the
d
ALM?
8. (G/C) Ask students in small groups to review the cycles of "shifting s;~nds'.
since Gouin's time. How did each new method borrow from previolir prac-
tices? What did each reject in previous practices? Each group will thcn share
their conclusions with the rest of the class. On the bo:~rd,you might rccon-
struct the historical progression in the form of a time line with c.harac.teristics
listed for each "era."If time permits, try to determine what the prrvail~ngintel-
lectual or political mood was when certain niethods were flowering. For
example, the ALM was a product of a military training program and flourished
during an em when scientific solutions to all problems were diligentl) sought.
Are there some logical connections here?
FOR YOUR FURTHER READING
Anthony, Edward. 1963. "Approach, method and technique." English Lt/ngu(lge
Teaching 17: 63-67.
In this seminal article Anthorly ~l'eJirres
~arrdgivesexam/~lc,.~ rftht. threc,titk?
terms. i.Cletho~isrue seen, perhupsJor the Jirst time, as g u i ~ l ~by
t l and 11~lilt
zpon solid theoretical Jbrindations. His dejivitiorrs hat7epreu'lileil tr, this
d ~ iny injormal peciagogical terminolo~y.
38 CHAPTER 2 History of Language Teaching
A XMethodi~dI"

?
CHAPTFR
'->

3
Richards, Jack and Rodgers, Theodore. 1982 "Method: A p p m a h , design, proce-
dure." TESOL Quarterly 16: 153-68. 5
The ' ~ ~ l t h orc.deji.nc
r~s ilttthot1~vsoriginal conc~~tiorr of the terms by) ~/iruli?zg i,

',nzc~/hoil" us un 11~nhrelb tcJrmcouering upproc~ch,tiesign, and procedzlre.

F ~ l lexb/trilatiotls i,/. the terms are qljrercd a r ~ deev~rnzpIespro~iided. B i s
FNT:
article also ~1ppe6inas n chuL~terin Richclrds crnd Rorlgen (1986). ;

Richards, Jack and Rodgers, Theodore. 1986. Approaches and Metl~ods in

Lan'qu~ige7iuaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Thi.~h(mk prtwnts a very ~rsc$ii o u e n ~ i wof n number ofd~flc>rt?~lt
metho&
wi~bitlthe nrbric odc1pprouches that support them, course designs that uli-
The "metttodical" history of the previous chapter, even with our brief look at
lizt. thvtn, urld clusroom procedzlres (techniyr~es)that rrzutr@st them.
Notional-Functional Syllabuses, does not quite bring us up to the present. By the
l%ardovi-Hilrlig, Kathleen. 1997. "The place of second language ;tcquisition theory end of the 1980s, the profession had learned some profound lessons from our past
in 1angu:ige tedcher preparation." In Bardovi-Harlig, Kathleen and Hartford, wanderings. We had learned to be cautiously eclectic in making enlightened
Beverly. 1997. Heyorrd hfethods: Comporrerrts of Second Lurrgunge Eacher choices 01 teaching practices that were solidly wounded in the best of what we
E ~ l ~ ~ c a t i oNew
n . York: McGrw-Hill. Pages 18-41. knew about second language learning and teaching. We had amassed enough

"
Rrcuwse ari uirl.lenlurrding ?f lun,q~luge-twachinghbtory cllso implies the
inllx,rtut ~ w the pluce 01second kr ngzlnge c~cqi.~isitiun
,fin 6, use/irl bri~Igr./~om
resec~rch,this piece
resturcb to pructicul pedugogicul c-oacerr~.~
in the
research c n learning and te:\chirig that we could indeed formulate an integrdted
approach lo language-teaching practices. And, perhaps ironically, the methods that
were such strong signposts of our century-old journey were no longer of great con-
sequence !n marking our progress. How did that happen?
hrtgrlclgc?clus.sroonz.
In tht: 1970s and early 1980s, there was a good deal of hoopla about the
'designer" methods described in the previous chapter. Even though they weren't
widely adopted as standard ~nethods,they were nevertheless symbolic of a profes-
sion at least partially caught up in a mad scramble to invent a new method when
the very concept of "method" was eroding under our feet. We didn't need a new
method. \Ve needed, instead, to get on with the business of unlEying our ~zpproacl~
to 1anguap.e teaching and of designing effective tasks and techniques that were
informed I)y that approach.
And so, today those clearly identifiable and enterprising methods are an inter-
esting if not insightful contribution to our professional repertoire, but few pmcti-
tioners look to any one of them, or their predecessors, for a final answer on how to
teach a foleign language (Kumanvadivelu 1994, 1995). Method, as a unified, cohe-
sive,finite set of design features, is now given only minor attention.' The profession
has at last reached the point of maturity where we recognize that the diversity of

* While wc: may have outgrown our need to search for such definable methods,
neverthele:is, the term me tho do lo^^" continues to be used, as it would in any other
behavioral science, to refer to the systematic application of validated principles to
practical contexts. You need not therefore subscribe to a particular Method (with a
capital M) ~n order to engage in a "methodology."
40 CHAPTERJI The Present. AII Informed 'Appro.~cll"
language learners in multiple worldwide contexts dem:lncs an eclectic blend of
tasks, each tailored for a particular group of learners in a particular place, studying
for particular purposes in a given amount of time. David Nunan (199 Ib: 228) sums
it up nicely: ''It has been realized t h ~ thert-
t never was and probably never will be
a method for al1,and the focus in recent years has been on the development of class
room tasks and activities which are consonant with what w e know about second
language acquisition, and which are ;dso In keeping with the dynamics of the class
room itself."
AN ENLIGHTENED, ECLECTIC APPROACH
It should he clear from the foregoing thxt as an "enlightenc:d, eclectic" teacher, you
think in terms of a number of possi1)le nlethodological options at your disposal for
tailoring classes to particular contexts. Your approach,or rationale for language
learning and teaching, therefore takes on great importance. Your approach includes
a number of basic principles of learning and teaching ( s ~ c has those that will be
elaborated on in the next chapter) on which you can rely for designing and evalu-
ating classroom Icssons. Your approach to language-teaching methodology is a the-
oretically well informed global underst;ullding of the l~rocessof learning and
teaching. It is inspired by the interconnection of all your rc:admg and observing and
discussing and teaching, and that interconnection underlies everything thal you do
in the classroom.
But your approach to language pedagogy is not just a set of static principles
"set in stone." It is, in fact, a dynamic composite of energics within you that change
(or should change, ifyou are a growing teacher) with your experiences in your own
learning and teaching. The way you understand the language-learning process-
what makes for successful and unsuccessfi~lle~rning--may be relatively stable
across months or years, but don't ever feel too smug. There is far too much that we
do not know collectively about this process, and there are far too many new
research findings pouring in, to allow you to assume that vou can confidently assert
that you know everything you already need to know about language and language
learning.
The interaction between your approach
- - ~
-- and your classroom pnctice is the key
to dynamic teaching. The best teachrrs always take a fzw calculated risks in the
classroom, trying new activities here and there. The inspintion for such innovation
comes from the approach level, but the feedback that these teachers gather from
actual implementation then informs their ovenll understanding of what learning
and teaching is. Which, in turn, may give rise to a new illsight and more innovative
possibilities, and the cycle continues.
If you have little or no experience in teaching and are perhaps now in a teacher
education program, you may feel you cannot yet describe your own approach to lan-
guage learning and teaching. On the other hand,you might just surprise yourself at
CHAPTER 3 The Praent: An Infvrnlrd "4ppruch" 41
the intuitions you already hiave about the foundations of teaching. Look at thr h,l-
lowing selected list of potential choices you have in designing a Iesso11. On thc
basis of what you know so far about second language acquisition and tht pcdagug-
ical process. think about (a) which side of a continuum of possibilities )ou m u l d
generally lean toward. (b) why you would lean that way. and, most implrtant, (c)
what contextual variables might influence a c h a n g away from plur g e s m l incli-
nation. For cxample, the first itrm below asks you to c h a o ~between ' mealing"
and 'gnmmar" for a focus. While you might lean toward m n a i n g l x t a u a yo11
b o w that too much focus on form could detnct from communicatirze aquisirion,
certain classmom objectives and tasks might demand a focus on gnmmar. Herr is
the list:
1. Language classes should focus on
a. meaning
b. grammar
2. Students learn best by using plenty of
a. analysis
b. intuition
3. It is better for a student to
a. think directly in the L2
b. use translation from LI
4. Language learners need
a. immediate rewards
b. long-term rewards
5. With new language learners, teachers need to be
a. tough and demanding
b. gentle and empathetic
6. A teacher's feedback to the studellt should be given
a. frequently
b. infrequently, so Ss will develop autonomy
7. A communicative class should give special attention to
a. accuracy
b. fluency
Were you able to respond to these items? If you ctrultl choose an (a) or (b) for
each, it indicates that you do indeed have some intuitions bout trachinp m d per-
haps the beginnings of an approach. Your approach is guided by a numt~erof fac-
tors: your own experience as a learner in classrooms, whatever teaching experience
you may already have had, classroom observations you have made, books you have
read, and previous courses in the field. But mow imponant, if you four~dthat in
almost every choice you wanted to add something like"hut it depends on . . .:then
you are on the way toward developing an errlightened apprmch to language
learning and teaching. Our approaches to language teaching must alwayr be

tempered by specific contexts of teaching! Rarely can we say with absolute cer-
tainty that some principle applies to all learners in all contexts for all purposes.
Your approach also will differ on various issues from that of a colleague of
yours, or even a supervising teacher, just as "expertsnin the field differ in their the-
oreticd stance-in their interpretations of research on learning and teaching.
There are two reasons for variation at the approach level: (a) an approach is by def-
inition dvnamic and therefore subject to some "tinkering"as a result of one's obser-
vation and experience, and (b) research in second language acquisition and
pedagogy almost always yields findings that are not conclusive, but are subject to
interpretation.
;I / (:OMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING
Is there a currently recognized approach that is a generally accepted norm in the
field? The answer is a qualified "yes." That qualified "yes" can be captured in the
term conmunicative language teaching (CLT), and the qualifications to that
answcr lie in the numerous possible w q s of defining CLT and a plethora of inter-
pretati0n.s and classroom applications.
In the previous chapter you were introduced to a progression of methods that
definccl a century or more of language-teaching history. Beneath those methods lay
some in~portantt11coretic;d assumptions. In the 1940s and 1950%the profession
was determined to behavioristically program a scientifically ordered set of linguistic
structures into the minds of learners through conditioning. In the 1960s we were
quite worried about how Chomsky's generative plmmar was going to fit into our
Language classrooms and how to inject the cognitive code of a language into the
process of absorption. The innovativeness of the 1970s brought affective hctors to
the forefront of some wildly experimental language-teaching methods. The late
1970s and early 1980s saw the beginnings of what we now recognize as a commu-
nicative approach as we better and better understand the functions that must be
incorporated into a classroom. The late 1980s and 1990s saw the development of
approaches that highlighted the fundamentally communicative properties of lan-
guage, and classrooms were increasingly characterized by authenticity, real-world
simulation,and meaningful tasks.
Today we continue our professional march through history. Beyond grammat-
ical and discourse elements in communication, we are probing the nature of social,
cultural, and pragmatic features of language. We are exploring pedagogical means
for "real-life"communication in the classroom. We are trying to get our learners to
develop Linguistic fluency, not just the accuracy that so consumed our historical
journey. We are equipping our students with tools for generating unrehearsed lan-
guage performance "out there" when they leave the womb of our classrooms. We
are concerned with how to facilitate lifelong language learning among our students,
not just with the immediate classroom task. We are looking at learners as partners
CHAPTER 3 The Present: An Informeti "Approach" 43
in a cooperative venture. And our classroom practices seek to draw on whatever
i intrinsically sparks learners to reach their fullest potential.
ALI 01'these theoretical interests underlie what we can best describe as CLT. It
is d i i c u l ~to offer a definition of CLT. It is a unified but broadly based, theoretically
well informed set of tenets about the nature of Language and of language learning
and teaching. From the earlier seminal works in CLT (Widdowson 1978, Breen &
Candlin 1980, Savignon 1983) up to more recent teacher education textbooks
(Brown 21)00,Richard-Amato 1996, Lee & VanPatten 1995, Nunan 1991a), we have
definition; enough to send us reeling. For the sake of simplicity and directness, I
offer the lollowing six interconnected characteristics as a descriptioll of CLT:
1. Class~.oomgoals are focused on all of the components (grammatical,dis-
course, functional, sociolinguistic,and strategic) of communicative compe-
tence. Goals therefore must intertwine the organizational aspects of language
with he pr~gmatic.
2. Langliage techniques an: designed to engage learners in the pragmatic,
authentic, functional use of language for meanin@I purposes. Organizational
langu.ige forms are not 1 he celltral focus, but rather aspects of language that
enable the learner to accomplish those purposes.
3. Fluen":y and accuracy are seen as complementary principles underlying com-
munic ative techniques. At times fluency may have to take on more impor-
tance than accuclcy in order to keep learners meaningfully engaged in
languilge use.
4. Stude:~tsin a communic;~tivtclass ultimately have to use the I;~nguage,pro-
ducti~elyand receptively, in unrehearsed contexts outside the classroom.
Classr lorn tasks must therefore equip students with the skills necessary for
communication in those contexts.
5. Studer ~ t are
s given opportunities to focus on their own learning process
through an understanding of their own styles of learning and through the
development of appropriate strategies for autonomous learning.
6. The ntle of the teacher is that of facilitator and guide, not an all-knowing
besto~verof knowledge. Students are therefore encoumged to construct
meaning through genuine linguistic interaction with others.
These six ch;lracteristics underscore some major departures from earlier
approache i. In some ways those departures were a wadual product of outgrowing
the numer.)us methods that characterized a long stretch of history. In other ways
those dep;~rtureswere radical. Structurally (grammatically) sequenced curricula
were a malnstay of language teaching for centuries. CLT suggests that grimmatical
structure might better be subsumed under various functional categories. In CLT we
pay considerably less attention to the overt presentation and discussion of gram-
matical rules than we traditionally did. A great deal of use of authentic language is
implied in CLT, as we attempt to build fluency (Chambers 1997). It is important to
 Table 3.1. A comparison of the Audiolingual Method and Communicative Langu,~ge
Teaching (Finocchiaro & Brumfit 1983)
note, however, that fluency should never be encouraged at the expense of clear, ~udiolingualMethod
unambiguous, direct communication. Much more spontaneity is present in com-
municative classrooms: students are encouraged to deal with unrehearsed situa-
1. Attends to structure and form more than
tions under the guidance, but not control, of the teacher. The importance of meaning.
learners'developing a strategic approach to acquisition is a total turnabout from ear- 2. Demands more memorization of structure-
lier methods that never broached the topic of strategies-based instruction. And, based dialogues.
finally, the teacher's facilitative role in CIT is the product of two decades or more of 3. Language items are not necessarily contextu-
alized.
slowly recognizing the importance of learner initiative in the classroom.
4. Language learning is learning structures,
Some of the characteristics of CLT make it difficult lor a nonnative speaking sounds, or words.
teacher who is not very proficient in the second language to teach effectively. 5. Mastery or "overlearning" i s sought.
Dialogues, drills, rehearsed exercises, ant1 discussions (in the first language) of wlm- 6. Drilling i s a central technique.
matical rides are much simpler for some nonnative speaking teachers to contend 7. ~ative-speaker-likepronunciation is sought.
8. Grammatical explanation i s avoided.
with. This drawback should not deter one, however, from pursuing communicative
goals in the classroom. Technology (such as video, television, audiotapes, the 9. Communicative activities come only after a
Internet, the web, and computer software) can aid such teachers. Moreover, in the long process of rigid drills and exercises.
last decade or so, we have seen a marked increase in English teachers' proficiency 10. The use of the student's native language is
levels around the world. As educational and political institutions in various coun- forbidden.
11. Translation is forbidden at early levels.
tries become more sensitive to the importance of teachiag foreign languages for
communicative purposes (not just for the purpose of fulfilling a "requirement" or of 12. Reading and writing are deferred until
'passing a testn),we may be better able, worldwide, to accc~mplishthe goals of com- speech is mastered.
municative language teaching. 13. The target linguistic system is learned
One of the most comprehensive lists of CLT features came some time ago from through the overt teaching of the patterns of
the system.
Finocchiaro and Brumfit (1983: 91 -93) in a comparison of audiolingual method-
14. Linguistic competence is the desired goal.
ology with what they called the Communicative Approach. Because of its practi- 15. Variet~esof language are recognized but not
cality, their list is reprinted in Table 3.1. In subsequent ~rhapters,as you grapple emphasized.
with designing specific classroom techniques and planning lessons, you will be 16. The sequence of units is determined solely
given chances to apply your understanding of CLT and, no doubt, to refine that by principles of linguistic complexity.
understanding.
17. The teacher controls the learners and pre-
At the beginning of this section, it was noted that a'!.esn to CLT needed to be vents them from doing anything that con-
qi~dified.Why the caution? Doesn't all the above make perfectly good xnse? flicts with the theory.
Haven't CLT principles been applied repeatedly, and suzcessfully, in classrooms 18. "Language is habit," so error must be pre-
around the world? Indeed, you can with some assurance latch on to the CLT label vented at all costs.
and, like a member of a club, aver that you "believe in <:127,'' and be allowed to step 19. Accuracy, in terms of formal correctness, is ~iFluency and accept,tble language ,ire ths, prin~,lry
primary goal.
inside the gates. But as with every issuc in our field, there are caveats.
20. Students are expected to Interact with the
1. lleware of giving Lip service to principles of CL'T (and elated principles like language system, embodied in machines or
cooperative learning, interactivt: teaching, learner-centcred classes, content- controlled materials.
centered education, whole language, etc.-see the next sections in this 21. The teacher is expected to specify the lan-
guage that students are to use.
chapter) but not tnlly grounding your teaching techniclues in such principles.
22. Intrinsic motivation will spring from an
No one these days would admit to a disbelief in principles of CLT; they wo~lld interest in the structure of language.
be marked as a heretic. But if you believe the term chincterizes your
teaching, then make sure you do indeed understand ar.d practice your convic-
tions.
Communicative Language Teaching
Meaning IS paramount.
Dialogues, if used, center 'iround comr lunic,r~ive
functior~sand are not normally memorized.
Contextualization is a basic pren~ise.
Language learning is learning to comn :~nicate.
Effective communicat~onis souy,tit.
Drilling may occur, but peripherally.
Comprehensible pronunciiltion is soug it.
Any device that helps the learntar5 is acl.eptecl--
varying according tc~their agl., intert\t, etc
Attempts to communic.at~~ .Ire en[.oura!.rd froln
the very beginning.
judicious llse of native 1,lnguagt. 1s <rccc.;)trd
where f~~asiblr.
Transldtion may be ustd where student?nwtl or
benefit trom it.
Reading and writing c ~ I nstart from the ~rstd,lv, if
desired.
The target linguistic- system is learned t )rough
the process of struggling to conlnlun ate.
Communicative competence is thtx dt5sirc.d go,~l.
Linguistic variation is a central concrpt n mate-
rials and methods.
Sequencing is determined by ally corrsitIt~r.ltior1
of conter~tfunction or nie,ining t h ~n1aintaln5
t
Interest.
Teachers ht4p learners In ,my way th.11 r oliv~\,!s
thern to work with the I,~nguagr.
Language 15 often created by the r~idivid,~al
through trial and error.
goals; accuracy is judged not in thc ~ l r 5 t r ~ ~ i
but in context.
Students are expectt,d to interact with oti~er
people, either in the tlesh, through pa and
group work, or in their writing
The teacher cannot know ttxactly ~vh'rt I . ~ n g u ~ ~ e
the students will use.
Intrinsic motivation will spring from ;ui ii.terest in
what is being commun~catedby the lalrgtiagc,.

2. Avoid overdoing certain C:LT features: engaging in real-life,authentic language
in the classroonl to the total exclusion of any potentially helpful controlled
exercises. grammatical pointers, and other analytical devices; or simulating
the real world but refraining from "interfering" in the ongoing flow of lan-
g u a g . Such an "indirect" approach* (Celce-Murcia et al. 1997) to CLT only
offers the possibility of incidental learning without specific focus on forms,
rules, and principles of language organization. A more effective application of
<;I.?' principles is manifested in a "clirect"approach that carefully sequences
and structures tasks for learners and offers optimal intervention to aid
learners in developing strategies for acquisition.
3. Remember that there are numerous interpretations of CLT. Because it is a
catchall term, it is tempting to figure that everyone agrees on its definition.
They don't. In fact,some of those in the profession, with good reason, feel
uncomfortable using the term, even to the point of wishing to exorcise it
from our jargon. As long as you are aware of many possible versions of CLT, it
remains a term that can continue to capture current language-teaching
approaches.
(;losely allied to CLT are a number of concepts that have, like Cur, become
bandwagon terms without the endorsement of which teachers cannot be decent
human beings and textbooks cannot sell! To corroborate the latter, just take a look
at any recent ESL textbook catalog and try to find a book that is not "learner-
centcred:'"cooperativeeneinteractive~e language based,'"'contentcentered:' or,
of course, "communicative." One way of looking at these terms is that they are
simply expressions for the latest fads in language teaching and are therefore rels
tively meaningless. But another viewpoint would embrace them as legitimate
attempts to label current concerns within a CLT framework, as overlapping and con-
fusing ;IS those concerns sometimes are. I believe the latter is the more reasoned
perspective. However, in order to take that perspective, some "demythologizing' is
in order. Hence, a brief summary is appropriate.
1. Learner-Centered Instruction
This term applies to curricula as well as to specific techniques. It can be con-
trasted with teacher-centered, and has received various recent interpretations.
Learner-centered instruction includes
techniques that focus on o r account for learners' needs, styles, and goals.
techniques that give some control to the student (group work or
strategy training, for example).
Howatt (1984), tittlewood (1981), and Nunan (1988) refer to this as the "strong"
appro;lch to CLT, noting that most practitioners would follow aLweak"version of CLT
in which authenticity is coupled with structural and functional practice and other
procedures of intervention.
CHAPTER 3 The Present: AII Infornled "Approach" 47
cu~riculathat include the consultation and input of students and t h ~do
t
not presuppose objectives in advance.
techniques that allow for student creativity and innovation.
tecnniques that enhance a student's sense of competence and self-
worth.
Because language teaching is a domain that so often presupposes classrooms
where students have very little kmguage proficiency with which to negotiate with
the teacher, some teachers shy away from the notion of giving learners the "power"
associated with a learner-centered approach. Such restnint is not necessary
because, even in beginning level classes, teachers can offer students certain choices.
AU of these efforts help to give students a sense of "ownership"of their learning and
thereby acld to their intrinsic motivation (see page 59 and Chapter 5 for a discussion
of intrinsic motiv;~tion).
2. Cooperative a n d Collaborative Learning
A curriculum or classroom that is cooperative-and therefore not competi-
tive-usu.11ly involves the above learnercentered characteristics. As students work
together in pairs and groups, they share information and come to each others' aid.
They are ;: "team" whose players must work together in order to achieve goals suc-
cessfully. Research has s h o a n an advantage for cooperative learning (:as opposed to
individual learning) on such factors as "promoting intrinsic motivation,. . . height-
ening sell-esteem. . . . creating caring and altruistic relationships, and lowering anx-
iety and p7ejudicr" (Oxford 1997: 445). Included among some of the challenges of
cooperati\,e learning are accounting for varied cultunl expectations, individual
learning :tyles, personality differences, and overreliance on the first language
(Crandall 1999). (The effective implementation of cooperative learning through
group woik in the language classroom is a topic that is covered in detail in Chapter
12 of this book.)
Cooperative learning does not merely imply collaboration. To be sure, in a
cooperati\r classroom the students and teachers work together to pursue goals and
objectives. But cooperative learning "is more structured, more prescriptive to
teachers about classroom techniclues, more directive to students about how to work
[than collaborative learning]" (Oxford 1997: 443). In coopera-
together i i groups
~
tive learning models, a group lexrning activity is dependent on the socially struc-
tured exchange of information between learners. In collabontive learning, the
learner engages "with more capable others (teachers, advanced peers, etc.), who
provide assistance and guidance" (Oxford 1997: 444). Collaborative learning
models have been developed within social constructivist (see Brown 2000, Chapter
1) schoolr of thought to promote communities of learners that cut across the usual
hierarchies of students and teachers.
48 (:HAPTER 3 The Present: An Informed "Appro.~ch'
CHAPTER 3 Jhe t're'rerc'nt.An Informed 'Xpp o a ~ h " 49

focus on the social nature of languag

3. Interactive Learning
use of authentic, natural language
At the heart of current theories of communicative competence is the essen-
meaning-centered language
tially interactive nature of communic;ltion When yo,^ s p e ~ kfor , example, the
holistic assessment techniques in testing
extent to which your intended message is received is a Kctor of both your produc-
integration of the "four skills."
tion and the listener's reception. Most nleaning, in a semantic sense. is a pmdltct d
mgot?ation, of give and take, as interlocutura attempt 1.1 communicate. Thus, the
With all these interpretations, the concept of whole langmge has het.ome con--
communicative purpose of language compels us to crtlntl: opportunities for genuine
sidenbly watered down. Edelsky (1993: 550-51) noted that w h d c imgu;lge is not
interaction in the classn)om An interactive course or techniqt~ewill provide for
a recipe and it's not an activity that you schedule into your Icsson; "it is ;I" etluca~
such negotiation. Intenctive classes will most likely be found
tional way of life. [It helps people to] build nieaningft~l connections bet~reen
doing a significant amouni: uf pair work and grotip work.
t-i: everyday learning and school learning."
a,. It is appropriate, then, that we use the tcrr11 carefully so that it does not become
rccciving authentic language iillput in real-world contexts.
jusi another buzz word for teachers and materials developers. Two interconnected
producing language for genuine, meaningful con ~munication.
concepts are brought together in whole language:
performing classroom tiisks that prepare them tor actual languag use
"out there."
1. The wholeness of language implies that imgaage is not the suln of it, matly
practicing on1 cvmniuniiation through the gilre and take and spon-
dissectible and discrete parts. First language acquisition research shcnws u\
. taneity of actual conversations.
writing to and for real audiences, not contrived mes.
that children begin perceiving "wholes" (sentences, emotions, inronat~onpill-
terns) well before "parts; Second h p u a g e tcacheo therefore do well to hell,
their students attend to such wholes and not to yield to the temptatitln to
The theoretical foundations of mteractive learnin: lie in what Michael Long
build language only from the bottom up. And since par1 of the whoI~.nessof
(]9~x, 1 9 8 3 described as the interaction h y p o t h e s k of second language acquisi-
language includes the interrelationship of the four skills (listening, sprrking,
tion (see PLLT, Chapter 10) Going beyond Stephen Kmshen's (1997,1985) concept
reading, and writing), we are compelled to attend conscientiously to I lie intc-
of comprehensible input, Long and others have pointed out the impoflance of input gration of two or more of these skills in our classrooms.
and outpat in the development of language As learn<:rs interact wlth each other 2. Wholc ia~lguageis a perspective "mchored in a vision of nl equitrhlc. demt)-
thn)u$l o n [ and written discourse, their comnlunic;~theabilities are enhanced.
cratic, diverse society"(Edelsliy 1993: 548). Because w e use 1angu:lgt. to con-
4. Whole Language Educatioll struct meaning and to construct reality, teaching a 1;lnguagc e11;lbles It.;lmrrs
One of the most popular terms currently sweerlng through our profession, to understand a system of social practices that both const~linand liht.c~tt..
w h o l e language has been so w~dclyand divergcnthr interpreted that it unfornk Part of our job as teachers is to empower our learners to liberdte ther~lselvcs
nately is on the vcrge of losing the impact that it oncr had (see R ig 1991 for an from whatever social, political, or economic forces constrain the~n.
excellent review of whole language education). InitiaUy the term came from
5. Content-Based Instruction
reading research and was used to emphasize (a) thc dwholenessn of language as
Content-based instruction (CBI). according to Brinton, Snow, ; ~ n cWcsche
opposed to views that fragmented language into its hits and pieces of phonemes, (1989: vii), is "the integmti~nof content learning with language teachi~gaims.
graphemes, morphmles, and words; (b) the interlction and interconnections
More specifically, it refers to the concurrent study of l a ~ l g u r gand subject m r t t q
hetwecn oral ianguag (listening and speaking) and written language (reading and
with the form and sequence of language presentation dicrated Ily conielll rilatcrial."
writing): and (c) the importance, in literate societies, rf the written c& as n a t u d Such an approach contrasts sharply with many practices ill which imguage skills :Ire
and developmental, just as the ordl code is. taught virtually in isolation from substantive content, When language becomes the
Now the term has come to encompass a great dt al more. Wholc language is a
medium t o convey informational conimt of interest and relevance to the l r a r ~ l q
label that has been used to describe then lnrners are pointed toward matters of intrinsic coscem. Langtwge takes on
its appropriate role as a vehicle for accomplishing a set of olntent gwals.
cooper.ltive learning
A recent surge of research and material on CBI (Snow 1998, Brinton R Master
participatory learning
1997, Snow % Brinton 1997. aniong others) has given us new opportunities and
. studentcentered learning
focus on the community of learners
challenges. Content-based classrooms may yield an increase in intrinsic motivatioil
50 C H A P ~ E Ri The t're're,enl.A n Iniorn,ed "A~~prcwch"
and empowerment, since students are focused on subject matter that is important
to their lives. Students are pointed beyond transient extrinsic factors, like gndes
and tests, to their own competence and autonomy as intelligent individuals capable
of actu;~llydoing somethi~lgwith their new language. Challenges range from a
ttemancl for a whole new genre of textbooks and other materials to the training of
language teachers to trach the concepts and skills of various disciplines, proEes-
sions, and occupations, and/or to teach in teams across disciplines.
6. Task-Based Instruction
While there is a good deal of variation among experts on how to describe or
define klsk, l'eter Skehm's (1998a: 95) concept of task seems to capture the essen-
tials. He defines task as an activity in which
meaning is primary;
there is some commu~~ication problem to solve;
there is some sort oE relationship to comparable real-world activities;
tahk conlpletion has some priority; and
the assessment of the task is in terms of outcome.
A t ~ s kis really a special form of technique. In some cases, task and technique
may be synonymous (a problem-solving taskhechnique; a role-play t;~sk/technique,
for example). But in other cases, a task may be comprised of several techniques (for
example, a problem-solving task that includes, let's say, grammatical explanation,
teacher-initiatedquestions, and a specific turn-taking procedure). Tasks are usually
"bigger"in their ultinrate ends than techniques.
'I'ask-based instruction is not a new method. Rather, it puts task at the center
of one's methodological focus. It views the learning process as a set of commu-
rlicative tasks that ;Ire directly linked to the curricular goals they scrve, the purposes
of which extend heyond the practice of language for its own sake. Research on
task-based learning (see Skehan 1998a, 1998b; Skehan & Foster 1997, 1999;
Willianis Sr Burden 1997; Willis 1996, among others) has attempted to identlfy
types of. tasks that enhance learning (such as open-ended, structured, teacher-
fronted, sn~allgroup, and pair work), to define task-specific learner factors (for
example, roles. proficiency levels, and styles), and to examine teacher roles and
other variables that contribute to successful achievement of objectives.
Task-based instruction is a perspective within a CLT framework that forces you
to carefully consider all the techniques that you use in the classroom in terms of a
number of important pedagogical purposes:
i>othey ultimately point learners beyond the forms of language alone to
real-world contexts?
Do they specifically contribute to communicative goals?
CHAPTER 3 f i e Present: An Informed ''Approach" 51
: Art their elements carelirlly designed and not simply haphazardly or
.: idiosyncratically thrown together?
'.
Art their objectives well specified so that you can at some later point
accurately determine the success of one technique over another?
Do they engage learners in some form of genuine problem-solving
: act vity?
-
Your approach to language teaching is obviously the keystone to all your
teaching rlethodology in the classroom. By now, you may be able to *profess1'at
least some components of your own approach to language learning and teaching
and have a beginning of an understanding of how that approach enlightens-or will
enlighten--your classroonl practices. Many aspects of your approach will pre-
dictably mirror those that have been espoused here, especially since you are just
beginning to learn your teaching craft. That's quite acceptable. But do keep in
mind the importance of the dyn:lniic nature of the theoretical stance of even thc
most experienced teachers. We have much to learn, collectively, in this profession.
And we w:ll best instruct ourselves,and the profession at large, when we maintain
a disciplined inquisitiveness about our teaching practices. After all, that's how we
got to this point after a century of questioning.
TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION, ACTION, AND RESEARCH
INote: (1) individual work; ( G )group or pair work; (C) whole-class discussion.]
". ( I ) the notion that your overall approach to language teaching can
ReT'iew
directly lead to curriculum design and lesson techniques, without subscribing
to a method, as the tern1 was used in the previous chapter. C.,ln you still
comfortably use the tern1 methodology to refer to pedagogical practice in
gener~l?As you read other research literature in the field of langu:lge
teaching, pay special attention to how an author uses these terms. You will
find some disparity in the valious understandings of the terms.
2. (G) 011page 4 1.a checklist of seven items was provided for raders to men-
tally n spond to. Ask students to compare their responses with those of a
partner. in pairs, they should talk about what contextual factors might cause
one to change one's general inclination on any one or two of the items. Pairs
will then present some of their discussion to the rest of the class.
3. (G/C) In anticipation of Chapter 4, in which readers will encounter twelve
princil~lesof language leilrning and teaching, ask st~ldentsto bninstorm, in
small groups, some assertions about language learning that one might include
in a description of an approach to language teaching. For cxamplc, what
would they say about the issi~esof age and acquisition,inhibitions,how to
52 CHAPTER 3 The Presenl: An Informed "Approach"
best store something In memory, and the relationship of intelligence to
second language success? Direct the groups to come u p with axioms or prin-
ciples that would be relatively stable across many acquisition contexts Then,
as a whole class, list these on the board.
4. (G)Ask pairs to look at the six features used as a general definition of CLT on
page 43 and to come up with some practical classrocbm examples of each of
the six factors. Should any ch~racteristicsbe added to the list? or changed?
- 5. (G/Cj Direct pairs to look again at the twenty-two characteristics of CLT
( p a w 45) offered by Finocchiaro and Brumtlt and to isk themselves if they
are all in keeping with general CLT principles. Are tt!ey all sufficiently bal-
anced in their viewpoint? Would students disagree u ith any of them? Pairs
can share their ideas with the rest of the class.
6. (I/Gj Have students observe all ESI, class and use the chardcteristics as a
gauge of how closely the lesson approximates CLT. 5tudents should share
their obsew'~tionsin small groups.
7. O/G/C)Without looking back, students should write their own brief defini-
tions of:
* learner-centered instruction
cooperative and coll~borativelearning
interactive learning
whole language education
content-based instruction
task-based instruction
Now, have them compare their definitions with thost of a partner. If they are
still confused by any terms, they should try to clear u p the confusion through
re-reading and/or whole-class discussion.
8. (Cj Ask members of the class to volunteer some exaclples from personal
experience (learning or teaching) of the six types of teaching named above.
How do your examples fit the types of teaching?
9. (C)Ask students if there are 01her specialized terms ; ~ n dprofessional jargon
that are either fuzzy or confusing to them. If so, try 1 0 pin them down
through class discussion.
FOR YOUR FURTHER READING
Lee, James F, and Vanhtten, Bill. 1995. Muking Co,nrnunicative Language
Teaching Happen. New York: McGraw-Hill.
This professional reJbrence book is a useful resource for teachers and
teachers in [ruining zubo wc)uld li,ke a com[)rehe~zsif~uieul of clussrooms
operating under the principl~sof ( I T Sections of the hook are devoted to
teaching listening comprehension. grammar spoke z language, readiv~g,
CHAPT~K3 The Present An lntorrtred " A ~ roach"
F 53
and zoriting, all within a commzlnicatitle frf1tnrz~~ork.
Cb~znecttorzstcJt[uv:t.c.n
$ theov and practice are made.
fj
T I
Ip Kurnarav;tdivelu, B. 1994. "The postmethod condition: Emcrging s t ~ ~ t e g i cfor
s
second/foreign language teaching." TESOL Qzrarterly 8 : 27-48,
i~
,.L
Liu, Dilin. 1995. "Comments . . ." TESOL Quarterly 29; 174-77.
Kumaravadivelu, B. 1995. *The author responds . . :'TESOL Quarterly 2:): 17--80.
In the original 11994) article, the authorgiuts a conzpreh~~t~.sizu~
t:xplut~rit~o~z
of the state of thr urt of language teaching in terms ojwhat I har~c~ nlrerz~!~
.i. described in the lust chapter as u "n~tthodical" historj~ tl respotisc 10 this
and the original azltl~orkreply jollou~c~~l a pear later 'Ihese tl1rc.c ,/rticlts
t@er lzn excellent perspective on our 'post-method condition."
Celce-Murcia, Marianne, Diirnyei, Zoltin, and Thurrell. Sarah 199.' "Dlrect
approaches in L2 instruction: A turning point in communicative languagt
teaching?" TESOL Quarterly 31: 141-52.
In this proi~ocatiuerirticle, the authon offer ti pen-p:lctizle on C%T tha; big/'-
lights the importunce ofcareful(~~fi)cuscc-lirt.ztn~ctiotzu~itbinthc CZ7>rrrmca-
work, as opposc~dto simply exposing learnen- to k~tsofhng~lugc)
Crandall, J o h n . 1999. "Cooperative language Yearning and affective factors" In
Arnold, Jane (Ed.), Afiect in Language Learning. Canlbridge: C.~mbr~dgt
I!niversity Press. Pages 226-45.
Edelsky, Carole. 1993. "Whole language in perspective." 7.ESOL Olrul,terlv 27.
Oxford, Rebecca. 1997. "Cooperative learning, collaborative learning, ant1 interac-
tion: Three communicative strands in the language classroonl." ~Morlern
Lungurige Journal 81: 443-56.
R i a , Pat. 1991. "Whole language in TESOL." 1ETOL Quarterly 25: 5 2 1- t L .
Skehan, Peter. 1998b. "Task-based instruction." In Grabe, William (Ed.) Annual
Reuiew oJAPplied Linguistics, 1998. New York: Cambridge L:nivcrs~tyPress.
Pages 268-86.
Snow, Marguerite Ann. 1998. "Trends and issues in content-based instruc.tion." In
Grabe,William (Ed.), Annual Reviau oJ'AppIied Lir~guistics,1998. h ew York:
Cambridge [University Press. Pages 243-67.
In these six articles,you willjind either a comprehensi~~e
sj~nthesrsf (:rut 1~1~111,
R i a , Skehun, and Snowi or a commentary (Oxford lint1 Edel.sk-yj or j!r'e o j
the six chssroom models cf CL7: T h q are all reudc~r-fnentllv an^' zr'ill
tlnlighten you on Ji~rtberissz4es.
:

4
CHAPTFR
So far in this book you have observed ;I ctassroom in action, examined a century of
language-teachinghistory, and taken a look at major constructs that define current
practices in language teaching. It is now appropriate to home in on the core of lan-
guage pedagogy: the foundational principles that make up our collective approach
to language teaching.
In Principles ?f L~irtgurrgeLeanzirrg arrd Teriching (Brown 2000),I note that the
last two decades of research produced a complex storehouse of information on
second language acquisition and teaching. We have discovered a great deal about
how to best teach a second language in the ctassroom. And, while many mysteries
still remain about why and how learners successfully acquire second languages, it is
appropriate for you to focus on what we do know, what we have learned, and what
we can say with some certainty about second language acquisition. We can then
clearly sce that a guzat many of a teacher's choices are grounded in established prin-
ciples ol la~igiragelearning and teaching. By perceiving and internalizing connec-
tions Ijetween practice (choices you make in the classroom) and theory (principles
deriwcl from research),your teaching is likely to be "enlightened." You will be better
able to see why you have chosen to use a particular classroom technique (or set of
techniques), to carry it out with confidence, and to evaluate its utility after the fact.
You may be thinking that such a principled approach to language teaching
sounds only logical: How could one proceed otherwise? Well, I have seen many a
novice language tcacher gobble up teaching techniques without carefully consid-
ering the criteria that underlie their successful application in the classroom. "Just
give me 101 recipes for Monday morning teaching,"saysome. "I just want to know
what to do when I get into the classroom." Unfortunately, this sort of quick-fur
approach to teacher education will not give you that all-important ability to com-
prehend when to use a technique, with whom it will work, how to adapt it for your
audience, or how to judge its effectiveness.
We'll now take a broad, sweeping look at twelve overarching principles of
second language learning that interact with sound practice and on which your
teaching can be based. These principles form the core of an approach to language
55
CHAPTER 4 Teaching by Principles
teaching, ;u discussed in the previous chapter. It may be helpful for you, as you are
reading,to check referenced sectlons of PLLT(6rown 2000) to refresh your memory
of certain terms and background information.
COGNITIVE PRINCIPLES
We will call the first set of principles "cognitive" because they relate mainly to
mental and intellectual functions. It should be made clear, however, that 2111 twelve
of the pri~iciplesoutlined in this chapter spill across somewhat arbitrary cognitive,
affective, :tnd linguistic boundaries.
principle 1: Automaticity
No one can dispute the widely observed success with which children learn foreign
languages especially when they ;ire living in the cultural and linguistic milieu of the
languag (see PLLT, Chapter 3). We commonly attribute children's success to their
widely ollserved tendency to acquire language subconsciously, that is, without
overtly analyzing the forms of language themselves. Through an inductive process
of exposure to language input and opportunity to experiment with output, they
appear to learn languages without "thinking"about them.
This childlike, subconscious processing is similar to what Barry McLaughIin
(McLaughlin 1990; McL~uglilinet al. 1983) called automatic processing with
peripheral attention to language forms (PLLT, Chapter 10). That is, in order to
manage t l ~ eincredible com]>lexityand quantity of language-the vast numbers of
bits of infomiation-both adults and children must sooner or later move away from
processing language unit by unit, piece by piece, focusing closely on each, and6'grad-
uate" to ;I form of high-speed, automatic processing in which language forms
(words, a:'fures, word order, rules, etc.) are only on the periphery of attention.
Children ilsually make this transition faster than adults, who tend to linger in ana-
lytical, col~tn)lledmodes, focusing on the bits and pieces of language before putting
those bits and pieces into the "hard drive" of their minds.
We pill call our first principle of language learning and teaching the Principle
of Ailtom;.ticity and include under this rubric the importance of
sul~consciousabsorption ot' language through meaningful use,
efficient and rapid movenlent away from a focus on the forms of language to
a 6)cus on the purposes to which language is put,
eff~cientand rapid movement away from a capacity-limited contn,l of a few
bit.<and pieces to a relatively unlimited automatic mode of processing lan-
gu:ige forms, and
resistance to the temptation to analyze language forms.
II
I
56 CHAPTER4 Teachrng by Prrncrples
The Principle ofAutomatic~tymay be stated as follows:
Efficient second language learning involves a timely
movement of the control of a few language forms into the
automatic processing of a relatively unlimited number of
language forms. Overanalyzing language, thinking too
much about its forms, and consciously lingering on rules of
language all tend to impede this graduation to automaticity.
Notice that this principle does not say that focus on language forms is neces-
sarily harmful. In fact adults, espec~ally,can benefit greatlv from certain focal pro-
cessing of rules, definitions, and other Formal aspects of language. What the
principle does say is that adults car1 take a lesson from cl ~ildrenby speedily over-
coming our propensity to pay too much focal attention to the bits and pieces of lan-
guage and to move language forms quickly to the periph<.ry by using language in
authentic contexts for meaningful purposes. In so doing, automaticity is built more
efficiently.
What does this principle, which ordin;irily applies to adult instruction, mean to
you as a teacher? Here are some possibilities:
1. Because classroom learning normally begins with conrrolled, focal processing,
there is no mandate to entirely avoid overt attention t.) language systems
(grammar, phonology, discourse, etc.). That attention, however, should stop
well short of blocking students from achieving a rnort automatic, fluent g n s p
of the language. Therefore, grammatical explanations or exercises dealing
with what is sometimes called '.usagenhave a place in the adult classroom (see
Principle 12), but you could overwhelm your student? with grammar. If they
become too heavily centered on the formal aspects of language, such
processes can block pathways to fluency.
2. Make sure that a large proportion of your lessons are focused on the "i~se" of
language for purposes that are as genuine as a classroom context will permit.
Students will gain more language competence in the long run if the func-
tional purposes of language are the focal point.
3. Automaticity isn't gained overnight. therefore, you net:d to exercise patience
with students asyou slowly help them to achieve flut ncy.
Principle 2: Meaningful Learning
Closely related to the Principle of Automaticity are cognttive theories of learning
(PLLT, Chapter 4 ) , which convincingly argue the stre~igthof meaningful as
opposed to rote learning (Ausubtl 1963). Meaningful Iarning "subsumes" new
information into existing stnlctures and memory systems, and the resultir~gassocia-
tive links create stronger retention. Rote learning-taking in isolated bits and
pieces of information that are not connected with one's existing cognitive struc-
tures-has little chance of creating long-term retention. Children are gclod mean-
ingful acquirers of language (see Principle 1) because they associate sounJs, words.
stnlctures, and discourse elements with that which is relevant and im1)ortant in
their daily quest for knowledge and survival.
The Principle of Meaningful Learning is quite simply stated:
Meaningful learning will lead toward better long-term
retention than rote learning.
The language classroom has not always been the best ]>lace for meaningful
learning. In the days when theAudiolingua1 Method (see PLLT, Chapter 4 ) was pop-
ular, rote learning occupied too much of the class hour as students were drilled :ind
drilled in an attempt to "overlearn" language forms. The Principle of Meaningful
Learning tells us that some aural-oral drilling is appropriate; selected phonological
elements like phonemes, rhythm, stress, and intonation, for ex;imple, can indeetl he
taught effectively through pattern repetition. But drilling ad nauseam ea:>ilyIcnds
itself to rote learning.
Some classroom implications of the Principle of Meaningtill Learning
1. Capitalize on the power of meaningful learning hy appealing to studellts'
interests, academic goals, and career goals.
2. Whenever a new topic or concept is introduced, attempt to anchor it In stu-
dents' existing knowledge and background so that it becomes associated with
something they already know.
3. Avoid the pitfalls of rote learning:
a. too much grammar explanation
b. too many abstract principles and theories
c. too much drilling and/or memorization
d. activities whose purposes are not clrar
e. activities that do not contribute to accomplishing the goals of he
lesson, unit, or course
f. techniques that are so mechanical or tricky that Ss focus on t h ~ .
mechanics instead of on the language or meanings.
[ M c i p l e 3: The Anticipation of Reward
B.E Skinner and others hdve clearly demonstrated the strength of rewards in both
animal and human behavior (see PLLT, Chapter 4). Virtually everything vie do is
 .
58 (HAPSFR4 Teachlng by F'rtl~clples CHAPTER 4 Teaching by Princfp/e 59

inzplrecl and drlven by a sense of purpose or goal, and, according to Skinner, the principle 4: Intrinsic Motivation
;mticip;ltlon of reward is the most powerful factor in directing one's behavior. The
This principle is elaborated upon in detail in the next chapter as an example of how
principle behind Skinner's operant cond~t~oning paradigm,which 1 term the Reward
certain complex principles underlie a surprising number of our teaching practices.
I/I$ Principle, can be stated as follows:
Simply stated, the Intrinsic Motivation Principle is:

Human beings are universally driven to act, or "behave,"

by the anticipation of some sort of reward-tangible or
intangible, short term or long term-that will ensue a s a
result of the behavior.
The most powerful rewards are those that are
Intrinsically motivated within the learner. Because the
behavior stems from needs, wants, or desires within
oneself, the behavior itself is self-rewarding;therefore,
no externalty administered reward is necessary.

The implications for the classroom are obvious. At one end of the spectrum,
you can perceive the importance of the immediate administration of such rewards
If all learners were intrinsic;illy motivated to perform all classroom tasks, we
as praise for correct responses ("Very good, Maria!""Nice job!"), appropriate gndes
might not wen need teachers! But you can perform a great service to learners and
or scores to indicate success, or other public recognition. At the other end, it
to the overall learning process by first considering caref~lllythe intrinsic motives of
behooves you to help students to see clearly why they are doing something and its
your students and then by designing classroom tasks that feed into those intrinsic
relevance to their long-term goals in learning English. On the other hand, a reward-
drives. Classroom techniques have a much greater chance for success if they are
driven, conditioning theory of learning has some shortcomings that ultimately have
self-rewarding in the perception of the learner. The learners perform the task
a high impact on classroom instruction. These shortcomings are summarized under
because it s fun, interesting, usefill, or challenging,and not because they anticipate
Principle 4, but for the moment, keep in mind that conditioning by rewards can (a)
some cognitive or affective rcwards from the teacher.
lead learners to become dependent on short-term rewards, (b) coax them into a
You may be wondering why such a principle is listed among "cognitive"prin-
habit of looking to teachers and others for their only rewards,and therefore (c) fore-
ciples. Tht development of intrinsic motivation does indeed involve affective pro-
stall the development of their own internally administered, intrinsic system of
cessing, as most of these first five principles do, and so the argument is appropriate.
rewards.
But reward directed behavior in all organisms is complex to the point that cognitive,
Considering ;11l sides of the Reward Principle, the following constructive class-
physical, and affective processing are all involved. In the specific case of second
room implications may be drawn:
language acquisition, mental functions may actually occupy a greater proportion of
the whole f han the other two domains, as we shall see in Chapter 5.
1. Provldc an optimal degree of immediate verbal praise and encoungement to
them as a form of short-term reward (just enough to keep them confident in
their ability but not so much that your praise simply becomes verbal gush). Principle 5: Strategic Investment
2. Encourage students to reward each other with compliments and supportive
A few decades ago, the language-teachingprofession largely concerned itself with
action.
the "delivery" of language to the student. Teaching methods, textbooks, or even
3. In classes with very low motivation, short-term reminders of progress may
gammatical paradigms were cited as the primary factors in successhl Learning. In
help students to perceive their development. Gold stars and stickers (espe-
more recept years, in the light of many studies of successful and unsi~ccesshl
cially for young learners), issuing certain "privileges"for good work, and
learners, language teachers are focusing more intently on the role of the learner in
progress charts and graphs may spark some interest.
the process The "methods" that the learner employs to internalize and to perform
4. Display enthusiam and excitement yourself in the classroom. If you are dull, life-
in the lang~ageare as important as the teacher's methods-or more so. I call this
less, bored,and have low energy,you can be almost sure that it will be contagious.
the Principle of Strategic Investment:
5. 'Try to get learners to see the long-term rewards in learning English by
pointing out what they can do with English where they live and around the
world, the prestige in being able to use English, the academic benefits of
knowing English, jobs that require English, and so on.
60 CHAPTER 4 Teaching by Principles
and producing the language. 1
Successful mastery of the second language will be due to a
large extent to a learner's own pefsonal 'investment" of
time, effort, and attention to the second language in the form
of an individualized battery of strategies for comprehending
This principle is laid out in full detail in Chapter 14,where practical classroom
applications are made. For the time being, however, ponder two major pedagogical
implications of the principle: (a) the importance of recognii:ing and dealing with the
wide variety of styles and strategies that learners successh~llybring to the learning
process and, therefore, (b) the need for :Ittention to each separate individual in the
classroom.
As research on successful language learners has dclm.ltically shown, the varia-
tion ;imong learners poses a thornv pedagogical dilemm;!. Learning styles alone
signal numerous learner preferences that a teacher need5 to attend to (see PLLT,
Chapter 5). For example, visual vs. auditory preference ;md individual vs. group
work preference are highly significant factors in a classroc~m.In a related strain of
research, we are finding that learners also employ a multiplicity of strategies for
sending and receiving language and th;lt one learner's st:ategies for success may
differ markedly from another's.
A variety of techniques in your lessons will at least panially ensure that you will
"reach" a maximum number of students. So you will choose a mixture of group
work and individual work, of visual and auditory techniq,.~es,of easy and difficult
exercises. Beware, however. of variety at the expense of tc chniques that you know
are essential for the learner! If, for example, you know thdt three-quarters of your
class prefers individual work, that should not dictate the proportion of time you
devote to activities that involve silent work at their deski. They may need to be
nudged, if not pushed, into more face-to-face communicative activities than their
preferences would indicate.
A teacher's greatest dilemma is how to attend to eacn individual student in a
class while still reaching the class as a whole group. In rel.ltively large classes of 30
to 50 students, individual attention becomes increasingly difficult; in extra-large
classes* it is virtually impossible. The principle of strategic investment nevertheless
is a reminder to provide as much attention as you can to each individual student.
* In far too many language classrooms around the world, stuc ents number over 50; 60
to 75 students is not uncommon. For years I have tried to pchrsuade administrators to
lower those numbers and to understz~ndthat communicative acquisition of a language
is almost impossible under such circumst;mces. Nevertheles,, the reality of school
budgets sometimes provides few alternatives. See Chapter I 5 for some practical
suggestions for dealing with large classes.
CHAPTER 4 Teaching by Prin, !pies 61
r
1
i
ei
k
Some aspects of the dilemma surrounding v~riationand the need for individu-
alization can be solved through specilic strategies-based hstruction, the prin-
cipal topic of Chapter 14. Meanwhile, simply as a 'sneak preview" to that chapter,
you might consider these questions as more grist for your teacher educat~onmill:
Am I seizing whatever opportunity 1 can to let learners in on the "st:cretsnto
develop and use strategies for learning and communication?
Do my lessons and impromptu feedback adequately sensitize students to the
wisdom of their taking responsibility for their own learning?
How can I ensure that my students will want to put forth the effort of trying
out some strategies?
iI AFFECTIVE PRINCIPLES
i
1
We now turn our attention to those principles that are characterized by a 1.1rge pn)-
portion of emotional involvement. Here we look at feelings about self, about rela-
tionships in a community of learners, and about the elnot~onal t1e5 Ixtwren
language and culture
Principle 6: Language Ego
The Language Ego Principle can be summarized in a well-recognized claim
--
As human beings learn to use a second language, they also
develop a new mode of thinking, feeling, and acting--a
second identity. The new 'language ego," intertwined with
the second language, can easily create within the learner a
sense of fragility, a defensiveness, and a raising of inhibitions.
The Language Ego Principle might also be affectionately called the "w:~rmand
fuzzy" principle: all second language learners need to be treated with ;!ffective
tender loving care. Remember when you were first learning a second langu;~geand
how you sometimes felt silly, if not humiliated, when the lack of. words or structure
left you helpless in face-to-face communication? Otherwise highly intelligent adults
can be reduced to babbling infants in a second language. Learners feel this tiagility
because the strategic arsenals of their native-language-based egos, which ;\re nor-
mally well developed and resistant to attack, are suddenly-in the perccptiorl of the
learner-obsolete. Now they must fend for their emotional selves with a paltry lin-
guistic battery that leaves them with a feeling of total defenselessness.
i
62 CtfAPrER 4 Teaching by Rincples
How can you bring some relief to this situation and provide affective support?
I-Iere are some possibilities.
1. Overtly display a supportive attitude to your students. While some learners
may feel quite stupid in this new language, remember that they are capable
adults struggling with the acquisition of the most complex set of skills that
any classroom has ever attempted to teach. Your "warm and fuzzy" patience
and empathy need to be openly and clearly communicated, for fragile lan-
guage egos have a way of misinterpreting intended input.
2. On a more mechanical, lesson-planninglevel, your choice of techniques and
sequences of techniques needs to be cognitively challenging but not over-
whelming at an affective level.
3. Considering learners' language ego states will probably help you to determine
who to call on
who to ask to volunteer information
when to correct a student's speech error
how much to explain something
how structured and planned an activity should be
who to place in which small groups or pairs
how "tough"you can be with a student.
4. If your students are learning English as a second language (in the cultural
milieu of an English-speakingcountry), they are likely to experience a mod-
ente identity crisis as they develop a "second self." Help such students to
understand that the confusion of developing that second self in the second
culture is a normal and natural process (see PLLT, Chapter 7). Patience and
understanding on your part will also ease the process.
Principle 7: Self-confidence
Another way of phrasing this one is the "I can do it!" principle, or the self-esteem
principle (see PLLT, Chapter 6, on self-esteem). At the heart of all learning is a
person's belief in his or her ability to accomplish the task. While self-confidence
can be linked to the Language Ego Principle above, it goes a step further in empha-
sizing the importance of the learner's self-assessment,regardless of the degree of
language-ego involvement. Simply put, we are saying:
Learners' belief that they inked are fully capable of
accomplishing a task is at least partkdly a factor in their
eventual success in attaining the task.
CHAPTER 4 Teaching by Prrncipies 63
Some immediate classroom applications of this principle emerge. First, give
ample verbal and nonverbal assurances to students. It helps a student to hear a
teacher aflirm a belief in the student's ability. Energy that the learner would other-
wise direct at avoidance or at erecting emotional walls of defense is thereby
released tcv tackle the problem at hand.
Second, sequence techniques from easier to more difficult. As a teacher you
are called ~ ) to
n sustain self-confitlencewhere it already exists and to build it where
it doesn't. Your activities in the classroom would therefore logically start with sim-
pler techniques and simpler concepts. Students then can establish a sense of
accomplisl~mentthat catapults them to the next, more difficult,step. In the lesson
described in Chapter 1,the culminating activity (items 27-29) would have been too
overwhelniing for most students. even if they had "known" the gr;~mmaticalmate-
rial, had it occurred toward the beginning of class.
Principle 8: Risk-Taking
A third affcctive principle interrelated with the last two is the importance of getting
learners to take calculated risks in attempting to use language-both productively
and receplively. The previous two principles, if satisfied, lay the groundwork for
risk-taking If learners recognize their own ego fragility and develop the firm belief
that, yes, they can indeed do it, then they are ready to take those necessary risks.
They are n ady to try out their newly acquired language, to use it for meaninghil pur-
poses, to a!k questions, and to assert themselves.
Successful language learners, in their realistic appraisal of
themselves as vulnerable beings yet capable of accomplishing
*ks, must be willing to become "gamblers"in the game of
language, to attempt to produce and to interpret language that
is a bit beyond their absolute certainty.
This principle strikes at the heart of educational philosophy. Many instruc-
tional contexts around the world do not encourage risk-taking; instead they
encourage correctness, right answers, and withho1ding"guesses"until one is sure to
be correct. Most educational research shows the opposite to be more conducive to
long-term letention and intrinsic motivation. How can your classrooms reflect the
Principle of Risk-Taking?
1. Create an atmosphere in the classroom that encourages students to try out
language, to venture a response, and not to wait for someone else to volunteer
language.
64 CHAPTER 4 Teaching by Principles
2. Provide reasonable challenges in your techniques-make them neither too
easy nor too hard.
3. Help your students to understand what calculated risk-taking is, lest some feel
that they must blurt out any old response.
4. Respond to students' risky attempts with positive affirmation, praising them for
trying while at the same time warmly but firmly attencling to their language.
Principle 9: The Language-Culture Connection
Language and culture are intricately intertwined. Any time you successhlly learn a lan-
guage, you will also learn something of thc culture of the speakers of that language.
This principle focuses on the complex interconnection of language and culture:
Whenever you teach a language, you also teach a complex
system of cultural customs, values, and ways of thinking,
feeling, and acting.
Classroom applications include the following.
1. I>iscuss cross-cultunl diffcrcnces with your students, c.mphasizing that no
culture is "better" than another, but that cross-cultural understanding is an
important facet of learning a language.
2. Include among your techniques certain activities and ~naterialsthat illustrate
the connection between language and culture.
3. Teach your students the cultural connotations, especially the sociolingiustic
aspects, of language.
4. Screen your techniques for m;iterial that may be cultulally offensive.
5. Make explicit to your students what you may take for gctnted in your own
culture.
A second aspect of the Ianguage-Culture Connection is the extent to which your
students will themselves be affected by the process of acculturation,which will vary
with the context and the goals of learning. In many second language learning con-
texts,such as ESL in the US, students are faced with the full-blown realities of adapting
to lifc in a foreign country, complete with various emotions accompanying stages of
accultur~tion(sec Chapter 7 of PLLT). In such cases, acculturation, social distance,
and psychological adjustment are factors to be dealt with. This aspect of the principle
may be summed up in this way:
CHAPTER4 Teaching l l y Pr~niples 65
Especially in "second*language learning contexts, the success
with which learners adapt to a new cultural milieu will affect
their language acquisition success, and vice versa, in some
possibly significant ways.
From the perspective of the classroom teacher, this principle is similar to the
Language Ego and Self-Esteem principles, and all the concomitant cl:~ssroe)min~pli-
cations apply here as well. An added dimension, however, lies in the irlteraction
between culture learning and language learning. An opportunity is give11 to
teachers to enhance, if not speed up, both developmental processes. Once studcnts
become aware that some of their discouragement may stem from cultural sourcrs,
they can more squarely address their state of mind and emotion and do something
about it.
ln the classroom, you can
1. help students to be awarc of acculturation and its stags.
2. stress the importance of the second language as a powerful tool for al.ljust-
ment in the new culture.
3. be especially sensitive to any stirdents who appear to be tliscouragcd, then do
what you can to assist them.
LINGUISTIC PRINCIPLES
The Last category of principles of language learning and traching center. on Ian-
guage itself and on how learners deal with these complex linguistic systenls.
Principle 10: The Native Language Effect
It almost goes without saying that the native language of every learncr is an
extremely significant factor in thc acquisition of a new language. Most of llir ti~nr,
we think of the native language as exercising an interfering effect on thr target I;m-
guage, and indeed the most salient, observable effect does appe:lr to hc one of inter-
ference (see PLLT, Chapter 8). The majority of a learner's errors in producing the
second language,especially in the beginning levels, stem from thc learner's ~Issunlp-
tion that the target language operates like the native language.
But what we observe may, Like an iceberg, be only part of the reality. 771e facil-
itating effects of the native language are surely as powerful in the process, or more
 ~ I A P T E R4 Teaching by Prrncrples 67

so, evt:n though they are less observable. When the native French speaker who is principle 11 : Interlanguage
learning English says "I am here since January," there is one salient native language
effect, a verb tense rrror stemming from French. But the learner's native French Just as children develop their native language in gradual, systematic stages, adults, too,
may also have facilitated the production of that sentence's subject-verb-complement manifest a systematic progression of acquisition of sounds and words and structures
word order, the placement of the locative (here), the one-to-one grammatical corre- and discourse features (see PLLT, Chapter 8). The Interlanguage Principle tells us:
spondence of the other words in the sentence, rules governing prepositional
phrases, and the cognate word (January).
The Principle of the Native L;lnguage Hfect stresses the importance of that Second language learners tend to go through a
native system in the linguistic attempts of the second language learner: systematic or quasi-systematicdevelopmental process
as they progress to full competence in the target
language. Successful lnterlanguage development is
The native language of learners exerts a strong influence on partially a result of utilizing feedback from others.
the acquisition of the target language system. While that native
system will exercise both facilitating and interfering effects on
the production and comprehension of the new language, the While the interlanguage of second language learners varies considerably (ser
interfering effects are likely to be the most salient. PLLT, Chapter 8, on variability) between systematic and unsysten~aticlinguistic
-
forms and underlying rules, one important concept for the teacher to bear in mind
is that at least some of a learner's language may indeed be systematic. In other
words, in !he mind's eye of learners, a good deal of what they say or comprehend
In your dealing with the Native l ~ n g u a g eEffect in the classroom, your f e d -
may be lo::ically "correct" even though, from the stantlpoint of a native speaker's
back will ]nost often focus on interference. That's perfectly sound pedagogy.
competent:e, its use is incorrect A learner who says "Does John a n sing?" may
1.earners' errors stand out like the tips of icebergs, giving us salient signals of an
believe it lo Ile a correct grammltical utterance because of an internalized system-
underlying system at work. Errors are, in fact, windows to a learner's internalized
atic rule that requires a pre-posetl do auxiliary for English question formation.
understanding of the second language, and therefore they give teachers something
Allowrng learners to progress through such systematic stages of acquisition
observable to react to. Student non-errors-the facilitating effects-certainly do
poses a delicate challenge to teachers. The collective experience of language
not nced to be trezited. Don't try to fur something that isn't broken.
teachers and a respectable stockpile of second language research (Doughty C(r
Some (:lassroom suggestions stemming from the Native Language Effect:
Williams 1098; Long 1996,1988; Long Sr Sato 1983) indicates that classroom instruc-
tion make:, a significant difference in the speed and success with which learners
1. Regirrd learners' errors as important windows to their underlying system and
proceed tt~roughinterlanguage stages of development. This highlights the impor-
provide appropriate feedback on them (see Principle 11 and Chapter 17 for
tance of the feedback that you give to learners in the classrooni. In many settings
more irhrmation on feedback). Errors of native language interference may
(especially in EFL contexts where few opportunities arise outside the classroom to
be repaired by acquainting the learner with the native language cause of the
use the lal~guagecommunicatively), you are the only person with whom the stu-
error.
dents have real-live contact who speaks F~glish.All eyes (and ears) are indeed
2. Ideally, every successful l e ~ r n e will
r hold on to the facilitating effects of the
upon you 1,ecause you are the authority on the English language, whether you like
native language and discard the interference. Help your students to under-
it or not. 6uch responsibility means that virtually everything you say and do will be
stand that not everything about their native language system will cause error.
noticed (except when they're not paying attention)!
3. Thinking directly in the target language usually helps to minimize interference Much has been written and spoken about the role of feedback in second lan-
errors. Try to coax students into thinking in the second language instead of
guage acquisition. In Vigil and Oller's (1976) seminal study (see PLLT, Chapter 8),
resorting to t~inslationas they comprehend and produce language. An occa-
teachers were reminded of an important distinction between affective and cognitive
sional translation of a word or phrase can actually be helpful, especially for
feedback. The former is the extent to which we value or encourage a student's
d u l t s , but direct use of the second language will help to avoid the first ban-
attempt to communicate; the latter is the extent to which we indicate an under-
g u a g "crutch" syndrome.
 standing of the "message" itself. Teachers are engaged in a never-ending process of
making sitre that we provide sufficient positive affective feedback to students and
at the same time give appropriate feedback to students about whether or not their
actual language is clear and unambiguous. (Chapter 17 has for more information on
error feedback.)
How, then, do you know what kind of feedback to offer students? Are inter-
I;lngu;tge errors simply to be tolerated as natural indications of systematic internal-
ization of a language? These important questions are to some extent answered in
Chapter 17. For the moment, however,a number of general classroom implications
deserve your attention:
1. Try to distinguish between a student's systematic interlanguage errors (stem-
ming from the native language or target language) and other errors; the former
will pnjbtbly have a logical source that the student car! become aware of.
2. Teachers need to exercise some tolerance for certain interlanguage forms that
may ;[rise out of a student's logical developmental pro,:ess.
3. Don't make a student feel stupid because of an interla;~guageerror; quietly
point out the logic of the erroneous form ("I can undt rstand why you said 'I
go to the doctor yesterday,' but try to remember that ill English we have to say
the verb in the past tense. Okay?").
4. Your classroom feedback to students should give then-. the message that mis-
takes are not"hadn but that most mistakes are good intlicators that innate lan-
guage acquisition abilities are alive and well. Mistakes are often indicators of
aspects of the new language that are still developing.
5. Try to get students to selfcorrect selected errors; the ;~bilityto self-correct
may indicate readiness to use that form correctly and ;-egularly.
6. In your feedback on students' linguistic output, make sure that you provide
ample affective feedback-verbal or nonverbal-to encourage them to speak.
7. As you make judicious selection of which errors to trt at (see Chapter 17), do
so with kindness and empathv so that the student will not feel thwarted in
future attempts to speak.
Principle 12: Communicative Competence
While communicative competence (CC) has come lo ':apture a multiplicity of
meanings depending on who you ask, it is nevertheless a useful phrase. In its
skeletal form, CC consists of some combination of the following components
(Bachman 1990, Canale & Swain 1980):
organizational competence (grammatical and disco~irse)
pragmatic competence (functional and sociolinguistic)
strategic competence
psychomotor skills
The array of studies on CC provides what is perhaps the most important lin-
guistic principle of learning and teaching:
Given that communicative competence is the goal of a
language classroom, instruction needs to point toward
all its components: organizatbnal, pragmatic, strategic,
and psychomotor. Communicative goals are best
achieved by giving due attention to language use and not
just usage, to fluency and not just accuracy, to authentic
language and contexts, and to students' eventual need to
apply classroom learning to previously unrehearsed
contexts in the real world.
It is important to note that the CC principle still has a bit of a re~ctionihtflavor:
reacting to other paradigms that emphasized attention to grammatical form:., to"c.or-
rect" language above all, to artificial, contrived language and techniques in the class-
room, and to a finite repertoire of language forms and fi~nctionsthat might not h;tve
lent themselves to application in the world outside the classroom. Hut since most
of our language-teaching generalizations are, after all, at least partially ccgnceived
against the backdrop of previous practices, such a statement can stand as L reason-
ably accunte description of our current understanding of' CC.
To attempt to list all the applications of such a principle to the languaye class-
room would be an exhaustive endeavor! Many such applications will become cvi-
dent in later chapters of this book. But for the sake of closure and si~r~plicib,
consider the following six classroom teaching "rules" that might emerge:
1. Remember that grammatical explanations or drills or exercises are onl!- part
of a lesson or curricu1um;give grammar some attention, but don't neglect the
other important components (e.g., functional, sociolinguistic, psvchorn~~tor,
and strategic) of CC.
2. Some of the pragmatic (functional and sociolinguistic) aspects of l a n g ~ i a g:Ire
very subtle and therefore very difficult. Make sure your lessons aim to tcacl~
such subtlety.
3. In your enthusiasm for teaching functional ant1 sociolinguistic aspects I ,f lan-
guage, don't forget that the psychomotor skills (pronunciation) arc an impor-
tant component of both. Intonation alone conveys a great deal of pragmatic.
information.
4. Make sure that your students have opportunities to gain some fluency ~n
English without having to be constantly wary of little mistakes. 'They can
work on errors some other time.
 @)
5. 'rry to keep ebery technique that you use as authentic as possible: use lan-
guage that students will actually encounter in the real world and provide gen-
ulne, not rote, techniques for the xctual conveyance of information of interest.
6. Some day your students will no longer be in your classroom. Make sure you
;we prrparing them to be independent learners and manipulators of language
"out there."
'The twelvr principles that have just been reviewed are some of the major foun-
dation stones for teaching practice. While they are not by any mrans exhaustive,
they can act for you as major theoretical insights o n which your techniques and
lessons and curricula can be based.
J hope you have gained from this discussion the value of undergirding your
teaching (and your teachrr training process) with sound principles that help you to
understand why you choose to do something in the classroom: what kinds of ques-
tions to ~ s yourself
k before the fact about what you are doing,how to monitor your-
self while you are teaching, how to assess after thc fact the effectiveness of what
yo11 did. and thrn how to modify what you will do the next time around.
FOR YOUR HJRTHER READING
[Note: (I) Individual work; (G) group or pair work; (C) wholr-class discussion.]
1. (6)l'lie twelvr principles summarized in this chapter are all important.
Direct small groups to prioritize them, placing three principlrs at the top of
the list. Then, have the groups compare their top three with others in the
cl;us. All may discover how difficult it is to choose only three to be at the top
of thr list.
2. (G) Havc any principles been lett out that should have been included? Ask
sn1:1U groups to pool their thoughts, describe any such principles, and justify
their inclusion in such a list. Groups will then compare their own conclu-
sions with those of others.
3. (G) Go back to Chapter I. Notice that in the second part of the chapter,
questions were raised regarding the ESL lesson that was described. Assign
one or more of those 30 commrnts to pairs. The task of each pair is to
determine which principles in this chapter justified the teacher's choice in
each case, and (b) to decide whether any aspects of that lesson should have
been altered and which principles support those alterations. Then, pairs can
share their thoughts with the rest of the class.
4. (C) Look at Chapter 2, in which a number of methods were descriptive of a
brief history of language teaching. A chalkboard list of methods should stimu-
late a class discussion of the extent to which each method can be justified by
certain principles discussed in this chapter and criticized by other principles.
CHAPTER 4 Teaching hy Pr~nciples 71
5. @)As;In exercise in articulating principles, write one or more sentences in
your own words to describe each of the twelve principles cited here. Try
doing :his without looking back at the chapter, then compare your responses
with v,hat is written in the chapter.
6. (C)The twelve principles given here form elements of a theory of second lan-
guage learning and teaching isce PLLT, Chapter 10). Using these twelve prin-
ciples 1s a backdrop, ask the class to formulate a possible theory of second
languaje learning and teaching. Chalkboard notes will remind studcnts of
variou, ideas and suggestions.
7. (I/C)l he next time you observe a foreign language class (this could be one
you arv taking yourself), take a list of the twelve principles with you and
determine the extent to which the principles are being applied. In some
cases a principle may explain why students are successfully achieving lesson
object~ves;in other cases a principle might articulate why objectives were not
reache.i. Your insights might be reported back to the class.
Spolsky, Rvrnard. 1:)89. Conditic~nsfor Second Language Learning. OxFord:
Oxford University Press.
Spolsky..;book sets fortl:~some seLJenty 'principles, or condit~ons~
" ji)r suc-
cessfirl :ecotrd lunguage trcyui.sitiion. Thy breuk down irrto quite .~pecific
conditic rrs. His list is worth corrtparing to the list of'twelts in this chcrpter.
Brown, H. Douglas. 1991 "TESOL at twenty-five: What are the issues?" TESOL
Quartet(y 25: 245-60.
This crri iclc extimines major ESOL issues in the early 1990s: viotivation,
empowcrment. Errglisb trs crrr i~rternatiorlallarrgt~uge,content-cerit~~t~dctl~t-
cation, ,~lhoielirnguage, tmk-llased teachirrg, peace edt~cation,cooperutil'e
learrrin,i!,cind learrler slrcrtegp training. It u~ouMhe of interest to compare
the issr4ts it1 this article w ~ t hissues noul, a dect~cl~
or so later.
Mitchell, Rosamond and Mvles, Florence. 1998. Semnd Language Learning
Theorie:;. New York: OxFord University Press.
7bis boc kprovides a ue7y ucce.sible sun!? of current theories trnd issues in
thefield o/seconci language acy~risition(SLA). Along with PLLT. it senies m
a tanta,:e point ji-om zclh~zhto c1ieu]the hack drop.^ to the tu!eIue principles
presented in this chapter.
 CHAPTFR 5 You can interpret this definition in varying ways, depending un the theory of
For every complicatetl problem there is an a1 swer
that is short,simple, and wrong.
- H.L. kter~cken
One of the more complicated problems of second language learning and teaching
has been to define and apply the construct of motivation In the classroom. On the
one hand, it is an easy catchword that gives teachers ;I simple answer to the mys-
teries of language learning. "Motivation is the difference,' I have heard people say,
"between success and failure. If they're motivated, they 11 learn, and if not, they
won't." That simplification may hold some of the time. F'hy not all the time? Just
what is motivation? Can it be acquired, or is it just "tt\ere"? Can it be taught?
Where does it come from? Ax there different kinds of motivation? If you don't
address questions like these carefully, you run the risk of passing off motivation as
one of H.L. Mencken's short, simple answers to learner sllccess when it is neither
short nor simple. Ironically, motivation is not the "wrong" answer to explaining
learner success, but it is "right" only when its fill1 complexity is recognized and
applied appropri;~telyin the language classroom.
ln the previous chapter, twelve principles of 1angua;;e learning and teaching
were examined. IJnderlying each of those twelve is a coml)lex array of research and
practice that should remind us that foundational princi1)les are not simple con-
structs that can be adequately defined in a brief maxim. One of the twelve princi-
ples was intrinsic motivation. In this chapter we will take a long, careful look at the
complexity and power of intrinsic no ti vat ion.
DEFINING MOTIVATION
How would you define motivation' Let me offer the foll~>wing"dictionary defini-
tion" drawn from a number of diferenr sources: Motivation is the extent to which
you make choices about (a) goals to pursue and 0)
the effctrt you will devote to that
pursuit.
human behavior you adopt. For the sake of simplicity, let us look at thcorics of
I motivation in terms of two opposing camps. In one of these camps is a traditional
view of motivation that accounts for human behavior through a hehavionstic pan-
digm that stresses the importance of rewards and reinforcement. In the other camp
are a number of cognitive psychological viewpoints that explain motivation through
deeper, less observable phenomena. These two tnditions arc dcscribtd below.
(For further perspectives on defining motivation. especially constrl~ctivistviews of
motivation, see PLLT, Chapter 6.)
1. A Behavioristic Defrnition
A behavioristic psychologist like Skinner or Watson would stress the rolc of
rewards (and perhaps punishments) in motivating behavior. In Skinner'> oprrant
conditioning model, for example, human beingh, like other living org;lnlsms, will
pursue a goal because they perceive a reward for doing so. l'his reward Yervc:, to
reinforce behavior: to cause it to persist. This tradition gave us what I m~ghtlice-
1 tiously refer to as theZ'MSrMtheorynof behavior,derived from the now scldonl prac-
ticed administntion of M&M candies to children for manifesting desired twhavior.
:
A behaviorist would define motivation as "the anticipation of rcinfo~cement."
We do well to heed the credibility of such a definition. There is no question th:~ta
tremendous proportion of what we do is motivatcd by an anticipated reward. From
eating to exercising to studying and even to altruistic acts of ministering t.) others,
there is 'something in it for me."The emotional overtones of the more illtangible
1 rewards must not be ignored. MSrMs, hugs, and laughter ;Ire all. at tin~e:!,payoffs
I worth striving for.
; Reinforcement theory is a powerful concept for the classn)orn. Lear~lers,like
, the proverbial horse running after the carrot, pursue goals in order to receive exter-
nally administered rewards: praise, gold stars, gndes, certificates, diplomas scholar-
ships, careers, financial independence, and ultimately, happiness
2. Cognitive Definitions
:
A number of cognitive psychological viewpoints offer quite a different per-
spective on motivation. While rewards are very much a part of the whole picture,
the difference lies in the sources of motivation ;ind in the power of selr-rew;~rd.
Three different theories illustrdte this side of motivation.
A. Drive theory. Those who see human drir.~esas fundament;~lto human
behavior claim that motivation stems from basic innate drives. David A~~subel
i
(1968) elabordted on six different drives:
j
I
exploration
manipulation
I activity
'74 CIiAt'TER 5 Intrinsic Morfvatio in the Cbssroom
stimulation
knowledge
ego enhancemec:
All of these drives act not so much as reinforcers, as in behavioristic theory, but as
innate predispositions, compelling us, as it were, to probe the unknown, to control
our environment, to be physically active, to be receptive to mental, emotional, or
physical stimulation. to yearn for answers to questions, and to build our own self-
esteem. It takes little imagination to see how motivation in the classroom is the ful-
fillment of these underlying drives.
B. Hierarchy of needs theory. One of the most widely cited theories of moti-
vation comes from Abraham Maslow (1970) who, in the spirit of drive theory, elab
onted fi~rtherto describe a system of needs within each human being that propel
us to higher and higher attainment. Maslow's hierarchy is best viewed metaphori-
cally as a pynmid of needs (see Fig. 5.1), progressing from the satisfaction of purely
physical needs up through safety and communal needs, to needs of esteem, and
finally to "selt-act~alization,~
a state of reaching your filllest potential.
Figure 5.1. Maslow's hierarchy of needs (Maslow 1970)
) Self-actualization 1 1991, 1993,Gardnt.r &Treniblay 1994). In this succession of research studies, a dis-
I Esteem: Strength 1 7 1 tinction has been made between integrative and instrumentul orientations (see
SafcBI1 - I(1 Freedom from Fear
Of key importance here is that a person is not adequately energized to pursue
some of the higher needs until the lower foundations of the pyramid have been satis
fied. Therefore, a person who is hungry or cold, who has gotten little sleep, etc., has
little motivation to see beyond those pressing physical discomforts to pursue anything
higher. Likewise, needs for safety (comfort, routine, protection) and for a feeling of
belonging (in a group of classmates or friends) must be met in order for a person to
devote full energy to the higher needs of academic attainment, achievement of recog
nition for successes. and to the ultimate peak of"being all that you can be."
Maslow's theory tells us that what might be inappropriately viewed as rather
ordinary classroom routines may in fact be important precursors to motivation for
higher attainment. For an activity in the classroom to be considered motivating,
then, it nced not be outstandingly striking, innovative, or inspirational. Even familiar
classrooni procedures (taking roll, checking homework, small-talk at the beginning
CHAPTER 5 Intrinsic Molivdtion in the Classroom 75
of class, etc .), if they fulfill lower-c)rder needs, can pave the way to meeting higher-
order needs.
C. Self-control theory. Certain cognitive psychologists (for instance, Hunt 1971)
focus on the importance of people deciding for themselves what to think or feel or
I do. We dtfine ourselves by making our own decisions, nther than by simply
reacting to others. Motivation is highest when one can make one's own choices,
j whether tlley are in short-term or long-term contexts.
i In the classroon~,when learners have opportunities to make their own choices
i! about wha! to pursue and what not to pursue, as in a coopentive learning context,
they are fulfilling this need for autonomy. When learners get things shoved down
their throal s, motivation can wane, according to this branch of theory, because those
,.
learners have to yield to others' wishes and commands.
,
i
j INTRINSIC A'JD EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION
?
Before we look closely at intrinsic and extrinsic motivation,let me offer a disclaimer
of sorts. For several decades, research on motivation in the field of second language
acquisition research has been strongly inf'luenced by the work of Robert Gardner
and his associates (Gardner & Lambert 1972; Gnrdner 1985; Gardner & Maclntyre
PLLT, Chajxer 6). While the 1972 study claimed that an integrative orientation
(desire to learn a language stemming from ;I positive affect toward a community of
its speaker.;) was more strongly linked to success in learning a second Language than
1 an instrumental orientation (desire to learn a language in order to attain certain
career, educational, or financial goals), later studies showed that both orientations
could be a:;sociated with success.
Remember two important points. First, the research by Gardner and his col-
leagues centered on a dichoto~nvof orientation, not motivation. Orientation
i means a cc~ntextor purpose for learning; motivation refers to the intensity of one's
i' impetus to learn. An integrative orientation simply means the learner is pursuing a
second language for social and/or cultural purposes, and within that purpose, a
learner c o ~ ~ be
l d driven by a high level of motivation or a low level. Likewise, in an
instrumental orientation, learners are studying a language in order to further a
career or acaclemic goal. The intensity or motivation of a learner to attain that goal
could be high or low. Second, integrative and instrumental orientations are not to
be confused with intrinsic and extrinsic motivation! They are separate issues. One
(integntivc:/instrumental orientation) is a true dichotomy and refers only to the con-
text of learning. The other (intrinsic/extrinsic motivation) designates a continuum
of possibilities of intensity of feeling or drive, ranging from deeply internal, self-
generated rewards to strong, externally administered rewards from beyond oneself.
76 CtiAPrtK 5 Intrinsic Motivation in the Cla\svmrn
Now, let's move to specifying hrther what the intrin:?ic/inteptive continuum
implies. Edward Deci (1975: 23) defined intrinsic motivalion this way:
Intrinsically motivated activities are ones for which there is no
apparent reward except the activity itself. People seem to engage in
the activities for their own sake and not because they lead to an
extrinsic reward. . . . intrinsically motivated behaviors are aimed at
bringing about certain internally rewarding consequences, namely,
feelings of competence and self-determination.
Extrinsically motivated behaviors, on the other hand are carried out in antici-
pation of a reward from outside and beyond the self. Typical extrinsic rewards are
money, prizes, gcldes, and even certain types of positive feedback. Behaviors initi-
ated solely to avoid punishment are also extrinsically motivated, even though
numerous intrinsic benefits can ultimately accrue to thosl- who, instead, view pun-
ishment avoidance as a challenge that can build their senst. of competence and self-
determination.
Which form o f motivation is more powerful? A convincing stockpile of
research on motivation strongly favors intrinsic drives, especially for long-term
retention. Jean Piaget (1972) and others pointed out that ;iuman beings universally
view incongruity, uncertainty, ant1 "disequilibrium" as mol ivating. In other words,
we seek out a reasonable challenge. Then we initiate behaviors intended to con-
quer the challenging situation. Incongruity is not itself motivating, but optimal
incongruity-or what Krashen (1985) called "i+l"--pre:;ents enough of a possi-
bility of being resolved that we will go after that resolutio 1.
Abraham Maslow (1970) claimed that intrinsic motivation is clearly superior to
extrinsic. According to his hienrchy of needs, we are ultimately motivated to
achieve "self-:~ctu:~lization"
once the basic physical, safety,and community needs are
met. No matter what extrinsic rewards are present or abstmt, we will strive for self-
esteem and fulfillment.
Jerome Rruner (1962), praising the "autonomv of self-reward: claimed that one
of the most effective ways to help both children and adults to think and learn is to
free them from the control of rewards and punishmcn~s.One of tlie principal
weaknesses of extrinsically driven behavior is its addictive nature. Once captivated,
as it were, by the lure of an immediate prize or praise, wc can become dependent
on those tangible rewards, even to the point that their w>thdrawalcan extinguish
the desire to learn.
Now, you may he thinking, don't extrinsic rewards play a role in a learner's
motivation? Wouldn't extrinsic rewards, coupled with intrinsic motivation,enhance
the intrinsic? Not according to a surpris~ngnumber of research studies. Two exam-
ples (Kohn 1090) illustrate:
(.HAPTEK5 Intrincic M o t i w t ~ o nin the Class r~orrr 77
1. Subjects were asked to solve an intrinsically Fascina~ingcomplex puzlle with
no stated reward. Halfway through the process, the experimenter inlormcd
the subjects that there would be a monetary reward for solving the p~lzzle.
From that point onward, intrinsic motivation (as mcasured by speed ;ind cl.)r-
rect steps toward a solution) waned.
2. Teenage girls were given the task of teaching some games to younger children.
One group of"teachersn were simply given their task: the others were old that
they would receive a reward (a free ticket to the movies) for successh~llyconi-
pleting the teaching task. Results: The first group did their task Elstel witli
more success, and reported greater pleasure in doing so than the s e c o ~ ~ d
group!
It is interesting that tlie research shows that one type of extrinsic reward can
indeed have an effect on intrinsic motivation: the positive feedback that learners
perceive as a hoost to their feelings of competence and selfdetcrmina~ion.No
other externally administered set of rewards has a lasting effcct. So, for i:xaml)le,
sincerely delivered positive feedback in a classroom,seen by students as a \ alidation
of their own personal autonomy, critical thinking ability, and self-fulfilln~enr,can
increase or maintain intrinsic n~otivation.
Intrinsic motivation is of course not the only determiner of success 1i)r a lan-
guage learner. Sometimes, no matter how much you w;unt to accomplish sornetlring
or how hard you try, you may not succeed for a host of' other reasons. 1;ut if the
learners in your classroom are given an opportunity to "(lo"language for tlieir own
personal reasons of achieving competence and autonomy, those learners will Ilave
a better chance of success than if they become dependent on external rewards for
their motivation.
INTRINSIC MOTIVATION IN EDUCATION
Educators like Maria Montessori, Rudolf Steiner, h o l o Freire, A.S. Ncill, ~ n d( Arl
Rogers have all provided exemplary models of intrinsically motivated etlucarion.
Traditionally,elementary and secondary schools are fraught witli extrinsic:~llynioti-
vated behavior. The school curriculum is dictated by institutions (sornetin~espolit-
ically influenced) and can be far removed from even the teacher's choice. lLarents'
and society's values and wishcs are virtually forced onto pupils, whetlier they like it
or not. Tests and exams, many of which are suntlardized :md given high c-redet~ce
in the wor1d"out there,"are imposed on students with no consultation wit11 thc stu-
dents themselves. The glorification of content, product, correctness, and ,ompeti-
tiveness has failed to bring the learner into a collaborative process of
competence-building.
78 CHAPTER 5 Intrinsic Molfvat~onrn the Cl~ssroom CHAPTER5 Intr~nsicMotivation in the Classroom 79

The consequence of such extrinsic motivators is that schools all too often teach
students to play the "game" of pleasing teachers and authorities rather than devel-
oping an internalized thirst for knowledge and experience. The administration of
grades and praises for being a6'goodchild" builds a dependency on immediate MSrM :.
-
Table 5.1. From c'xtrinsic to intrinsic motivation in educational institutions
Extrlnslc
Pressures
Intrinsic
Innovations
Motivational
Results
SCHOOLCURRICULJM learner-centered self-esteem
gratification. Competition agflitut classmates (who might otherwise be allies or personal goal-setting self-actualization
partners in learning) ensues. If a communal bond is created, it runs the risk of being I individualization decide for self --

motivated by the need to band together against teachers and authorities. Over the : family values love, intimacy,
PARENTAL EXPECTATIONS
long haul, such dependency focuses students too exclusively on the material or ;. acceptance, respect
monetary rewards of an education rather than instilling an appreciation for cre- *
for wisdom
ativity and for satisfying some of the more basic drives for knowledge and explw SOCIETY'S EXPECTA'
IONS security of comfortable community, belonging,
ration. [fltilnately, the product of this system is a student who has been taught to (conformity) rout~nes identity, harmony,
fear failure above all and therefore to refrain from potentially rewarding risk-taking task--basedteaching security
or innovative behavior. I -
? TESTS& EXAMS peer evaluation, experience
A bleak picture? Too harsh? Of course, there are many happy exceptions to
such ;I depiction, but you don't have to look very far in any corner of the world to 1I self-diagnosis
level-check exercises
sell-knowledge

find major t:lements of the picture holding true. The question is: Can something be
done to turn such a picture upside down? Or, more specifically to your quest, can
i IMMEDIATEGRATIFI
("M & Ms")
ATION long-term goals
the hig picture
self-actualization

your English classn)om become a place where these extrinsic elements are diverted "things take time"
into a more positive direction? Or, better yet, can such elements be avoided \ content-based teaching, ESP cooperation
entirely? voc;~tionaleducation harmony
Table 5. I on page 79 depicts what can happen in an institution that takes eight i workplace ESL
extrinsic elements and, while accepting their reality in virtirally any society or edu- f cooperative learning manipulations,
cational institution, turns those elements in an intrinsically oriented direction. The group work strength, status,
notion here is that an intrinsically oriented school can begin to transform itself into the class is a team security
I
a more positive, affirming environment not so much by revolutionizing society i NEVER
FAIL! r~sk-taking,innovation learn from mistakes
(which takes decades if not centuries) but by shifting its view of the student. cre;~tiv~ty nobody's perfect
A. ci~rriculumthat comes from .the administration" can be modified to some
extent to include studentcentered learning and teaching, to allow students to set
!' "c'est la vie"

some--not all, perhaps-of their own learning goals, and to individualize Cssons
and activities as nluch as possible. The result: higher student selftsteem, greater
chances for self-actualization, more deciding for oneself.
Expectations of parents and other authority figures are a reality that we cannot
simply dissolve by waving a magic wand. But teachers can help to convert the per-
ception of those expectations into a sense of the positive effect of the immediate
Family on a student and of the importance of tradition not because it has been forced
on them, but because its intrinsic worth is perceived. The result: an appreciation of
love, intimacy,and respect for the wisdom of age. In turn, society's expectations may,
through a process of education and counseling, be seen as a means for providing com-
fortable routines (time schedules, customs, mores). Class discussions can focus on a
critical evaluation of society so that students aren't forced to accept some specific way
of thinking or acting, but are coaxed into examining both sides of the issue. The result
is a sense of belonging, a sense of the value of the wider community, of harmony.
: Tests m d exams can incorporate some student consultation (see Chapter 21)
and peer valuation. Teachers c ; ~ nhelp students to view tests as feedback instru-
1:
ments for self-diagnosis, not as comparisons of one's performance against a norm.
Students tl lus become motivated I,y the experience and by achieving self-knowledge.
The c-therwise extrinsic values that are given in Table 5.1 (immediate gratifica-
tion, mate~.ialrewards, competition, and fear of failure) can also be redirected through
i
1 eml>hasizingthe "big" picture-larger perspectives
lett ng students set long-term goals
i allowing silfficient time for learning
cot-perative learning zictivities
group work
viewing the class as a team
C coritentcentered teaching
80 CHAPIEK5 I n l r ~ n b ~Mco t ~ v a t ~ oinn the Cl.~ssrocam
English for specific (vocational/professional) purposes
English in the workplace
allowing risk-takiag behavior
rewarding innovation and creativity.
Such activities and attitudes on your part appeal tc the deeper causes of moti-
vation. They get at needs and drive5 at self-control, at I balanced, realistic percep-
tion of self, and even at the simple joy of learning for it*,own sake'
INTRINSIC MOTIVATION IN THE SECOND LANGIJAGE
CLASSROOM
Turning to the role of intrinsic motivation in second language classrooms in partic-
ular, consider these activities that capitalize on the intrinsic by appealing to
learners' self-determination and autonomy:
teaching writing as a thinking process in which learners develop their own
ideas freely and openly
showing learners strategies of reading that en;lbl; them to bring their own
information to the written word
language experience approaches in which studenis create their own reading
material for others in the class to read
oral fluency exercises in which learners talk abo~itwhat interests thrm and
not about a teacher-assigned topic
listening to an academic lecture in one3 own field of study for specific infor-
mation that will fill a gap for the learncr
communicative language teaching, in which language is taught to enable
learners to accomplish certain specific functions
grammatical explanations. if learners see their po,.ential for increasing their
autonomy in a second language.
Actually, every technique in your languagc classroo n can bc subjected to an
intrinsic motivation "litmus test" to determine the extent to which they adhere to
this powerful principle. Apply the following chccklis~ to help you determine
whether something you're doing in the classroom is contributing to your students'
intrinsic drivc2s.
A Checklist of Intrinsically Motivating Techniques
1. Docs the trchnique appeal to the genuine interests of your students? Is it rel.
evant to their lives?
CHAPTER 5 Infnn51t Molivahon in the Clas~room 81
I
2. Do you present the technique in a positive, enthusiastic manner?
3. Are studcnts clearly aware of the purpose of the technique?
4. Do students have some choice in
:I a. choosing some aspect of the technique?
b. determining how they go about fulfilling the goals of the tech-
. nique?
. 5. Does the technique encourage students to discover for themselves cc.rtai11
principles or rules (rather than simply being "told")?
6. Does it encourage students in some way to develop or use effective :.trategies
of le~rningand communication?
7. Docs it contribute-at least to some extent-to stutlents' ultimate auconorny
and independence (from you)?
8. Does it foster cooperative negotiation with other studcnts in the clas? Is it
truly interactive?
9. Does the technique present a "reasonable challenge"?
10. Do students receive sufficient feedback on their performance (from t :lch
other or from you)?
Throughoi~tthe rest of this book, you will be reminded of the importa~~ce of the
Intrinsic Motivation Principle in achieving your goals as a teacher. Think ot yourself
not so much as a teacher who must constantly'tleliver" intormation to your students,
but more as a facilitator of learning whose job it is to set the stage for leitrning,to
start the wheels turning inside the heads of your students, to turn them on to their
own abilities, m d to help channel those abilities in fruitful directions.
7 ~ 1 t Dornyei
h and Kata Csizer (1998: 215) offered a xt of"ten comnlarldments"
for motivating learners, based on a survey of Hungarian foreign language teachers. NI
ten items foci~son what thc teacher can do to stimulate intrinsic motivatios
I. Set a personal example with your own behavior.
2. Create a pleasant, relaxed atmosphere in the classroom
3. Present the tasks properly.
4. Develop a good relationship with the learner>.
1 5. Increase the learners' linguistic self-confidence.
i! 6. Make the language classes interesting.
7. Promote learner autonomy.
8. Personalize the learning process.
! 9. Increase the learners' goalmientedness.
10. Faniiliarize learners with the target language culture.
i 'l'hese ten guidelines,coming directly from teachers out there in the "a~ena,"
worth careful consideration. Compare them to my own six general guidelines for
;uc
infusing your ESL classroom with some intrinsically motivating dyna~nics.
 "3 el3 3q1
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84 CtiAPrEK 5 Intrmsic Mortvatlon In the Cla\sroom

9. (C) If time and facilities permit, assign partners to design a simple classroom
experiment in intrinsic motivation,perhaps following the model of the two
little studies summarized on page 77. Since motivation can't be observed, it
must be inferred. Therefore, students will need to bt as specific as possible
in determining how they will measure intrinsic motilation.
10. (C/G)As a whole class, brainstorm for just a minute to come up with half a
dozen or so commonly used techniques in language c~lassroomsthat students
have observed recently (e.g., pronunciation drill, fluency circle, information-
gap activity, reading aloud,listening to a lecture, etc.) Then, assign one or tS
two of those techniques to pairs or small groups for ,I rigorous examination of
the ten criteria for determining whether a technique is intrinsically moti-
vating on pages 80-81. Groups should then share their "report cardnfor each
!!i
technique. Did groups find that in most cases intrins~cmotivation depended
on how the teacher conducted the technique7
f4
F
2

FOR YOUR FURTHER READING

Dornyei, Zoltan and Csizbr, Kata 1998. "Ten co~nmand~nents

for motivat~nglan-
6
I
guage learners."Language Teaching Research 1: 203- !9.
7ba article slrmrnarizcJsthe stutiy cite~lin this chaptet. in u8ich teachers in
Hunga y uere asked to name keys lo increasirlg moti,lation in foreign lan-
guage clussrovms. You willfind a number of backgro,~nd factors that euen-
tualiy made LIPthefinal ten.

Deci, Edward L. 1975. Intrinsic Motivation. New York: l'lenum Press.

Edz~urdDeci is one of thepriracipalpla~enin a lorig list of those who h a ~ ~ e
conducted research on intririsic motirlatiori. This book, though sotneruhat
dated, is still applicable to current teaching practice It explains the con-
struct in ftill detail and describts supporting research.

Raffini,J.P. 1996. I50 Ways to Increase Intrinsic Motit~~ztion

in the Classroom.
Needham Heights, MA:Ailyn & Racon.
While not written for the foreign language teacher spec$cally, this u e v
practically orietited hook for tc~achersnt.l~erthe1t.s~
git~e::
a sense of tnany diJ1
ferent approaches and clnssroom techniques that r(1ill instill a sense of
I
intrinsic rnotiuation itz students
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88 CHAPTER 6 Learner Vdriables I: Teaching Aooss Age Levels
We dorr't have pencils." Confused and bewildered, tht. child responded, "Ain't
nobody got no pencils?"
Since children (up to the age of about eleven) are still in an intellectual stage
of what Piaget (1972) called*concrete operations," we need to remember their lim-
itations. Rules, explanations, and other even slightly ;ibstract talk ;ibout language
must be approached with extreme caution. Children are centered on the here and
now, on the functional purposes of language. Iliey have little appreciation for our
adult notions of"correctness,"ant1 they certainly cannot @-aspthe metalanguage we
use to describe and explain linguistic concepts. Some rules of thumb for the class
room:
Don't explain grrrrnmar using terms like "present progressive" or "rela-
tive cl;~use."
Rules statetl in abstract terms ('To make :I statenlent into a question,
yo11 add a do or does") should be avoided.
Some grammatical concepts, especially ;it the upper levels of childhood,
can be called to learners' attention by showing tl~emcertain pattclns
("Notice the i n s at the end of the word") and examples ("This is the
way we say it when it's happening right now: 'l'm walking to the
door').
Certain more difficult concepts or patterns require more repetition than
adults need. For example, repeating certain pattt rns (without boring
students) may be necessary to get the brain and the ear to cooperate.
Unlike the scene with the little boy who had no ])encil,children must
understand the meaning and re1ev;ince of repetitims.
2. Attention Span
One of the salient differences between adults and children is attention span.
First, it is important to understand what attention span means. Put children in front
of aTV showing a favorite cartoon and they will stay rivtted for the duration. So,
you cannot make a sweeping claim that children have sliort attention spans! But
short attention spans do come into play when children have to deal with material
that to them is boring, useless, or too difficult. Since language lessons can at times
be difficult for children, your job is to make them interesting, lively, and hin. How
do you do that?
Because children are focused on the immediate h e ~ trnde nou!,activities
should be designed to capture their immediate intcrest.
A lesson needs a rrariety of activities to keep interest and attention alive
A teacher needs to be animated, lively, and enthusiastic about the s u b
ject matter. Consider the classn)om a stage on which you are the lead
actor, your energy will be infectious. While you may think that you're
CHAPTER 6 Learner Vc~ridblesI: Teathin,? Across Ages L<,vel.q 89
overdoing it, children need this exaggeration to keep spirits buoyetl and
minds alert.
A sense of humor will go a long way to keep children laughing and
learning. Since children's humor is quite different from adi!lts',
remember to put yourself in their shoes.
Children have a lot of natural curiosity. Makc sure you tap into that
curiosity whenever possible, and you will thereby help to mainrain
attention and focus.
3. Sensory Input
Children need to have all five senses stimulated. Your activities shoi~ldstrive
to go well beyond the visual and auditory modes that we feel art. usually s~~fficient
for a classroom.
Pepper your lessons with physical activity, such as having students act
out things (role-play),play games, or doTotalI'hysic:~l Response activities.
Projects and other hands-on actitrities go a long w;~ytoward hellting
children to internalize language. Small-group science pn~jects,for
example, are excellent ways to get them to lrarn wortls and structrrres
and to practice meaningful language.
Sensory aids here and there help children to internalize concepts. I'hc
smell of flowers, the touch of plants and fruits, the taste of footls, libcral
doses of audiovisual aids like videos, pictures, tapes, music-;dl are
important elements in children's language teaching.
Remember that your own nonverbal language is important brcause
children will indeed attend very sensitively to your facial fcatllres, <es-
tures, and touching.
4. Affective Factors
A common myth is that children are relatively unaffected by the inhil)it~onsthat
adults find to be a block to learning. Not so! Children are often innovative in [;in-
guage forms but still have a great many inhibitions. They are extremely scnsitive,
especially to peers: What do others think of me? What will so-and-so think. when I
speak in English? Children are in many ways much more fragile than adult\. Their
egos are still being shaped, and therefore the slightest nuances of communication
can be negatively interpreted. Teachers need tc) help them to ovcrcorlie such
potential barriers to learning.
Help your students to laugh with each other at various mistakes tliat
they all make.
Be patient and supportive to build self-esteem,yet at the same time be
firm in your expectations of students.
Elicit as much oral participation as possible from students, especially (he
quieter ones, to give them plenty of opportimities for trying things (rut.
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~ ~ Jslqfnaql ~ a d a a paql JOJ l s a d s a ~M O ~ S .sua!lorua 11npe plre uo!]
-!ufos aJnlem q l ! ~sllnpe lua9!11a1u! ssalaqua.iau aJe daql 'afen8ur.l mau aql
u! Bu!yu!ql xaidmos s s a ~ d x aIouues sqnpe q8noq1 uaaa leql JaqtuauraJ o a -1
:,.sl,uop, pue,,s,op,,iuama%euemamos sqnpe pue
ua~pl!q3 u a a w a q sasua~ajj!p Illoqe mouy am l e q h UIOJJ u ~ w aq
p ues ('uamlea~1
q ~ luaura9euem wooJssels luauaf JOJ suo!le3!1dru! amog
11y e JOJ s 1 ~ a l d e aas)
'1XaWo3 leu!f!Jo aql 01 paUJnlaJ aJ1: sluapnls se 8uol se 'sa!uado~d )!1s!u8
-u!l paielos! au!luexa p u t Isass!p 01 suo!ssaB!p , b r ~ o d m a aye1
l uas ~ a u s e a el
'%u!qseal afenfuel qnpe u! lnq 'meuodm! d~q8!q 11!1s a s ~ n o30 s a ~ ssauly8u!
e .uo!lualaJ put uo!1~ralle aao~dm!d q a ~ a qpue
-ueam pue .b!s!luaqlny ~ a f e n 8 u e ~ iuam8as
jo p a s n p a ~ - m a i u oe ~puei5Japun
E
01 alqe Jallaq ~ J 'h!~!qr: %u!yu!q~ ~srrrlsqepado(aaa1) aJom J!aql ql!.~';~lnpy -5
.%u!u~eala8en8uel puosas i p p e 01 1uepua11eaq dekn leql
S J O I S ~@uo!ioma aql alem!lsaJapun ~ a a a uplnoqs 9.a .ua~pl!qsJO asoql
se Ies!l!Js se al!nb aq IOU a ~ o j a ~ adew
q l so8a JO D!1!Bq aql ~LUOOJSSI?~~ r: o l q
(maaisa-nas 1eqo18aauapwo>j-~las1maua8jo urnypom e 8u1~quayo ;11rlpy -p
'sasuas a~d!l~nm 01 leadde J!aql s! sassep qnpe d[aa!1 JO s l a ~ s a s
aql JO auo Inq 'sllnpe ql!m pa!Jea s t al!nb aq sdemlr iou paau indu! Oosuas .$
.Su!qseal aSe-lppe 01 osle saqdde laams
put uoqs sa!l!a!lse Jnod fu!daay jo allu aql 'u!e8e )ng ~maqlo18u!lsa~am!
.(lle?su!Jlu! aq leu lev1 [e!JalEm JOJ sueds UO!lUallr: Ja8uol MF.q .;ifnpV 'Z
,001 'alnpe JOJ dlpeap aq ues asn a f e n S u e 1 a ~
-1eaJ q9noua IOU pue a8esn inoqe uopez!leJauaf ineJ1sqe qsnm ooi 'mouy nod
s y j3JEMaq 1ng .s~dasuospue s a p ~ s u l s q ealpueq 01 alqe aJom aJe sllnpv '1
.aeaaes pue suo!~sa%ns s g ~ a d s
amos pu!m daay .ua~pnqs01 dldde 1eql salqepea JAY aqi ~ a p ! s u onob ~ s t '0s
.1xa1uos ,,MOU pue aJaq, e u! pappaqtua 1 . u ieql
~ aYcnf
-uel ql!m leap dlleuo!se330 lseal 1r: ue3 daql 'sa!l!l!qe a~!l!ufo3 ,sqnpe 30 xile3aq
'puy .ua~pl!q3u! punoj lou asuapguo>~pse pa~!nbse aaeq dl~enwqlnpe inq ' u a ~ p
-pqs JO I E ~ ueql ~ a l e a JO
~ f 01 lenba aq uas ssaudqs jo laaal J!aU '(asoJ e % u ! I ~ ~ ~ s
dllenl3e .SA asoJ e 8u!llams ,,au!fey,) suo!leu!%em! J!aql uo a ~ o t ualli!l r! LIJJ
ues ~ndu!hosuas JOJ paau J!aqL .sJoaeapua moo~ssxpu!euas u! [yssasnns 3JoW
Waql JapUaJ lev] Sa!l!I!qt? a~!l!Ll%os~ o u a d n 3Atq
s S]lnpV 'JaqXa1 LlJOOJSSel3aql
JOJ Wo!pap!suos [e!3ads 'lua~ajgpamos sasod d n o ~ 83% Jallel aql 'sllnpe %u!q3eaI
01 sdem amos u! dldde uen uaJpl!qs 8u!qseal JOJ ,,salnJ,,aql jo duem qYnoqlrv
. d p q II!M q m n q jo sa1llJ .Xaql
put 'araqmamos u!%aq lsnru nod ' a ~ ! q m u e a ~.am!) jo x ~ n o anps u! 11!m ntd 'asua
-uadxa aql aAeq lad 1,uop nod JI .asua!~adxaJO s ~ e a dpue sqluoru fu!sea~su! ql!M
uo!l!nlu! u!elJa3 e sdolaaap Jaq3ea1 looqss d~eluamalaue 'sau!lap!n% asaql 11V ql!M
8 u o ~ 'klaa!lsajja uaJpl!qs qseal 01 alqe aq 01 u o s ~ a d@pads L J ~ Ae s q e l 11
.suog3auuos l u e u o d q aas I,UOM Aaql J O ' ( ~ U ! ~ U Mpue'8u!pea~~'%u!yeads
'8u!uaql) sn!ys snouea aql 8uome sd!qsuo!~e~a~~alu! aql ssa~lsp y
.aloqm aqi 01 d!qsuo!lela~ aql aas i,uom smaprss 'sasa!d p m si!q duiuew
001 o l uayoJq ~ s! a8en'duq n .le!massa s! qstoudde a8tmXuwl aloqin v
.spn!m S,UaJpl!qs dq palrrralal d[!peaJ ssal qxim aq l l ! ~
sasuamas palsauuosun 'palelos! 'lsa~lsqeu! a31:1i%uelpannpa-muuo:)
l was pu~:paA!:VaJ aq ue)
a8enfuel qs!q.a u!ql!~ lxaluos e qs!lqelsa asaql-a3~118uel %u!sn
u! sasodrud ~yfu!ueaur 'suo!les~aauos251- lea^ ' s ~ a l s r ~ e qpue s suo!lcn
-i!s JE![!LU~!J'S~U![ h o i ~.pappaqua ~xaluond ~ t u aq ~ g01 spaau a9cn8ulrl
'palsa!a~aq dlay!~ a81!n8uel palI!ls .lo .,pauues,,
' a ~ o j a ~ a fqql ~ u a q ~ lou
n a s! 1eq1 afen8uel %u!suas 113 poof aJe ua~pl!q:)
.~n@u!uearuJOU s!luaqllll: JaqI!au
s! leq1 afen8ueljo peopaao up. aaeq 01p ~ o j j eII! ues sassqs JnOh m a q i JOJ SPJvmaJ
ale!pam! ploq 1,usaopleql a8enfuel ql!m dn lnd 01 OU!I~!M ssal ;xn:d a q . ~:mu Pue
aJaq JOJ pasn aq .il~m~s"r:ues a%en%uelmau s ~ q leqm l uo pasnscy are uapI!q:)
a%dIutq 1y8queaw '3puaqlnV '5
 CHAPTER 6 Learner Varrables I: Teaching Across Age L-,vels 93
92 (-HAPTER 6 Learner Variables I: Teachins Acro,s Age Levels

The "terrible teens" are an age ol transition, confuiion, self-consciousness, observing (or how you yourself) accounted for age variables in the ovenll lesson, in
the type of techniques that were used, in the management of the clashroom, in
growing, and changing bodies and minds. What a challenge for the teacher! Teens
verbal registers as well as body language, in the teacher-student exchanges, and in
are in between childhood and adulthood, and therefore a very special set of con-
the relationship that those exchanges conveyed. You may act~lallysurprist yourself
siderations applies to teaching them. Perhaps because of the enigma of teaching
by how much of what we do and say as teachers is a factor of age.
teenagers, little is specifically said in thc language-teaching field about teaching at
this level. Nevertheless, some thoughts ;Ire worth verbalizing, even if in the form of
simple reminders.
TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION, ACTION, AND RESEARCH
1. lntellectiral capacity adds abstcict operational thought around the age of
[Note: (I) Individual work; (G) group or pair work; (C) whole-class tliscuss~on.]
twelve. Therefore, some sophisticated intellectual p n lcessing is increasingly
possible. Complex problems can be solved with logic.al thinking. This means
1. (G) Direct small groups to think back to the ESL lesson that was descyibed in
that linguistic metalanguage can now, theoretically, have some impact. But
Chapter 1. That was an adult class. Now, groups ;Ire to talk about how they
the success of ;my intellectual endeavor will be a factor of the attention a
would go about teaching virtually the same grammar and discourse tc chil-
learner places on the task; therefore, if a learner is atttmding to self, to appear-
dren of, say, ages seven and eight. Would the general topic fit? Would the
ance, to being accepted. to sexual thoughts, to a weekend part); or whatever,
same grammatical and communicative goals apply? What would you (lo differ-
the intellectual task at hand may suffer.
ently? What would you delete, and what would you add? tIow wotlld you
2. Attention sp;ins are lengthening as a result of intellec~ualmaturation, but once
alter the various techniques?
again, with many diversions present in a teenager's life, those potential atten-
2. (G/C) Ask groups to brainstorm other considerations- beyond those Inen-
tion spans can easily he shortened.
tioned in this chapter-that should be brought to bear o n teachi~lgESI. to (a)
3. Varieties of sensory input are still ilnportiunt. but, agai 1, increasing capacities
children, (b) adults, (c) teenagers. Groups should then share their thoklghts
for abstraction lessen the essential nature of appe;llin: to all five senses.
with the rest of the class.
4. Factors surrounding ego, self-image,and self-esteem a-e at their pinnacle.
3. (G) Pair up students to look again at the five major categories of factol-s to
Teens are ultrasensitive to how others perceive their changing physical and
consider in teaching children and to come up with some specific claszroonn
emotional selves along with their mental capabilities. One of the most impor-
examples that illustnte the factor under consideration. For example, il was
tant concerns of the secondary school teacher is to keep self-esteem high by
suggested that teachers should have a sense of humor, use sensory aid\, he
avoiding embarrassment of students at all cost ;, patient and supportive, and use context-embedded language. Prtirs should
affirming each person's talents and strengths, offer some examples of each of these and other suggestions in that section.
allowing mistakes and other errors to be accepted. 4. (C)Ask the class if they would like to take issue with any of the live hctors
de-emphasizing competition between classmal es, and regarding teaching ESL to children. For example, do children have inh~bitions
encouraging small-grottp work where risks can be taken more and fragile egos? How do adults' and children's inhibitions differ! See if there
easily by a teen. are other factors you might want to debate. Ask students to defend their
assertions with examples.
5. Secondary school sti~dentsare of course becoming i~~creasingly
adultlike in
5. (C) Engage the class in a discussion about whether one should reacli I lngurcge
their ability to make those occasional diversions from the "here and now"
to children at all. Aren't their innate capacities sufficient without having to
nature of immediate communicative contexts to dwt 11 on a grammar point or
be instructed? What would happen if children (in a context you specity)
vocabulary item. But as in teaching adults, care must be taken not to insult
were just "exposed"to English with no classroom? W'hat would they gain?
them with stilted language or to bore them with ovennalysis.
What would they lose? You might want to debate this issue, with somt class
members arguing for the "no-classroom"position and others defending the
This chapter provided a number of factors for you tc consider a s you attend to
contention that language classes for children can be beneficial.
the age of your learners. These factors were noted as a series of pointers and
6. (G/C)Assign groups of three to make a series of three ESL obsenation,: onc
reminders rather than as :lnecdotal or observational references to classrooms full of
person goes to an elementary school, another to a secondary school, a1 td a
students. You can make those reft:rences yourself as you observe and as you begin
to teach. The next time you're in an ESL classroom, notice how someone you're
94 Ct1APTI:R 6 1 earner Variables I: Teaching Across Age Levels CHAPTER 6 Learner Vari.~blesI - Tedching Across Age Levels 95

third to a class for adults. Each observer should take careful note of the fol- Rixon, Sht lagh. 1992. "English and other languages for younger children: Practice
lowing: and thcory in a rapidly chang~ngworld:' Language Teucl~ing25: 73-93.
One g" marly state-c$tlle-a~l srrrvcys fotltzd in the Language Teaching
- topic or subject matter of the lesson
teacher talk and student talk
variety and type of techniques
abstrat ting journal, thb purticuhr ar.ticle oSfers u summary of reseurch in
thcfielliof tecrcbirlg childrerr as tl~ellus a reuitw: oj'nzaterials and techrriques
discipline or behavior problems azlailaidefor yoz~r~ger lcnrne~s.
physical activity and sensory input Faltis, Christian and Hudelson, Sarah. 1994. "Learning English as an additionaJ lan-
apparent motivation and interest
guage in K-12 schools." 7'ESOL Quarterly 28: 457-68.
,Wer the observation, groups should get together to sharc perceptions, com- This is thc leu~larticle in a sl)eciul issue of the TESOL Quarterly derloled to
pare differences, and see what insights were garnered about teaching at the dif- the tea,:hing of Er~glish.fromIritldergarten to tzclelfth grade. This articlt. and
ferent age levels. Each group's findings can then be shared with the rest of the others (rn the issue ojler some~)enpectiz~es on tc~dchir~g chiklrcn In ulell a.s the
class "in bett,ueenersnreferreti to in this chapter

FOR YOUR FURTHER READING

Phillips, S. 1993. Ibung Learners. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Reilly, Vanessa and Ward. Sheila M. 1997. @?yYoung Learners. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
Scott, Wendy A. and Ytreberg, Lisbeth H. 1990. Teaching English to Children.
London: Longman.
All three of those ~~etypractically
oriented books consist of a host cfdflerent
cbssroom activities suitable for young childrerz, ranging in clge from prcl-
school to ten. Activities in all cases are thematically organizrQ either by
skill area or by topic.

Schinkc-Llano. Linda and Rauff, Rebecca (Eds.). 1996. New Ways in Teaching
Young Children. Alexandria, VA: Teachers of English to Speakers of Other
Languages.
Short, Deborah (Ed.). 1998. New Wuys in Teaching English at the Secondaq~
Level. Alexandria,VA: Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages.
Lewis, Marilyn (Ed.). 1997. New Ways in TeachingAdults. Alexandria,VA:Teachers
of English to Speakers of Other Languages.
7hese three book arepart of ESOL's New Ways series, designed asprnctical
refercrzce guides for teachers. Each book coruists of many different activi-
ties suitable for theparticular age letlel indicated. The books are stibdiuide~l
by topics and skill areas. Also of' interest is that each activity lists its appro-
pritrte proji:cit.ncy leuel (e.g., beginning+, intermediate, etc.). 7bis prouides
a n idea of houl activities vary by proficiency l e ~ ~ase l well as by age (see
(,7hup~cr 7).
 7
CHAPTER 7 Le;irner Variablr\ 11: Teachirig Across Proii(-renr;v ievels 97
- HAPTFR
mined by the FSI Oral Interview. The Oral Interview is a carefully designed set of
stn~ctlrredtasks that elicit pronunciation, fluency and integrative ;~bilit\,sociolin-
guistic and cultural knowledge, grammar, and vozabulary. The test-taker is jotlged to
possess proficiency that falls into one of the following eleven different levels:

I 1
Hardly a teaching day goes by in this profession withoui someone referring to stu-
dents' proficiency levels with the terms "beginning," "in:errnediate: or 'advanced."
And as long as Earth spins on its axis, I suppose, teachers will differ among them-
selves on just what those terms mean. At the American Language Institute of San
Francisco State University, for example. what we call thc "beginning" level consists
of students who already may know a couple of hundred English words and are able
to use a few common survival phrases. In some circlc these s t ~ ~ d e nwould
ts be
labeled "F~lsebeginners" as distinguished from "truc beginners." The "advanced"
level, on the other hand, is not as advanced as some of the ESL writing courses
offered for credit in the same university's Depa~lrnentof English.
So, a certain sense of relativity must always be taken into account when these
terms are usrtl. What is beginning for some may not bc for others. Certainly the
language-te:~ching profession does not lay unique cl;~im to such subjectivity.
Consider, for ex:~mple,how "Intermediate Mgebr.~"migh: be variously interpreted
according to the institution in which it is offered.
DEFINING PROFICIENCY LEVELS
Is there a standard set of guidelines by which these three mysterions terms may be
uniformly understood?The answcr is yes, and while textbooks and curricula do not
by any means adhere to these guidelines universally, tht guidelines nevertheless
offer us a pc~cticaldescription of spcaking, listening, rtading, and writing profi-
ciency at numerous gradations.
The ACTFL Proficiency Cuidcdines (1986) have colne to be a widely recog-
nized proficiency standard in language-teaching circles. 7 he current version of the
guidelines is historically related to what for many year:. was referred to as "FSI
levels" of speaking proficiency The FSI (Foreign Servil:e Institute) levels, now
referred to as ' I L R (Interagency Language Roundtal)le) levels in more formal
research settings, represent points on an increasing scale of sophistication as deter-
LEVEL DESCRIPTIC)N
0 Unable to function in the spoken language.
o+ Able to satisfy immediate needs using rehearsed utterances.
1 Able to satisfy minimum courtesy requirements ant1 maintail1 ,,erv
simple face-to-face conversations on familiar topics.
Able to initiate and maintain predict,lble face-[~)-f,lc:econvrrs;
tions and satisfy limited social demands.
Able to satisfy routine social demands and limited work
requirements.
Able to satisfy niost work requirements with language usagt, th.11is
often, but not alwdys, acceptable and effective.
Able to speak the language with sufficient structur.11 accuracy ,lnd
vocabulary to participate effectively in most formal and inform $ 1
conversations on practical, social, and profession,~ltopic s.
Often able to use the language to satisfy professional needs in . ;
wide range of sophisticated and demanding tasks.
Able to use the language fluently and accurately on all icvels
normally pertinent to professional needs.
Speaking proficiency is superior in all respects, [rsually equivalent
to that of a well-educ~ted,highly ~rticulaten~tivespeaker
Speaking proficiency is functionally equivalent to t t ~ oft a high y
articulate, well-educated native speaker and reflects the ~:ultura
standards of the country where the language is s/)oken.
The ACTFL Proficiency Guidelines were created to expand on the FSI I'vels so
that listening, reading, and writing would also be includrd. l'hc Guidelinrjs h:we
one other important difference: they are not connected with any one prol'iciency
test, as the FSI levels are. Instead, they were created to guide any test-maker in tlle
process of assessment. Today, numerous test designers utilize the Guidrliiws as :I
standard for assessment. While they were expressly not designed for :~ssessing
achievement in any one curriculum, the Guidelines can, with caution, prtwidc a
number of useful checkpoints for curriculum developmerlt and revisiol~.
98 t H A P ~ L7R Learner Varr~ble5/ I . Te~chrngA~rmsProiloency Levels
You will notice in the table of Speaking Guidelines (Tdble 7.1 on pp. 100-101)
that the term "novice" replaces the term "beginning" due to the difficulty of estab
lishing a definitive beginning point in most language learners. For the distinction
between what in ordinary conversation we might call "beginners" and "false begin-
ners," the Gzridelirzes offer the terms "novice-low"and "novice-mid."
TEACHING BEGINNING LEVELS
'l'eaching beginners is considered by many to be the most chillenging level of kin-
guage instruction. Since students at this level have little or no prior knowledge of
the t;irget language, the teacher (and accompanying techniques and materials)
becomes 21 central determiner in whether students accomplish their goals. This can
;ilso be the rriost tangibly rewarding level for a teacher because the growth of stu-
dents' proficiency is apparent in a matter of a few weeks.
At the beginning or even false-beginning level, your students have very little
language "behind" them. You may therefore be tempted to go along with the pop-
ular nlisconception that the target language cannot be taught directly, that you will
have to resort to a good deal of talking2'about"the second language in the students'
native language. Such is clearly not the case, as beginning language courses have
demonstrated for many decades. But you do have to keep in mind that your stu-
dents' c;~pacityfor taking in and retaining new words, structures, and concepts is
limited. Foremost on your mind as a teacher should be the presentation of material
in simple segments that don't overwhelm your students. Remrmber, they are just
barely beginning!
The following ten factors-and the words of advice accompanying each-will
help you to formulate an approach to teaching beginners. As you adopt a theoret-
ical stance on each factor, you will be able to design classroom techniques that are
consistent with your approach.
1. Students' cognitive learning processes
In those first few days and even weeks of language learning, virtually all of the
students' processing with respect to the second language itself is in a focal, con-
trolled mode* (see PI.I.T, Chapter 10, for a review of Mchughlin's cognitive
processes and some classroom applications). Therefore, you can expect to engage
in plenty of rcpetition of a limited number of words, phrases, and sentences. Don't
become fmstrated if a considerable period of time goes by with little change in
these learning modes.
*A quick review of PLLT may remind you that controlled processing is common in any
new skill where few bits of information can be managed at once. Focal attention is
giving notice to something in particular: a language form, an attempted message, a
person's physical appeannce, a person's emotional state, etc. Autonruticpmcessing is
the simultaneous management of a multitude of pieces of information. And peripheral
aftr?ntionrefers to things that we give only incidental notice to.
CHAPTER,' Learner Variables 11: Teathrng Across Prohency Levels 99
Even in the first few days of class, however, you can coax your students into
some peripheral processing by getting them to use practiced language for gen-
uinely meaningful purposes. For example, getting information from a classmate
whom a sludent does not know will require using newly learned language ("What's
your namc.?""Where do you live?"),but with a focus on the purposes to which the
language i, put, not on the forms of language. The forms themselves,although still
controlled (limited in capacity), nevertheless move into a peripheral mode as stu-
dents become immersed in the task of seeking genuine information.
2. T h e rcde of t h e teacher
Beginning students are higtlly dependent on the teacher for models of h-
guage, ancl so a teacher-centered or teacher-fronted classroom is appropriate for
some of your classroom time. Students are able to initiate few questions and com-
ments, so it is your responsibility to "keep the ball rolling."Still,your beginning level
classes ne*:d not be devoid of a modicum of student-centered work. Pair work
and group work (see Chapter 12) are effective techniques for taking students' focus
off you as the center of attention and for getting them into an interactive fnme of
mind even at the most beginning level.
It follows that the degree of control of classroom time also leans strongly in the
direction 1)f the teacher at the beginning levels. In a second language context
where instruction is carried out in the target language, virtually all of your class time
will be teacher-controlled. Since students have no means, in the second language
anyway, of controlling the class period, the onus is on you to plan topics, activity
types, time-on-task,etc. As students gain in their proficiency, they will be able to ini-
tiate questions and comments of their own that may then occasionally shift the
Locus of control. In a foreign language situation, where your students speak the
same native language (and you speak it as well),some negotkation might be possible
in the natlve language, allowing for a small amount of student control (see #3
below.)
3. Teachc r talk
Your input in the class is crucial. Every ear and eye are indeed focused on you
Your own English needs to be clearly articulated. It is appropriate to slow your
speech sornewhat for easier student comprehension, but don't slow it so much that
it loses its naturalness. And remember, you don't need to taIk any louder to bcgin-
ners than lo advanced students if your articulation is clear. Use simple vocabulary
and structures that are at or just slightly beyond their level.
Is it aj~propriateto use the students' native language?As noted above,in second
language s~tuations.especially multilingual classes, your use of a student's native lan-
guage is stldom an issue. In foreign language situations, however, it becomes an
option. It I S important not to let your classes go to excess in the use of the students'
native language. The rule of thumb here is usually to restrict classroom language to
English unless some distinct advantage is gained by the use of their native language,
and then o~llyfor very brief stretches of time. Examples of such advantages include
Table 7.1. ACTFL Proficiency Guidelines IAmerictin C(~uricilon the Teachin,; of Foreign Languages 1986)
Generic DescriptionsSpeaking
Novice The Novice level is characterized by the ability to conim~~nicate
minimally with
learned material.
Oral production consists of lscllated words and perhaps a few high-frequency phrases.
Novice-Low
Essentially no functional communicative ability.
Novlce-Mid Oral production continues to consist of isolated words ar d learned phrases within
very predictable areas of need, although quality is increaied. Vocabulary is sufficient
only for handling simple, elementary needs and expressirlg basic courtesies.
Utterances rarely consist of more than two or three word,, and show frequent long
pauses and repetition of interlocutor's words. Speaker may have some difficulty pro-
ducing even the simplest utter.lnces. Some Novice-Mid s ~eakerswill be understood
only with great difficulty.
Able to satisfy partially the requirenients of basic commu~icativeexchanges by relying
heavily on learned utterances hut occasionally expandin]: these through simple recom-
binations of their elements. Can ask questions or make 51 ~tementsinvolving learned
material. Shows signs of spontaneitv, although this falls sl~ortof real autonomy of
expression. Speech continues to consist of learned utteralices rather than of personal-
ized, situationally adapted ones. Vocabulary centers on areas such as basic objects,
places, and most common kinship terms. Pronunciation Inay still be strongly influ-
enced by first language. Errors are frequent and, in splte of repetition, some Novice-
High speakers will have difficulty being understood even by sympathetic interlocutors.
Intermediate The Intermediate level is chi~racterizedby the speaker's a ~ i l i t yto:
--create with the language by combining and recomhini i g learned elements, though
primarily in a reactive mode;
-initiate, minimally sustain, and close in a simple way t asic communicative tasks;
-ask and answer questions.
Intermediate-Low Able to handle successfully a limited number of interacti.,e, task-oriented, and social
situations. Can ask and answer questions, initiate and resoond to simple statements,
and maintain face-to-face conversation, although in a hit hly restricted manner and
with much linguistic inaccurac-y.Within these limitations can perform such tasks as
introducing self, ordering a ~neal,asking directions, arid ~nakingpurchases. Vocabulary
is adequate to express only tht: most elementary needs. Strong interference from native
language may occur. Misunderstandings frequently arise, hut with repetition, the
Intermediate-Low speaker can generally be understood b i sympathetic interlocutors.
Intermediate-Mid Able to handle successfully a variety of uncomplicated, basic, and communicative
tasks and social situations. <:all talk simply about self ant1 family members. Can ask
and answer questions and panicipate in simple conversaions on topics beyond the
most immediate needs; e.g., personal history and leisure time activities. Utterance
length increases slightly, but speech may continue to he 1:haracterized by frequent
long pauses, since the smooth incorporation of even baslc conversational strategies is
often hindered as the speaker struggles to create appropr ate language forms.
Pronunciation may continue to be strongly influenced by first language, and tluency
may still be strained. Although misunderstandings still arise, the Intermediate-Mid
speaker can generally be understood by sympathetic interlocutors.
Able to handle successfully most uncomplicated commu iicative tasks and social situa-
tions. Can initiate, sustain, anti close a general conversat on with a number of strate-
gies appropriate to a range of circumstances and topics, i)ut errors are evident. Limited
CHAPTEK 7 Learner Varrables 11: Teaching .Across Proficit.ncy Levr.1~ 101
vocabulary still necessitates hesitation and may bring about slightly unexpected circumlo--
cution. There is emerging evidence of connected discourse, particularly for sinlple narra-
tion andior description. The Intermediate-Highspeaker can generally be undelstood even
by interlocutors not accustomed to dealing with speakers at this level, but rep~,titionmay
still be required.
Advanced The Advanced level is characterized by the speaker's ability to:
--converse in a clearly participatory fashion;
-initiate, sustain, and bring to closure a wide variety of communic'~t~vetasks, intlurling
those that require an increased ability to convtbymeaning with diverse I;lng~~dge strate-
gies due to a complication or an unforeseen turn of events:
-satisfy the requirements of school and work situations; and
--narrate and describe with paragraph-lengthcolinected discourse.
~dvanced Able to satisfy the requirements of everyday situations anrl routine school and work
requirements. Can handle with confidence but not with facility complicatetl t;.;ks and
social situations, such as elaborating, complaining, ~ n apologizing.
d Carl niirrclterind
describe with some details, linking sentences together smoothly. Can cornmuncate i.~cts
and talk casually about topics of current public and personal interest, using gelieral ~ocat-I-
ulary. Shortcomings can often be smoothed over by comniunicative strategies, juch CIS
pause fillers, stalling devices, and different rates of speech. C~rcunilocutionwtic h arlses
from vocabulary or syntactic limitations very often is quite succt.ssfu1, thr~ugh*.vme
groping for words may still be evident. The Advanced-level speaker car1 11e unllerstood
without difficulty by native interlocutors.
Advanced Plus Able to satisfy the requirements of a broad variety of everyday, sc.hool, and wcrk siti~,itions.
Can discuss concrete topics relating to particular interests and special fields of ::ompta-
tence. There is emerging evidence of ability to support opinions, explain in de ,iil, and
hypothesize.The Advanced-Plus speaker often shows a well-developed ability Ir) colrlpen-
sate for an imperfect grasp of some forms with confident use of c~c)mmunicdtiv<. stratf,gies,
such as paraphrasing and circumlocution. Differentiated vocabulary and inton.ition ,ire
effectively used to communicate fine shades of meaning. The Adv'inced-Plus s1,eaker oiteri
shows remarkable fluency and ease of speech, but under (he demands ot SCI~CI lor-ltbvel
complex tasks, language may break down or prove inadequate.
Superior The Superior level is characterized by the speaker's ability to:
-participate effectively in most formal and informal conversations on practical, sc~l<ll,
professional, and abstract topics; and
-support opinions and hypothesize using native-like discourse strategies.
Superior Able to speak the language with sufficient accuracy to participate effectively in nost i~)rmal
and informal conversations on practical, social, professional, and abstr,~cttopic,,. Can tlis-
cuss special fields of competence and interest with ease. Can support opinions ~ n d hypth-
esize, but may not be able to tailor language to audience or discuss in depth hi-hly ahstract
or unfamiliar topics. Usually the Superior-levelspeaker is only partially tamiliar with
regional or other dialectical variants, The Superior level spc.aker commands a w~devariety
of interactive strategies and shows good awareness of discuurse strategies The IL~tterinvolvtr
the ability to distinguish main ideas from supporting inforrr~ationthrough syntac~ic,lexical,
and suprasegmental features (pitch, stress, intonation). Sporadic errors may occur, partlcu-
I
larly in low-frequency structures and some complex high-frequency structures r lore
common to formal writing, but no patterns of error are evident. Errors do not di,turb the
1 native speaker or interfere with communication.
102 r HAPTEI: 7 Le~rner~~ri.rbles
11: TeC3chingAcross Proficiency Levels
negotiation of disciplinary and other management factors,
brief descriptions of how to carry out a technique,
brief explanations of grammar points,
quick pointers on meanings of words that remain confusing after
students have had a try at defining something themselves, and
cultural notes and comments
4. Authenticity of language
I h e language that you expose your students to should, according to principles
of CLT discussed in Chapters 4 and 5, be authentic language, not just because stu-
dents are beginners. Simple greetings :md introductions, for example, are authentic
and yet managablc. Make sure utterances are limited to short, simple phrases. At
times such language may appear to be artificial because of all the repetition needed
at this st;~ge. Don't despair; your students will appreciate the opportunity to prac-
tice their nt:w language.
5. Fluency and accuracy
Fluency is ;I goal ;lt this level but only within limited utterance lengths. Fluency
does not have to :lpply only to long utterances. The "flow" of language is important
to est;~blish,from the beginning, in reasonably short segments. Attention to accu-
clcy shul~ltlcenter on the particular grammatical, phonological, or discourse ele-
ments that are being practiced.
In teaching speaking skills, it is extremely important at this stage that you be
very sensitive to students' need to practice freely and openly without fear of being
corrected at every minor flaw. On the other hand, you need to correct some
selected grammatical and phonological errors so that students don't fall into the
trap of ;ssuming th:~t"no news is good newsn (no correction implies perfection).
Pronunciation work (on phonemes, phonemic patterns, intonation, rhythm, and
stress) is very important at this stage. Neglecting phonological practice now may
be at the expense of later fluency. Your job, of course, is to create the perfect bal-
ance. Chapter 17 will deal in more detail with this balance.
6. Student creativity
' f i e ultimate goal of learning a language is to be able to comprehend and p r o
duce it in unrehearsed situations, which demands both receptive and productive
creativity. But at the beginning level, students can be creative only within the con-
fines of a highly controlled repertoire of language. Innovation will come later when
studcnts get more language under their control.
7. Techniques
Short, simple techniques must be used. Some mechanical techniques are
appropriate-chor.11 repetition and other drilling, for example. A good many
teacher-initiated questions dominate at this level, followed only after some time by
an increase in simple student-initiated questions. Group and pair activities are
CHAPTEQ 7 Learner Vanable 11: Teaching Across Proficiency Levels 103
excellent tt chniques as long as they are structured and clearly defined with specific
objectives. A variety of techniques is important because of limited language
capacity.
8. Listening and speaking goals
Figure 7.1 is a reproduction of the Scope and Sequence charts for Vistas (Brown
1992). Notice that the listening and speaking functions for beginners are meaningful
and authencic communication tasks. They are limited more by grammar, vocabulary,
and length of utterance than by communic:~tivefunction. It is surprising how many
language functions can be achieved with very uncomplicated language.
9. Reading and writing goals
A glance at the Scope and Sequence charts in Figure 7.1 reveals some notice-
able differences between 1.evels 1 and 4 in reading and writing skills. In Level 1,
reading ant1 writing topics are confined to brief but nevertheless real-life written
material. Advertisements, forms, and recipes are grist for the beginner's reading
mill, while written work may involve forms, lists, and simple notes and letters. The
most impo,-tant contextual factor that you should bear in mind in teaching reading
and writing: to beginners is their Literacy level in their own native language, an issue
that is covt red in Chapter 18
10. Grammar
Whetlter a curriculum or textbook is billed as hmctional, communicative,struc-
tural, or whatever, gi-anmar and grammar sequencing is an issue. As the charts
show, a typical beginning level will deal at the outset with very simple verb forms,
personal pronouns, definite and ~ndefinitearticles, singular and plural nouns, and
simple sentences, in a progression of grammatical topics from simple to complex.
(See Chapter 20 for more information on grammar sequencing in textbooks and cur-
ricula.)
Whether or not you choose to overtly "explain" grammar in the classroom is
another issue (also dealt with in Chapter 20). If you are teaching EFL (in a non-
English-sptaking country) and yoilr students all speak the same native language, you
may profit from occasionally using their native language to explain simple gram-
matical polnts. In ESL situations, where you must rely only on English in the class-
room, gran~maticalexplanations of any complexity would at this level overwhelm
the studenrs. Therefore, an inductive approach to grammar with suitable examples
and patterm will be more effective.
TEACHING INTERMEDIATE LEVEIS
Now, turn your attention to that vague curricular territory that we call interme-
diate, where students have progressed beyond novice stages to an ability to sustain
basic comlnunicative tasks, to establish some minimal fluency, to deal with a few
Figure 17.1. Scope and Sequence charts ( f r o m Vistas, Brown 1902)
I TOPICS GRAMMAR
Meeting pople Subject pronouns (I, y ~ , u .
The classrta~n he, she, etc.1
Telrphune numhers and Present tense of he
addresses Demonstrative adjectives
The family and pronouns (this, that.
Ckcupations these, those)
Physical characteristics Definite (the)and indefinite
Renting an apartment la Ian) articles
The home and furniture Singular and plural ntNun
Seasons and w e ~ t h e r forms
Months and dates Possessive adjectives (vy,
Clothes and colors your, his, her, etc.1 and
Days of the week and daily possessive s
routines Adjectives lbad,gwd,
Wnrk and chores slow, etc. I
The time Adverbs of nlanner ihcdly,
Transportation well, slotuly. ctc.)
Movies Prepositions of location
Frce lime (in,on, under, near, t.k.1
Cmking, shopping, and f i There islare
Vending machines and Questions with or
money Some and any
l<t,staurnnts Count (apples, onio~is,etc.),
The future and non-count (sugar,
milk, etc.), nowls
Present continuous tense
Simple present tense
Conjunctions and, but
and because
71x1 :and (not)either
Clauses with before. ajicr:
and when
Adverbs of frequency
(sornetirnes. aliua)s.
never, etc.)
Have to
Let's . . .
A lot of. much, and rn0n.y
HOIL,much and how many
Quantities (dozen, ran.
loaf, etc.)
Mlrmative and negative
imprative
Need to, want to, fp to,
like to
The future with he present
progressive hnse
Expressions of future time
(later. fon~ght,tontol.rocu,
etc.)
COMMUNlCATlON SKILLS
Listening and Speaking
Greeting and i n t r o d u c ~ ~ g
people
Getting and gving penond
information
Asking how to spell
something
Thanking
ldentifylng objects
Describing things and
giving thmr location,
Correctinq and confirn ing
Apologizing
Describing and identif: ing
!Jeople
Getting someone's
attention
Asking somt-one to rep3al
something
Talking about possessi Ins
Talking about the wea her
and the seasons
Getting and giving the Lime
and datc
Talking a b ~ ~the
u t preh~nt
Talking ab11utclothes ..nd
colors
Talking on the teleyhu ie
Talking ahnut weekly
routines and schedul:~
Asking about relatives and
friends
Offering help
Ashng for transportat on
information
Talk about work and
school
'Calking about movies
Agreeing
Talking about what p e ~ p l e
have to do
Giving reasons and u p uom
Making suggestions a].d
accepting or declinin:
Talking about quantit:.
and availability
Asking for loeations in a
grocery stare
Asking about prices
Talking about favorite
things
Giving and following
directions
Talking about the f u t re ~
Ordering in a restaurbnt
Listening to reeorded novie
announcements
-
I I.
GRAMMAR
Reading and Writing
Parties Verbs that don't usually
Reading abbreviations Work end in -ing (like, know,
Reading For Rent ads
Life in the past etc.)
Reading a map History and important Conjunctions
Reading entertainment ads I dates That and so
Reading food ads The family The simple past tense
Reading recipes Shopping Lir clothes Expressions of past time
Following vending machine Department stores Present, past, and modal
instructions 1 Bargains tag questions lShc can
Reading a menu A robbery swim. cant she?)
Reading a restaurant check Illness and the body Who as subject
Completing a r e ~ s t r a t i o n Vacations and travel Anyone, someone, no one
form Applying for a job Wh- questions with which
Completing an I.D. card Maniage One and ones
Setting up an address book 1 The future, fortune tellers, Object pronouns
Writing a personal and horoscopes Would like (to)
description Cars and driving Compound nouns
Writing a postcard Advice (home~uork,credit card.
Writing a letter about
etc.)
a friend The past tense of he
Writlng a description of
There i~,a.s1tuwc
onr's day
(Not) a s . . . a s
Writing a note to a friend
Adjective + to + verh
Malung a shopping list
lmsy to clean)
Conlparative of adjectives
Superlative of adjectives
The future with begoing lo
and wifl
The immediate past with
just
Can and could
Have got and have got to
Clauses with if
Should
Must
Wh- questions with whose
Possessive pronouns
Tm (It's t w impractica1.i
Had to
A lot (on, a little, a few,
and enough
So (The rnauie was so
,
$;;;E;
COMMUNICATION SKILLS
Listening and Speaking Reading and Writing
-- 7-- -
-
Introducing people Readily a ~ t o directury
r ~
Complimenting and
Rtading sale atis
accepting complirnents Reading n1edic:rle lahels
Agreeing and disagrt~ein~ Reading intern ~ t v ~ n a l
Apologizing and accepting travel signs
a n apolou Reading aniva ;mil
Offering, accepting, and departure scrt.cn.:
declining foud Heading abbre, tation;.
Getting and giving personal Reading Help W;lntetl :ids
information Getting
conk~xcm e ~ n i r:.from
Talking about the present
and past Writing an ~nvi!;rtion
Talking about f;i~ntlyand Writing a page In a di.lry
friends Filling out 3 ch;crge
Talking abo~rtpeople ~Iccl~llntappli<nti<,n
and events Writing J note her
Giving opinions ur boss
Asking for cllnfir~nation
Writinq ; I p,slc lrd
Asking for and @ving (:ompleting u jolt
assistance
applica t~onfo -rn
Talking about cloth~ng
Writing . I resun~c
Describing people
Writing .I note 1, tth on1 v
Comparing nect!>s;iry lnfi nn;ltior
Emphasizing Taking a writte ! drivers
Talking about preferences llcensr ernmi~l;llion
Complaining Writing ;In 3rti1 le alw111 a
Making, agreeing to, iutd clnss~n.lteiqr, rlrsvlf
rejecting suggestil~ns
Asking for and giving
advice
Talking about illness
Making a ductor's
appointmelit
Offering sympathy
Talking about vacations
Checking in fbr 81 flight
Asking for travel
information
Talking about ability
Giving reasons or excuhes
Inviting and refusing
invitations
Making requests and
promises
Talking about. the future
Talking about possessi~~ns
Talking about obligation
and necessity
siirprise and
Talkinz aboul uuantitv
 TOPICS GRAMMAR COMMUNICATION SKILLS GRAMMAR COMMUNICATION SKILLS
Listening and Speaking Reading and Wrnlng Listening and Speaking Reading and Writing

Rules and public behav~or May and can for permission Asking for confirmation Predicting Shopping The future with the si~nple Making comparisons Reading sture ads and
Childhood Present perfect with for, Giving and denying Scanning m t i o n of stortx and presenl and the present Making offers and requests floor plans
Work since, ever, already, yet, permission Discussing job applicants serrices continuous Asking for and offering help Getting the meaning of
Likes and dislikes ,lust Getting and giving personal and qualifications C ~ t t i n gthings done Another, the oth,,r(s), 0thc.r Asklng for confirmation word3 from contexl
A wedding Pment perfed tag questions information Getting the meaning of Directions Wh. noun clauses Giving advice and opinions Inferring
V;~cationsand travel Plst time with used to Talking about past habits, words from context Disasten and acciden s Causative with rnokr,,:er. Asking for and giving Reading ZI repmr bill
The use of common Plural nouns with no article abilities, and actrvities Figuring out pronoun Sighkee~ng and have locations Reading a checktxok
machlnes Verb + gerund ( I enjoy Talking about likes and reference Lifestyles Placement order of adverbs Making appointments Scanning
Spirts working.) dislikes Using context to chmse Careers and jobs Adverbial clauses wlth Stating the purpose or Restating information from
Interrsts and abilities Preposition + gerund Expressing enthusiasm synonyms Bosses and employee: future time reason a chart
Chores around the house R~ssibilitywith could, Talking about possibility Reading travel ads The circus Adverbial clauses showing Asking for and b?ving Reading sports scores
Baking and had may, and m$hl Drawing conclusions Reading public signs Television purpose or reason directions Predicting
Geography Conclusions with must Congratulating Reading a tourist guide Leisure time Present perfect progressive Finding out what pmple Reading tour .ids and
Trivia S~me. any, and o w as noun Expressing excitement Reading ads and tables Travel Separable and inseparable have done recently and fact sheek
Production of food . ~ n d substitutez Making requests and offers Reading, writ~ng,and Cmking and entertail ing two-word verbs when they did it Finding definitions in the
gmls Vurb +infinitive (plan togo) Talking about places people saying large numben Computers Kelative clauses with who, Discussing what to watch dict~onary
Ftunous people. places, and Verb + infinitive or gerund have visited Organizing information The future whom, which, .ind that on TV Reading and writing
things Advice with ought to Asking for and giving into paragraphs Going back to s c h a ~ l Still vs. any longer Agreeing and d~sagrr!eing recipes
Plans fur class break Compounds with some, any, instructions Writing an informal Politics (anymom) Describing people and Reading wurse descriptions
, Transplrtation and no (someorre. anyone, Expressing hopes invitation Buth . . . a n d . . . things Writing a cumparison of
I Buy~ng cars and appli- IW one, etc.1 Making suggestions Ordenng paragraphs Either.. . or and ~Veithvr. . . Talking about jobs and one's life belbre and now
anct's No + noun or gerund Giving reasons and opinions correctly nor careen Writing a check
(no ent, no smokrng) Agreeing Making a sulvey and taking Comparis~~n uf nouns Expressing doubt Writing a business reply
Imperative with you Talking about health notes Participial phraws Asking about likes and letter
St) . (that) Expressing reciprocity Writing a personal letter Prelixes ~ m -in.., un , rr-, dislikes Writing a person31 letter
Separable two-word verbs Talking about leisure time to bring a friend up to rlis-, and aritt- Comparing places to give direct~ons
Past continuous with when activities date Such ( a l a n i for conlpll- Talking about preferences Writing descriptions of
and while Complimenting and Writing a summary ments Explaining how to do sports and games
Be able to complaining Writing a recipe Verb + direct ob!wt + something Taking a telephone messagt
Reflexive pronoun3 Talking about geography Writing a description of infinitive Inviting and declining an Writing descriptions of
Reciprocal pronouns and comparing places one's country The future, present perfect, invitation people and things with
' l i x , . . . lo (The k~tchenIS Asking for explanations Writing about the capital and mcdals in the Suggesting an alternative specific details
loo big to paint by hrm- Expressing positive and or an important city in passive voice date and accepting an Writing a comparison
self) negative feelings one's country Result clauses with such invitation Writing a personal profile
Present (exhaustrng) and Giving s k t ~ s t i c s Editing and writing ( I . . . that Proposing a toast Writing an account of
past (exhausted) Stating rules a postcard Not only . . . but fala)) Describing people's a disaster
participles as adjectives Talking about places and Modals in the past behavior, personalit~cs, Writing a composttion
Verb + object + tolfor things Modals in the progres.iive and actions which argues one's point
Look, feel, sound, ete., + Talking about a country's Hope and wish Rep~rttnga disaster of view
adjective prcduck Unless and only if Talking and speculating Rewriting an article using
L n ~ kfeel,sound,
, etc., +like Correcting Prefixes rnis- and re- about the future reported speech
What a l a n for compli- Talking about how people SuRixes -or, rnerrt, -er, -en[, Emphaqizing Writing an article based 01
menk and complaints do things -ran, and -ran Finding out if things have a n interview
Negative yesho questions Talking about quality and Reported speech been done or when they Writlng a speech
U'h- questions with how performance will be done Writing a letter of
Comparative and Asking for and giving Making assumptions about application for a job
superlative of adverbs advice the present and past
Get + adjective Giving additional Expressing hop-
The with geographical information Making wishes
names Tallung about hypothetical Co~nplimentingand
The present and past ten- situations complaining
ses in the passive voice Convincing someone to Reporting other people's
Had ('dl better do something opinions
Before, during, a/?er, and Talking about future plans Reporting what people ask
for + noun
Before,aPer, when +clause
Cunditional with
~ f. ..would. . .
108 CHAPTER7 Learner Variables 11: Teaching Acniss Proficirncv Level.;
unrehearsed situations, to self-cr)rrect on occasion, to use a few compensatory
strategies, and generally to "get along" in the language beyond mere survival. The
picture changes somewhat. Your role and the students' capacities change.
Consider the same ten factors.
1. Students' cognitive learning processes
At the intermediate stage some automatic processing has taken hold. Phrases,
sentences, structures, and conversational rules have been practiced and are
increasing in number, forcing the mental processes to a~~tomatize. I like to think of
automaticity as placing elements of language into the "hard drive" of our neurolog-
ical computers. Our immediately controlled"desktops" (limited in capacity) are too
small to contain all the inform~tionwe need. One of !,our principal goals at this
level is to get students to continue to automatize, to corttinue to allow the bits and
pieces of language that might clutter the mind to be relegated to automaticity.
There, in their linguistic hard drives, those bits ; ~ n dpieccs are beneath the surface,
as it were, yet readily available for immediate (automatic) use whenever needed.
2. The role of the teacher
You arc no longer the OIII).initiator of language. lrtudents should be encour-
a g d to ask questions, make comments, and negotiate certain options in learning
where appropriate. More student-student interaction c;m now take place in pairs,
small groups, and wholeclass activity.
Learner-centered work is now possible for more sustained lengths of time as
students are able to maintain topics of discussion and focus. By its very nature, the
intermediate level is richly diverse; that diversity can wc~rkto your advantage with
carefully designecl coopentive activities that capitalize on differences among stu-
dents. Don't set equal expectations for all students, however, since abilities, espe-
cially speaking abilities, can vary widely.
3. Teacher talk
Most of your oral production can be sustained at a natur;ll pace, as long as your
articulation is clear. Teacher talk should not occupy the major proportion of a class
hour; otherwise, you are probably not giving students enough opportunity to talk.
You should be using less of the native lang~rageof the learners at this level,but some
situations may still demand it.
4. Authenticity of language
At this level students somelimes become overly concerned about gnmrnaticd
correctness and may want to wander into esoteric d~scussionsof grammatical
details. This penchant for analysis might get them too 6 1 . afield from authentic, real
language. Make sure they stay on the track.
5. Fluency and accuracy
The dichotomy between fluency and accuclcy is a crucial concern here, more
so than at either of the other ends of the proficiency spectrum. Some students are
CIIAPTER 7 Lerlrrler Variables If:TeachfngAcrms Proficiwcv L +els 109
likely to become overly concerned about accuracy, possibly bec~tingthemselves for
the mistakes they make and demanding constant corrections for every slip-up.
Others may slide into a ~ e ~ s a t i s f i erut
d in which they actually become quite fl~lcnt,
in the technical sense of the term, but in which they become very diftic~~lt to com-
prehend. Be on the lookout for both types of student and he prepared to offer indi-
vidualized attention to each.
In general, fluency exercises (saying or writing a steady How ol'lang~lagetor a
short period of time without any self- or other-c-orrection at all) arc a must a1 this
level. They help to get students over the hump of always having to sa! or writc
everything absolutely correctly. You want them in duc course of time to through
the "breakthrough" stage of language learning, ohen thought of as a stage ;~fter
which a learner looks back and says."Wow! I just carried on a whole co~~vers;~tion
without thinking about my gammar!"A big part of your task with most studer~t:,i:,
to maintain their flow with just enough attention to error ro keep them t:rowing.
6. Student creativity
The fact that some of this new language is now under control glves rise to n ~ o r c
opportunities for the student to be creative. Interlanguage errors such a>
Does John can sing:'
What means this?
I must to make a lot of money.
are a good indication of the creative application of a system within the learrler's
mind. Try to recognize this form of creativity as a positive sign of tangu;tgc dcvel-
opment and of the internalization of a coherent system. Studenrs arc also I~ecoming
more capable of applying their claxsroorn language to unrehearsed situ;ttions. In
EFL settings those situations may be more difficult to find, but through thc various
forms of media and the written word, applications to the reill world, h(:retofore
unrehearsed in the classroom, are available and slioulcl bc encuui-aged.
7. Techniques
Because of the increasing language capacities of your students, techn~cluescan
increase in complexity. Common interactive techniques for intermediate, incl~itle
chain stories, surveys and polls, paired interviews, group problem solving, r, 11c-plz~ys,
story telling, and many others.
8. Listening and speaking goals
The linguistic con~plexityof communicative listening-speaking go;lls ilicreascs
steadily. Along with the creation of novel uttermces, students can p:~rti~.ipattr in
short conversations, ask and answer questions, find alternative ways tc~convey
meaning, solicit information from others, and more. The functions themselves nray
not be intrinsically more complex, but the forms they use are. (For more mfor~na-
tion on teaching listening and speaking, see Chapters 16 and 17.)
 r HAPJEK 7 I1 Tedchlng Acroa Prohclency Levels
Lt'arner VC~rrables
9. Reading and writing goals
hlcreasing complexity in terms of length, grammar,and discourse now chardcter-
izes wading materiai as students read pangraphs and short, simple stories, and are
beginning to u x skimming and scanning skills. Writing is similarly more sophisticated.
(For more information on teaching reading and writing, see Chapters 18 and 19.)
10. Gninmar
(;rammar topics such as progressive verb tenses and clauses typify interme-
diate lcvel teaching. Students can benefit from small doses of short, simple expla-
nations of points in English. Whether through English or the native language
nledium, such overt attention to "sore spots" in grammar can, in fact, be exceedingly
helpful a1 this stage. Students have been known to flounder in a sea of inductivity
until one cogent tip from a teacher sets them back on a strdight course. I once
encountered a student who, for too many months (or years?),when referring to past
events would say things like
She can kept her child.
Hr must paid the insurance [premium].
One day, a simple explal~ationfrom his teacher about modal auxiliaries in the
past tense"curednhim when all the outright corrections in the world hadn't seemed
to nuke an impact
Keep granlmatical metalanguage to an ideal minimum at this level; otherwise,
your students will become English grammarians instead of English speakers.
Remember, you are interested in gnmmar because that is where some of your
training has been, but you don't need to make budding Ph.D.s in linguistics out of
your students! Overt gr~mmaticalexplanation has its place, in the wings, if you will,
as a prompter of sorts, but not as the dominant focus of student attention.
TEACHING ADVANCED LEVELS
As students move up the developmental ladder, getting closer and closer to their
goals,developing fluency along with a greater degree of accuracy, able to handle vir-
tually any situation in which target language use is demanded, they become
.'advanced" students. At the very top of this ladder is what the ACTFL Proficiency
Cui~lc~lirlesdescribe as the "superior" level, comparable in most aspects to an edu-
cated native-speaker level. Few if any ESL classes are designed for the superior
level, so in order to be more in keeping with reality, we will simply focus on what
the Guidelines describe as the "advanced" level.
1. Students' cognitive learning processes
As competence in language continues to build, students can realize the full
spectrum of processing, assigning larger and larger chunks to automatic modes and
CHAI~TFK7 1.e.lrner Variables 11: Teaching Across Proficiencv Levels 11 1
gaining the confidence to put the formal structures of language on the periphery so
that focal at tention may be given to the interpretation and negotiation of meaning
and to the conveying of thoughts and feelings in interactive communication. Some
aspects of language, of course, need focal attention for minor corrections, refine-
ment, and (xther "tinkering";otherwise, teachers would almost be unnecessary. So
your task at this level is to assist in the ongoing attempt to automatize language and
in the deliciite interplay between focal and peripheral attention to selected aspects
of language
2. The role of the teacher
On the surface, your job may appear easier with advanced students; you can sit
back and It t their questions and self-generated curiosity take over. In reality, the
independence that students have acquired must be cleverly channeled into class-
room routilles that benefit most of the students most of the time. No mean task!
The most common occurrence in advanced level teaching is that your class runs
away with itself and you are left with only a quarter or half your plans fulfilled. So,
while you .vant to take advantage of the self-starting personalities in your chss,
orderly p l a ~ ~ s still important. 11directive role on your part a n create effective
arc
learning opportunities even within a predominantly learner~enteredclassroom.
3. Teacher talk
Natural language at natural speed is a must at this level. Make sure your stu-
dents are cltallenged by your choice of vocabulary, structures, idioms, and other lan-
guage features. But, after all, they are still learning the language, so remember that
they have not yet turned into native speakers. The amount of teacher talk should
bc commellsurate with the type of activity. Make sure your students have ample
opportunities to produce language so that your role as a provider of feedback takes
prominencct. For some of your students, this is the last chance to benefit from
informed, svstematic feedback on their performance; from here on out, they will be
"out there" where people, out of politeness or respect, nrely give corrections.
Very little, if any, reliance on the students' native language is now justified.
Discipline, c:xplanations, and other more conlplex language functions can be carried
out in English. Occasionally, a teacher of an advanced class will resort to a word or
two (a defi~tition,for example‘^ in the native language in order to help a student who
is "stuck."
4. Authenticity of language
Everything from academic prose to literature to idiomatic conversation
becomes a legitinlate resource For the classroom. Virtually no authentic language
material should be summarily disqualified at this stage. Certain restrictions may
come to bear, depending on how advanced your class is, of course.
5. Fluency and accuracy
At this level most, if not all of your students areUfluent"inthat they have passed
beyond tht. breakthrough stage and are no longer thinking about every word or
112 CHAPTEK7 Learner V~riablesI/: Teach117g
Across f'ruticienc Levels
structure they are producing or con~prehending.A handful or two of problems still
need attention. If errors are relatively rare, an occasio~~al
treatment from you or
from peers may be quite helpful.
6. Student creativity
The joy of teaching at this level is in those moments of student performance
when you know that they are now able to apply classroom material to real contexts
beyond. Make sure that students keep their eyes fixetl on those goals. Be ever
wary of classroom activity that simply ends right there U I the classroom.
7. Techniques
Techniques can now tap into a t i l l range of socio1in~:uistic and pragmatic com-
petencies. Typical of this level are activities like group debates and argumentation,
con~plexrole-plays, scanning ant1 skimming reading m;~terial,determining and q u e s
tioning author's intent,and writing ess;lys and critiques. Often at this level students
have specific purposes for which they are planning to ute English. Focus on those
purposes as much as possible.
8. Listening and speaking goals
At this Level students can focus more carefully on all the sociolinguistic nuances
of language. Pragmatic constraints are common areas needing work as students
fine-tune their production and co~nprehensionin terms )f register, style, the status
of the interlocutor, the specific context of a conversational exchange, turn-taking,
topic nomination and termination, topicchanging, and c:ulturally conditioned lan-
guage constraints.
9. Reading and writing goals
Reading and writing skills similarly progress closer a11d closer to native-speaker
competence as students learn more about such things as critical reading, the role of
schemata in interpreting written texts, and writing a document related to one's prct
fession (laboratory reports, record:, of experiniental rese;~rchfindings, etc.).
10. Grammar
The concern at the ~ntermediateItvel for bahlc grammatical patterns now g~dd-
uates beyond some of the elements of Level 4 in Figure 7 . 1 to functional forms, to
sociolinguistic and pragmatic phenomena, and to budding strategic competence
(see PLLT, Chapter 10). Linguistic metalanguage may now serve a more useful role
as students perceive its relevance to refining their language. Your classes need not
become saturated with languagc about language, b u ~ well-targeted deductive
grammar has its place.
You have now had a chance to contemplate quite a number of v;lriables that
change as you teach lower or higher levels of proficiency The age and proficiency
variables are two extremely important Issues to incorponre into any attempt to plan
and conduct language lessons. Chapter 8 will introduce more contextual variables
that come to bear on decis~onsthat you make when you teach in a classroom.
CnAPrER 7 Learner Variables I\: Te'lch~ngAcross Proiic~etlcyLe' ?Is 113
TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION, ACTION, AND RESEARCH
[Note: (I) Individual work; (G) group or pair work; (C) wholeclass discuss~on.]
1. (I) Look again at the FSI levels (p. 97) and ACTFL Cz~idelines((pp. 100- 101 ).
For a foreign language you know (or English, if it is ;I second languagc for
you), try a quick self-assessment using the two scales. How con lid en^ do you
feel about your self-r~ting?If someone else in your class knows your ;~bilityin
this second language, ask them to place you on the scales, then See if vou
agree.
2. (G/C)Ask the class to imagine they have been asked to do an oral interview
of a speaker of English as a second language. Direct small groups to I-ollaho-
rate to design a format and specific questions to include in such an ir'tervitw
so that one could determine an FSI and/or ACTFL level of the learner. After
groups h ~ v ecompared formats, sct up a role-played interview for selected stu-
dents to perform for the rest of the class, perhaps in a language other than
English.
3. (QThink of several different foreign language classes that you're familiar with,
preferably ranging from beginning to advanced levels. Use the ACTFI
Speaking Guidelines to determine the level of each class. Are the Giticlelitres
sufficient?What would you need to add?
4. (G)Ask groups to discuss how one wuuld approach a class in which I here are
true beginners as well as "false" beginners. Flow would one keep the I;~tter
challenged without overwhelming the former? Have g n ~ u p sshare tlie~ridc:~s
with the rest of the class.
5. (C) Review the Mchughlin model in PLLT, Chapter 10, especiallv'l;~hie 10.2
in that chapter, listing on the board some clahsroom ex;~mplcsof each of the
four cells in the model. Ask students to try to come up with some atldition;~l
techniques that are controlled with respect LO language forms. I h e n >olicil
some techniques in which students are automatically attending to l;~nguagc.
forms. 1)iscuss where you would place each technique (both the one:, givrn
in the table and the added ones) on the scale ranging from beginning to
advanced levels.
6. (G) It was noted on page 99 that in some EFI, situations, trachrr:, nright "nege
tiate" certain elements of classroom practices with students. Ask pair:, to
identify some classroom contexts and to figure out some specific exa~rlplesof
negotiation. How do those differ, depending on proliciency level? Fol
example, at the very beginning level, what form does negotiation take and
how does that differ from negotiation at an adv;~ncedlevel?
7. (I ) fluency be practiced at the very beginning level?l'hink about ;I for-
Can
eign language class you have taken. Could you have produced anythi~rgyou
would call fluency? If not, or if only very littlc, at what stage would you say a
fluency gwal becomes feasible?
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1 16 C ~ ~ A P T E8R s0~iopo1iii~al
and Institutiun.~lCvrttexts
sibilities: ESL and EFL contexts, English as an internatio~lallanguage (EIL), and lan-
guage policy issues.
SECOND AND FOREIGN LANGIJAGE CONTEXTS
In some of our professional musing about teaching and lrarning, we interchange the
terms second and foreign in referring to English Language teaching. (See PLLT,
Chapter 7, for a discussion of these two terms.) But some caution is warranted, par-
titularly in relation to a curriculum or a lesson, because (a) the difference between the
3j
two is significant, and (b) this dichotomy has been overgrneralized in recent years.
To distinguish opention:~llybetween a second and foreign language context,
think of what is going on outside your classroom door. Once your students leave
your class, which language will they hear in the hallways or, in case you are in the
foreign language department hallway, out on the sidt.walks and in the stores?
Second language learning contexts are those in whict the classroom target lan-
guage is readily available out there. leaching Englist, in the United States or
Australia clearly falls into this (ESL.) category. Foreign language contexts are those
in which students do not have ready-made contexts f(8r communication beyond
their classroom. They may be obtainable through language clubs, special media
opportunities, books, or an occasional tourist, but efforrs must be made to create
such opportunities. Teaching English in Japan or Morc'cco or Thailand is almost
always a context of English as a foreign language (EFL).
The seemingly clear dichotomy between ESl. and EFL, however, has been con-
siderably muddied in recent years with the increasing use of English worldwide for
a variety of purposes (Nayar 199;'). First, ESL contexts vary from an American or
British context, where monolingual native speakers abcund, to countries such as
India or Singapore, where English is a widely used second language for education,
government, and commerce, to Scandinavian countries, %xhereEnglish has no offi-
cial status but is commonly spoken by virtually every educated person. Likewise, in
countries where a language might be quickly judged as foreign (for instance,Spanish
or Chinese in the US, English in Japan), learners may find readily available potential
for authentic use of the language in such venues as indigenous language communi-
ties and the media (Internet,TV, film).
With that fair warning, it is still useful to consider thl. pedagogical implications
for a continuum of contexts ranging from high-visibility,ready access to the tdrget
language outside the language classroom to no access beyond the classroom door.
In a typical second language context, your students havr a tremendous advantage.
They have an instant "laboratory" available twenty-four hours a day. I often remind
my students studying ESL at the Anlerican Language Institute that their classroom
hours (about twenty-five hours a week) are only a fraction of their language learning
CHAPTER 8 S O C I I J ~ O ~dnd
~ ~/nStfl~Ifon.i/
IC~/ Confi,xtc 117
hours. After subtracting hours spent sleeping, they have more than eiqhty ,~ddi
tional hours a week of opportunities to learn and practice English!
When you plan a lesson or curriculum in a context that falls into the second
Language category, students can capitalize on numerous opportunit~es.Herc arc
some ways to seize this "ESL advantage":
* Give homework that involves a specific speaking task with ;I person out-
2 side the classroom, listening to a radio or TV program, reading a nt,wspaper
article, writing a letter to a store or a charity.
Encourage students to seek out opportunities for practice.
Encourage students to seek corrective fecdback l'rorn others.
Have students keep a log or diary of their extnclass learning
Plan and carry out field trips (to a museum, for example).
Arnnge a social "mixer" with native English speakers.
lnvite speakers into your classroom.
Communicative language teaching in what we might l~roadlycategoi-izc as ;In
EFL context is clearly a greater challenge for students and teachers. Often, intrinsic
motivation is a big issue, since students may have difficulty in seeing the ~.elevance
of learning English. Their immediate use of the language may seem far removed
from their own circumstances, and classroom hours may be the only part of the day
when they are exposed to English. Therefore, the language that you present, model,
elicit, and treat takes on great importance. If your class meets for, say, only ninety
minutes a week, which represents a little more than 1 percent of their waking
hours, think of what students need to accomplish!
Can students learn English in an EFL setting? (Or French in an .'FI;l." setting?)
The answer is obviously "yes" because many people have done so. Here :Ire some
guidelines to help you compensate for the lack of r e ~ d ycommunicative :ituations
outside the classroom.
Use class time for optimal authentic I;~ngu;~geinput and interaction
Don't waste class time on work that can be done as homework.
Provide regular motivation-stimulating activities.
Help students to see genuine uses for English in their own lives.
Play down the role of tests and emphasize more intrinsic factors.
Provide plenty of extn-class learning opportunities, such as assigning an
English-speaking movie, having them listen to an English-speaking1 V or
ndio prognm, getting an English-speaking conversation partner, doing out-
side reading (news magazines, books), writing a journal or diary, in 1:nglish.
on their learning process.
Encourage the use of learning strategies outside class.
Form a language club and schedule regular activities.
11(1 CHAPTIK 8 S O C I O ~ O I I ~and
I I B IInst~tutronalContexts
ENGLISH A5 AN INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE
<:losely related to the ESWEFL distinction is the phenomenon of the role of inter-
nationalized varieties of English (see PLLT, Chapter 7). As English takes on more
and morc of a second language role in a country (such as Singapore, for example),
there is a greater likelihood of the growth of a nativized variety of English in that
country. A good deal of research has been carried out on the "lndianization" of
English (see Kachru 1992), with implications for notions of acceptability and stan-
dardization in other countries like the Philippines, Singapore, or Nigeria. Two basic
issues for English teachers have emerged:
1. Engl~shis increasingly being used as a tool for interaction among nonnative
speakers. Well over one half of the one billion English spe;tkers of the world
learned English as a second (or foreign) language. Most English language
teachers across the globe are nonnative English speakers, which means that
the norm is not nionoIingualism, but bilingualism.
2. English is not frequently learned as a tool for understanding and teaching US
or British cult11~1l
values. Instead. English h;ls become a tool for international
communication in transportation, commerce, banking, tourism, technology,
diplomacy, and scientific research.
This multiplication of varieties of English poses some practical concerns for the
teacher. One of those concerns is the issue of grammaticalness and correctness.
What standard do you accept in your classroom? The practical issue boils down to
the need for your open acceptance of the prevailing variety of English in use in the
country where you're teaching, be it India, Nigeria, or the Philippines. It is certainly
not necessary to think of English as a language whose cultural identity can lie only
with countries like the US, the UK, or New Zealand. Your students will no doubt be
more interested in the practical, non-stigmatized uses of English in various occupa-
tional fields in their own country than in imitating American or British English.
If you're not tt~achingin a country whose people use a widely accepted variety
of English, you will still, no doubt, find that your teaching must keep pace with the
new pragmatism. Standards of grammaticalness and of pronunciation may well
need to be viewed in terms of the practice of natives who are educated, proficient
Iinglish speakers. In Japan, for example,"JapanizedUforms of English are becoming
niore widely accepted by English specialists. Your own pronunciation, especially,
may not be "perfectly nativelike" if you yourself are a nonnative English speaker.
The goals that you set for your students may therefore more wisely be goals of clear,
unambiguous pronunciation of English phonology.
Even if you are teaching English in what Kachru (1992) called inner circle
countries ([IS, UK, Canada,Australia, and New Zealand), you are well advised to base
your judgments of the acceptability of students' production on the ultimate practical
uses to which they will put the language: survival: social, occupational, academic, and
~HAPTER8 Sociopolitical and Institutional Contexts 119
technical u x s . In a city like k n Francisco, for example, we hear many varieties of
English. On one occasion, :IS 1 intcrviewed a prospective ESL teacher, I concluded
from her ercellent but "Hong Kong-ized" v;~rietyof English that she was originally
from Hong Cong. Upon asking hel; I discovered she was a native San Franciscan!
LANGUAGE POLICY ISSUES
A final socil)political contextual consideration at play in your English teaching is a
set of socic?cultural issues: What status does your country accord English? Does
your country have an official languagepo1ic:y toward English? How does this policy
or status aflect the motivation and purpose of your students?
The st;itus of English in the IIS is certainly not in question, but at present the
ITS is expeliencing a language policy debate. At one end of the spectrum is the
English Oniy movement that advocates the exclusive use of the English language for
all educational and political contexts and that carries an implicit assumption that
the use of one's "home" language will impede success in learning English. In con-
trast,Englisb Plus advocates respond with p r o p m s in which home languages and
cultures art valued by schools and other institutions, but in which ESL is promoted
and given appropriate funding. The debate has polarized many Americans. On one
side are thc~sewho raise fears of "wild and motley throngs" of people from faraway
lands creating a linguistic muddle. On the other extreme, linguistic minorities lobby
for recognirion in what they see as a white supremacist governmental mentality.
Yet enrollment in ESL classes across the US is higher than ever as recently and not-
so-recently arrived immigrants appreciate the importance of English proficiency for
survival ant1 adaptation in the home, the workplace, and the community.
Currefit sociopolitical trends in the US have created a unique challenge for
some colleg:e-level ESL programs. As more and niore families immigrate into the US,
children are placed into elementary and secondary schools according to their
achieveme~ltin their home countries. Without adequate ESL or bilingual instruc-
tion (see ba:low), they may get a 'social pass" from one grade to the next without
demonstrating mastery of the subject matter or the English proficiency necessary
for that mastery. After a few years, they find themselves in the upper secondary
school grades and in colleges, but with language skills inadequate for academic
demands. 'They have typically gained BICS (basic interpersonal communication
skills) (see PLLT, Chapter 9) that enable them to get along well socially, but not the
cognitive academic language proficiency (CALP) needed to progress through a col-
lege progr.lm. They fall into neither ESL nor native language course categories in
most colleges, and so specialized courses are sometimes developed to meet their
special nec:ds. Such courses stress study skills, reading strategies, acailemic lis-
tening skills, and techniques for successful academic writing.
Langu.~gepolicies and social climates may dictate the status accorded to native
and secontl languages, which can, in turn, positively or negatively affect attitudes
120 L I ~ A P T E RB ~txiopoliticaland institutional Contt,xts
and eventual success in language learning. Two commonly used terms characterize
the status of one's native language in a society where a second language is learned.
A native language is referred to as subtractive if it is considered to be detrimental
to the learning of a second language. In some regions of the United States, for
example, Spanish may be thought to be sociopolitically less desirable than English.
A native Spanish-speaking child, sensing thcsc societal altitudes, feels ashamed of
Spanish and must conquer those feelings along with le;~rningEnglish. Additive
bilingualism is found where the native language is held in prestige by the commu-
nity or society. ChiIdren learning English in Quebec are proud of their native
French language and traditions and can therefore appro;~chthe second language
more positively.
Most EFL programs are additive since the native languxge is the accepted norm.
Moreover, as the foremost international language, English is usually valued highly as a
tool for upw:~rdmobility. But in niany countries English is a required subject in sec-
ondary schools and higher education institutions, thereby diminishing possibilities of
intrinsic motivation to Icarn. Teacht.rs are in a constant state of war with the"autl1or-
ities" (ministries of education) on curricular goals and on !.he means for testing the
achievement of those goals. A student's "proficiency" is cietermined by a grueling
coniputer-scorable standardized n~ultiplechoice examiliation. T k ~ tproficiency
unfortunately often turns out to be related more to the abilrty to cram for a standard-
ized test than to the ability to use English for communicative, meaningfill purposes.
How can you t a c h a classroom of students under s u c l ~circumstances? Can you
focus their efforts and attention on language rather than on the exam at the end of
the course? Can students develop an intrinsically oriented outlook on their motiva-
tion to succeed?As a start to answering such questions, go back to the principles of
intrinsic motivation discussed in Chapter 5 and put them to practice, as suggested
there. And always try to keep your students'vision fixed o n usefu1, practical, reach-
able goals for the communicative use of English.
INSTITUTIONAL CONTEXTS
One of the most salient, if not relevsnt, <:ontextsof L;mguag:e teaching is the institu-
tion in which you are teaching. ESI./EFL classes are found in such a widc variety of
educational establishments that textbook publishers ha\e a hard time tailoring
material for the many contexts. Even within one"typenof institution, multiple goals
are pursuetl. For example, Language schools in many countries are now finely tuned
to offer courses in conversation, academic skills, English for specific purposes (ESP),
workplace English,vocational/technicalEnglish, test-taking strategies, and other spe-
cializations.
Institutional constraints are often allied to the sociopo!itical considcrations d i s
cussed above. Schools and universities cannot exist in a social vacuum. Public ele-
mmt;iry and secondary schools are subject to official national language policy
CHAPTER 8 S O C ~ I I P O / and
~ ~ CInstrtutional
~~/ Contt,xts 121
issues. In the US and other countries, the type of second language program offered
in schools is a product of legislation and governmental red tape. Students' purposes
in taking English at the higher education level may be colored by institutitmal poli-
cies, certification and degree requirements, instructional staffing, and evcn immi-
gration regulations.
Elementary and Secondary Schools
Language policies and programs in elementary and secondary schools t1iffi.r gre;itly
from country to country. Within some countries like the US. English L ~ n g u a g e
Development (ELD) programs, designed for school-age children whose n.~tivelan-
guage is not English, vary not only by state but also by school districts, w l ~ i c rnay
l~
number in the hundreds in larger states. In EFL countries, English is sometimes a
required secondary school subject and almost always one of several l'onign lan-
guage options. In certain countries (Sweden and Norway, for example) English is
even required in elementary schools.
A number of models* are currently practiced in the Unitcd States fo~.dealing
with nonnative English-spc-dking students in elementary and secondaiy schools.
Some of these models apply to other countries in varying adapted forms.
1. Submersion. The first way of treating nonnative speakers in clas~roc~ms is
really a lack of treatment: pupils are simply “submerged" in regular content-
area classes with no special foreign language instruction. 'The ;~ssun~p!ion ib
that they will "absorb"English as they focus on the subject matter. lie:,e~rch
has shown that sometimcs they don't succeed in either English or rhe content
areas, especially in subtractive situations. So, ;I few schools may proviclc a
pull-out program in which, for p e r h ~ p one
s period a day, students le~lc thcir
rcgular classroom and attend special tutorials or an ESL class.
2. Immersion. Here, pupils attend specially dcsigned content-area classi.s. All
the students in a class speak the same native language and are at simik~rlevels
of proficiency in English. The teacher is not only certified in the regul;~rcon-
tent areas but also has somc knowledg of thc students' first langilage .ind c.111-
ture. Immersion prognms are found more commonly in EFI. contexts than in
ESL contexts. In most immersion prognms, pupils are in an additive b~lingu:~l
context and enjoy the support of parents and the community in this
enriching experience.
3. Sheltered English. This is a specialized form of immersion program r hat has
become popular in recent years. It differs from immersion in that students
come from varying native language backgrounds and the teacher is trained in
' I am gratefill for Patricia Richard-Amato's(1996: 299-303) summary of differe,~t
types of programs and have &~wnprimarily on her descriptions.

60th subject-matter content and ESL methodology. Also, students often have
a regular ESI, class as part of the curriculum. At Newcomer High School in
San Frxncisco, for example, newly arrived immigrants are given one year of
sheltered instruction in which ESL-trained teachers combine content and ESL
in every subject.
4. Mainstreamhg. In some submersion programs, students first receive
instruction in ESL before being placed into content areas. Once teachers and
tests conclude that students are proficient enough to be placed into ongoing
content classes, they are mainstreamed into the regular curriculum. We need
to remember that this ESL instruction should be content-centered so that
pupils will not be at a disadvantage once they are placed in an ongoing class.
5. Transitional bilingual programs. In the United States, three different forms
of bilingual education-in which students receive instruction in some combi-
nation of their first and second languages-are in common use. Transitional
p r o q ~ n s t e a c subject-matter
l~ content in the native language, combined with
an ESI. componcnt. When teachers and tests detrrmine that they are ready,
students are transitioned into regular all-English classes. This has the advan-
tage of permitting students to build early cognitive concepts in their native lan-
guage and then cross over later to the dominant language. The major
disadvantage is that students are too often mainstreamed before they are ready,
before their academic and linguistic skills have been sufficiently built.
6. Maintenance bilingual programs. Here, students continue throughout
their school years to learn at least a portion of their subject matter in the
native language. This has the advantage of stimulating the continued develop
merit of pupils' native languages and of building confidence and expertise in
the content areas. Disadvantages include discouraging the mastery of English
and the high cost of staffing maintenance classes in budgetary hard times.
7. Enrichment bilingual programs. A third form of bilingual education has stu-
tlents taking selected subject-mattercourses in a foreign language while the
biilk of their education is carried on in their native language. Students in such
prognms in the US are not doing so for survival purposes, but simply to
"enrich"themselves by broadening their cultural and linguistic horizons.
Institutions of Higher Education
English language teaching programs exist in two-year (community) colleges, four-
year colleges and universities,post-graduate universities,extended (continuing) edu-
cation programs, language schools and institutes, vocational and technical schools,
adult schools, and in the workplace (companies, corporations). And you may even
be able to think of a category that has been omitted! Cutting across those institu-
tional contexts are a number of purposes for which languages are taught. Following
are six broad types of curricula that are designed to fit such varying student goals:
C ~ ~ A P T E8
R Soci~politicaland Institutional Contexrs 1 23
1. Pre-academic programs are designed for students who anticipate entering a
regular course of study at the college level. Some such programs are inten-
sive programs, that is, students have class for twenty to twenty-five hours per
week, usually for a quarter or a semester. The focus varies in such programs
from rdther general language skills at the advancetl-beginnerlevcl to advanced
courst s in reading, writing, study skills, and research.
2. EAP (Ilnglish for Academic Purposes) is a term that is very broadly ;~ppliedto
any ccurse, module, or workshop in which students are taught to deal with
academically related language and subject matter. EAP is common at the
advancrd level of pre-academic progrdms as well as in several other institu-
tional zettings.
3. ESP (knglish for Special Purposes) programs are specifically devoted to profes-
sional fields of study. A course in English for Agriculture or in Business Writing
would fall under the general rubric of ESP: Usually ESP courses are differenti-
ated from Vocationalflechnical English in that ESP refers to disciplines in
which people can get university majors and degrees, whilevocflech refers to
trades and other non-baccalaureatecertificate progcims.
4. Voc/Tech (Vocational andTechnica1) English targets those who are learning
tc~des(carpenters and electr~cians,for example), arts (such as photography),
and other occupations not conlmonly included in university programs.
5. Literacy programs are designed to teach students whose native language
readinglwriting skills ;Ire either nonexistent or very poor. Learning to be lit-
erate ill English while learning aural-oral forms as well requires energy and
motivation on the part of students. Teachers need special training to teach at
this challenging level.
6. Survid/Social curricula nln the gamut from short courses that introduce
adults to conversational necessities to full-blown curricula designed to teach
adults .I complete range of language skills for survival in the context of the
seconti culture. By definition,such programs would not progress beyond inter-
media~eskill levels. These courses are frequently offered in night-school adult
education programs and private language schools such as Berlitz Schools.
Table 8 . 1 on page 124 outlines eight venues and the above-mentioned six gen-
eral types of curricula. An "X"indicates that such a program is likely to bc offered.
These institutional contexts are somewhat oversimplified. In determining how
to plan lessons and carry out techniques within each ci~rriculum, quite a number of
other institutional factors apply. Consider, for example:
the cxtent to which institutional regulations demand a certain curriculum
coni-ent,
the extent to which budgetary and bureaucratic constraints dictate class
size number of hours, etc..
124 CHAPTER8 Sorivpol~ticaland Insfirutivnal Conte..rts CHAPTER 8 Soci~politicaland Ins~rtution,llCrjntektr 125

the extent to which an administr;~toror supervisor forces" you to teach in TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION, ACTION, AND RESEARCH
a certain way,
the textbook (which you may detest) assigned to your course, [Note:(Iindividual
) work; (G) group or pair work; (C) whole-class discuss~on.]
the support and feedback t h ~yout get from fellow reachers,
how other teachers in your institution teach and the extent to which they 1. (G)Ask pairs to think of some typical ESL and/or EFL contexts. Ilirect the
may subtly coerce you into teaching "their" way, pairs to think of other ways (a) to seize the "ESL advantage" and (b.) tc com-
the number of hours you must teach in order to m;,.kea living ant1 how pensate for the lack of ready communicative situations outside the EFI. class-
that affects your energy level, room door.
the conditions of your classroom (size of the room, lighting,furniture, etc.), 2. (VC) Investigate the official policy on English (and, possibly, other sec ond lan-
and guages) in the government and educational system of your own country or a
whether or not your English course is required and the effect that has on country of your choosing. Are there unofficial policies in business,ecuca-
the motivation of your students. tional, or sock~lcircles?Do they sustain or contradict the official stance? Sh:~re
your findings with the class.
The list could go on. Institutional constraints are somttimes the biggest hurdle 3. (G)Ask pairs to describe other instances of subtractive (p. 120) biling~~alisn~.
you have to cross. Once you have found ways to compromise with the system and What could one do as a teacher to heIp students create a more positi~cout-
still feel professionally FuUilled, you can release more energy into creative teaching. look on their native and second languages?
Many of these issues will be dealt with in future chapters. 4. (C) Solicit from students some specific steps that could be taken to lilt the
motivation level in countries where English is a compulsory subject ir~the
schools and motivation to learn it is low. Would those steps lead to sornc
intrinsic motivation?Are the steps practical?
5. (I/C) If possible, direct your students to observe different ESL classes I hat rep-
resent some of the models described on pagcs 121-22. Have them ccmpare
Table 8.1. Venues dnd curricula the differences and similarities in the programs and describe wh;~tseerrled ro
be the most and the least effective elements in each program or class hour.
Pre-academic EAP ESP VocITec h Literacy Survival Their findings might be shared with the rest of the class.
6. (I) Look at the chart showing different institutions and curricul;~(7hblt: 8.1.
Two-year cornrnunily X X X p. 126). Pick two or three types of institution that you are not familial. with
college and try to find a class to observe. What new approaches or technicjut s clid
you see?
Four-year college X X X X 7 . (G) Direct small groups to decide how they would deal with each of the fol-
or university lowing scenarios:
a. Your administrator insists that you teach a strict ALM met!iod
Post-graduate X X X X when you're convinced that a form of CLT is not only appropriate
(university) but through it your students would get excited and motivatetl to
learn.
Language school X X X X X
b. You have been given a textbook to teach from that is boring, life-
less, and outdated, filled with repetitious mechanical exercises
Extended education X X X X
c. You are teaching in a language school where you would lik(, to
share ideas with your teaching colleagues,but no one wants to ~alk
Technical school X X X
with you because they say they're too busy (ancl you suspect they
Adult education X X X are a bit defensive about the "rut" they're in after teaching at the
same place for many years). Could you get teachers to share itleas
Workplace X X X X in a non-threatening way?
126 ( HAPTEY 8 S O C I O ~ O ~and
I ~ I Instr~ut~onal
C~I~ Conlexts

8. (G/C)The Bnzilian educator Paolo Freire (1970) said that education

empowers people: it enables them to become creative, prodilctive people
who will work toward political and social change. Ask small groups to dis-
cuss ways that English might empower learners. Groups should then share
their ideas with the whole class.

FOR YOUR FURTHER READING

Kachru, Rraj B. 1992. "World Englishes: Approaches, issues, and resoilrces."
Language Teuct~irrg25: 1- 14.
Irr th1.s ltlcrti art~cleJ i ~ the
r Jcrnuaty 1992 issue of this abstructing jozlrnal,
K L I C s~rnrniuriwd
~T~~ a sweepirrg awuy ofcz~rrentresearch arid oJered corn-
ments otl the 'ktate of he cirt" in ulhat has come to be known as ',lr#orl~l
Et~~ylisht~.~. "

(:azden, Courtney and Snow, Catherine. 1990. Errglish Plus: Issues irr Bilingual
Educcrtion. (Annals of the AmericanAcademy of Political and Social Science No.
SOX). Thousantl Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
771is tclhole voli ~rneis gillen over to descriptions of isszres and of research and
pr~lctice ill u~hatis reJiemd to as "English Plus," a n alterr~ative to the
"ltqqlish Only" niollt>mentthat ctrmrztly threaterrs to dir~idtlt t ~ eUnited
Stcrtes. A case 1s made hhcrr forprcsemirlg the honre l~rngzrugesof chi1drc.n IGNING AND
in schools, andJi)radding E~lglishto their nutiue languuge skills.

Kicenro, Thomas K. and Hornberger, Nancy H. 1996. 'Unpeeling the onion:

Language planning and policy." TESOL Quarterly 30: 401-27.
IMPLEMENTING
I'hillipson, Robert and SkutnabbKangas, Tove. 1996. "English only worldwide or
language ecology?"TESOL Quarterly 30: 429-52.
7'hesc-t u articles
~ lead o j + a nerrtire isszie of the TESOL Quarterly devoted to
-LESSONS
krrigz~ageplanning anti policy. The crrtic1t.s are particulur[y ir~tc~esting
becalise they slrrvq critical issuesfor teachen in today :s world oj'expancling
cilwk~sof English speakers. In the wrme issue are ret'ieua of .sc~rlc~ralkey books
in thefield oflur~gziagepolicyand phnning.

Judd, Elliot. 1987. "Teaching English to speakers of other languages: A political act
and a moral question." TESOL Newsletter 21: 15-16.
Iri this hricf article ulrittenfor clavsrooni teuchen, Judd spells out the polit-
ical and moral implications (?/'teaching.Not only is mery act of teaching
colored by political ramificutions, but Er~glish,especially, has become politi-
tiwrl it1 many co~intries,creating certain nrorul dilemmas as ulc.11.

The first two sections of this book have given you some important background for
designing and implementing techniques in the classroom That background can be
capsulized in two major categories:
1. Principled teaching. Your teaching is derived froni, and gives feedback to, a
set of principles that form tlie skeleton of an overall approach to language
learning and teaching. At this stage you should have a reasonably stable and
comprehensive approach-;L hroad understanding ol how learners learn and
how teachers can best facilitate that process. At the same time, your
approach should be dynamic; it should change and grow as you tcach stu-
dents, study professional material, and observe yourself in the classroom.
2. Contexts of learning. Part of your principled appioach to learning and
teaching involves an understallding of who your learners are. How old are
they? How proficient are they' What are their goals in language learning?
What effect do sociopolitical lactors have on their e\ entual success?
You cannot even begin to design techniques in the (,lassroom without consid-
ering these two important backdrops that set the stage for classroom activity. The
choices that you make about what to do in the classroon~are enlightened by these
two major factors. Those choices are ;llso enli&tened b) several other factors: the
ovenll curricular plan, objectives of 3 particular lesson. and c1;~ssroommanagement
variables. These factors will be considered in detxil in thq: next several chapters of
this section. First, in this chapter we'll look at some of the basic "units7'ofclassroom
pedagogy: techniques, textbooks, technology, and other materials.
TECHNIQUES REDEFINED
It is appropriate, before continuing,to make sure that certain terms are well defined.
I Even bcfore Anthony (1963) discussed and defined the term, the language-
In Chapter 2, the term technique was introduced and defincd, but it was noted in
CHArrER 9 Tet hniques, Textbouks, and Trthnciogy 129
passing that some other commonly used terms are considered by some ti J be virtu-
ally synonymous. These other terms include task, activity, procedure, practice.
behavior, exercise, and even strategy. With the potential confusion ansing tiom
multiple terms,you will no doubt find it helpful to do somr clarifying Bear in mind,
however, that experts in the field may have slightly differing points of view almur
the working definitions here.
1. Task
We return to the term task again. You niay recall from (:hapter 3, ir, a discus-
sion of task-based learning, that task usually refers to a speci:~lizedform of leclinique
or series of techniques closely allied with communicative currici~la,ant1 ;IS such
must minimally have communicative goals. The cornmon thread running through
half a dozen definitions of task is its focus on the authentic use of language for nitxn-
ingful communicative purposes beyond the language classroom. We will .(gain dis-
cuss the concept of task in the next chapter.
2. Activity
A very popular term in the literature,an activity may rtfcr to virtually anytl~ing
that learners do in the classroom. More specifically, wht:n we refer to a tlassn~om
activity, we usually refer to a reasonably unified srt of student behaviors, I~niiteclin
time. preceded by some direction from the tacher, with a particular tbjective.
,4ctivities include role-plays, drills, games, pcer-editing, small-group inform,ttion-gap
exercises, and much more. Because an activity implies sonlr sort of actiw perfor-
mance on the part of learners, it is generally not used to refer to ccrt:rir. teacher
behaviors like saying "Good morning,"or maintaining eyc contact with students, or
writing a list of words on the chalkboard. Thc latter, however, cxn indeed be
referred to as techniques.
3. Procedure
Richards and Rodgers (1986) used the term procedure to encomluss ',the
act~ralmoment-tc-moment techniques, practices, and behaviors that operate in
teaching a language according to a particular method" (p. 26). Procedures, lroni this
definition, include techniques, but the authors appear to have no compellir!g objec-
tion to viewing the terms synonymously.
4. Practice, behavior, exercise, strategy . . .
These terms, and perhaps some others, all appear to refer, in varj.ing dcgrce5 of
intensity, to what is defined below as technique.
5. Technique
teaching literature widely accepted technique as a si~perordinateterm to refer to
various activities that either teachers or learners perform ill the classrc,om. *nother
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132 CHAPTER 9 7-xhnfques, Textbooks, and Technology

::
In referring to structural pattern drills, Paulston and Bruder (1976) used three pattern, while Ying, perhaps because she was more focused on cornn~unic;~tive
6*
categories: mechanical, meaningful, and communicative. Mechanical drills have reality than on past tense formation, initially broke out of the pattern brfore
.%
only one correct response from a student, and have no implied connection with : returning.
*
reality. Repetition drills require, for instance, that the itudent repeat a word or A final word about drills. A communicative approach to language teaching can
phrase whether the student understands it or not: make some use of drilling techniques, but only in moderation. A few sllo:.t,sn:lppy
drills here and there, especially at the lower levels of proficient): can be qu~iteuseh~l
T: The cat is in the hat. in helping students to establish structunl patterns, rhythm, and certain pronuncia-
Ss: The cat is in the hat. tion elements. But moderation is the key, especially if your drills are rnc.chan~cal.
T: The wug is on the gling. There's nothing deadlier than a class hour filled with audiolingu:~lparroting.
Ss: The wug is on the gling.
3. Controlled to Free Techniques
A meaningful drill may have a predicted response or a limited set of possible
Perhaps the most usefill classification of techniques for a teacher to use is a
responses, but it is connected to some form of reality:
continuum not unlike the first one above, but in this case considering the extent to
T: The woman is outside. bointing out the zi indow a t u woman] which you, the teacher, maintain control over the learning activity. It is i:nportant
Where is she, Hiro? to understand what is meant by control. In the lists below are ;I few gencnlizations.
SI: The woman is outside.
T: Right, she's outside. Keiko, where is she? ControUed Free
S2: She's outside. Teacher-centcred Student-centered
T: Good, Keiko, she's outsidc. Now, cli~ss,we are inside. Hiroko, Manipulative Communicative
where are we? Structured Open-ended
S3: We are inside. Predicted student responses Unpredicted responses
And the process may continue on as the teacher reinforces certain grammatical Pre-planned objectives Negotiated objectives
Set curriculum Cooperative curriculum
or phonological elements. Frankly, I see no reason to refer to such a technique as a
drill; it is quite legitimately a form of ~neaninpfulpractice, useful in many commu-
Clearly, the real picture is not as black-and-white as these generalizations scem
nicative classrooms.
to be. For example, many controlled techniques arc rnanipulativc, ;IS dcscrilml
Now, while Paulston and Rrucler referred to "comm~micative"drills more than
a b o ~ e But
. controlled techniques sometimes have communicative eleme;~ts.'l'he
two decades ago, :IS we now understand and use the tenn, a communicative drill is
quasicommunicative drill just described, for example, is highly controlletl in that
an oxymon)n. If the exercise is comn~unicative,that is, if it offers the student the
the teacher provides set questions and each student has a short time in \vhicli to
possibility of an open response and negotiation of meaning, then it is not a drill.
respond. But there is an opportunity for students to venture out of the molcl if they
Instad there is what I would call quasi-communicative p~acticethat might go some-
wish; that's comn~unicative.So, if you are tempted to draw a clearly, defined line
thing like this, if you were trying to get students to practice the past tense:
between controlled and free, resist that temptation.
T: Good morning, class. Last weekend I wcnt to a restaurant and I
ate salmon. Juan, what did you do last neekend?
Juan: I went to park and I play soccer. A TAXONOMY OF TECHNIQUES
T: Juan,'I play soccer" or " I played soccer";
Juan: Oh, uh, I played soccer. A comprehensive taxonomy of common techniques for langwage teaching, .~dapted
T: Good! Ying, did you go to the park last n eekend like Juan? from Crookes and Chaudron (1991), is found inTable 9.1 Notice that thrt e b n n d
Ying: No. categories are used: controlled, semicontrolled, and free. Bearing in mind ttte mme-
T: What did you do? what slippery concept of control referred to above, you may be able to gain a broad
Ying: I watched a lot of n! picture, from this taxonomy, of a nnge of classroom language-teaching tccl~niqucs.
T: Great,and what did you do, Fay? In the chapters that follow, many of these techniques will be discussed wit11 exam-
ples and analysis.
This exercise was an attempt to force students to use the past tense, but
allowed them to choose meaningful replies. Juan chose the safety of the teacher's

rable 9.1. Taxonomy of language-teaching techniques (adapted from Crookes & Chaudron
1991 52-54)
CONTROLLED
TECHNIQUES
1. Warm-up: Mimes, dlr!ct., songs, jokes, play. This activity gets the students stimulated,
relaxed, motivated, attentive, or otherwise engaged and ready for the lesson. It does not
nc,cessarily involve use of the target language.
2. Setting: Focusing in on lesson topic. Teacher directs attention to the topic by verbal or
nonvert~alevocation of the context relevant to the lesson by questioning or miming or
picturt' presentation, possibly by tape recording of situations and people.
3. Organizational: Structuring of lesson or class activities includes discipl~naryaction,
organiz,~tionof class furniture and seating, general procedures for class interaction and
!)t!rformance, structure and purpose of lesson, etc.
4. Content explanation: Grammatical, phonological, lex~cal(vocabulary), sociolinguistic,
pragmatic, or any other aspects of language.
5. Role-play demonstration: Selected students or teacher illustrate the procedure(sj to be
~ p p l i e din the lesson segment to follow. Includes brief illustration of language or other
conterit to be incorporated.
6. Dialogue/Narrative presentation: Reading or listening pdssage p~esentedfor passive
rc-ception. No implic,jtion of student production or other identification of specific target
forms or tunctions (students may be asked to "understand").
7. Dialogue/Narrative recitation: Reciting a previously known or prepared text, either i n
unisori or individually.
8. Reading aloud: Read~ngdirectly from a given text.
9. Checking: Te,lcher either circulating or guiding the correction of students' work, providing
f(~cdt)ac:k.IS an activity rather than within another activity.
10. Question-answer, display: Activity involving prompting of student responses by means of
clispl,ly questions (i.e., teacher or questioner already knows the response or has a very
limited set of expect;ltions for the appropriate response). Distinguished from referential
questions t)y the likelihood of the questioner's knowing the response and the speaker's
being ,lware of that f ~ c t .
11. Drill: Typical language activity involving fixed patterns of teacher pronipting and student
responding, usually with repetition, substitution, and other mechanical alterations.
Typically with little meaning attached.
12. Translation: Student or teacher provision of L1 or L2 translations of given text.
13. Dictation: Student writing down orally presented text.
14. Copying: Student writing down text presented visually.
15. Identification: Student picking out and producindlabeling or otherwise identifying a
specitic: target form, function, definition, or other lesson-related item.
16. Recognition: Student identifying forms, as in Identification (i.e., checking off items,
clraw~ngsymbols, rearranging pictures), but without a verbal response.
17. Review: Teacher-led review of previous weektmonthior other period as a formal summary
and type of test of student recall performance.
18. Testing: Fornral testing procedures to evaluate student progress.
19. Meaningful drill: Drill activity involving responses with meaningful choices, as in
reference to different information. Distinguished from lnformation exchange by the
regula~edsequence <lndgeneral forrn of responses.
SEMICONTROLLEC~ TECHNIQUES
20. Brainstorming: A special form ot prep<iration for the lesson, like Setting, which involves
free, undiret-ted contributions bv the students and teacher on a given topic, to generate
multiple associations without linking them; no explicit analysis or interpretation by the
teacher.
21. Story telling (especially when student-generated): Not necessarily lesson-bclsed,a lengthy
presentatior of story hy teacher or student (may overlap with Warm-up or Narrative
recitation). vlay be used to maintain attention, motivate, or as lengthy pracfice.
22. Question-answer, referential: Activitv involving prompting of responses by means of
referential questions (i.e., the questionc~rdoes not know beforehand the response
information.. Distinguished from Question-answer, display.
23. Cued narrativefDialogue: Student production of narrative or dialogue following cues from
miming, cut, cards, Illctures, or other stimuli related to narrativeldialogue (e.g.,
metalanguaj:e requesting functional acts).
24. lnformation transfer: Application from one mode (e.g., visual) to another (e.g., writing),
which invols,es some transformation of the information (e.g., student fills out diagram while
listening to clescription). Distingoished from ldentification in that the student is expected
to transform and reinterpret the language or information.
25. lnformation exchange: Task involving two-way communication as in information-gap
exercises, w ]en one or both parties (or a larger group) must share information to achieve
some goal. 1)istinguished from Question-answer, referential in that sharing of information
is critical for the task.
26. Wrap-up: Br ~ e teachrr-
f or student-produced summary of point and/or items that have been
practiced or learned.
27. Narration/exposition: Presentation of a story or explanation derived from prior stimuli.
Distinguished from Cued narrative bc~c~~use of lack of immediate stimulus.
28. Preparation: Student study, silenl reading, pair planning and rehearsing, preparing for later
activity. Usu lily a sti~dent-directvdor -oriented project.
FREETECHNIQUES
29. Role-play: Rldatively free acting out of specified roles and functions. Distinguished from
Cued dialogues by thc fact that cueing is provided only niinimally at the beginning, and
not during t t e activity.
30. Games: Various kinds of language garne activity not like other previously defined activities
(e.g., board , ~ n ddice games making words).
31. Report: Report of student-prepared exposition on books, experiences, project work,
without immediate stimulus, and elaborated on according to student interests. Akin to
Composition in writing mode.
32. Problem solling: Activity involving specified problem and limitations of means to resolve
it; requires ct~operationon part of participants in small or large group.
33. Drama: Plan led dramatic rendition of play, skit, story, etc.
34. Simulation: tictivity involving complex interaction between groups and individuals based
on simulatioll ot real-life actions and experiences.
35. Interview: A student is directed to get information from another student or students.
36. Discussion: [Iebate or other forrn of grouped discussion of specified toplc, with or without
specified sidtbs/positions prearranged.
37. Composition As in Report (verbal), written development of ideas, story, or other exposition.
38. A propos: C(.nversation or other socially oriented interaction/speech by teacher, students,
or even visitclrs, on general real-life topics. Typically authentic and genuine.
135
136 CHAPTEE 9 Techniques, Textbooks, dnd Technolog)
In a taxonomy such as this, not only will many techniques be somewhat diffi-
cult to categorize in terms of the control continuum, but inany techniques will fit in
more than one category. Consider the following "warm-up" activity suggsted by
Kiippel (1986: 13-14) for a beginning level class:
Step 1: Each student writes his1ht:r full name on a piece of paper. All the papers
are collected and redistributed so that everyone receives the name of a
person helshe does not know.
Step 2: Everyone walks around the roonl and tries to find the person whose name
helshe holds. Simple questions can be. "Is your nxme . . .?""Are you . . . ?"
Step 3: When everyone h;ls found hisher partner, helshc introduces himlher to
the group.
This exercise seems to fit into a number of possible c.ategories: it involves ques-
tion-atrswer; referential activity; there is some infomzation exchange as well; and
in some ways eitherproblem soluir~gor games may fit here. The purpose in refer-
ring to such a taxonomy, therefore, is not to be able to pinpoint every technique
specifically. Kather, the taxononiy is more of a help to you as
an aid to mising your ;Iw;lrcness of the wide variety of available techniques.
an indicator of how techniques differ according t a continuum ranging
from controlled to free.
a resource for your own ptbrsonal brainstorming 1)rocess as you consider
types of techniques for your classroom.
TEXTBOOKS
Techniques consist of the things you "do" in the c l a s s ~ ~ o mbut
, only a few tech-
niques do not in some manner involve the use of materi~ilsto support and enhance
them. What would language cklsses be without books, pictures, charts, realia, and
technological aids (audiotapes, video, computers)? Yes, you could have conversa-
tions, role-plays,discussions, and chalkboard work, but much of the richness of lan-
guage instruction is derived from supporting materi.11~.Today such materials
abound for all levels and purposes.
What kinds of materials are available to you? Hou do you decide what will
work and what won't? Is it worthwhile to create your own materials? If so, what
sorts of things can be relatively easily n1ade?We1lllook at these and related questions
here in the remaining sections of the chapter.
The most obvious and most common form of material support for language
instruction comes through textbooks. Most likely, as a relatively new teacher, your
fist concern will not be to choose a textbook, but rather to find creative use for the
textbook that has been handed to you by your supervison So, even though you may
I'HAPTER 9 Technlqur5. Texthook5, and Technorogy 137
have idealistic thoughts about other (and better) textbooks, your challenge is to
make the very best use of the textbook that you have. Sonietimcs new tt.;~chcrs,in
their zeal for creating wonderful, marvelous written nraterials for their students.
neglect the standard textbook prescribed by the school c ~ ~ r r i c d uand
m fail to see
that this resource may actually be quite useful. And you will no doubt fi11d th;~t, a5
a new teacher, you already have enongh on your hands just preparing a I(:sson, car-
rying it out, monitoring its unfolding, and managing the dynamics of a clasbrooni fill1
of students. You don't need to add more stress to your life trying to c r e w brand-
new materials.
So here you are, textbook in hand, preparing for tomorrow's l e s s o ~ ~If. your
textbook has a teacher's edition, by all means consult it and use as niany of its sug-
gestions as you feel are appropriate. If there is no teacher's edition, then your task
becomes one of devising ways to present the content :~ndthe excrcises of the I,ook
to your class.
On the next three pages is a lesson from the last unit in Book 1 of C7stas
(Brown 1992),pitched for a high beginning level class. You will see that t'ilis lesson
teaches functional language for ordering in a restaurant. (:auld you devisc a 1)l;ln
(for details on planning a whole lesson, see Chapter 1. I) that would "teach' these six
exercises? Of course, each exercise has brief directions to students, but hclw would
you "practice the conversation" in Exercise l ? Or "read . . . :~ntlanswer" in Exercise
2? Which of the techniques listed earlier in this chaptcr (lo you think would be
appropriate matches for these exercises? What other tt.chniqucs ~iiigl~t VOLI :~dtl?
Would you delete any of these exercises? change any of them?
The above questions are issues of textbook adaptation that you h t e :~lmost
every time you sit down to plan a lesson. You see to it that the way you prc:sent the
textbook lesson is appropriately geared for your particular students-their Icvcl,
ability, and goals-and is just right for the number of minutes in your cl;lss. \'it11
this lesson, beyond the simplified directions at the head of each exercise somc of
the following techniques (from the taxonomy in Table 9. I) may apply:
Exercise I Exercise 3
Setting: establish context Reading aloud
Role-play demonstration Identification (of missin< wolds)
Dialogue presentation Drill
Dialogue recitation
Q&A, display
Exercise 2 Exercise 4
Review: vocabulary in menu Information exchange
Cued dialogue-in pairs Problem solving
Q&A, referential: Ss make up Exposition (of results)
their own questions
Drill: pronunciation of plural morpheme
lTigure9.1. Four restaurant ads (from Brown 1992, p. 129) Figure 9.2. ifrorr Brown 1992, p. 1 30)
r
- -.
1

Are you ready to order?

I Read the rnenc and answer the questions. I
1. What's the special?
2. How many k ~ n d sof
sandwiches
( Look at the ads and practice the conversation. are there?
3. How many kinds of
soup?
4. How much is a small
salad?
5. How much is a cup of
soup?
6. What kind of pie does
the r e s t a u r a t ~ have?
t

Now ask your o m

questions.

Listen and cornolete the conversation with the kinds of food the customers order.

Waitress: Are you ready to order?

Woman: Yes, I'd like a 1 and a small
.2-
Waitress: And how would you like your
"-?
Woman: Medium.
Waitress: Anything to drink?
Woman: J u s t a glass of .4-
Waitress: And what would you like?
Man: I'll have a bowl of j-.- soup.
And what lund of
-.-if do you
have?
Waitress: Apple and cherry.
k What are you doing later? Man: I-,
B: I'm not doing anything. Why? Waitress: Anything else?
k Let's get something to eat. Man: Yes. A cup of .8-
B: That's a good idea. Where would you like to go? Waitress: Thank you.
k How about the Star Restaurant? They have great hamburgers.
B: That's fine. Now practice the conversation.
 CHAPTER 9 l<~xtbooks,
Jechr~~qc~es, and Jet hnoloqy 141
Fi~ure9.3. (from Brown 1992, p. 131)

Exercise 5 Exercise 6
Identification Meaningfill drill
Complete the check for the man's and Match the queskm 0-6) with the Recognition Cued dialogue
woman's lunch.What's the total? answers (0-0. Meaningful drill Role-play
Drama.
1. Are you ready ,o order? d
2. Would you like any dessert? -
3. Anything to dr .nk? -- If your teaching situation ~ l l o w you
s to choose a textbook, you have an exciting
4. How would y o ~like your but complex task ahead of you. In fact, the number of questions t h ~ necd t to be
hamburger'? - asked about a textbook can be overwhelming, indeed. (For the mosc conlprehen-
5. What would you like? - sive textbook evaluation checklist I have ever seen, sec Skierso 1991;this form occu-
6. What kind of ire cream do
pies more than eight printed pages!) But once you have carried out a tllorough
you have?
investigation of textbooks using some kind of consistent evaluation proceilure, you
a. Medium, pleas,:. will be rewarded by having chosen a textbook that best fits a11 of your criteria.
b. I'll have a bow of soup. Table 9.2 provides an abridged evaluation form that can be a practic;~lset of cri-
c. Vanilla, chocol;tte,and strawberry. teria for either (a) choosing a textbook for a course or (b) evaluating the tcxtbook
d. Yes. I'd like an egg salad sandwich you ;ire currently using. ,4s you read through this evalu:~tionform, think of an ESL
e. Just a glass of water.
f. Cherry pie, please. textbook that you arc reasonably familiar with and ask yourself how well tllat book
meets the criteria.

OTHER WRI'lTEN TEXTS

It needs to be made clear here how the word text is normally used in the profession
Work with a group. Use the menu on page 130 and write o conw~rsotion.Present the and in this book, especially to distinguish texts from textbooks. Texts are ;my of a
conversation to the class. wide variety of types or genres (see Chapters 15 through 18 for more on this) of lin-
guistic forms. Texts can be spoken or written. Among written texts. the rangc of
A: Can I help you?/Are you ready to order? possibilities extends from labels and forms and charts to essays and manuals ;md
B: Yes. I'd like/I'll have a cheeseburger and a small salad. books. Textbooksarc one type of text, a book for use in an educ;~tionalcurric~~lum.
A: How would you like your cheeseburger'!
B: Well-done./Medium./Rare. Among other written texts available for your use in thc classroonl. all ;dmost
A: Anything to drink?lWould you likc anything to drink? i~nlinlitedsupply of real-world textual material is avaikible. We daily encounter
B: NSome (drink)./% thanks.ll\lotnow, thanks. signs, schedules, calendars, advertisements, menus, memos, notes, and the list goes
A: And what would you like?/And you? on (see Chapter 16 for a long list of texts). Aside from these types of text, r onsider
C: I'll havell'd like (food)and (drink). two speci;dized texts that are valuable sources of various forms of text:
A: Anything else?/Wouldyou like anything else"
C: What kind of (dessert)do you have?
A: a. Teacher Resource Hooks. Dozens of resource books are specifically
C: designed to provide ideas for teachers. For example..books are available on
conversation (see Golebiowska 1990), role-play (Ladousse 1987), listen~ng
techniques (Rost 1991; Ur 1984), speaking techniques (Klippel 1984), :lctivi-
ties for children (Claire 1988). and the list goes on.
b. Other Student Textbooks. Even a small libnry of student textbooks othcr
than the one you are using will yield a book or two with some additiorlal
material that you can employ as supplementary material.
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144 CHAPTER 9 Trchn~ques,Textbooks, d n d re, hnok~gy
rating this powerful tool into our classrooms. The final section of this chapter will
specifically focus on computer-assistedlanguage learning (CALL).
Meanwhile, what other rypes of technological aids arc com~nonlyavailable to a
kmguage teacher today? Consider the following as a set o' s~~ggestions.
1. Commercially produced audiotapes. Librdries and instructional resource
centers may be able to provide a surprising variety o'-'audiocassette tapes
with (a) listening exercises,(b)lectures.(c) stories, and (d) other authentic
samples of native-speaker texts.
2. Commercially produced videotapes. Most institutions now have substan-
tial video libraries that offer (a) documentaries on special topics, @) movies,
films, and news media, and (c) programs designed spt:cifically to instn~ctstu-
dents on certain aspects of English. An option that some have found useful is
the use of closecaptioned video to offer students wr.tten-language input
simultaneously with oral.
3. Self-madeaudiotapes. With the rcady availability and affordability of an
audiocassette recorder, you should not shrink from creating your own sup-
porting materials in the form of audiotapes. Audiotapes of conversations,
especially conversations of people known to your stvdents, can be stimu-
lating. Or just use your tape n:cortler to tape radio or W excerpts of news,
speeches, talk shows, etc., for listening techniques.
4. Self-madevideotapes. Now that video cameras ant1 recorders are also
accessible (if not your own, check with your media rt:source center), video-
tapes can be created in two w;qs. With a VCR you can record television pro-
grams. They need not be long or complex. Sometimes a very simple
advertisement or a segment of the news makes an excellent audiovisual stim-
ulus for classroom work. With a camera,you can try your hand at creating
your own "film"(a story,"candidcamera,"a skit, etc.), :)erhaps with some of
your students as principal actors.
5. Overhead projection. Many classrooms around the world provide an over-
head transparency projector a,r star~dardeqiipment. Commercially available
transparencies are available that can enhance a tcxtbook lesson. Your own
charts, lists, graphics, and other visually presented malerial can be easily repro-
duced (through most photocol~yingequipment or your computer printer)
and offer stimulating visual input for students. Trans1)arencies can save paper
and can be reused in a subsequent tern1 of teaching the same course. With
specialized equipment, computer-generated material (:an also be projecteci
onto a screen for easy classroom reference to inform; tion that is confined to
computer disks.
CHAPTER 9 Techrriques, Textbooks, and T e c h n ~ l q : ~ 145
COMPUTER-ASSISTEDLANGUAGE LEARNLNG (CALL)
The recent advances in educational applications of computer hardware and soft-
ware have provided a npidly growing resource for language classrooms. The pmc-
tical applications of CALL are growing at such a rapid pace that it i5 almost
impossible for a classrooni teacher to keep up with the field. But don't let rhe mul-
titude of options discourage you from at least considering some CALL applications
in your own teaching. Warschauer and Healey (1998: 59) offt-red the following ben-
efits of including a computer component in language instruction:
1. multimodal practice with feedback
2. individualization in a large class
3. pair and small-group work on projects, either collaboratively or competitively
4. the fun factor
5. variety in the resources available and learning styles used
6. exploratory learning with large amounts of lariguage data
7. real-life skill-buildingin computer use.
Here are some thoughts to start the wheels 01. your mind turning on the topic
of computers and language learning. No attempt has been made here to cxliaust
the topic! For summaries of current applications and issues, refer to overviews such
as those found in Warschauer and Healey (1998), Rlake (1998), Hanson-Smith
(1997). Boswood (1997), and Warschauer (1995) The following mav whct your
appetite for CALL:
1. Collaborative projects. With as many as two to four students to a terminal,
research projects can be carried out utilizing data available on the World Wide
Web and other information resources. Analysis of data can be done with data
management or statisI.ica1 processing software. Charts, graphics,ant1 text can
be generated for presentation of findings to the rest of the class.
2. Peer-editing of compositions. The exchange of diskettes or of material on
networked computers offers students an efficient means of peercditing of
drafts of compositions. Many instructors now use e-mail (scc below) to corre-
spond with students, and vice versa. Instructors can easily nranage conlmeiiis
on final drafts through this technology.
3. E-mail. The most obvious form of using e-mail for English teaching is qiving
students the possibility for actual communication with individuals around the
world. Discussion lists provide opportunities for reatling and writing or1
topics of interest. E-mail "pen pals" have become popular. Through tht. web,
146 CHAPTER '7 Techniques, Textbooks, and Technology
certain chat programs offer students the novelty of real-time communication.
l'eachers have used e-mail communication for such things as dialogue journals
wit11 students and collaboration with other teachers.
4. Web page design. A rapidly growing number of educational institutions
have offered courses to students in web page design. In the process, students
not only become acquainted with computer technology in general but utilize
English in doing research on a topic, composing and designing, and collabo-
rating with other students.
5. Reinforcement of classroom material. With ready availability of a wide
array o f software programs, course objectives can be reinforced, and added
material can be made available. A number of textbooks now come with an
accomp;mying CD-ROM disk filled with practice exercises, self-check tests,
and extra reading material. Some course programs (such as Brown 1999)
include an on-line section in each unit, which encourages use of Internet-
related activity. The process of learning to read a foreign language can be
enhanced through computer adaptive programs that offer lexical and gram-
matical information at predicted points of difficulty.
6. Games and simulations. Not to be overlooked are the nrally engaging
games and sin~ul'ations,many of them involving verbal langwage,that present
students with stimulating problem-solving tasks that get them to use fimc-
tiorral language to pursue the goals of the games. Carefully planned uses of
such games in the classroom (e.g., for practicing certain verbs, tenses, ques
tions, locatives,etc.) add some interest to a classroom.
7. Computer adaptive testing. Currently, most widely standardized tests are
computer-based. Sooner or later, most language students will need to perform
such a test, dcsigned to gauge the test-taker's level as the responses are mitde.
During the early items, right and wrong answers are electronically analyzed in
order to present later items, from a bank of possible items, that will be neither
too easy nor too difficult and present an optimal challenge.
8. Speech processing. Still on the horizon, but getting close to the cutting
edge, is the affordable technological capacity for a computer to process
(understand) human speech and respond to it. Speech recognition programs
for the 1angu:lge classroom have a multitude of potential applications:simple
exercises in pronunciation, feedback graphs showing accuracy of a learner's
control of phonemic and prosodic elements, faster input for those who don't
type rapidly, and the wish list goes on. While "we've still got a very long way
to go before CALL can be accurately called 'intelligent.'"(Warschauer 1998:6 3 ,
this new technology is becoming more and more sophisticated.
CHAPTER 9 Techniques, Textbooks, and Technology 147
TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION, ACTION, AND RESEARCH
[Note:(I
Jlndividual work; (G) group or pair work; (C) wholeclass discussion.]
1. (G) Ask pairs to review the differences among mechanical, meaningful, and
quasi-t:omm~~nicative drills, and illustrate with more examples. What is the
place of mechanical drills in an interactive CLT curriculum?
2. @) Reiiew the information on the continuum of techniques ranging from
manipulation to communication, refering to both the manipulation-communi-
cation scale and the controlled-free scale. Look at the taxonomy of tech-
nique:, inTable 9.1 (pp. 134-35). For as many of the techniques as possible,
decidc if the arrangement in the table of controlled, semicontrolled, and free
techniques matches the manipulation-communication scale.
3. (C/G) Refer students to the taxonomy of techniques referred to in Table 9.1,
and try to clar* any questions they might have about what each technique
is. If time permits, divide some or all of the techniques among pairs in the
classroom,and have partners figure out how to demonstrate the technique to
the reit of the class.
4. (G) 0 I page 137 some questions were asked about the six exercises
reprinted from the Vistcis series. Ask pairs to devise a plan that would "teach"
these i i exercises.
~ For example, how would one "practice the conversationnin
Exercise l ? Or "read . . . and answer"in Exercise 2? Of the techniques listed ear-
lier in this chapter, which might be appropriate additions to these exercises?
5. (1) Re'er to the list of evaluative factors for a textbook inTable 9.2 (p. 142)
and convert them into questions that you could answer on a scale of 1 (poor)
to 5 (c.xcellent). Use your newly devised questionnaire to evaluate a textbook
that is available to you. Write a brief review (or make an oral report) of the
textbook based on your evaluation.
6. (G/C) Direct pairs to select approximately ten magazine pictures for a lesson
on foclds and drugs and to bl-ainstorm some ways that one might actually use
them in a lesson. Pairs will then share their ideas with the rest of the class.
7. (C) Ask students to explore possible different uses of the computer in the lan-
guage classroom. A general class discussion may reveal quite a number of
experiences people have hat1 with CALL. As students share experiences, ask
them to evaluate the effectiveness of the particular technique or progrdm
being described.
148 CHAPTER9 Trchniques, Textbwk5, and Tei hi7u/ogy
FOR YOUR FURTHER READING
Richards, Jack. (Ed.). New Ways in 'I'ESOL Series. 1993- 1999 Alexandria, VA:
Trachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages.
Any of the boob in this senes r~illoJfer marql dflerer~lechniques wbtch you
can scan for an ouemiew ofthlngs teachers hutle ucti~allydone in the class-
room
Skierso. Alexandn. 1991. "Textbook selection and adaptaticjn." In Celce-Murcia,1991b.
7be autborprorrides a comprehensice look at the mar,yfactors to be consid-
ered i ? selecting
~ a n appropriate textbook. The ration.-ile behind eachfactor
is clearly spelled out. An eight-pagc checklist Ji~lloua the appendix.
Boswood, Tim. 1997. New Ways of Using Computers in Language Teaching.
Alexandria,VA: Teachers of English to Speakers of Other hnguages.
7bis volume within the New Ways in TESOL series Drouides v e y terzcher-
frientllp directiunsfvr using c-onzputer.technology in tbe chssroom.
Warschauer, Mark and I-Iealey, Dcbonh. 1998. "C:omputc:rs and language learning:
An overview."Language Teaching 31: 57-71.
This surrey article corltuins r r iuealth of irlformcttion arld rqererlces on the
stntt? of the rrrt in compz~ter-a.sistcdlungzrrigc lcurnir~g(CALL). It rc'vieua
three decades (8work in CALL summarizes cu~yentresearch and prctctice,
arldpoints toward nezugrou~thart.it.7 in the Jield. An excellent hibliogruphy
i s includc~d.
FORMAT OF A LESSON PLAN
The previous chapter introduced you to (a) an array of techniques that h ~ v ebeen
effectively used to teach various aspects of language, (b) a sct of guidelines for rval-
uating and using textbooks in your classroom, and (c) a reminder of tht v:rrious
technological aids that can enhance learning. These arc, in a manner of speaking,
the huilding blocks of lessons that you plan, c a r v out, and evaluate as you reach. It
is appropriate at this point to address one of your most pressing issues: how to plan
a lesson.
The term "lesson" is popularly considered to be a unitled set of activities that
cover a period of classroom time, usually nnging from forty to ninety ~niui~tes.
These classroom time units are administratively significant for teachers Ijccat~se
they represent "steps" along a curriculum before which and d e r which yotl have a
hiatus (of a day or more) in which to evaluatr and prepare for the nexr lesson.
Sometimes your whole l i e serms to be caught up in a never-ending serics of lesson
plans. But those lessons, from the point of view of your own and studcllts' time
management, are practical, tangible units of effort that serve to provide a rbVhn1 to
a course of study.
While variations are plentiful, seasoned teachers generally agree on what the essen-
tial elements of a lesson plan should he. For examples of each, turn to thc sample
lesson plan at the end of this chapter.
1. Goal(s)
You should be able to identlfy an overall purpose or goal that you will dttenlpt
to accomplish by the end of the class period. This goal may be quite genrrdlizcd,
but it serves as a undying theme for you. Thus, in the sample lesson plan. .'untler-
standing telephone conversations" generally identifies the lesson topic.
150 CHAPTER 10 tiow to F'bn a Lesson
2. Objectives
It is very important to state explicitly what you want students to gain from the
lesson. Explicit statements here help you to
a. be sure that you indeed know w h ~ itt is you want to accomplish,
b. preserve the unity of your lesson,
c. predetermine whether or not you are trying to accomplish too much, and
d. eval~ratestudents' success at the end of, or after, the lesson.
Objectives are most clearly captured in terms of stating what students will do.
However, many language objectives are not overtly observable, and therefore you
may need to depart from strictly behavioral terms for some objectives. Try to avoid
vague, unveritiable statements like these:
Students will learn about the passive voice.
Students will practice some listening exercises.
Students will do the reading selection.
S~udrntswill discuss the homework assignment.
You wodd be unable to confirm the realization of any of thesc sorts of abstruse,
loosely stated objectives. The objectives in the sample lesson plan at the end of the
chapter :ire the sorts of statements that you can turn back to after a lesson and deter-
mine, to some extent anyway,how well students accomplished the objectives.
In stating objectives, distinguish between terminal and enabling objectives.
Tem~inaiobjectives are final learning outcomes that you will need to measure and
evaluate Enabling objectives are interim steps that build upon each other and lead
to a terminal objective. Consider the following examples:
Terminal lesson objective:
Students will successfully request information about airplane arrivals and
departures.
Enabling objectityes:
Students will comprehend and produce the following ten new vocabulary
items.
Students w~llread and understand an airline schedule.
Students w~llproduce questions with when, where, and w f ~ ntime.
t 6. Extra-C lass Work
Students will produce appropriate polite forms of requesting.
You may be at)le to identdy a number of other enabling objectives that will vary
depending upon what students' proficiency level is and what they have already
CHAPTER 10 How to Plan a Lesson 151
learned in the course. For another example, notice the difference between terminal
and enablirg objectives in the sanlple lesson plan.
3. Materialls a n d Equipment
It may seem a trivial matter to list materials needed, but good planning includes
knowing what you need to take with you or to arrange to have in your classroom.
It is easy, in the often harried life of a teacher, to forget to bring to class a tape
recorder, a poster, some handouts you left on your desk at home, or the workbooks
that students gave you the night before.
4. P r o c e d ~ ~ r e s
At this point, lessons clearly have tremendous variation. Rut, as a very general
set of guidelines for planning, you might think in terms of making sure your plan
includes
a. an optning statement or activity as a warm-up
b. a set of activities and techniques in which you have considered appropriate
propo~.tionsof time for
i w >oleclasswork
ii sn~all-groupand pair work
iii te lcher talk
iv s t ~ ~ d etalk
nt
c. closur~:.
5. Evaluation
Next, how can you determ~newhether your objectives have been accom-
plished? If your lesson has no evaluative component, you can easily find yourself
simply maliing assumptions that are not informed by careful observation or mea-
surement. Now, you must understand that every lesson does not need to end with
a little quiz, nor does evaluation need to be a separate element of your lesson.
Evaluation can take place in the course of "regular"classroom activity. Some forms
of evaluation may have to Walt a day or two until certain abilities have had a chance
to build. But evaluation is an assessment,formalor informal, that you make after S ~ U -
dents have sufficient opportunities for learning, and without this component you
have no means for (a) assessing the success of your students or (b) making adjust-
ments in y jur lesson plan for the next day
Sometimes misnamed “homework" (students don't necessarily do extra-class
work only at home), extra-class work, if it is warranted, needs to be planned care-
fully and communicated clearly to the students. Whether you are teaching in an EFL
or ESL situation, you can almost always find applications or extensions of classroom
activity th;tt will help students do some learning beyond the class hour.
1 52 CHAPTER 10 HOW ro Plan a Lesson
GUIDELLNES FOR LESSON PWIJNING
1. How to Begin Planning
In most normal circumstances,especially for a teacher without much experi-
ence, the first step of lesson planning will already have been performed for you:
choosing what to teach. No doubt you will be-or have already been-given a text-
book and told to teach from it, with either a suggestion )r a requirement of how
many chapters or units you should cover. As you look over the chapter you are to
cover for a class hour, you might go through the following,sequence:
a. Assuming that you are already familiar with (i) the curriculum your stitdents
are following (see "Adapting to an Bstablished Curriculum"in this section) and
(ii) the overall plan and "tone" of the textbook(s), 1001; over the textbook
chapter.
b. Based on (i) your view of the whole curriculum and c ii) your perception of
the language needs of your students, determine what the topic and purpose
of the lesson will be and write that down as the ovecdl goal.
c. Again considering the citrriculum ancl the students' needs, draft out perhaps
one to three explicitly stated terminal objectives for the lesson.
d. Of the exercises that are in the textbook, decide whit h ones you will do,
change, delete, and add to, all based on the objectives you have drafted.
e. Draft out a skeletal outline of whxt your lesson will Iibok like.
f. Carefully plan step-by-stepprocedures for cxrrying oiit all techniques, espe-
cially those that involve changcs and additions. State the purpose(s) of rach
technique and/or activity as enabling objectives.
For teachers who have never taught before, it is oft1.n very useful to write a
script of your lesson plan in which your exact anticipated words are written down
and followed by exactly what you would expect students t ) say in return. Scripting
out a lesson plan helps you to be more specific in your planning and can often pre-
vent classroom pitfalls where you get all tangled up in explaining something or stu-
dents take you off on a tangent. Writing a complete script for a whole hour of
teaching is probably too laborious and unreasonable, but more practical and instmc-
tive (for you) are partial scripts that cover
a. introductions to activities
b. directions for a task
c. statements of rules or generalizations
d. anticipated interchanges that could easily bog down or go astray
e. oral testing techniques
f. conclusions to activities and to the cl;as hour.
2. Variety, Sequencing, Pacing, and T i g
As you are drafting stepby-step procedures, you need to look at how the lesson
holds together as a whole. Four considerations come into plav here:
a. Is there sufficient variety in techniques to keep the lesson lively and ~nter-
esting? Most successful lessons give students a number of different activities
during the class hour, keeping minds aIen and enthusiasm high.
b. Are your techniques or activities sequenced logically?Ideally, elements of a
lesson will build progressively toward accomplishing the ultimate goal>. Easier
aspects will usually be placed at the beginning of a lesson; tasks that rrquiri:
knowledgc gained from previous exercises will be sequenced appropr~ately.
c. Is the lesson as a whole paced adequately? Pacing ciln nlexn a numbel of
things. First, it means that activities are neither too long nor too short You
could, for example, have so many short activities that just as students :Ire get-
ting the "feel"for one activity, they get bouncttd to the next. Second, jou
need to anticipate how well your various techniques "flow"together. You
woultl not, for example, find a smooth flow in a class that had five mir~utes
each of whole-class work, pair work, whole-class work, group work, pair work,
wholeclass work, etc. Nor would you normally plan two silent reatling ;tctivi-
ties in a row. Third, good pacing also is a factor of how wcll you provide a
transition from one activity to the next. hn ex;imple:
7': Okay, you've just had a good chance to listen to the way a lecturer
signals various segments of a class lecture. Now we're going to
use this information to look at a reading passage about sp,~ct.
exploration and figure out . . .
d. Is the lesson appropriately timed, considering the number of minutes 111 thc
class hour?This is one of the most difficult aspects of lesson planning r o con-
trol. It's not unusual for new teachers to plan a lesson so tightly that they
actually complete their lesson plan early, but after just a little expcricncre it is
more common that we don't complete our lessons within the planned time
allotment. The latter is not a cardinal sin.for most likely it means you have
given some time to students for genuine interaction and crative use or lan-
guage. But timing is an element t t ~ you
~ t should build into a lesson plan: (i) if
your planned lesson ends early, have some backup activity ready to insrrt: (ii)
if your lesson isn't completed as planned, be nxdy to gracefully end a (,lasson
time and, on the next day, pick up where you left off,
(,' '
,
, . . ,
,
3.' ~ a u ~ i Difficulty
ng
Figuring out in advance how easy or difficult certain techniques will bt- is usu-
ally learned by experience. It takes a good deal of cognitive empathy to p ~ vour- ~ t
self in your students' shoes and anticipate their problem areas. Some difficulty is
caused by tasks themselves; therefore, make your directions crystal clear by writing
154 CHAPTER 10 HOW tO P/.lfl J LeSSofl
them out in advance (note the comments on'scripting" lessons, above). I have seen
too nuny classes where teachers have not clearly planned exactly what task direc-
tions they will give. Writing them ahead of time allows you to be more objective in
determining if everything is clear. And then, either give an example yourself or
solicit an example of a subtask within a technique.
Another source of difficulty, of course, is linguistic. If you can follow the i+l
principle of providing material that is just a little above, but not too far above, stu-
dents' ability, the linguistic difficulty should be optimal. The main problem here lies
in the heterogeneity of a classroom full of learners whose proficiency range is very
broad. [ndividual attention, feedback, and small-group work can sometimes bring
balance into the classroom.
4. Individwd Differences
For the most part, a lesson plan will aim at the majority of students in class who
conlpohe the "average" ability range. But your Lesson plan should also take into
account the variation of ability in your students, especially those who are well
below or well above the classroom norm. You can take seven1 steps to account for
individilal differences:
a. Design techniques that have easy and difficult aspects or items.
b. Solicit responses to easier items from students who are below the norm and
to harder items from those above the norm.
c. Try to design techniques that will involve all students actively.
d. Use judicious selection to assign members of small groups so that each group
has either (i) a deliberately heterogeneous range of ability or (ii) a homoge-
neous range (to encourage equal participation).
e. Use sni;~ll-gmupand pair work time to circulate and give extra attention to
those below or above the norm (see Chapter 12 on Group Work principles).
5. Student Talk and Teacher Talk
Give careful consideration in your lesson plan to the balance between student
talk ant1 teacher talk. Our natural inclination as teachers is to talk too much! As you
plan your lesson, and as you perhaps script out some aspects of it, see to it that stu-
dents have a chance to talk, to produce language, and even to initiate their own
topics dnd ideas.
6. Adapting to an Established Curriculum
Because this book is aimed at teachers in training, specific information about
curriculun~development and revision is not included here. The assuniptlon is that
your primary task is not to write a new curriculum or to revise an existing one, but
to follow an established curriculum and adapt to it in terms of your particular group
of students,their needs, and their goals, as well as your own philosophy of teaching.
As you plan lessons, your first concern is that each class hour must contribute
to the goals that a curriculum is designed to pursue. But perhaps your institution
CHAPTER 10 HOW to Plan a Lesson 155
has no curriculum spelled out in a document; in other words, it is a "textbook-
driven" curriculum that, in pnctice, simply tells you to teach everything in a text-
book. Or you may find certain sl)ecificationsfor the course you are about to teach
somewlie~ein the description of the institution. At best, you would be presented
with a doc.ument that clearly delineates the goals of the curriculum and offers sug-
gestions 01 how to meet those goals in terms of weekly or even daily lesson objec-
tives.
If you do not have such overall course goals, it would be wise to devise some
for yourse'f so that you can keep your course focused on attainable, pnctical ends.
To do so, consider the following two factors that contribute to curriculum planning:
Learner jactors:
a. Who ;tre the students (age, education, occupation, general purpose in taking
English, entering proficiency level)?
b. What dre their specific language needs (e.g., to read English scientific texts, to
serve JS a tour guide, to survive minimally in an English-speakingcountry)?
Break those needs down into as many specific subcategories as feasible.
Institutional factors:
c. What .ire the practical const~aintsof the institution you are teaching in
(budg:t, equipment, classroo~nspace and size, philosophy of the institution,
etc.)?
d. What iupporting niateri;~ls(textbooks, audiovisual aids, overhead projector,
and other equipment) are avi~ilable?
By pa\,ing primary attention to the learner hctors above, you will have a good
chance of ,>ointingyour students toward pragmatic, communicative goals in which
their real-life neecls for English will be met. You will focus on the learners and their
needs rathsr than on your needs or your institution's needs. However, taking the
institution:tl Factors seriously will ~ d some
d administrative prdcticality to your goals.
Alter all, every edi~cationalInstitution is limited in some way in its capacity to
deliver the very best.
Your course goals might look like these goals of an advanced pre-university lis-
tening con~prehensioncourse:
a. Studerbts will understand the teacher's instructions and demonstrate that
under:.tanding.
b. Studer ts will understand the teacher's explanations and show that compre-
hension.
c. Studer7ts will understand classroom peers in discussions,activities,and on1
report i.
d. Studer ts will understand acatlemic lectures given by different speakers.
e. Studerts will ident* topics and topic development.
156 CHAP~ER I0 How to Plan a Lesson (HAPTEK 10 HOWto Plan Les,on 157

f. Students will infer relationships among topics. Enabling objectiues:

g. Students will recognize different points of view.
h. Students will identlfy key information as signaled b j vocabulary.
i. Students will recognize key information as signaled by stress and intonation.
j. Students will identlfy key information as signaled b ) grammatical structure.
7. Classroom Lesson "Notes"
A final consideration in your lesson planning procc:ss is a very pr~cticalone:
What sort of lesson "notes" will you acti~allycarry into ;-he classroom with you? If
you have pages and pages of notes and reminders and scripts, you will never free
yourself for spontaneity. Most experienced teachers operate well with no more
than oneprrge of a lesson outline and notes. Some prefix to put lesson notes on a
series of index cards for easy handling. Ily reducing you:- plans to such a physically
manageable minimum, you will rt:duce the chances of ~,ettingbogged down in all
the details that went into the planning phase, yet you mill have enough in writing 3. Materials and Equipment
to provide order and clarity as you proceed.
SAMPLE LESSON PLAN
1. Students will comprehend a simple phone conversation (played on a tape
recorder).
2. In the conversation, students will ident* who the participants are, what they
are going to do, and when.
3. Students will comprehend and produce necessary vocabulary for this topic.
4. Students will comprehend cultural and linguistic background information
regarding movies, theaters, and arranging to see a movie with sorneone.
5. Students will inlet what a second speaker is saying on the phone by "f-aves-
dropping" on one speaker only.
6. Each student will ask someone to go to a movie with him or her and rtspond
appropriately to a reciprocal request.
7 . Students will get "live" movie information over the phone.
tape recorder with taped conversation
a telephone (if possible) or a toy facsimile
eight different movie advertisements
movit: guide page for extra-class work

What follows here is a lesson plan' designed for an intermediate level pre-university
class at the American Language Institute at San Francisco State University. The 16
students in the class range in age from eighteen to twency-five. Their general goals
are academically oriented. Their native languages are Japanese, Korean, Mandarin,
Indonesian,Thai, and Arabic.
1. Goal
Students will increase their famil~aritywith conventions of telephone conver-
sations.
2. Objectives
4. Procedures
-
1. PRE-LISTENING
(The teacher places a phone on the front table. It will be used later.)
To point the students' thinking in the right direction for this lesson, we will ,tart
off with the following "model" phone conversation on tape. It is very 5hort ~ n d
very easy, well below the students' level. There is no question that thev will
understand it fully; its pclrpose is to set up a framework for the lesson.
2. LISTENING TO THE TAPE

Terminal objectives:
I Please listen:
Phone: Ring!
Tom: Hullo?
Jack: Tom, this i!; Jack. D'ya wanna go to th' movies?
1. Students will develop inner 'expect:mcy rules" that mable them to predict
Tom: Mmm . . . When?
and anticipate what someont. else will say on the phone.
Jack: Tonight. I have free passes.
2. Students will solicit and receive information by requesting it over the tele-
Tom: Uh, OK, sure. What time?
phone.
Jack: Eight o'clock. I'II-I'll meet ya there, OK?
Tom: Fine. See ya then.
(This tape may be played twice.)
3. WHOLE-CLASS DISCUSSION
T: Did Tom call Jack?
'I am grateful to KarenTenney for permission to adapt one of her lesson plans here. Ss: No, Jack called Tom.
158 CHAPTER 10 HOW10 Plan a Lesson CHAPTER 10 HOWlo P f ~ nd Lesson 159

T: Right. What are they going to do? Two-When? [repeat]

Ss: Go tc? the movies. OK, listen for w h ~ Debbie
t wants to do and when. (Indicating
T: Good! When are they going? questions on board.)
Ss: Tonight (and/or) Eight o'clock. (P;'use. The phone rings.)
T: Right! What are free passes? T: Hullo!
S1: Free tickets. G',p 1
T: Yes! Who has free passes? T: This is Karen.
S2: Jack. G, p 2
T: Exactly. What movie are they going to? T: Oh, hi, Deb, how'rtt you?
Ss: It doesn't say. G z p 3 ----
T: H m ~ n. . . What could that mean? T: The movies? [Look at watch) When?
S1: There's only one theater in their town. G;p 4
S2: They always meet at the same place. T: Um, OK, this afternoon's fine. Whadda ya wanna see?
etc. p 5:
T: Good! Any of those things are possible. It sounds like they know each T: Well, I'll only go to Batman if it's a bargain matinee.
other very well. Maybe they go to the movies together often. G;p 6
A general discussion about movie-going (and phoning to arrange it) will T: There is? One o'clock? Great! I'll meet you there. 'Bye.
involve students personally and will introduce one new term. T: What does Debbie want to do?
Ss: G o to the nlovies.
4. SCHEMATA-BUILDING DISCUSSION T: Right! When?
T: Who's been to the movies lately?
Ss: This afternoon (and/or) One o'clock.
S1: (raises hand) T: Excellent! She wants to go to the movie this afternoon.
T: S1, what did you see?
Now yo'l're going to hear the same phone call again. This time try to figure out
S1: Harlem Nights.
three things:
T: Harlem Nights-was it good? 1. Wh,~tmovie does Debhie suggest?
S1: Yes. 2. Am I willing to pay full price!
T: Did you go with a friend? 3. Doei Debbie tell me I will have to pay full price?
S1: Yes. (Erase the first two questions from the board and put the three new questions on
T: Did you call h i d h e r to arrange it?
the boarj.) (Repeat the phone cClll.)
S1: She c ~ l l e dme.
T: What movie does Debbie suggest?
this corlversat~onwill continue to include other Ss. The main subjects to come S1 Batman.
l ~ c to
k are what movies they saw, if they arranged it with a friend by phone, T: Right! Was I willing to pay full price?
and whether they went to a bargain matinee.) S2. No. You wanted to go to a bargain matinee.
'Note: During all interactions the teacher LISTENS with interest to student con>-
T: Yes! And what does Debbie tell me? Will I have to pay full price?
rnents. The teacher gives feedback after each comment, making sure to let the S3: No. She tells you that there is a bargain matinee.
students realize that they do already know a lot.
T: At what time?
5. LISTENING ACTIVITY #I S3: One o'clock.
T: (Indicates the phone on the front desk) M y friend Debbie is going T: OK, good! Now you're going to hear the phone call one last time.
to call me in a few minutes. O f course, you won't hear Debbie This time I'll stop every time Debbie should be speaking, and I want
talking to me; you'll just hear me, right? you to tell me what Debbie might have said. Many different answers
I want you to listen carefully and try to figure out two things (write may be correct.
these on the board as you say them): T: (goes back to phone) Hullo?
One-What does Debbie want to do? [repeat] S1: Hullo? . . .
 S2: Is Karen there? 1. Is "your" movie still playing?
53: Is Karen home? 2. Are the times the same?
T: (smiles and nods to show answers are good) This is Karen. Please write these questions on the back of your handout (writ2them
S4: It's Debbie. on the board):
S5: This is Debbie. 1. Is the movie you've chosen still pl'iying?
T: Oh, hi, Deb, how're you? 2. Are the times the same?
S6: Fine. . . Remember that you can call the theater as many times as you jvant.
S7: Do you want to go tv the movies? These are local calls.
S8: Do you have time to see ;I movie?
(This format continues until the (;onversation is complet-.d and all students have

5. Evaluation
6. POST-LISTENING ACTIVITY Terminal objective (1) and enabling objectives ( 1 ) through (5) ;ire evaluated as the
Teacher passes out eight different movie ads to eight students (see samples on ad activities unfold without a formal testing component. 'The ci~lminatingpair work
page). Teacher puts a second phone t ~ nthe front table. activity is the evaluative component for tern1in;il objective (2) and enabling ohjcc-
T: OK, everyone with an ad, please get a partnvr who does not have an
tive (6). As pairs work together,T circulates to monitor students and to ohscrve
ad. S1 and S2 (one pir-group), please come up to these phones. S1
informally whether they have accomplished the terminal objective. The sllcces5 of
has a newspaper at1 for a movie. She will ca:l 52 and ask him to go
the rxtn-class assignment-enabling objective (7:)-will be informally obscrvetl on
to that movie with her. Be surc to arrange th13following things in your
the next day.
phone conversation (write these on the boartl):
1 . What movie?
2. What time? This chapter has focused specifically on the planning stage of cl:issroom
3 . Which theater! teaching. When you walk into the classroom, all that planning-you hope!-will
The students come up in pairs and h,ive very short phore conversations to work to your advantage. We turn in the next three chapters to the cn~cialsteps of
arrange going to a movie together. If there is not time fo. each pair to come to initiating intenction, sustaining interaction through grol~pwork, 2nd c1,tssroom
the front and use the phones, pairs c.ln work on their cc nversations at their management issues.
desks.
7. EXTRA-CLASSWORK ASSIGNMENT
TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION, ACTION, AND RESEARCH.
Teacher passes out DATEBOOWMOVIE GUIDE page to each student.
T: Everyone please choose a theater from this p lge. (Make sure cach [Note: (Individual
I) work; (G) group or pair work; (C) whole-class discussion.]
student chooses a difierent theater.)
Circle the theater and the phone number on qour handout.
1. (I) Following are some curricular gods selected from various academic
Choose a movie at your theater.
English language programs:
Circle the rnovie.
Circle the times next r.0 it. Understand academic lectures
Repeat these directions and demonstrate with your own movie list. Go around Write a business letter
and make sure that everyone has circled: Use greetings and "small talk"
1. a theater. Request information in a restaurant
2. the right phone number. Read informal essays
3. a movie at their theater.
4.. the times it's showing. For each of the above, briefly describe a specific audience for which tile goal
T: Tonight when you go home, please call the tlleater you've chosen. might be appropriate.,then (a) tmnsform the goal into tcvmzirial objrctive(s)
Listen to the recording. Find out two things: and (1)) state a number of enablirig objectives that would h;~veto bc r1.acht.d
in order to accomplish the terminal objective.
162 CHAPTER 10 How to tY'~na Lesson CHAPTER 10 How to Ptan a Lesson 1 63

2. (G/C) Ilirect groups to practice stating other lesson objectives for a course Gower, Ro:er and Walters, Sttrve. 1983. Teaching Practice Hundbook:A Reference
everyone is familiar with, and to discuss the extent to which one could empir- Book l o r EFI. Teacl2ers iti Training. New York: Heinemam. Chapter 4, pp.
i d l y evaluate students' achievement of the objectives. Groups can then 60-83.
share their conclusions with the rest of the class. Cross, Dalid. 1991. A Pructicul Handbook of Lungitage Teaching. Englewood
3. (I/C:) Observe an ESL class in which you look for mlnifestations of variety, Cliffs, Pi]: Prentice-Hall (C.lssel1). Chapter 11,pp. 138-50.
seql~encing,pacing, and timing, or the lack thereof. Write down your o b s e ~ a - Both the.se h ~ ~ n d h o ofor
(!I' h teachers 0fft.r some pmctical gzlidelincs for
tions and share them in the form of a brief report with the whole class. lesson l~kttini?i,qirr the re.$pectivechriptcn referenced.
4. (C) Accounting for individual differences is not as easy as it sounds. Ask
mernbers of the class to describe some dimensions of student differences Brown, H Doug1;ls. 1999. Nezo Vistas: An Interactive Course in English.
they have experienced or observed. How would one ensure, in each case, Teache .'s Editions. White Plains, NY:Pearson Education.
that students on both ends of the continuum are "reached" in some way? The 7 Blchers Editions of' Nea Vistas gi~wa number of ideas of houl cwn.ous
Sm;rll groups sometimes provide a means for accounting for differences. techniques combine to jbnn cohesive classroonl lessotis. Each unit has
What are some other ways (d on p. 154) to divide the class into small groups?
explicil directions for teachers that can he used as lesson plans or general
Justify each. guideli ~ e which
s can be rld~lj~tcdfor turious audiences.
5. ( G )Have groups look at the sample lesson plan (pp. 157-61) and use the six
guitlelines for lesson planning ( p p 152-56) to evaluate the plan. Should any
changes be made? Conclusions should be shared with the rest of the class.
6. (VG)?'ransform the lesson plm (pp. 156-61) into sotne prxctical "lesson
notesn-no more than one or two index cards perhaps-that you could carry
intc:~the classroom with you. What decisions did you have to make? On what
basis did you decide to create your notes the way you did? Share your notes
with others in a small group and discuss your reasons for doing what you did.
7. (G) A needs analysis normally considers such qtlestior~sas who the learners
are. why they are learning English, in what context(s) they use it, etc. Ask
gn)ups to identdy learners they are familiar with, and devise a list of specitic
questions that one could use to analyze needs and, in turn, to determine how
a curriculum or a set of lessons shoultl be designed.
8. (D Find a teacher's manual or instructor's edition of an ESL textbook. Look at
a clrapler or unit and read through the "plan" or "suggestions" for teaching.
1Jsing the principles cited in this and in previous chapters, evaluate it for an
audience that you specity. How would the suggestions need to be changed or
added to for your audience?

FOR YOUR FURTHER READING

Purgilson, Katherine Barnhouse. 1991. "Planning lessons and units." In Celce-

Ml~rcia1991b.
This is one of the/i?i.wreadily uccessible single articles in the jield dealing
with pnncip1e.s irrld pmctical guidelines jbr plu tir~irig1esso~z.s..Yample lessoti
notes are inclrlded as an appendix.
 cHAPrtR II lnreracrive Langu.lge Teaching I. Initiat~ngInterac~ion 165

Slowly,the students warm up to asking each other questions. The teacher then has
students pair off, continuing to ask about favorite movies, songs, sports, and food.
The teacher then asks the students to make four columns on a blank sheet of
paper with the headings Singel; Wprogram,Actress, Actor. This time di, iding the
class into groups of four students each, the teacher directs each group to fill in their
sheets with the favorites of the other members of the group-in Endish! Initial
silence is gradually replaced by a buzz of voices in the groups as the teacl~ercircu-
lates and encourages the more reticent to participate. The exercise ends with
"reportsnof findings from appointed group leaders.
The last few minutes of the class hour are spent with the teacher pointing out
certain grammatical reminders ("His favorite movie is --.""I like bt.st.").

The quiet buzz of voices from the classn~omechoes down the hallway. The thirty-
some-odd students in an intermediatr English class in :!. Bangkok high school are WHAT IS INTERACTION?
telling stories, joking, gossiping, and talking about the latest popular songs. As the
teacher walks in, the students kill silent, face forward, a ~ open
~ d their textbooks in You have been introduced to some basic issues in lesson planning, so your next
anticipation of another English lesson, another day of nbciting, repeating, copying, move is to step into the <:lassroomand begin the process of stimulating interaction.
reading aloud, translating sentences, and answering multiple-choice questions. This chapter will offer some pointers on how to do that.
But today their usual teacher is absent, and a substiti~teteacher sits down at the The class just described, whose students had been accustomed to recitation
front of the class and asks the students to rearrange their desks into concentric semi- and mechanical output, just became-perhaps for the first time-interactive.
circles. Surprised, the students comply. Then the teachcr speaks: lnteraction is an important word for language teachers. In the era of conlnlunica-
tive language teaching, interaction is, in fact, the heart of comnlunication; it is what
Kavin, what's your favorite movie?
communication is all about. We send messages, we receive them, we interpret them
[after some silence] I'm sorry. Please repe; t.
in a context, we negotiate meanings, and we collabomte to accomplish certain pur-
What movie do you like best?
poses. And after several decades of research on teiiching and learning languages. we
[long silence,fzrrtive glances to clcssmate.\ 1 Best?
have discovered that the best way to learn to interact is through interactior~itself.
Yeah, your favorite movie?
Intenction is the collabontive exchange of thoughts, feelings, or ideas between
[more silence] I like best. uh, new Star Wars movie.
two or more people, resulting in a reciprocal effect on each other. Theories of com-
Okay. Arunee, what about you?
municative competence emphasize the importance of interaction as human beings
[embarrassed,giggles]About me?
use language in various contexts to "negotiate" meaning, or simply stated, ro get an
Yeah, what about you? What's your bvorite movie?
idea out of one person's head and into the head of another person and v i ~ eversa.
Oh, uh, favorite movie is Titanic.
From the very beginning of language study, classrooms should be interactive.
Great. Now, Salinee, what's your favorite fo )d?
Wilga Rivers puts it this way:
This line of questioning continues for seveml minute:;, with an increasing degree
of ready participation by the studr:nts. Then the teacher changes the format a little: Through interaction, students can increase their language store as they
Now, Anchalee, ask Pnvit what his favorite sport is. listen to or read authentic linguistic material, or even the output of tl~eir
T:
[silence]What your favorite sport? fellow students in discussions, skits, joint problem-solving tasks, or dia-
Anchalee:
logue journals. In interaction, students can use all they possess of the lan-
Pclvit: Uh, soccer.
guage-all they have learned or casually absorbed-in real-life exchanges.
T: Okay, Pnvit, now ask Salinee a que ;tion.
[long silencc.1 What sport you like?
. . .Even at an elementary stage, they learn in this way to exploit the clas-
Pravit:
ticity of language. (1987: 4-5)
Salinee: Okay, Pravit, good try. Now, say it this way:"What is your
favorite sport?"
Pc~vit: What is favorite sport?

UVTERACTIVE PRLNCIPLES
t the twelve principles listed and discussed in Chaptcr 4 form foundation
~ o s of
stones for structuring a theory of interaction in the language classn)om. Consider
the following selected relationships:
Automaticity: True human interaction is best accomplished when focal atten-
tion is on meanings and messages and not on grJmmar and other linguistic forms.
Learners are thus freed from keeping l~nguagein a controlled mode and can more
exsill. proceed to automatic modes of processing.
Intrinsic niotivation: As students become engaged with each other in speech
acts o f fi~lfillrnent; ~ n dself-xctualization, their deepest drives are satisfied. And as
they more lully appreciate their own competence to use language, they can develop
a systcm of self-reward.
Strategic investment: lntcraction requires the use of stntcgic language com-
petence both to make certain decisions on how to say or write or interpret lan-
gtwgc. and to make repairs when communication pathways are blocked. The
spontaneity of intenctive discourse requires judicious use of numerous strategies
for pn)dtiction and comprehension,
Risk-taking: Interaction requires thr risk of failing to produce intended
meaning, of failing to interpret intended meaning (on the part of someone else), of
being laiighetl at, of being shunned or rejected The rewards, of course, are great
and worrh the rishs.
The language-culture connection: The cultural loading of intenctive
slxech as well as writing requires that irlterlocutors be thoroughly versed in the cul-
tun1 nuances of kulguage.
Interlanguage: The complexity of interaction cntails a long devrlopmental
process of acquisit~on.Numerous errors of production and comprehension will be
at part of this development. And the role of teacher feedback is crucial to the devel-
opmental process.
Communicative competence: All of the elements of communicative compe-
tence @-ammaticai, discourse, sociolinguistic, pragmatic, and stritegic) are involved
in human inter~ction.All aspects must work together for successful communica-
tion to txke place.
ROLES OF 'WE INTERACTIVE TEACHER
'Teachers can play many roles in the course of teaching. Just as parents are called
I areas of expertise. A language class should not be markedly different.
upon to be many things to their children, teachers cannot be satisfied with only one
role. Rcbccca Oxford ct al. (1998) pointed out th;lt teacher roles are often best
descr~bcdin the form of nietaphor. teacher as manufacturer, teacher as doctor,
teacher as judge, teacher as gardener, and others. Following you will find another
set of melaphors to describe a spectrum of possibilities of teacher roles, some of
which are more conducive to crtyating an interactive classroom than others.
1. T h e Teacher as Controller
A rol(, that is sometimes expected in traditional educational institutions is that
o f "master' controller, always in c:hargc of every moment in the classn)om. Master
controller:i determine what the smdents do, when they should speak,and what lan-
guage forms they should use. They can often predict many student responses
became everything is mapped out ahead of time, with no leeway for divergent
paths. In : ; o m respects, such control may sound admirable. But for interaction to
take placc, the teacher must create a climate in which spontaneity car1 thrive, in
which unrehearsed language can be performed, and in which the freedom of
expressior given over to students makes it impossible to predict everything that
they will sly and do.
Neverthetess, some control on your part is actually an important element of suc-
cessfully c;[rrying out inte~tctivetechniques. In the planning phase especially,a wise
controller will carefully project how a technique will proceed, map out the initial
input to st~~dents, spec* directions to be given, and gauge the timing of a technique.
So, granted that allowing for spontaneity of expression involves yielding certain ele-
ments of control to students, neve~-theless, even in the most coopentivc of interactive
classrooms, the teacher must maintain some control simply to organize the class hour.
2. T h e Teitcher as Director
Some ntenctive classroom tune can legitimatelybe structured in such a way that
the teachel is like a conductor of an urchestn or a director of a drama. As students
engage in <:ither rehearsed or spontaneous language performance, it is your job to
keep the process flowing smoothl). and efficiently. The ultimate motive of such direc-
tion, of course, must always be to enable students eventually to e n g a g in the real-life
drama of inlpn)visation as each communicative event brings its own uniqueness.
3. T h e Teacher as Manager
This netaphor captures your role as one who plans lessons, modules, and
courses, and who structures the larger, longer segments of classroom time, but who
then allow: each individual player to be creative within those parameters, Managers
of successf.~llcorporations, for example, retain control of certain larger objectives of
the company, keep employees pointed toward goals, engage in ongoing evaluation
and feedback, but give freedom to each person to work in his or her own individual
4. T h e Teacher as Facilitator
A less directive role might be described as facilitating the process of learning,
of making learning easier for students: helping them to clear away roadblocks, to
find shortc~its,to negotiate rough ternin. Thc facilitatirlg role requires that you step
168 CHAPTER 1 1 Interactive Language Teaching I: Inrtiating Inter.~ction
away from the managerial or directive role and allow stutlents, with your guidance
and gentle prodding, to find their own pathways to succe:~. A facilitator capitalizes
on the principle of intrinsic motivation by allowing studcnts to discover language
through using it pragmatically, rather than by telling then about language.
5. The Teacher as Resource
Here you take the least directive role. In fact, the in~plicationof the resource
role is that the student takes the initiiitive to come to jou. You are available for
advice and counsel when the student seeks it. It is of c o ~ ~ r not
s e practical to push
this metaphor to ;In extreme whert you would simply walk into a classroom and say
something like,"Well, what do you want to learn today?"!80me degree of control, of
planning, of managing the classroom ii essential. Rut there are appropriate times
when you can litenlly take a back seat . ~ n dallow the stud:nts to proceed with their
own linguistic development.
In the lessons that you deliver, you should be able to assume all five of these
roles on this continuum of directive to non-directive tt.aching, depending on the
purpose and context of an activity. I'he key to interactive teaching is to strive
toward the upper, non-directive end ot the continuum, gradually enabling your stu-
dents to move from their roles of total dependence (upc~nyou, the class activities,
the textbook, etc.) to relatively total indcpendence. Tht proficiency level of your
class will determine to some extent which roles will dominate. But even at the
lowest levels, some genuine intenction can take place, and your role must be one
that releases your students to try things for themselves.
We turn now to a more empirical and practical con:dderation of interaction in
the communicative langirage classroonl. In the remaindvr of this chapter you wiU
get a sense of what you can do to initkite interaction in tlle classroom-that is, how
your input can stimulate student interaction. (In Chapter 12,you will be given some
guidance on maintaining interaction through effective group work techniques.)
FOREIGN M G U A G E INTERACIION ANALYSIS
One way to begin to look at your role as an initiator of ir teraction in the classroom
is to look at yourself (and other teachers) in terms of a well-known taxonomy for
describing classroom interaction. More than two decades ago, the work of Flanders
(1970) and, more specific to foreign language teachin;, of Gertrude Moskowitz
(1C)71,197(3) gave us some categories for observation of c lasses known as the FLINT
Qoreign h n g u i l g Interaction) model (seeTable 1 1 .I).
How is a model like this helphl in developing inttractive language teaching?
There are several practical uses. First. it gives you a taxonomy for observing other
teachers. Moskowitz recomn~e~lds using a chart o r grid to note instances of each
category. You can also calculate how much classroom time is devoted to each.
Then you can evaluate the wisdom of certain choices made by the teacher or look
C H A P ~ E RI 1 Interactive Language Teachrng I: Init~atrngIntrr~ictir~n 169
at the oven11 distribution of time and ask yourself (or your teacher tc1int.r) almut
the appropriateness of such a distribution.
Second, it gives you a framework for evaluating and improving your own
teaching. For example, how well do you balance teacher talk and student talk?
While the FLINT model includes seven categories for teacher talk and onl! two for
student talk, don't let that fool you into believing that your own talk should domi-
nate. Depending on the objectives of the lesson, the level of tlie students, and other
contextual factors, the proportions will vary, but most of the time we teachers tcnd
to talk too much, without allowing enough time for students to respond tc, us or to
initiate talk. A careful considention of all seven of the teacher-talk categories can
also serve as a blueprint for your teaching bt:havior in the cl;~ssroo~n: An1 I
accepting a student's feelings in a non-threatening way? Am 1 offering suflicicnt
praise?Ani I lecturing tool much? Do I give my stutlents opportunities to initiate lan-
guage on their own?
Third, the FLINT model, especially the first seven categories, helps to sct a
learning climate for interactive teaching. In Chapter 5, undt:r the rubric ol intrinsi-
cally motivating classrooms, we discussed the importance of learners being brought
into the decision-making process. You can establish a climate of cooper~tionby
recognizing and opmly accepting your students' t:motional ups and down,, by rec-
ognizing each individual student in the class as special in his or her own way, by
soliciting their ideas, and by careful fnming of questions. Wc now turn to ;cn exten-
sive look at the latter.
QUESTIONING STRATEGIES FOR INTERACTIVE LEAKNING
The most important key to creating an interactive language cl;~ssroomis tne initia-
tion of intenction by the teacher. However non-directive your teaching st) le is, rile
onus is on you to provide the stimuli for continued interaction. These stimuli :ire
important in the initial stage of a classroom lesson as well as throughout t h ~lesson.
.
Without such ongoing teacher guidance, classroom interxction m;ly intleed be
comm~~nicative, but it can easily fall prey to tangential chitchat and other t,chavior
that is off-course from the class objectives.
One of the best ways to develop your role as an initiator and sustainer of inler-
action is to develop a repertoire of questioning strategies. In second kmgirage class-
rooms, where learners often do not have a great number of tools for initiating and
maintaining language, your questions provide necessary stepplng stones to com-
munication. Appropriate questioning in an intenctive classroom can f~~lfill a
number of different functions (adapted from (:hristenbury & Kelly 1083 ;~nd
Kinsella 1991)
1. Teacher questions give students the impetus and opportunity to produce lan-
guage comfortably without having to risk initiating 1:mguage themselves. It's
very scary for students to have to initiate conversation or topics for disc:ussion.
Table 1 1.1. Fore~gnLanguage Interaction Analysis (FLINT) system (adapted from Moskowitz 19711
1. Deals with feelings: In 'I non-threateningwav, accepting, discussing, referring to, or
comniunic.lting understanding of past, present, or future feelings o i students.
2. Praises or encourages: Pr~ising,complimenting, telling students why what they have
c said or done i s valued. Encouraging students to continue, trying to give them
5 confidence, confirming that answers are correct.
3
LL
25. Jokes: Intentionaljoking, kidding mak.ingpuns, attempting to be humorous, providing
the joking i s not at ~nyone'sexpenst!. (Unintentional humor is not included in this
Z, category.)
3 . Uses ideas of students: Clarifying, using, interpreting, summarizing the ideas o i
U, students. The ideas must be rephrased by the teacher but still be recognized as being
5 student contributions.
2 z 35. Repeats student response verbatim: Repeating the exact words of students after
they pat~cipate.
5 d . Asks questions: Asking questions to which the answer is ant~cipdted.(Rhetorical
I questions are NOT included in this category.)
U
5. Gives information: Giving information, iacts, own opinion, or ideas: lecturing or
$
C- ask~ngrhetrirical questions.
5a. Corrects without rejection: Telling students who have made a mistake the correct
E> t,.
response without using words or intonations which communicate criticism.
Gives directions: Giving directions, requests, or commands that students are expected to
a
LL follow; directing various drills; f~cilit~lting
whole-class and small-group activity.
z ;. Crilicizes student behavior: Rejecting the behavior of students; trying to change the
nori-acceptable behavior; communicating anger, displeasure, annoyance,
dissdtisiaction with what studcnts are doing.
5 7a. Criticizes student response: Telling the student his or her response is not correct
0 or acceptable and communicating criticism, displeasure, annoyance, rejection
t)y words or intonation.
8. Student response, specific: Responding to the teacher w~thina specific and limited
range of a~~iilable
or previously practiced dn5wers. Reading aloud, dictation, drills.
! Student response, open-ended or student-initiated: Responding to the teacher with
students' own ideas, opinions, reactions, feelings. Givirlg one, from among many
uossible an5wers that have been r~reviously, ,practiced but from which students must
I1 t' now make a selection. Initiating ;he participation.
10. Silence: Pauses in the interaction. Periods of quiet during whit~hthere is no verbal
interaction.
10~1.Silence-AV: Silence in the interaction dur~ngwh~cha piece of audiovisual
equipment, e.g., a tape recorder, filmstrip projector, record player, etc., is being
used to communicate.
11. Confusion, work-oriented: More than one person at a time talking, so the interaction
cannot be recorded. Students calling out excitedly, eager to participate or respond,
concerned with the task at hand.
11 .I. Confusion, non-work-oriented: More than one person at a time talking so the
interaction cannot be recorded. Student5 out of order, not behaving as the
teacher wishes, not concerned with the task at hand.
12. Laughter: Laughing and giggling by the class, individudls, andlor the teacher.
13. Uses the native language: Use of the native language by the teacher or the students.
This category is always combined with one of the categories from 1 to 9.
14. Nonverbal: Gestures or facial expressions by the teacher or the student that
conlmunicate without the use of words. This category is always combined with one
of the categories of teacher or student behavior.
CHAj'TtR 1 I lnferacflvelanguageTear h~ngI.Intt~atmnglntenct~on 171
Appropriately pitched questions can give more reticent students an affective
"gree 1 light" and a structured opportunity to comnlunicate in their second
langu lge.
2. Tracher questions call serve to initiate a chain reaction of student interaction
amon? themselves. Ont: qut:stion may be all that is needed to start a discus-
sion; without the initial question, however, students will be reluctant to ini-
tiate the process.
3. Teacher questions give the instructor immediate feedback about student com-
prehension. After posing a question, a teacher can use the student response
to diagnose linguistic or content difficulties. Grammatical or phonological
prob1t:m arem, for example, m.~ybe exposed through the student's response
and give the teacher some specitic information about what to treat.
4. Teacher questions provide students with opportunities to find out what they
think by hearing what they say As they are nudged into responding to ques-
tions :tbout, say, a reading or a film, they can discover what their own opin-
ions and reactions :ire 'I'his self-discovery can be especiaUy useh~lfor a
prewriting activity.
There are many ways to classify what kinds of questions are effective in the
classroom. Pertraps the simplest way to conceptualize the possibilities is to think of
a range of questions, beginning with display questions that attempt to elicit infor-
mation alrcady known by the teacher, all the way to highly referential questions
that reque:>tinformation not known by the questioner; sometimes responses to the
latter involve judgment about facts that ;Ire not clear or a statement o f values.
Table 11.L provides seven categories of qiiestions, nnging from display to referen-
tial, with h.pical classroom question words associated with each category.
All of these types of questions have their place in the interactive classroom.
Even those that are more on the drsplay end of the continuunl are very usefill in elic-
iting both :ontent and language from students. ITs~~ally. the lligller the proficicncy
level you t c x h , the more you can venture into the upper, referential end of the con-
tinuum. One interesting study of high intermediate pre-university ESL students
(Brock 1986) found that teachers who incorporated more referential questions into
their classcs stimulated student responses that were longer and more grammatically
complex. ,flake sure, then, thlt you challenge your students sufficiently but without
o ~ e r w h e l ing
n ~ them.
Asking a lot of questions in your classroom will not by any means guarantee
stimulation of interaction. Certain types of questions may actually d i s c o u ~ ~ inter-
ge
active learr,ing. Beware of the following (adapted from Kinsella 1991):
* Too much class time spent or1 display questions-students can easily grow
weary of artficial contexts that don't involve genuine seeking of information.
A question that insults stutlents'intelligence by being so obvious that stu-
d e n ~ will
s think it's too sillv to bother answering.

Table 11.2. Categories of questions and typical classroom questi In words (adapted from
Kinsella 1991 and Bloom 1956)
1 . Knowledge questions: Eliciting factual answers, testing recall and recognition of
information.
Common question words: Define, teil, list, identify, describe select, name, point out,
label, reproduce. Who? What? Where? When? Answer "yes" or "no."
2. Comprehension questions: Interpreting, extrapolating
Common question words: State in vour own words, explain, define, locate, select,
indicate, summarize, outline, match.
3. Application
.. questions: Applying informat!on heard or read to new situations.
Common question words: Demonstri~tehow, use the data to solve, illustrate how, show
how, apply, construct, explain.What is - used for? What would result? Whnt would
happen?
4. Inference questions: Forming conclujions that are not direct y stated in instructional
materials.
Common question words: How? Why? What did -mean by? What does _-
believe? What conclusions can you draw from . . . ?
5. Analysis questions: Breaking down into parts, rehting parts t I the whole.
Common question words: Distinguish, di,igram, chart, plan, deduce, arrange, separate,
outline, classify, contrast, compare, differentiate, categorize. What is the relationship
between? What is the function of? What motive? W h ~conc/usions?
t What is the main
idea?
6. Synthesis questions: Combining elements into a new pattern
Common question words: Compose, combine, estirn~te,invont, choose, hypothesize,
build, solve, design, develop. What if? How would you test? What would you have
done in this situation? What would happen if. . . ? How can yc~uimprove. . . ? How
else would you . . . ?
7. Evaluation questions: Making a judgrnent of good and bad, I ight or wrong, according
to some set of criteria, and stating why.
Common question words: Evaluate, rde, defend, dispute, de :ide which, select, judge,
grade, verify, choose why. Which is best? Which is more im~ortant?Which do you
think is more appropriate?
CHAPTER 11 Interact~veLanguagr Te'qi-hmg I: Ir11trabr;q Intrrac Iron 173
Vague questions that are worded in abstract or ambiguclus language (for
example,'Do you pretty much understand more or less what to do?").
Questions stated in language that is too complex or too wordy for aunl
comprehension (e.g.,"Given today's discussion,and also considerir~gyour
previous experience in educational institutions, what would you s;~yarc the
ramifications of, or the potential developmental impacts on, childrcn hrlc-
tioning in an educational system in which assessment procedures largely
consist of multipl.echoice,paper and pencil instrumentation?").
Too many rhetorical questions (that you intend LO answer yourself) that stu-
dents think you want them to answer, then get confusetl when you supply
the answer.
Random questions that don't fall into a logical, well-planned seques\cc,
sending students' thought patterns into chaos.
There are, of course, other teacher strategies t h ( . promote inter:rcllon. Pair
work and group work give rise to interaction. Giving directions ("Ol~envour
books,""T)othe following exercisen) can stimula~einteraction. Orgt~nizatlonalIan-
guage ("Get into small groups") is important. Reacting to students (praise.recogni-
tion, or a simple "Uh-huh") cannot be dispenseti with. Responding genuinely to
student-initiatedquestions is essential. Encouraging students to develop tl~eirown
strategies is an exceilent means of stimulating the learner to develop too\?-of inter-
action. Evcn "lecturing" (and other forms of onlly providing informat~on);md
having students read texts are part of the process of creating and n~ainti~ining an
interactive classroom. Most of these strategies are dealt with in subsequc,nt chap-
ters; pair and group work is given extensive covemge in thc next chapter For the
moment, however, as you build some tools for creating effective inter~ct~ve class-
room lessons, consider your questioning strategies as one of the most ilnportiint
teaching behaviors for you to master.
?%is chapter focused on the first step in creating an inte~tctiveclassroom:your
role as an initiator of the interaction. What you do and say to get student:; started,
to prime them, to stimulate them to further communication,is cruci;~lto rhc success
of interactive techniques. We now turn to the inlricate process of managlng what
has come to be a hallmark of interactive language teaching: group work.
174 CHAPTER II lnteracfive Language Teaching I: Initiating Intrracfion (HAPTER 1 1 Interactive Language Teaching I: Initialing Inleractfon 175

TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION, ACTION, AND RESEARCH

[Note:(I) Individi~a!work; (G) group or pair work; (C) whole-class.] Oxford, F.ebecca et al. 1998. 'Clashing metaphors about classroom teachers:
Towarti a systematic ypology for the language teaching field."System 26: 3-50.
1, (VG) 1)efine interaction in your own words (without looking hack at the Rebecca O x - r d joins serJoi other colkagl4es here in a disci~ssiorrof the
beginning of the chapter). How does an interactive classroon~differ from a nretap~loricai roles oJ ttachen in language classroonzs. Mci~ry~lq]>rcnt
"traditional" (:lassroom? List the hctors and discuss them in a small group. metcrp~?orsare disctsstd in ~ic?t~iil
wider thefiurgenerczl categories c~socirrl
2. (G)Ask smali' groups each to consider one of the other interactive principles order, ;li/ttir~zItrar~smission,learner-centerell grou,th, urrd social reform.
not mentioned on page 166 (anticipation of reward, meaningful learning, Ian-
gusge ego, self-confidence, the native language effect). Each group should Wright, Tc ny. 1987. Roles s[ Teachers and Learners. Oxford: Oxford University
discuss how its principle supports the notion of interactive learning. Do any Press.
of them speak to the importance of"individua1 study" as opposed to interac- A ntrrr,ber of dvferent teacher a r ~ dlearner roles are described u'ith no less
tion with classmates? than slt~en[v-onespec$(. c1t;ssroom techniques that illustr~ztethose roles.
3. (G/C) Direct pairs to answer the following: Of the five teacher roles described This 't~wcherrfrienrily" hookl)rouides sirr~pletheoretical justification fir the
on pages 160-68, which one(s) do you think might come most naturally to adoptic In of ~~citiotw
rc11es
you? Why? Which would come least n a t u ~ ~ l l Do
y ? your natural inclinations
reflect the kind of balancing of roles that you think is appropriate for an inter- Hrock, Cyr thra A. 1086. "The effects of referential questions on ESL classroom clis-
active language classroom? How would those roles changc depending on (a) course ' TESOL Quarter& 20: 47-59.
the proficiency level, (b) the age, and (c) the culture of students? <:onclusions In tbis,,'irsci~rcttirrp
article. the nllthor reports the effect 071 knrners' lringlrage
should then be shared with the rest of the class. of hi'qher , f r e q ~ ~ n ioJ'. s re&~.e~iti~ii
qtrestioris (as opposed to display que.s-
4. (G/C) Have small groilps brainstorm as many metaphors for teat.bers as pos- tio~rs).I<e.sults oJthe experiment indicated that sttirknts itz cictises ulith nrore
sible (teacher as manufacturer, doctor; gardener, etc.), and then pick a few to rejhre?~rialqt~estionspro~iliceti sentences that wcre longer arrd rnore svrrtnc-
discuss in detail by extending the metaphor. For example, the teacher as gar- tically 1.ornple.~.and th~ltcorliaine~ia greater number of conrrrctitjes.
dener must offer a nurturing environment for students as plants/trees, consid-
ering the clirnate of context, etc. Groups can then present one such
extended metaphor to the rest of the class.
5. (IIC) Using the FLINT taxonomy as a guide, in which you note teacher and
stirdent beha.vior,observe an ESL class. Did the taxonomy reveal anything
new or interesting to you? Report briefly to the rest of the class on your
observation.
6. (I As
)you observe the same or another class, try to attend to the kinds of
questions the teacher asks. Write them down. How many were display
questions, and how many were referential questions? Do you think the
teacher should have had a different proportion of display and referential ques
tions? Justih your response.
7. (G/C) Direct pairs to list some specific exanlples of questions that discourage
interaction and to discuss why they think those examples fail to promote
interaction. Pairs will share their thoughts with other members of the class.
 CHAPTER 12 lnteractiw Language Teaching 11: Sustaifiir~gInteraction Jhrough C;n,up W ~ r k 177

A third group seizes upon the latter group's method and queries onc. of their

I
members who appears to have all the answers. And the fourth group works on in

INTERACTIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING n:
INING INTERACTION
THROUGH-
The teacher of the community college ESL class of about fifteen students has just
played a cassette tape of an o c e a ~ ~ o p r p l idescribing
er the ecology of thc ocean.
The language of this 10-minute mini-lcctitre was comprc,hensible, but thc subject
matter itself offered a heavy cognitive lo;~d.Now, the te; cher asks the students to
get into groi~psof four students each to answer a set of comprehension questions.
His directions are:"Get into groups now and answer tlie questions on the handout."
He then gives each student a handout with ten ~ompreh~insion questions, sucll as,
"What is the role of shrimp in ocean ecology?"and"Accorcing to the lecture,in what
three ways are human beings dependent on the ocean fo. survival?"
The students comply with thc first part of the directive by getting into previ-
ously arnngcd groups. Then, silence. Students spcnd a g.,od three to four minutes
silently reading the questions. Some students in some groups jot down answers to
some of the questions. Others look up occasionally to see what other ups are
doing or look at each other and then go back to studying the handout.
Finally, in one group a student says t o another:
S 1: You figure out number 3?
S2: Um, no, and you?
S1: No. How about number 6?
S2: Well, answer is 'plank~on:' I think.
W'hereupon the group falls back into silence and more in lividual work.
In another group, one student has apparently finishetl jotting down answers to
the questions, and a second student says:
S3: You got them all?
S4: Yes, I think so.
53: So, what you write down?
S4: Number 1 is . . .
And S4 continucs to read off his answers one by one as oiher Ss in the group fill in
the answers in silence.
silence; students occasionally glance at cach other's papers, mumble a comment or
two. and make emendations. Meanwhile the teacher has circulated aroimtl once to
watch the students, responding only if a student initiates a question dirc.ctly. He
then returns to his desk to record attendance and grade some papers.
After about f i e e n minutes, the teacher asks the class to report on their
responses, question by question, students indivitlually volunteering answers. For
each question the teacher asks if anyone disagrees, then indicates whethcr tlie
answer is right or wrong, then asks if everyone in the class understands.
There is something wrong with this picture! If the fifteen-minute time period
in which students wcrc in small groups is group work. then the language-[caching
profession is in serious trouble. The description you have just rcad demonstrxtes
just bout everything that you should riot do in conducting s o u p work tec.hniqlies
in your classroom. Before reading on in this chapter, jot down (a) problems with
the i~bovelesson, and @) what you think the teacher should have done tcl makc a
successful group activity following a ten-minute mini-lecture.
In this chapter, we will look at group work as central to maintaining linguistic
interdction in the classroom. In so doing, you will get somc: answers to questions
such as:What are the advantages of group work? What are some proble~nsto over-
come in successful group work? What different kinds of tasks are appropriate for
group work? What are some steps for implementing g o u p work? What are some
rules for successful group work?
ADVANTAGES OF GROUP WORK
What is group work? It is a generic term covering a nlultiplicity of techn~quesin
which two or more students are assigned a task that involves collaboration . ~ n self-
d
initiated language. Note that what we commonly call pair work is simply grorlp
work in groups of two. It is also important to nott. that group work usually implies
"small"-group work, that is, students in groups of perhaps six or fcwer. Largt: group
ings defeat one of the major purposes for doing group work: giving students more
opportunities to speak.
Group work is solidly grounded in research principles (see Long 8i Porter 1985
for an overview). Consider the twelve principles cited in Chapter 4. IOUcan think
of other theoretical fouridations of successful lang11:lge teaching ;inti learnit~g
already discussed in this and other books on second language learning and tt~aching.
And consider the importance of interaction in the language classroom discilssed in
the previous chapter. An integration of these principles and issues yields a 'lumber
of advantages of group work for your English languagc classroom.
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 I :12 Imr,~ctive
~ ~Cdriguage
~ Tedchrng
~ 11. 5u,ta1n1ng
~ Interact~on
~ T h - ~ u g hCroup Work
180
rclom, you may be able to convince administrators and s,:udents of the advantages.
With careful attention to guidelines for implementation of group work, administra-
tive or managerial dilemmas should be avoidable. And if you are unsure of your
own English language ability, rake heart in the fact that you are still quite a few steps
ahead of your students.
As we noted earlier in Chapter 11, if control is thouqht of as predicting every-
thing that is going to transpire it1 a class hour, then y)u do not want "controln
because you will be thwarting virtually all possibility of an interactive language
classroom. Group work still allows you to play the roles of director, manager, facili-
tator, and resource. In those roles, there is still an adeq~ratedegree of control; the
class will not necessarily run away with you.
2. Students will use their native language.
In ESL settings where a multiple number of languagt s are often represented in
a single classroom, teachers can void the native languagt. syndrome by placing s t u
dents in heterogeneous language groups. But in EFL situ:;tions,where all of the stu-
dents have a common native language, it is indeed pos:;ible, if not probable, that
students in sn~allgroups will covertly usc their native lmguage. In fact, this is usu-
ally the prinlary reason teachers give mc Cor shying awav from g r o ~ ~work. p How
can it be overconle?
Judicious following of guidelines for implementltion (next section, this
chapter) will help. If students feel that the task is too hard (or too easy), or that
directions are not clear, or that the task is not interesting, or that they are not sure
of the purpose of the task, then you may be inviting students to take shortcuts via
their native language. The most in~portantfactor, howevr r, is setting the clinratc for
group work. Here are some suggestions:
Impress upon your students the in~portanceofpnicticc! in the second lan-
guage for eventual success. Make sure-in whatever way you see fit-that
they clearly understand that successful learners consistently practice using
the target language in face-rc-face contexts.
Appeal to various motivational factors affecting tlem so that they can sec
some real uses for English in their own lives. Try to home in on their
intrinsic motivation to learn.
Demonstrate how enjoyable thc various small-gro11p tasks and games and
activities are. Careful selection and administratior; of group activities helps
to ensure such pleasure. Your own overt display of enthusiasm will help to
set a tone.
Inform them of the security offered by the smaller goups. Get the groups to
think of themselves as teams, the members of whicll are all working together.
Remind them that, in the pnlcess, they can try out language without feeling
that the whole class (and the teacher!) is watching ,md criticizing.
For students who argue that the only reason they lre in your class is to
pass an examinatiorr, remind them that research l ~ a shown
s that people do
7:
CIiAfTFR 12 lnteractlvr Language Teaching 11: Suslairling Interactic~~
Through Group ".'Vork
181
better on tests if they dive into the language itself rather than just study
test items. If they can be convinced that small groups help to burld their
intuitions about language, they may also ~~nderstantl that those intuitions
will be their ally in a test situation.
3. Students' errors will be reinforced in small groups.
Teachers are usually concerned about the h c t that, especially in large classes.
students will simply reinforce each other's errors and the teacher won't get a
chance to correct them. This concern can really be laid to rest. Thew is now
enough research on ernlrs and error correction to tell us that (a) levels ol accuracy
maintained in unsupervised groups are as high as those in teacher-monitored whole-
class work, and that (b) as much as you would like not to believe it, teachers' overt
attempts to correct spet:ch errors in the classroum have a negligible effei't on stu-
dents' subsequent performance. (For more discussion anti further references on
this issue, see Long Sr Porter 1985.) Errors are a "necessary" manifestation of inter-
language development, and we do well not to become obsessed with their constant
correction. Moreover, well-managd group work can encounge spontaneous peer
feedback on errors within the small group itself,
4. Teachers cannot monitor all groups at once.
Related to the issue of control is the sometimes misguided belief that ;I teacher
should be "in on" everything a student says or docs during the class hour.
Inte~lctivelearning and teaching principles counter with the in1port:~nceof mean-
ingful, purposeful language and real communication, which in turn must allow rhe
student to give vent to creative possibilities. Yes, the effecti~eteacher will zirculate
among the groups, listen to students, and offer suggestions and criticisms. But it is
simply not necessary-for reasons cited in #3 ahove-to be a pilrty to ;ill Ilnguistic
intercourse in the classroom.
5. Some learners prefer to work alone.
It is true that many students, especially adult-age students, prefer to work alone
because that is the way they have operated ever since they started going to school.
As a successful manager of group work, you need to be sensitive to such prcfcr-
ences, acknowledging that some if not many of your students will find group work
frustrating because they may simply want you just to give them the answers 10some
problem and then move on. Hclp your students to see that language learning is not
a skill where you can simply bone up on rules and words in isolation. L;lnguagc is
for communicating with people (whether through oral or written modes), .lnd the
more they engage in such face-to-face communication, the more their over;~llcom-
nlunicative competence will improve.
Related to the work style issue are numerous other learning style variations
among students that are m a w l e d in small groups. Because the te:~cherisn't llresrrit
within the groilp at all timt.s,groups are often left to derive their own dynamic induc-
182 CHAPTER 12 interdctive Ldngudge Teaching 11: Sustaining lnteraction Through Croup Work
tively. In the process, individual differences become more salient than they are in
wholecl;~sswork. Below are several possible scenarios:
A highly left-brainoriented student is put off by the otherwise more right-
bnin members of the group.
Qu~cker(impulsive) thinkers tend to blurt out their ideas, overwhelm~ng
the slower (reflective) thinkers, or,
Impulsive learners get easily frustrated with the group process, which they
perceive as circuitous
Competit~vemembers of a group arc. reluctant to share information with
others
"Talkative"students dominate the process
While such problems can and do occur in group work, virtually every problem
that is rooted in learning style differences can be solved by careful planning and
management. In Bct, when the group members know their task and know their
roles in the group, learning style differences can be efficiently utilized and highly
i~ppreciated--much more so than in whole-classwork.
IMPLEMENTING GROUP WORK IN YOIJR CLASSROOM
As you saw in the scene that opens this chapter, group work c.ln go wrong iC it is
not c;~refullyplanned, well executed, monitored throughout, and followed up on in
some way. We'll now look at practical steps to take to carry out successful group
work in your classroom.
Selecting Appropriate Group Techniques
So far in this chapter, as your attention has been focused on group work, differences
between pair work and group work have not been emphasized. 'There are, in fact,
some important distinctions. Pair work is more appropriate than group work for
tasks that are (a) short, (b) linguistically simple, and (c) quite controlled in terms of
the structure of the task. Appropriate pair activities (that are not recommended for
groups of more t h ~ ntwo) include:
1. practicing dialogues with a partner
2. simple question-and-answerexercises
3. pedorming certain meaningful substitution "drills"
4. quick (one minute or less) brainstorming activities
5. checking written work with each other
6. preparation for merging with a larger group
12 Interactive Language Teaching 11: Sustaining lnteraction Through Group Work
CHAP1 :R 183
7. any br:ef activity for which the logistics of assigning groups, moving furniture,
and getting students into the groups is too distracting.
Pair work enables you to engage students in interactive (or quasi-interactive)
communic:ction for a short period of time with ;L minimum of logistical problems.
But don't riisunderstand the role of pair work. It is not to be used exclusively for
the above lypcs of activity;it is also appropriate for many group work tasks (listed
below).
The first step in promoting successful group work, then, is to select an appro-
priate task. In other words,choose something that lends itself to the group process.
Lectures, d:ills, dictations, certain listening tasks, silent reading, and a host of other
activities ale obviously not suitable for small-group work.
Typical group tasks are defined and briefly characterized below. For further
examples 2nd information, 1 highly recommend that you consult a few of a wide
variety of teacher resource books that offer a multitude of tasks for you to consider.
(Three are listed at the end of this chapter.)
1. Games. A game could be any activity that formalizes a technique into units
that can be scored in some way. Several of the other group tasks outlined
below could thus become "games."Guessing games are common language
classrcom activities. Twenty Questions, for example, is easily adapted to a
small i:roup. One member secretly decides that he or she is some famous
persor~;the rest of the group has to find out who, within twenty yeslno ques-
tions, vith each member of the group taking turns asking questions. The
persor\ who is "it" rotates around the group and points are scored.
2. Role-play and simulations. Role-play minimally involves (a) giving a role
to one or more members of a group and (b) assigning an objective or purpose
that pzirticipants must accomplish. In pairs, for example, student A is an
emplover; student B is a prospective employee; the objective is forA to inter-
view I-.. In groups, similar dual roles could be assumed with assignments to
others in the group to watch for certain grammatical or discourse elements as
the roles are acted out. Or a group role-play might involve a discussion of a
political issue, with each person assigned to represent a particular political
point c )f view.
Simulations usually involve a more complex structure and often lager
group: (of 6 to 20) where the entire group is working through an imaginary
situation as a social unit, the object of which is to solve some specific problem.
A common genre of simulation game specifies that all members of the group
are shipwrecked on a "desert island."Each person has been assigned an occu-
pation (doctor, carpenter, garbage collector,etc.) and perhaps some other miti-
gating characteristics (a physical disability,an exconvict, a prostitute, etc.)
Only a specified subset of the group can survive on the remaining food supply,
so the group must decide who will live and who will die.
 Inlerartfve Ldngiiage TedchfrlgIt 5uatafnfng Inleracl~onTI rough Group Work
184 CHAPTER 12
3. Drama. Dnma is a more formalized form of role-piay or simulation, with a
pre-planned story Iine and script. Sometimes small groups may prepare their
own short dramatization of some event, writing the script and rehearsing the
scene as a group. This m y be more comnlonly reft rred to as a "skit."Longer,
more involved dramatic perfc~rmanceshave been shown to have positive
effects on language learning, but they are time consi~mingand rarely can form
part of a typical school curriculum.
4. Projects. For learners of all ages, but perhaps espec1;dly for younger learners
who can greatly knefit from h:~nclsonapproaches tc language, certain projects
can be rewarding indeed. If you mrereto adopt an environmental awareness
theme in your class, for example, various srn;lll group!, could each be doing dif-
ferent things: GroupA creates an environment:~lbulletin board for the rest of
the school; Group B develops fact shects; Group C m;:kes a three-dimensional
display; Group D puts out a newsletter for the rest of the school;Group E
develops a skit, and so on. As lear~~ers get absorbed ill purposeful projects,
both receptive and productive language is used meaningfully.
5. Interview. A popular activity for pair work, but alsc) appropriate for group
work, interviews are useful ; ~allt 11:vels of proficicncq. At the lower Icvels,
interviews can be very structlued. both in terms of the information that is
sought and the gnmmatical difficulty and v;~riety.The goal of an interview
could at this level be limited to usmg requesting funltions, learning vocabu-
lary for expressing personal data, producing qquestio~ls,etc. Students might
ask each other questions like
What's your name?
Where do you live?
What country (city) arc you frornl
and learn t o give appropriate responses. At the higher levels, interviews can
probe more complex facts, opiniotls, ideas, and feelings.
6. Brainstorming. Brainstorming is a technique who:e purpose is to initiate
some sort of thinking process It gets students'"crearive juices" flowing
without necessarily focusing on specific problems 01 decisions or values.
Brainstorming is often put to t:xcellent use in prepartng students to read a
text, to discuss a complex issue, or to write on a topic. Bninstorming
involves students in a rapid-tire, free-;~ssociationlisting of concepts or ideas or
facts or feelings relevant to some topic or context.
Suppose you were about to read a passage on f u t ~ ~meansrr of transporta-
tion. You might ask small groups to brainstorm (a) different forms of trans
portation, past and present, and (b, current obstacles to more efficient means
of transportation. The groups task would be to makc a composite list of
everything they can think of within the category,wit,iout evaluating it. In
brainstorming, no discussion of the relative merits of a thought takes place;
everything and anything goes. This way, all ideas are legitimate, and students
are released to soar the heights ant1 plumb the depths, as it were, with no
CHAPTER II lnteracbve Language Teachfng 11. Sublain~ngInler,tc tton Thn)ugh G-ou}, L" ork 185
obligation to defend a concept. In whatever follow-up to bnirlstorming you
plan, at that point evaluation and discussion can take place.
7. Information gap. These last four types of technique are quite commonly
used in adult classes around the world, up arld down the proficiency con-
tinuum.
Information-gap activities include a tremendous variety of techniques in
which the objective is to convey or to request informatioll. The two focal
characteristics of information-gap techniques are (a) thcir primary attt:ntion
to information and not to language forms and (b) the necessity of commu-
nicative intermion in order to reach the objective. The information !hat stu-
dents must seek can nngc from very simple to complex.
At the beginning level. for example, each member uf a small group coultl
be given the objective of finding out from t h others~ tlieir I~irthda):acltlress,
favorite food, etc., and filling in a little chart with the information. In ~ntrrnie-
diate classes you could ask groups to collectively pool information about dill
ferent occupations: necessary qualifications, how long it takes to prep;lre for
an occupation, how much the preparation costs, what typical job contlitions
are, what salary levels are, etc. In advanced classes, a sm;~ll-grouptliscl~ssion
on determining an author's message, among many other possibilities, v. oulcl
be an information-gap technique.
8. Jigsaw. Jigsaw techniques are a special form of intormation gal) in wl~ich
each member of a group is given some specific information and the go;tl is to
pool all information to achieve some objectivr. Imxgine four member5 of a
group each with a [fictitious] application form, and on each form differ.cnt
information is provided. As students ask each other questions (w~thout
showing anyone their own application form), they eventuallv complctc all the
information on the form. Or you might provide maps to students in sn~:tll
groups, each student receiving different sets 01' information (where the hank
is, where the park is, etc.). The goal for beginners might be simplv to al )catr
everything correctly, and for intermediate learners to give directio~lson how
to get from one place on the map to another, requiring a collabomtive
exchange of information in order to provide complete directions.
One very popular jigsaw technique that can be used in hrger gn)ups 1s
known as aUstripstory" The teacher takes a moderately short written narrative
or conversation and cuts each sentence of the text into a little strip,shuftles the
strips, and gives each student a strip. The goal is for students to determint:
where each of their sentences belongs in the whole context of the story, to
stand in their position once it is determined,and to read olf the reconstructcd
story. Students enjoy this technique and almost always find it challenging
9. Problem solving and decision making. Problem-solving group techniclucs
focus on the group's solution of a specified problem. They might or migllt
not involve jigsaw characteristics, and the problem itself might be relati\elv
simple (such as giving directions on a map), moderately complex (such ;IS
186 CHAPTER12 Irit~rJctrveLanguage Teaching 11: Sustaining Interaction lhrough Group Work
working out an itinerary from train, plane, and bus schedules), or quite com-
ples (such as solving a mystery in a "crime story" or dealing with a political or
mord dilemm;~).Once again,problem-solving techniques center students'
attention on meaningful cognitive challenges and not so much on gammat-
ical or phonological forms.
Decision-making techniques are simply one kind of problem solving where
the ultimate goal is for students to make a decision. Some of the problem-
solving techn~quesalluded to above (say, giving directions to someone and
solving a mystery) don't involve a decision about what to do. Other problem-
solving techniques do involve such decisions. For example, students pre-
sented with several profiles of applicants for a job may be asked to decide
who they would hire. l'heGdesertisland" simulation game referred to earlier
involves a decision. Or a debate on environmental hazards might reveal sev-
eral possible causes of air pollution, but if decision making is the goal, then
the group would have to decide now what they would actually do to reduce
toxins in our air.
10. Opinion exchange. An opinion is usuallv a belief or feeling that might not
I)e founded on empirical data or that others could plausibly take issue with.
Opinions are difficult for students to deal with at the beginning levels of p r o
liciency, but I)y the intermediate level.,certain techniques can effectively
include the exchange of various opinions. Many of the above techniques can
easily incorpoc~tebeliefs and feelings. Sometimes opinions are appropriate;
sometimes they are not, especially when the objective of a task is to deal
more with "facts."
Moral, ethical, religious, and political issues are usually "hot"items for class-
room debates, arguments, and discussions. Students can get involved in the
contentcentered nature of such activity and thus pave the way for more auto-
matic, peripheral processing of language itself. Just a few of the plethora of
such issues:
womcn's rights
choosing a marriage partner
cultural taboos
economic theories
political candidates and their stands
abortion
euthan;~sia
worltl~ideenvironmental crises
war and peace
One warning: You play an important and sensitive role when you ask stu-
dents to discuss their beliefs. Some beliefs are deeply ingrained from child-
hood rearing or from religious training, among other factors. So, it is easy for
a student to be offended by what another student says. In such exchanges, do
CHAP1 ER 12 Intera~tive1.1nguagere'lchrng I/: Sustarning lnteracbon Through Group Work 187
' . everyt31ingyou can to xssure everyone in your class t h ~ twhile
, there may be
.. disagrcement on issues, all opinions are to be valued, not scorned, and
respected, not ridiculed.
Planning Grc )upWork
Possibly th: most common reason for the breakdown of group work is an inade-
quate intrcduction and lead-~nto the task itself. Too often, teachers assume that
purposes are clear and directions are understood, and then have to spend an inor-
dinate amount of time clarifying and redirecting groups. Once you have selected an
appropriate. type of activity,your planning phase should include the following seven
"rules"for 'mplementing a group technique.
1. Introduce the technique. 'The introduction may simply be a brief explana-
tion. I or example,"Now,in groups of four, you're each going to get different
transpl)rtation schedules (airport limo, airplane, train, and bus), and your job is
to figure out, as a group, which combination of transportation services will
take tl-e least amount of time." The introduction almost always should
includl: a statement of the ultimate purpose so that students can apply all
other (lirections to that ohjective.
2. Just%. the use of small groups for the technique. You may not need to
do thi? all the time with all your classes, but if you think your students have
any doubts about the signific;~nceof the upcoming task, then tell them explic-
itly wl-y the small group is important for accomplishing the task. Remind
them that they will get an opportunity to practice certain Language forms or
h~nctions,and that if they are reluctant to speak up in front of the whole
class, row is their chanct: to tlo so in the security of a small group.
3. Model the technique. In simple techniques, especially those that your stu-
dents I~avedone before, modeling may not be necessary. But for a new and
potenttally complex task, it never hurts to be too explicit in making sure stu-
dents I:now what they are supposed to do. After students get into their
groups, you might, for example, show them (possibly on an overhead pro
jector) four tr~nsportationschedules (not the ones they will see in their
group>). Then select four students to simulate a discussion of meshing arrival
and departure times; your guidance of their discussion will help.
4. Give explicit detailed instructions. Now that students have seen the pur-
pose of the task and have had a chance to witness how their discussion might
procet d, give them specific i~lstructionson what they are to do. Include
a restatement of the purpose,
rules they are to follow (e.g., Don't show your schedule to anyone
else in your group. Use "if"clauses as in"If I leave at 6:45 A . M . , ~will
arrive at the airport at 7:25."),
a time frdme (e.g.,You have 10 minutes to complete the task.)
 lnter~ctiveLanguage Teaching Il: 5ustaining Interaction Through Group Work
188 CHA['TER 12
assignment of roles (if any) to students (e.g.,Tlie airport limo person
for each group is the'chair." The airplane person will present your
findings to the rest of the class. The tnin person is the timekeeper,
etc.).
5. Divide the class into groups. 'This element is no1 as easy as it sounds. In
some cases you can simply number off (e.g., 1,2,5,4 . . .) and spec^ which
area of the room to occupy. But to ensure participation or control you may
want to preassign groups in order to account for one or two of the following:
native language (especiallv in ESL classes uith varied native lan-
guage backgrounds)
proficiency levels
age or gender differences
culture or subcultur~lgroup
personality types
cognitive style preference5
cognitive/developmental stages (for children )
interests
prior learning experience
target language goals
In classes of fewer than thirty people, preassigni~~g groups is quite manage-
able if you come to class with the preassignments, having thought through
the variables that you want to control. Just put the .goup names up on the
chalkboard and tell people to get into their groups.
6. Check for clarification. Before students start mol ing into their groups,
check to make sure they all understand their assigninent. Do not do this by
asking "Does everyone understand?"' Rather, test o u ~certain elements of your
lead-in by asking questions lil\e,"Keiko, please restat~:the purpose of this
activity."
7. Set the task in motion. This part should now be ;I simple matter of saying
something like,"Okay,get into your groups and get started right away on your
task." Some facilitation may be necessary to ensure smooth logistics.
'Teachers are often tempted to assume that asking a blanket question like this
provides an informal assessment of how well students coml~rehendedsomething.
Usually, whether students understood or not, a small minortty of them will nod their
heads affirmatively while the rest of the chss shows no res!,onse. The few nodding
heads must not be taken as a measure of comprehension b . all. It is better, therefore,
never (or rarely) to say such things as "Docs everyone understand?" because it can
lead to a false sense of satisfaction on the part of the teach1.r.
CHAPTER 12 Interactive language 7edching 11: Sustaining lnteractio,nThrough Croup \.L1ork
189
Monitoring the Task
Your job now becomes one of facilitator and resource. To carry out you]-role, you
need to tread the fine line between inhibiting the group process and being a helper
or guide. The first few times you do group work, you may need to establish this sen-
sitive role, letting students know you will be available for help and that you may
make a suggestion or two here and there to keep them on task. but that they are to
carry out the task on their own. There may actually be a few moments at {heoutset
where you do not circulate among the groups so that thcy can establisli a bit of
momentum. The rest of the time it is very important to circulate so that, even if you
have nothing to say to a group, you can listen to students and get a sense of the
groups' progress and of individuals' language production.
A few don'ts:
Don't sit at your desk and g n d e papers.
Don't leave the room and take a break.
Don't spend an undue amount of time with one grollp at the experise of
others.
Don't correct students' errors unless asked to do so.
Don't assume a dominating or disruptive role while monitoring groups.
!(
~ebriefmg : I& .
I
Almost all group work can be brought to a beneficial close by some sort of. whole-
class debriefing, once the group task is completed This debriefing, or "pro<essing:'
as some would refer to it, has two Layers:
1. Reporting on task objectives. If groups were assigned a reporter to pre-
sent something to the class, or if the task implicitly lends itself to some. discus-
sion of the "findings"of the groups, then makc sure that you leave enough
time for this to take place. As reporters or representatives of each group
bring their findings, you may entertain some brief discussion, but bc sure not
to let that discussion steal time from other groups. This whole-cl;iss process
gives each group a chance to perceive differences and similarities in their
work. Some group work involves different assignments to different gnlups.
and in these cases the reporting phase is interesting to all and provide:, moti-
vation for further group work.
2. Establishing affective support. A debriefing phase also serves the purpose
of exploring the group process itself and of bringing the class back together
as a whole community of learners. If you or some students have quest~ons
about how smoothly the task proceeded, how comfortable people wen: with
a topic or task, or problems they encountered in reaching their objecti~e,now
is an excellent time to encourage some whole-class feedback. This b.'IV(“? yo11
feedback for your next group work assignmeni. Ultimately, even a very short
 Interc?ctiveLanguage Tedching 11: Sustaining 1nter.icfic~nThrough Group Work
190 C ~ I A P I E R12
''
period of whole-class discussion reminds students that everyone in the room
is a member of a tram of learnrrs and that the groups, especially if any inter-
group competition arose, are but temporary artifacts of classroom learning.
It is possible that this chapter on group work has been so explicit in its descrip
tion t h a ~you feel overwhelmed or put off by the prospect of doing group work in
your classroom. If so, that need not be the case! All of the guidelines and reminders
and do's and don'ts included in this chapter will in due course of time become a
part of your subconscious, intuitive teaching behavior. You won't have to process
every n~inuteof your class hour in terms of whether you've done all the "right"
things. In the meantime, just remember that conscientious attention to what makes
for successful gro~lpwork will soon pay off.
TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION, ACTION, AND RESEARCH
[Notc:(1) Individual work; (G) group or pair work; (C) whole-class discussion.]
1. (G) Direct pairs to do the following: Look again at the lesson described at the
I Claire, Elizabeth. 1988. ESL l'eackier's Activities Kit. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-
beginning OF the chapter. Pick it ;lpart: list the things about it that were prob
lematic, and why they were problems. Can you put the lesson back together
in a way that would promote successful g o u p work:' What wodd you do dif-
ferently? Compare your findings with those of other pairs.
2. (I)What is,'control"?Is control an issue for you? Mow might you do group
work ;~ndstill stay in control? Specifically,at what points should you relin-
quish control'?
3. (G) What if, after all the precautions, students still use their native language in
smnll gn~ups? Ask pairs to brainstorm further solutions and then discuss their
feasibility.
4. (G) Rave groups brainstorm other examples (besides those given in the book)
of each of the ten categories of small-group work starting on page 182,
rlcscribe then1 carefully,and if possible, demonstrate selected techniques to
their classmates.
5. (G/C) Direct pairs to think of otherC'hottopics" for opinion exchange (p.
186). Which ones would be too "hot"to include in classroom discussion?
Why? Pairs will then share their thoughts with the rest of the class.
6. (I/(S)Trv to observe an ESL class with several instances of group work. Use
the criteria on pages 187-88 to evaluate the effectiveness of the group work
that you observe. Report your findings back to your classmates.
7. (C) On page 188 some criteria were listed for preassigning group member-
ship. Ask your students to just@ the use of those criteria-that is, under
what circumstances and for what reasons would one preassign small-goup
membership? Are there other criteria?
CHAPTR 12 Interactwe Langu~geTeeach~ng11. Susta~ningInteraction Through Group Work 191
8. (G/C) Ask small groups, each assigned to a different one of the ten categories
of gro lp work, to devise a role-play in which they demonstnte how the tech-
nique would work with n defined group of students (age, proficiency level,
context). They will then demonstnte it to their classmates. Ask the members
of the class to criticize it with the criteria specified toward the end of the
chaptcr. Groups should respond to the criticism as constructively as possible.
FOR YOUR FURTHER READING
Crandall, JoAnn. 1999. "cooperative language learning and affective Factors." In
Arnold 1999. Pages 226-.1j.
This is 3n excellent chc~plersurnmariziv~gcooperative learning prir~ctples.
r'irtllull; uN i!/'~cihichupply to the succes~ulinqjlementcitior~of group-work
tush.
Hall.
Klippel, Fr ederikr. 1986. Kvep Talking: Communicative Fluency Activities fir
Languaqe Teaching. Caml~ridge:Cambridge University Press.
Shoemaker Connie 1.. and Shoemaker, E Floyd. 1991. Intemctiz~eEchniques for
the ESL Clussroom. New York: Newbury House.
Thrse ttiree resvirrce book provide many exurnpies oJ intemctiue group
work. (laire's hook is es[)ecirrlly suituble for tmching chilclren. Klil,pel's
actiuitiei ure fir adz~lls,und are coded by p r o J c i ~ ~ ~let~el.
c y Shvemaker
anif Shc enrukcr irlclz~drs~echrriqz~es
involuir~gredding and ~uritiv~~q.
Long, Michile1 H. and Porter, Patricia. 1985. "Group work, interlanguage talk, and
second anguage ;~cquisition."SEFOL Quarter4 19: 207-28.
IYZthis zeminrll article or1 group ulork, the authors review the research
reluting to [heeJ2.cticlt.nes cfgrc)up u~orkin the secorld lnrrguage classroom.
Thqy ex(znline some "m.ytbs"about grozlp work and encourage teachers to
employ 'nteructiue small-gro~q)uvrk in their classrooms. This article is a
'musl " ~ teachcvs
'r wishin,q to ~~ridc~rsturld
the inportance oJ'grozlp uurk in
second 1 angzLuge clussroonzs.
DiPietro, Robert J. 1987. St?ategic hzteraction: Learning Languages Through
Scenarica New York: Cambridge University Press.
A partic, ~largrv~reof ,group ulork is udvocuted here: the deueloprnetlt of little
'3cenarixs"by svzall groups qf students. As students negotiate a n appro-
priute c?nilenation to fir' a prescribed situation, creatitle lrnguatqe is
ewqlqyt~, 1 atzdprinc@lrs q / g m m n ~ uund
r discoz~rseare inductit~lyleurne~l.
The p e fornrance"
~ brings the u1t]olecbss together as audience anti critic.

Is teaching an art or a science? Arc teachers born or mac e? Is the learning-teaching
connection poetic or predictable? These questions are commonly found swirling
about in the minds of educators, not so much as "either--)r"questions but rather as
'both-andnqucstions. I think you can easily agree that telching is both an art and a
science. that some innate ability complements learned te ~chingskills, and that with
all of our best-laid lesson plans there still remains an intangible aura surrounding
acts of learning. But how do the two tnditions coexist it1 practice? How d o art and
science mingle in the principles and approaches and te\:hniques and plans of ESL
teachers?
In the previous three chapters, you have considered the process of planning a
lesson, of initiating intenction among students, ; ~ n dof designing effective small-
group intenction. The next step in a succession of pn~:ticalitiesfor the language
classroom is to grapple with what we call classrooni r n r tnagement, which encom-
passes an abundance of factors ~ m g i n gfrom how yon pivysically arrange the class
room, to teaching "styles:' to one of my F~voritethentes: classroom energy. By
understanding what some of the variables are in classroom management, you can
take sornc important steps to sk~rpeningyour skills as a language teacher. And
then, as you improve some of those identifiable, overtly observable skills, you open
the door to the intangible-to art, to poetics, to the invi:iible sparks of energy that
kindle the flames of learning.
THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT OF THE CLASSROOM
One of the simplest principles of classroom manageme~~t centers on the physical
environment for learning: the classroom itself. Consider four categories:
1. Sight, sound, and comfort
As trivial as it may first appear, in the face of your decisions to implement lan-
ginge-teaching principles in an array of clever technique:,, students are indeed pro-
foundly affected by what they see, hear, and feel when they enter the clahsroom. If
you have any power to control the following, then it will be worth your timc to do so:
The classroom is neat, clean, and orderly in appearance.
Chalkboards are emsed.
Chairs are appropriately arranged (see below).
If the room has bulletin boards and you have the freedom to ube tllem, can
you occasionally take advantage of visuals?
The classroom is as free from external noises as possible (machine ry out-
side, street noise, hallway voices, etc.).
Acoustics within your classroom are at lcast tolenble.
Heating or cooling systems (if applicable) are openring.
-:
~:
Granted, you may be powerless to control some of the above. I have bee11in class
. rooms in tropical countries where there is no air conditioning, thc conclvte walls
of the classroom echo so badly you can hardly hear anyone, and jackhanrmcrs are
rapping away outside! But if these factors can be controlled. don't p a s up the
opportunity to make your classroom as physically comh~rtableas possitk
2. Seating arrangements
You may have had the experience of walking into a classroom and firiding the
movable desks all lined up in columns (not rows) that are perpc~ltlicularto rhc front
wall of the room. Neat and orderly, right? Wrong. If you won't get tired from your
teaching post by doing so, change the pattern imrnedi:~tely!Students are 1nelnl)ers
of a team and should be able to see one another, to talk to one another (in I.nglish!),
and not be made to feel like they just walked into a military formation.
If your classroom has movable desk-chairs, consider patterns of semi-c~rcles,IT-
shapes, concentric circles, or-if your class size is small eno\.rgh-one circlc so that
students aren't all squarely facing the teacher. If the room has tables witli two to
four students at each, try to come up with configurations that make inleraction
among sti~dentsmost feasible. Give some thought to how students will clo snlall-
group and pair work with as little chaos as possible.
Should you determine who sits next to whom? Nornially, students will soon fall
into a comfortable pattern of self-selection in where they sit. You mav not need to
tamper with this arrangement unless you feel the need to forcc a different 'mix" of
students. In some EST. contexts or wherc students come from varietl n;~tivcL;ln-
guage backgrounds, English will be more readily practiced if students of tlre same
native language are not sitting next to each other. And if some adjacen~students are
being disruptive. you may decide to selectively move a few peoplc. When assigning
I small groups, as noted in Chapter 12, you may of course want to do so wil I1 a c ~ r -
tain plan in mind.

3. Chalkboard use
The chalkboard is one of your greatest allies. It gives students added visual
input along with auditory. It allows you to illustnte with words and pictures and
graphs and charts. It is always there and it is recyclable! So, take advantage of this
instant visual aid by pn)fuselv using the chalkboard. At the same time, try to be neat
and orderly in your chalkboard use, erasing as often as appropriate; a messy, con-
fusing chalkboard drives students crazy.
4. Equipment
The"classroom" may be construed to include any equipment you may be using.
If you're using electrical equipment (say, an overhead projector or a video player),
makc sure that
the room has outlets,
the equipment fits comfortably in the room,
everyone can see (and/or hear) the viwdkauditory stimulus.
you leave enough time before and after class to get the equipment and
return it to its proper place,
the m;lchi~~e actually works,
you know how to operate it,
UNPLANNED TEACHING: MIDSTREAM LESSON CHANGES
I here is an extra light bulb or battery or whatever else jou'll need if a
routine replacement is In order.
You would be surprised how many lesson plans get thrown out the window
becaust: of some very minor practicality surrounding the use of equipment.
YOUR VOICE AND BODY LANGUAGE
Another fi~nd:~mental classroom management concern has to do with you and the
messages YOLI send through your voice and through your body language.
One of the first requirements of good teaching is good voice projection. You
do not have to have a loud, booming voice, but you need to be heard by all the stu-
dents in the room. When you talk, project your voice so that the person sitting far-
thest away from you can hear you clearly. If you are directing comments to a
studcnt in thc firht row sitting right in front of you, remember that in whole-class
work, all the rest of the students need to be able to hear that comment. As you
spcak, articulate clrarly; remember, these students are just learning English,and they
need every advantage they can get.
Should you slow down your normal rate of delivery? For beginning level
classes,yes, but only slightly so,and not to the point that the rate of delivery is down-
right silly. Keep as natural a flow to your langlrage as possible. Clear articulation is
usu;~llymore of a key to comprehension than slowed speech.
CHAPTER 13 C/assroom Management 195
Your \ oice isn't the only production mode available to you in the classroom.
Nonverbal messages are very po~verful.In language classes, especially, where stu-
dents may not have all the skills they need to decipher verbal language, their atten-
tion is d m i n to nonverbal communication. Here are some pointers:
Let your body posture exhibit an air of confidence.
Your face should reflect optimism, brightness, and warmth.
Use facial and hand gesturcs to enhance meanings of words and sentences
that might otherwise be unclear.
Make frequcnt eye contact with all students in the class.
Do :lot "bury yourself" in your notes and plans.
Do )lot plant your feet fiimly in one place for the whole hour.
Mole around the classroom, but not to distnction.
Foll')w the conventional ndes of proxemics (distance) and kinesthetics
( t ~ t ~ c h i n that
g ) apply for the culture(s) of your students.
Dre is appropriately, considering the expectations of your students and the
culture in which you are teaching.
Now that jou have considered some of the factors in managing the physical space
and your piiysical self, imagine that you have entered the classroom and begun your
lesson. Th': warm-up has gone well. You have successfuUy (with clear, unam-
biguous dilections) introduced the first major technique, which, let's a y , has to do
with diffenznt countries' forms of government. Students are clear about why they
are doing his task and have launched themselves into it. Then one student asks
about the I ~oliticalcampaign happening right now. Another student responds, and
then another, and before you know it, students are engaged in a vcry interesting,
somewhat heated debate about current political issues. This theme is related to
your lesson, but the discussion is not what you had in mind. Nevertheless, students
are all alert interested, participating, and using fairly complex English in the process.
You realize that your lesson will have to change in some way.
This sc ene is commonplace. What would you do now? Should you have cut off
the conver:;ation carly and nipped it in the bud? Or were you wise to let it continue
and to discard some other activities you had in mind? Classroom management
involvcs dccisions about what to tlo when
you:. students digress and throw off the plan for the day,
you digress and throw off the plan for the day,
an ~nexpectedbut pertinent question comes up,
some technicality prevents you from doing an activity (e.g., a machine
breaks down, or yo11 suddenly realize you forgot to bring handouts that
wer: necessary for the next activity).
 C ~ ~ A P T E13
R Classroom Management
.. a student is disruptive in class.
you are asked a question you don't know the answer to (e.g., a grammatical
point),
there isn't enough time at the end of a class period to finish an activity that
has alrcady started.
~ n the
d list could go on. In short, you are daily called upon to deal with the unex-
pected. You kave to engage ul what we'll call unplanned teaching that makes
'
demands on you that were not anr~cip.~ted in your lesson plan. One ol'the initiation
rltes that new teachers go through is experiencing these unexpected events and
learnlng how to deal with them gracefully. And the key ispoise You will keep the
respect of your students and your own self-confidence b j staying calm,assesslng the
situation quickly, making a midstream change in your plm, and allowing the lesson
to move on
TEACHING UNDER ADVERSE CIRCUMSTANCES
Under the category of "adverse circumstances" are a nu nber of management con-
cerns of widely divergent naturr. What is implied here 15 that no teaching-learning
context is perfect. There are always Imperfect institutions, imperfect people, and
imperfect circumstances for yo11 to dral with. How yo11 deal with them is one of
the most significant factors contributing to your profess~onalsuccess.
1. Teaching large classes
1 was once asked by a studen1 in a teacher educatior course about how to deal
with large classes. 1 began to lisr the kinds of adjustments he could make with
classes of fifty to seventy-five students, when he said hat he meant really large
classes: somewhere in the neighborhood of 600 students' As 1 caught my breath, my
only response was to ask him how he would teach 600 pt ople to swim in one swim-
ming pool without displacing all the water in the pool!
Ideally, language classes should have no more than a dozen people or so. They
should be large enough to provrde diversity and student interaction and small
enough to give students plenty of opportunity to participate and to get individual
attention. Ilnfortunately, educational budgets being as p lltry as they are, most lan-
guage classes are significantly larger. Classes of Fdiy to seventy-five are not
uncommon across this globe. While you need to keep reminding administrators
(who too often believe that languages are learned by ~ o t ememorizati~n)of the
diminishing returns of classes in excess of twenty-five or thirty, you nevertheless
may havc to cope with the reality of' a large class for the time being. Large classes
present some problems:
Proficiency and ability vary widely across student;.
Individual teacher-student attention is minimized.
Student opportunities to speak are lessened.
Teacher's feedback on students' written work is limited.
Some solutions to these problems are available. Consider the following that apply
to one or several of the above challenges:
a. Try to make each student fcel important (and not just a "number") by learning
names and using them. Name tags or deskUplates"serve as reniinder:. in the
early days of the course.
b. Assign studcnts as much interactive work as possible, including plent! of "get-
acquaintednactivitiesat the beginning, so that they feel a part of a co~nmunity
and are not just lost in the crowd.
c. Optimize the use of pair work and small-group work to give students o1iani.e~
to perform in English. In grouping, consider the variation in proficiency
levels (see next section, below).
d. Do more than the usual number of listening comprehension activities using
tapes, vitleo,and yourself. Make sure stude~ltsknow what kind of resllonsc is
expected from them. Through active listening comprehension, studer~tsC;III
I
learn a good deal of language that trmsfers to reading, speaking, and writing.
e. Use peer-editing, feedback, and evaluation in written work whencver ;lppro
priate.
f. Give students a nnge of extrd.dclass work, from a minimum that all stutlents
must do to challenging tasks for students with higher proficiency.
g. Don't collect written work from all of your students at thc samc time; spread
it out in some systematic way both to lighten your load and to give student5
the benetit of a speedy return of their work.
h. Set up small "learning centers" in your class where students can do indlvidu;ll-
ized work.
i. Organize informal conversation groups and study groups.
2. Teaching multiple proficiency levels in the same class
Therc is often a wide range of proficiency levels aniong sti~dentsin the sanle
class, especially in large classes, but even relatively small classes a n be composed
of students who in your estimation should not all be placed at the same Icvel tn
either case, you are faced with the problem of challenging the higher-level students
and not overwhelming the lower-level students, and at the same time keelling tlle
middle group well paced toward their goals. Most of the time, the phcnomcnon of
t widely ranging competencies in your cl;lss is a byproduct of institutional placement
procedures and budgetary limits, so there is little you can do to "kick out" the stu-
I
dents at either extreme. So, how do you deal with this? Here are some suggestions
to consider:
198 CHAI'TEK 13 Classroom Management
a. [lo not overgeneralize your assessment of students' proficiency levels by
blanket classific;~tionsinto "the good students" and "the bad students." It is a
common mistake among teachers (we all do it!) to talk about smart and dumb
students in our classes. We must be very sensitive to the issue ofprojitriency
vs. ability. In a set of skills 21s complex as language, it is often difficult to
determine whether a student's performance is a hctor of aptitude,ability, a
.'knack,"or a factor of time and effort.
b. R)r most students, competencies will vary among the four skills, within each
skill (e.g.,in reading, lexical knowledge, meaning-seeking strategies, speed,
efficiency, etc.); and by contcxt. As much as possible, identlfy the specific
skills and abilities of each student in your class so that you can tailor your
tcc'hniclues to il~dividualizedneeds. Through diagnostic tests and exercises
anti day-byday monitoring of students, you may be able to pinpoint certain
linguistic objectives and direct your students toward those.
c. Offer choices in individual (written and extra-class) techniques that vary
:~ccordingto needs and challenges. In doing so, sensitively convey to your
students that they all have challenges and goals to pursue and that if some
students seem to be *ahead of others, it is no doubt due to previous instruc-
tion, exposure, and motivation (see item [a] above).
d. Take advantage of whatever learning centers or tutorial laboratories may be
;~vailablein your institution. All proficiency levcls can benefit from laboratc-
ries that provide computer software for review and practice, or trained tutors
that can dii~gnoscnceds and suggest avenues of further work. Students at
higher levels and lower levels of proficiency can thereby be challenged to
meet their needs.
e. Obviously, tht. tenor of your classroom teacher talk (instructions, explana-
tions, Icctures, etc.) will need to be gauged toward the middle of the levels of
proficiency in your class. Rut group work tasks offer opportunities for you to
solve multiplt:-proficiency issues. Sometimes you can place students of
varying ranges in the same group,and at other times students of the same
range in a group together. Both scenarios offer advantages and disadvantages.
3. Compromisulg with the "institution"
Another adverse circumstance is one that most teachers have to deal with at
some time in their careers: teaching under institutional conditions that do not meet
their ideal standards or philosophy of education. Sometimes such circu~llstances
focus on an individual in charge,a director or principal. And sometimes they center
on ;~dministrativeconstraints that are beyond the scope and power of one indi-
vidual. Some examples:
classes that are far too large to allow for the kind of results that the admin-
I rattler than treating symptoms (for example, if a student isn't paying atten-
istration expects (see above),
physical conditions in the classroom that are onerous,
CHAPTER 13 CfaSsroom Management 199
ad~ninistrativelyimposed constraints on what you have to teach in your
corlrse (the curriculum, possibly in great detail),
ad~ninistrativelyimposed constraints on how you should teach (a specific
methodology that you disagree with is rcquired),
collrses that satisfy an institutional foreign language requirement, in which
stu.ients simply want a passing gnde,
collrses that are test-focused rather than language-focused.
All these and evrn further adverse circumstances are part of the reality of teaching
and ultim: tely of classrooin Inanilgement because they all impinge in some way on
what you can do in your lessons. Your handling of such situations will almost
always de~nandsome sort of compromise on your part. You must, as a professional
"techniciaa"in this field, be ready to bring professional diplomacy and efficiency to
bear on the varying degrees of hardship.
4. Discipline
Many volumes of research ancl practical advice have been written on the s u b
ject of cla.sroom discipline. If all of your students were hard-working, intrinsically
motivated active, dedicated, intelligent learners-well, you would still have what we
could labtl "discipline" problems! Without making this section a whole primer on
discipline, I will simply offer some pointers here and let you make the applications
to specific instances.
Learn to be comfortable with your position of authority.
Gain the respect of your students by treating them all with equal fairness.
Stale clearly and explicitly to your students what your expectations are
reg ~rdingtheir behavior in class (speaking, turn-taking, respect for others,
group work, individual work, test-taking, etc.), attendance (tardiness and
absence policy), and any extra-class ("homework") obligations.
Be -irm but warm in ciealing with variances to these expectations.
If a reminder, reprimand, or other form of verbal disciplinary action is war-
n n , e d ,do your best to prt:scrve the dignity of the student (in spite of the
fact that you could be frustrated enough to want to humiliate the student
in front of classmates!).
Try initially, to resolve disciplinary matters outside of class time (ask to see
a student after class and quietly but firmly make your observation and let
the student respond) so that valuable class minutes aren't spent focusing
on lne student.
In resolving disciplinary problems, try to find the source of the problem
tior<in class, it could be because of a lack of sleep caused by trying to work
a lare night shift, in wtuch case you could suggest a different shift or a dif-
fert nt time bracket for the English class).
200 CHAPTER 13 C1'1ssroom Mandgement

* If you cannot resolve a recurring discipl~raryprol)lem,then consult your
institution's counselor or administrator.
5. Cheating
Cheating is a special discipli~iarymatter that warralts careful treatment. For
the sake of definition, we will say cherttit~gis a surreptit,ous violation of standards
of individualized responses to tests or other exercises. The first step to solving a
perceived problem of cheating is to ascertain a ~tudent':~ own perception: Did he
strengths, your likes and dislikcs,and then accept the fact that you are called upon
to be many things to many different people. Then, as you becomc more coml'ort-
able with, say, being an authority figure, be consistent in all your dealings with stu-
dents. There is something quite unsettling about a teacher who is a sympathetic
friend to some students and a dispassionate authority figure to others. Such waf-
fling in playing out your roles can set students against each other, with many feeling
shut out from an inner circle of "teacher's pets."
:

or she honestly believe they were doing something wrong? There is a good deal of 2. Teaching styles
cultural variation in defining what is or isn't cheating, and for some, what you may Your teaching style is another affective corlsideration in the development of
think is cheating is merely an intrlligent utilization of rt sources close at hand. In your professional expertise. Teaching style will almost always be consistent with
other words, if the answer that is written on the test is co-rect, then the means used your personality style, which can vary greatly from individual to individual As you
to come up with the correct answer are justified. Once you have adequately ascer- consider the teaching styles below, remember that each reprebents a cont~nuumof
tained a student's perception, then follow the disciplinar , suggestions as a guide to possibilities:
a solution.
Minimizing opportunities to cheat-that is, preventic ~n-may prove to be more shy 4 * gregarious , <
L,.,) <
\N '
0,1,/< >'.

fruitful than trying to tangle with the mixture of emotio~athat ensue from dealing
with cheating after the fact. Why do students cheat? Usu;~llybecause of pressure to
formal 4 * inform:~l
"excel."So if you can lower that pressure (see Chapters 2 1 and 22), you may reduce
reserved 4 + open, tnnsparent
the chance that someone will write notes on a fingernail or glance across the aisle. , understated 4 dramat~c c tr
, 1
Remind students that you and the test are there to help them and to give them feed- nt~oral 4 * emotioml
back, but if you don't see their "re:ll" srlves, you won't be able to help them. If the steady 4 r moody
classroom size permits, get students spread out as mucli as possible (this "elbow
room" also promotes some physic;~lrelaxation). Then, ccasider an "A" and "0"form C serious 4 humorous
of a test in which items are in a different order for ev(:ry other person, thereby
making it more difficult for someone to spot an answer. I restrictive 4 * permissive

TEACHERS' ROLES AND STYLES
In these fin:~lsections on classroo~nm;lnagement,wc tur I a little 111orecentmlly to
the affective or emotional side of being and becoming a good teacher.
1. Roles
A teacher has to play many roles,as was pointed out in Chapter 11. Think of
the possibilities:authority figure, leader, knower, director, snanager,counselor,guide,
and even such roles as friend, confidante, and parent. Depending on the country
you are in, on the institution in which you are teaching, on the type of course, and
on the makeup of your students, some of these roles will be more prominent than
others,especially in the eyes of your students.
For growing comfortable and confident in playing n!ultiple roles, two rules of
thumb are a willing acceptance of many ways that students will perceive you, and a
consistent fairncss to all student5 equally. Know yourself, your limitations, your
Where do you place yourself on these continua? 110 you feel it is necessarr to lean
toward one end in order to be an effective teacher? If you do, you may be but-
cr~mbingto a stereotype that doesn't jibe with your most efft:ctive"self" in the class-
room. I have seen excellent teachers on both ends of thesc style continua As )ou
grow more comfortable with your teaching roles in the classroom, make S ~ I Kyour
style of teaching is also consistent with the rest of you and with the way vou kc1
you can be most genuine in the classroom; then, learn how to capitalize on the
strengths of your teaching style.
3. Cultural expectations
Western cultures emphasize non-directive,norauthoritarian roles and leaching
styles in the right-hand column in the list above. One major consideration, there-
fore, in the effectiveness of playing roles and developing styles is the culture in
which you are teaching and the culture of your students.
Listed on the following page are a number of c:ultural expectations o f roles ;~nd
styles as they relate to teachers and students and schools (adapted from llofstede
1986). , .
 da juo!)sauuos e qsns dn 13s nod op MOH .ah!ieaJs put '~ua~adruos'a~qedes Zuqaaj
i e p lxau aql yseq 'sluapnls 01 speal leq) u a d s a ~put l s n ~ uo
l lnnq d!qsuo!lela~ e '.;mapnls nod q ) ! ~
u 8uyq put mooJssels a v aheal daqi uaqm waql ql!m d 4 ~ a u aaye1 (sJaqxa1 pue) qs!lqe)sa n d uo!lsauuos JO d!qsuo!lela~ aql s! ~ . ~ o d d e.ruooJssep
a aql u! d 8 ~ a u s
s~uapnls.iuawu!elle ~aq%!qp~emols~uapnlssa.\yp d%Jaug .sluapns jo ,ro!lsrrralu! a~p!sod %!ltaJs u! ~ d a s u o sluelrodm! lnq Dadd!ls ~ e q ~ a w oe qs! ~*od&g
aql dq pay~cdsdl!~!lea~s30 u n e ue s! d%~aug.Z~!~!JMpue 8u!ylel put %u!qu!ql v o d d e ~y s g c ~ ~'1s ~
30 l!ns~!s 1: u! dn 1q8nes spu!w duem jo h!s!Jl3ala aql s! d8J-lau~,,jsluapn IS jo dnoM
,%u!z@~auapue '%u!le1nm!ls 'aa!l!sod s! ley1 aleur!p UIOOJSSEp e SU!~B~JS
lea.63 1: leqh. JO ,,issels 1ea~4r: seM 1aqL ~ M O ~ , , ' J [ X J J "01
< Ides
~ pue popalJ ssep I: jo
JOJs p o l aruos nod aa!Z ol a 8 ~ a wI~!M dolahap n d saldls aql pm. d e ~ dnod s a p aqj,
lno y l m nod UaqM 01 1seaJ nod l e y s!~ AZ~aug 3as1! d u ! q ~ e a l ~a;,uay;~dxa
o aql u!
pa~!nbse s! leql ' 1 0 nod
~ g ,:asuas qlx!s,. 1: q8no.lq) d ~ u oqqeh!axad 'ruooJssels e u!
paqsealun s! leql a x o j e JOJ urJal s!ql asn ol a?![ I j,d~laua,,mooJsseIs ST 1EyM
B ~ a u a3i:Jauaf)
a -£
-~ - ~ ~ --
jwaql w o ~%u!qlawos
j uJra1 lq8!w
UO!]3EJa]U! UO!]3PJalU!~ U ! O ~411UMO O l f aA!]C3!U
nod 'I@ J a w .sleo8 Jn0d Ou!qsea~ d [ ~ o l su! luaged aq 01 sded I! 's! Bu!qseal poo8
Bu!o'duo10 ~ o laA!les!unwtuo,
j aql sldn~s!p -nLutuo I aql 8u!]dn~s!plnoql M paJaA!lap s! . l e q lnoqe
~ suo!ls!auos aaeq nod 31 'Jalel sqluoru jo aidno;, e padoldmaun n a s ~ n o d
as!e~d~ J O Ua ~ ! a s a ~ sleo2 anvnd Oulpug pue nod p u n o ~ ea s o q l ~ ~Bu!nua!lr:
r: pur: s~alsnqZue8a v l )sod Bu!qs~:al e olu!
O l A ~ U Ow~opadO l UO!lCA!lOU! 3!SU!JlXa SJalSOJ 01 an1l!lll0301 U~!]PA!IO~~ .I!SU!JIU!Y ~ J S O ! . 8 v w o s Aq pave4 aq ol a111!1 s! aJayL .luaw&!sse 8u!qseal e u18aq nod uaqM d11e!s
s~o~se! IeuJalxa a~nllijaql u! palsadxa aq ues csassns~el!tu!s -ads3 'iualxa amos ol .nas leap! nod as!wo~dwos 01 d p e a ~a a ,:>pnl!ne u! sasueqs
Jaylo JO 'ysnl 'AI!~!~F 01 ssassns salnq!~ll~ . I C ~ I :lu!kldtu! 'uolja 04 ssalsns salnq!Jlle . ale!lo8au 01 ale!~do~dde s! laaj nod ~ c opquaql ~ 1nq ' s ~ a q l ojo suo!~das~adayl ol
sysel lins sy PI II~~!JJ!P uo aa!l!suas aq s d e ~ w.uo!~!pu~luaJajgp e WOJJ awos h r u o q san8eallos ~ pue sluap
-!lf!P PUC A5t7aJO! A ~ ~ U O J I S A l l ~ b aPaJaJJOS!
. IJOJja~ ~ ~ J O M$0~ U~ O O !U~ ! U31 ~
U!O paJaJJO
~ 51
I aM patu~oj~ad -nls q ~ d!qsuo!~ela~
m e %u!dolaaap u! sno!lnes aq p11ioqs nod uaql '~aqlo3ql urql
l\aM ~ ~ U J O S J eM
J ~lP4M~ aJnS IOU J J C SVM l t . 4 ~ Allsexa M O U ~S]U ) p n l ~os 'luau .nod,, a ~ o ws! uwnlos auo leql laaj nod 31 xaqseal a~!lsajja ue aq 01 ~ d u l a a eno^
siuapnls 0 s '~1uatutu03leq012 ol pals!JlsaJs! -~(s!ldu~onse ue 10 s~elns!uedaql sa!j!sads sl:k i d olu! awos I~!Ms a x o j aaoqe aql '%u!qscal jlas~nodpug nod ~ a . 4 a ~ : t ~
A]!UJOJ!UII puelq S M O ~ S A ] ~ ! J ICqJsAUOU
~A pU1' IeqJaA SMOqS ..
,,~!Io~oJ,,pue 'lcs!ueqsaLu ' ~ C U O S Js!~ ~ U !
.. uiasuos pue a~nseald.~u!nuafds ~ o q s
as!e~da ~ p a g a u l as!e~daypagll :~PM UMO J!aql ,;A~M aql,, waql
pu!! 01 sluapnls lsadxa slayseal . s laqseal aql lsadxa sluapnls
~ o q ol
.lsadsa~
,sluapnls u!eiu!ew ~l!jspue ~ U O J M .siuapnls jo lsadsal aql sasol os op
ale Aaql uaqM I!wpe ues slaqseal . 01 lase) asol JaAau plnoqs vaqst.al .
.as!ud 3a!1saj
-jau! pue as!ud aa!lsajja uaamlaq ~ s u l u o aql 1
s smoqs ~ ' $ alqeL 'asn 01 I! lnd 01
pue ms!s!l!Js awoslaM 01 sluapnls salqeua 'paJaa![ap .ilale!~do~dde ' a s p d au!nua:)
.a~!lsajjassal pue ssal I! sJapuaJ Jaqlta jo qsnw o o 'rus!s!l!~s
~ pue as!ud uaawaq
las nod leql asueleq ales!lap aql uo paseq s! s11:a~snod uoddw aql j.3 J . I ~
J
U I ~ J ! ~ Upue
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.paassns as!maqlo .as!s~axa8u!lelnlu!is u se lualuaa~8e .Allehols!p I C U O S J se
~ ~ luaulaal3c
JO 'du!qlauros meal daql u a q h do! snoycs!a jo aquas aqnua8 1: Yu!dolaiap . -s!p 1en1sallalu! l a ~ d ~ a l us~aqseal
! . -s!p lenlsallalu! ,ald~alu! sJaqsual .
put ' m a v 1su,zz?8z?lou puc 'ureA1 e .;e maql r4j!m Su!y. OM . .(s]uapn]s ale 0 s pue) suo!lowa '(sluapnls ale os pue) suo!lolua
'uraql/u lou pue ruaql cg,zin8u!q:fnel . ssa~ddns01 papadxa ale vaqseal
ssa~dxa 01 paMolle ale sJaqseal . .
'des put y q q ] sluapnls leqM 8u!lsadsa~ pue % ~ ! I I ~ E A .
's8u!laaj pue seap! ,sluapnls %u!l!s!los dlu >do ,,'MOUy 'SJaMSUe aq1
' s s a d o ~ ds'uos~adqsea uo yscqpaaj 8ula!% 1,uop I, iies 01 paMOlle aJe slaqseal IIC aAeq ol palsadxa aJe sJaqseal
'uos~ade se luapnls qsl:a U! IsaJalu! %u!~oqs -
... J
luawa2eue~uroo~ss~13ti nudvHJ ZOZ
204 CHAPTER 13 Cld5sroom Mandgem~nt
How do you create this enrrgy? Not necessarily fay being clnmatic o r nam-
boyant, witty or wise. Sometimes energy is unleashed through a quiet, reserved, but
focused teacher. Sometimes energy forces gather in the corporate intensity of stu-
dents focused on rather mundane tasks. But you are the key Because students ini-
tially look to you for leadership and guidance, you are the one to begin to get the
creative sparks flying. And by whatcvrr means you a~.complishthis, you do so
through solid preparation, confidence in your ability to teach, a genuinely positive
belief in your students'ability to Irarn, and a sense of joy n doing what you do. You
also do so by overtly manifesting that preparation, c o d dence, positive belief, and
joy when you walk into the classroom.
TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION, ACTION, AND RESEARCH
r work; (C) w hole-class discussion. 1
[Note: (I)Individual work; (G) group ( ~pair
1. &)Ask members of the class to volunteer stories about classes they have
been in (or taught) where (a) something went wrong with the physical envi-
ronment of the classroom, (b) some kind of unplanned or embarrassing
moment occurred, or (c) some form of adverse circt~mstancetook place.
What did the teacher do? W k ~ should
t the teacher have done?
2. (G) Assign different groups to (a) largeclass issues and (b) nlultiple-proficiency
issues. Direct them to look at the lists of suggested s;)lutions, and to discuss
the extent to which the solt~tionsitre pncticd. Do they apply to actual classes
that someone is familiar with?What further measure?-can be taken to maxi-
mize student learning in each of the two circumstances?
3. (G/C) Eave groups brainstorm solutions to the follo~vingsituations, then
rcport back to the rest of the class: Suppose you have been assigned to teach
in a language institute for adults in (you name the ccuntry). The director
insists that students will learn best through the Gran~marTranslationMethod,
mainly because that's the w:ly he learned three foreign languages. He has
asked you to use this method, and the textbooks for the course are a grammar
reference guide and a book of reatlings with vocabulary words listed at the
end of each reading. Your class is a group of intermcrdiate level young adults,
all currently employed in various places around the city. They want to learn
English in order to get into a i~nivrrsity.What would you do? How would you
resolve the difference between what you believe your students need and the
dictates of your director? (You need the money, so don't get yourself fired!)
4. (C) Discuss the following questions with your class:\yrhat is cheating? How is
it defined in your culture and how does that vary across cultures? Has a class-
mate ever tried to cheat in a class you have been a student in? What did the
teacher do, if anything?What would you have done had you been the teacher?
CIIAPTER 13 Classroom hlanagenient 205
5. v/G) Kate yourself on the continua of teacher styles on page 201. Use four
categories in between the extreme of each Etctor for your rating by clcsigning
a chart something like this:
shy U Q U Q gregarious
Check just one box for each pair of adjectives. Check the left-most box if thc
left-hand adjective is uery much like you, the second from the left if it sonre-
$
. tohat describes you; check the right-most box if the right-hand adjective is
vety much like you, and the second from the right if it sorneu~htrtdescribes
,:
.L
you. Do you feel that you need to change some of those natural styles whcn
you enter a classroom? If not, why do you feel that your present style are
adequate? Are there any tendencies that might work against you? W h ~ should
t
ZL
you do to prevent such a problem! Share your results with a partncr.
6. (G) Arnnge groups prefenbly with heterogeneous rep~rscntationsof people
who are from or have knowledge of varied cultures. Consider the so1,iety
your students know and ask them to address the following questions: Whcre
does that society bll on the list of continua describing cultural expec~ations
o f students? Would you add any other expectations to the I~st?(;onsidcr each
factor and discuss specific ways in which you would dral with a conflict ol
expectations between your students and yourself.
7. (VG/C) In your own words, describe "energy." Share your descriptior~with a
partncr. Observe a class and see if you can identlfy things that the teacher or
the students do that make you feel that the cAass is "energized:' Share Your
observations with others in your class.
FOR YOUR FURTHER READING
Underwood, Mary. 1991. Eflective Class Man~zgement.Lolidon: Longman
7bis very pructicul little book provides tZetuii.5 clrraroott~nzunc<ge~rrc.~?~
issues in a nutnber oj'cutegorics, rungillg fi.ortl t h t ~ p h y ~ ~erlt'irot1tne111
c~il 01
tile clussroom to iurge clusses to discipline.
Crookes, Graham and Chaudron, Craig. 1991. "Guidelines for classroom 1;tnguage
teaching." In Celce-Murcia 1991b.
A nirrnher cf chssroonl tnunugemerzt ~SSUL'S are ~Ielrlf~ivth11cre CL.. t h ~ ~
arrtbon ~ ~ J C LpL rS i t ~ u r i lon
~ uurivl.ls clas~roott~
tc~chrli(/i'~c~~
(rtji~rre~l
; I J in
C'buFter 9.OJ'specbl inlercst w u sectiwr or1 "clussroonr clirnalo. "
Lawrence, Gordon. 1984. People Types and Tiger Stripes: A Practical Guide to
Learning .Styles. Ginesville, FL: Center for Applications of I'sychologic;~lType.
Thisjuscitratirrg hook outlines itriplrcations qf tbr urrious kl-ven-B$qgs pcr-
sorla1it.y tjpcs Jbr edtr cationul settings. 7Lucbers u w intro~luccdto J I I r~g
%:
206 CHAPTER 13 Classroom Managemt?nt
CHAPTFR 14
ti~mty($'psychological tjpes. 717t.y are then gillen practical gzridc1int.s for
understanding the roles of teachen- and learners, and for deueloping class-
room acttvittes that maxtrntze learning
Oxford, Rebecca et al. 1998. 'Clashing metaphors about classroom teachers:
g
'roward a systematic typology for the language teaching field." System 26: 3-50.
7his article wris recommerrded in Chapter I I . It is hebjul in sorting out ci$
ferent mles of teachm in language classrooms.

Did you e\-er see one of those enticing advertisements for a quick and easy foreign
language course? It may have read something like this:

SPEAK GERMAN LIKE A NATIVE!

Haven't you often wished you could speak a foreign language flu-
ently and effortlessly? Well, now you can! With our programmed
cassettes and just 20 hours of listening. you too will join the
ranks of hundreds who have learned a foreign language from our
course. All you have t o do i s . . .
The advertisement might have made additional guarantees and promises if only you
would wril e a check for, say, $150.
You know from your own experiences in Icarning and/or teaching a foreign
language that there is no single magic formula for successful foreign language
learning. One set of tapes may indeed be a good start, a good refresher, or a good
back-up. Hut with the vast complexity of second language learning, a great deal
more than this is necessary lor ultimate mastery and the "fluency" that the adver-
tisements I jromise.
What IS required for such success is the persistent use of a whole battery of
strategies t j r language learning, whether the learner is in a regular language class-
room or working on a self-study prognm. Sometimes these strategies are subcon-
sciously applied because certain learners seem to have a 'knack" for language
learning th ~t they are not consciously aware of. But often, successh~llearners have
achieved tlteir goals only through conscious, systematic application of a battery of
strategies.
208 cHAPrER 1 4 Strat%ies-Based lnstructitrn
STRATEGIC INVESTMENT
In recent years langiagc-teaching methodology has seen a dramatic increase in
attention to what I l ~ k eto c:all the strategic investment that learners can make in
'f
their own learning process. The Learning of any skill ir volves a certaln degree of
"investmentnof one's time and eflort. Every complex set of skills-like learning to
play a musical instrument or tenn~s-is acquired through a combination of
observing, focusing, practicing, monitoring, correcting, a i ~ dredirecting. And so one
develops strategies for perceiving others and for singlin? out relevant elements of
language and all the other necessary beh;~viorsessential for ultimate mastery. A lan-
guage is probably the most complex set of skills one c1)uld ever seek to acquire;
therefore, an investment is necessary in the form of de\-eloping multiple layers of
strategies for getting that languag: into one's bnin.
In Chapter 4 the Principlt. of Slrategic Investment (Principle 5) was intrw
duced. In this chapter we probe its inlplications for you- teaching methodology in
the classroom, specifically,how your languag classroom lechniques can encourage,
build, and sustain effective language-learning strategies ir your students. 'This facet
of language teaching has come to I)e known as strategies-based instruction (SBI).
All twelve of the other principles outlined in Ch3ptc.r 4 have a bearing on this
issue. If one's language learning sl~ouldsustain a modicu n of automatic processing
(Principle I), what kind of stntegies can students use to assist in converting con-
trolled processes into automatic ones? If meaningful lear~~ing (Principle 2) is impor-
tant, how can learners maximize rrleanlng in their l i n g ~ ~ i sinput
~ i c and output? What
kind of immediate, extrinsic rewards (l'rinciple 3) and loag-range, intrinsic motives
(Principle 4)are necessary to keep learners pointed toward goals?As you run down
the list of principles yourself, it becomes apparent how learning strategies are ger-
mane to the eventual success of 1carnt:rs. Strategies are, in essence, learners' tech-
niques for capitalizing on tlie principles o f successful lea-ning.
In an era of communicative, interactive, learner-ceniered teaching, SBI simply
cannot be overlooked. All too often, I;mguage te;~chers;.re so consumed with the
"delivery" of language to their students that they neglect to spend some effort
preparing learners to "receive" the language. And stuiderts, mostly unaware of the
tricks of successfi~llanguage learning, simply do whateve - the teacher tells them to
do, having no means to question the wisdom thereof. In In effort to fill class hours
with fascinating material, teachers might overlook their massion of enabling learners
to eventually become independent of classrooms-that i i,to become autonomous
learners.
One of your principal goals as an interactive languag: teacher is to equip your
students with a sense of what successful languag learners do to achieve success
and to aid them in developing tht:ir own unique, indivicaal pathways to success.
Because by definition interaction is unrehearsed, mostly unplanned discourse, stu-
dents need to have the necessary strategic compctcnce to hold their own in the
give and take of meaningful communication.
One could compare language learners to participants in an elabor.ite wine-
tasting party. The color and sweetness of our linguistic corkage are enticing. But
how are students to fully appreciate this event without some cducation on how to
partake of the libations spread before them? Tips on what to look for and what goes
with what and how to get the most out of something-these are necessary elements
of our methodology. When students are taught how to look at themselves ;md how
to capitalize on their talents and experiences, they learn lessons that carry them
well beyond any language classroom. That's what SBl is all about
GOOD LANGUAGE LEARNERS
SBI had its early roots in studies of "good" language learners. Research in this area
tended first to identlfy certain successful language learners and then to extract-
through tests of psycholinguistic factors, interviews, and other data ;~nalyds--rele-
vant factors believed to contribute to their success. Some generalizations were
drawn by Joan Rubin and Irene Thompson (1982) that will give you a s e n x of the
flavor of this line of research. Good language learners
1. find their own way, taking charge of their learning.
2. organize information about language.
3. are creative, developing a "feel' for the languag by experimenting with its
grammar and words.
4. make their own opportunities for practice in l~singthe languagr insid~rand
,,, .' .
outside the classroom. ,r:&: *,,:,!><' ,9z:>
I i'0.
:,G
i
+ski;.. p 71 ,:.!,: < :a&
1
,L , ,* ,.'
,./;: . G ,, 8
5. learn to live with uncertainty by not getting flusteredand by'contrnulng to
talk or listen without understanding every word.
6. use rr~nemonicsand other memory strategies to recall what has been Icarncd
7. make errors work for them and not against them.
8. use linguistic knowledge, including knowledge of their first language, In
learning a second language.
9- use contextual cues t o help them in comprehension.
10. learn to make intelligent guesses.
11. learn chunks of language as wholes and form;~lizedmutines to help th(.m per-
form "beyond their competence."
12. learn certain tricks that help to keep conversations going.
13. learn certain production strategies to fill in ~ a p in
s their own conipcttnce.
14. learn different styles of speech and writing and learn to varv their lanp,uage
according to the fornrality of the situation.
It is important to remember that some of the above characteristics are not
based on empirical findings, but rather on the collective observations of teachers
and learners themselves. Therefore, do not assume that d l succcssful learnrrs
exhibit all of these characteristics. Nor is this list of fourteen an exhaustivt. one; in
 CtIAP7ER 14 Strategies-BasedInstruction 21 1

fact, batel- in this chapter, you will find a much more detailed taxonomy (Oxford cognitive styles that lead toward successful learning is finite. In fact, the "ten com-
1990) of successful learning strategies. mandments" listed inTable 14.1 (p. 216) may sufficiently identlfy chief style factors
The good language learner studies are of obvious interest to teachers. The that a language learner needs to worry about.
more your classroom activity can model the behavior exhibited by successful lan-
guage learners, the better and more efficient your students will be, especially in
developing their own autonomy as learners. DEVELOPING STUDENT SELF-AWARENESS OF STYLES
How do y)u help learners to develop the self-awareness necessary to work toward
successful language-learning styles? Several means are available to you as a teacher.
STYLES OF SUCCESSFUL LANGUAGE LEARNING
1. Infornlal self- checklist^
o n e step in understanding SBI is to make a distinction between styles and strate-
One t ffective way to instill student awareness of successful styles is through an
gies (see PLLT, Chapter 5). Styles, whether related to personality (such as extre
informal sdf-checklist (you might devise it yourselk) that ;;yd$~st.s fill out and then
version, self-esteeni, anxiety) or to cognition (such as leftlright-bnin orientation,
discuss. Sllch checklists are ilsuall~~not formally scored oi'tallied; rather, they serve
ambiguity tolerance, field sensitivity) characterize the consistent and enduring
as focal points for discussio~iand enlightenment. Figure 14.1 is an example of a
traits, tendencies, or preferences that may differentiatc you from another person.
checklist that has been used with ESL students. (For lower proficiency levels, the
You might. for example, tend to be extroverted or right-brain oriented (while
vocabular) was simplified.)
somcone else might be introverted and left-brain oriented). These styles are an
You c ~uldadapt the following procedure for use in your classroom:
appropriate
* - - ch;~racterizationof how you behave in general, even though you may
for a multitude o f (conscious or subconscious) reasons adopt more introverted or
1. Hand )ut checklists to each stitderlt and tell them to fill them in on their
left-brain behavior in specific contexts.
own.
Strategies, on the other hand, are specific methods of approaching a problem ,
2. When they finish, put students into groups of four. Their objective is to com-
or task, rriodes of operation for achieving a particular end, or planned designs for
pare alswers, to justify individual responses, and to determine if anyone feels
contn)lling and manipulating certain information. Strategies vary widely within an
compt,lled to change his or her response category after discussion. The ulti-
individual, while styles are n1t)re constant and predictable. You may almost simul-
mate objective is to get students to talk openly about their own styles.
taneously utilize a dozen strategies for figuring out what someone just said to you,
3. In whole-class activity,groups can be asked to share any major agreements
for example. You way use strategies ofuplayback"(imagine an instant taped replay
and di:;agreements. Direct this discussion toward some conclusions about the
of the conversation), key word identification, attention to nonverbal cue(s), atten-
best styles for successful language learning.
tion to context. dictionary look-up,grammatical analysis, numerous direct requests
4. Sumrn;lrize by explaining that no one side is necessarily good or bad, but that
for repetition, rephrasing, word definition, or turning to someone else for interpre-
(a) if they are too dominant on one side, they may profit from allowing the
tation. And the list could go on.
other :ide of a continuum to operate, and (b) that most learners tend to lean
Successful second language learners are usually people who know how to
too far to the right side of thc chart, which is usually not the best learning
rnanipul;~testyle (as well as strategy) levels in their day-to-day encounters with the
style.
language. This means that they are first aware of general personality and cognitive
char,~cteristicsor tendencies that usually lead to successful acquisition and strive to 2. Formal personality and cognitive style tests
develop those characteristics. For example, a successfid learner who is not a risk- If form1 personality or cognitive style tests are available to you, you might try
taker (personality trait) and is left-brain dominant and somewhat intolerant of ambi- using them in your class-but with caution! Often these tests are cultunlly biased,
guity (cognitive traits) recognizes her dominant traits and resolves to force herself have difficiIt language, and need to be interpreted with a grain of salt. Many tests
to take more risks, to balance her brain, and to adopt a more tolerant attitude toward designed for North American English speakers are loaded with cultural references
language she doesn't understand. Why? Because she has been informed of the that learners from other countries may misinterpret. And if the language is too diffi-
importar~ceof the latter styles for most language-laming contexts. cult,your attempts to paraphrase may destroy a test's validity. Always remember that
In other words, styles are not by any means immutable tendencies. Learners any self-che-k test, however formal,is a product of a test-taker'sown self-image;often
can, through a program of self-awareness, understand who they are and take steps they will sirlply want to see themselves in a good light,and therefore their responses
to chmge what may be inhibiting traits within their general style. At this point in may reflect a bit of self-flatter).
our collective knowledge about language acquisition,the number of personality and
21 2 CHAPTER 14 Strategies-Based
Figure 14.1. Learning styles checklist
Check one box in each item that best describes you. Boxes A and E indicate that the
sentence is very much like you. Boxes B and D indicate that the sentence is somewhat
descriptive of you. Box C indicates that you have no inclination one way or another.
1. I don't mind if people laugh
at me when I speak.
2. 1 like to try out new words
and structures that I'm not
completely sure of.
3. 1 feel confident in my ability
to succeed in learning this
language.
4. 1 want to learn this language
because of what I can per-
sonally gain from it.
5. I really enjoy working with
other people in groups.
6. 1 like to "absorb" language
and get the general gist of
what is said or written.
7. If there is an abundance of
language to master, I try to
take things one step at a
time.
8. I am not overly conscious of
myself when I speak.
9. When I make mistakes, I try
to use them to learn some-
thing about the language.
10. 1 find ways to continue
learning the language out-
side the classroom.
instruction
*,
A B C D E
20Q aa I get eribarassed if people
laugh ,t me when I speak.
2 Q Q Q Q I like tc, use only the language
that I a n certain is correct.
2 IJ 0 Q Q I feel q ~ i t uncertain
e about
my abi ity to succeed in
learnin; this language.
2 Q 0 Q 0 I am le~rningthis language
only bwause someone else is
requiri~lgit.
3 Q [I 0 I woultl much rather work
alone t lan with others.
U0 0 Q I like to analyze the many
details of language and under-
stand exactly what is said or
written
0 Q Q Q I am w r y annoyed by an
abund, nce of language mate-
rial presented all at once.
a0
11 Q 0 I monilor myself closely and
consciously when I speak.
Q Q When make a mistake, it
annoys me because that's a
symbo of how poor my per-
formance is.
;
I Q 0 I look to the teacher and the
classro,m activities for every-
thing I need for success.
Ncvcrtheless, a few simple scorable tests may be feasible for the sc.cond lan-
guage classroom. Certain versions of the MyersBriggsType Inventory (MBTL) have
been attempted with learners, especially the Keirsey Temper~mentSorter (Keirsey
& Bates 1984), in order to give a measure of personality indices (see PLLT', Chapter
6). There is now enough research (Ehrman 1990) to indicate that person;~litystyles
as measured by the MRTI (extroversion, intuition, logic, etc.) correspond to lan-
guage learning styles and that learners can benefit from knowing both the assets
and liabilities of each style. For example, an extroverted style is beneficial for hce-
t u h c e conversation, but it can also entail dependency on outside stimulation and
work against self-sufficiency.
Two other examples of formal tests are providetl in Figures 14.2 and 14.3. The
first is an extroversion test, and the second a left/right-bnin dominance tcst. Tests
like these (or variations thereof) can be administered and treated in the a m e way
as was suggested for the self-check test above. In this way students car1 become
aware of their possible style tendencies, consider the relationship bemcen such
styles and success in their language learning goals, and take positive steps to capi-
talizc on their assets and to overcome any liabilities.
3. Readings, lectures, and discussions
Yet another way of encouraging self-awareness of styles ~nyour classroom is for
you to assign occasional readings, or give mini-lectures or presentations followetl by
discussions about successful learning styles. Rooks such as Cohen (1!)98), Oxtbrd
(1990), and Wenden (1987) offer useful material that can be excerpted for students to
read.
4. Encouraging "goodlanguage learner"behavior
Yet another form of instilling selEawareness in students is through frequent
impromptu reminders of "mlcs" for good language learning and encoungcment of
discussion or clarification. Sometimes the little comments you make herc ; ~ n dthere
have the effect of subtly urging students to take charge of their own dcstiny by
understanding their own styles of learning and capitalizing on their abiliti8:s.
A set of successful styles for language learning might be appropriately cap-
sulized in the form of ten rules or "commandmmts: as I have on occa>ion k~ce-
tiously c;~lledthem. In Table 14.1, they are given in a teacher's version and a
learner's version. The fornmer is stated in more technical terms; the lalter uses
words and clich6 designed to catch the attention of learners. The learners version,
in the right-hand column with appropriate explanations. might be useful h ~ ar cl;lss-
room bulletin board, for class discussions, or for student journ;ll writing topics.
It is extremely important to remember that these style con ti nu;^ do not always
fit all learners. These rules encompass what most learners need to point to most of
the time in most language learning contexts. That is, most learncrs cc;mc to a
language class with too many inhibitions, not enough willingness to take r~sks,rela-
tively low self-confidence in their ability to learn a language, etc. Your mission to
90 percent of your students is to pull them away from this potentially interfering
side of the continuum and to get thrm to p p p l e with these "probltms" and
 .
-
Figure 14.2. txtroversion/lntrover~iontest
---
Take the following self-test and score yourself according to the directions at the end. You must
circleeither a or b, even i f you have a hard time placing yourself into one or the other.
I . I usually like
a. mixing with people.
b. workirig alone.
2. I'm more inclined to be
a. fairly reserved.
b. pretty easy to approach.
3 . I'm happ~estwhen I'm
a. alone.
b. with other people.
4. At a party, I
a. interact with many, including strangers.
b, interac:twith a few people I know,
5. In my soc:ial contacts and groups,
l usually
a. fall hehind on the news.
I). keep bredst st ot what's happening with
others.
t.. I can uwally do something better by
a. figuring it out on my own.
b. talkin); with others about it.
7. My usual pattern when I'm with other
people is to
a. be open '~ndfrank, and take risks.
b. keep to myself and not be very open.
8. When I make friends, usually
a. someclne else makes the first move.
b. I make the first move.
9. I would r,ather
a. be at home on my own.
b. go to a boring party.
10. Inter,iction with people I don't know
a. st~mulatesand energizes me.
b. taxes my reserves.
11. In a group of people, I usually
a. wait to be approached.
b. initiate conversation.
12. When I'm by myself, I usually feel a
sense r ) i
a. solitutle and peacefulness.
b. loneliness and uneasiness.
13. In a classroom situation, I prefer
a. group work, interactingwith others.
b. individual work.
214
I
Figure 14.3. Kiglltileft brain dominance test (adapted from E. Paul Torrance, Your Style of
- learning and Thinking, 1987. Bensonville, IL: Scholastic Testing Service)
--
-
In this test, each item has two contrasting statements. Between the two statements is a scale
of five points on which you are t o indicate your perception of which statement best
14. When I get into a quarrel or argument, I describes you. Boxes 1 and 5 indicate that a statement is very much like you; boxes 2 and
prefer to
4 indicate that one statement is somewhat more like you than the other statement; box 3
a. remain silent, hoping the issue will
indicates no particular leaning one way or the other. See next page for scoring directions.
resolve itself or blow over.
b. "have it out" and settle the issue then 1 2 3 4 5
and there.
I prefer speakirlg to large audi- 12 Q U I prefer speaking in small-group
15. When I try to put deep or complex
ences. situations.
thoughts into words, I usually
a. have quite a hard time.
Box number 4 has been checked to indicate a moderate preference for speaking i n small-
b. do so fairly eariily.
group situation;.
procedure:
Mark an X corrresponding to your choices in
1 2 3 4 5
the grid below. 1. I remember names. 12 U Cl Cl 1. I remember faces.
2. 1 respond b~,tterto verl~al 2 D Q Cl 2. 1 respond better to demon-
instructions strated, illustrated, symbolic
instructions.
3. 1 am intuiti~e. 12 U a 3. 1 am intelle~tual.
4. 1 experiment randomly and 12 U a0 Q 4. 1 experiment systematically and
with little restraint. with control.
5. 1 prefer solving a problem by 12 0 0 5.1 prefer solving a problem by
breaking it clown into parts, looking at the whole, the config-
then approaching the problem urat~ons,then approaching the
sequentially using logic. problem through patterns, using
hunches.
6. 1 make objeztive judgments, 12 D 6. I make subjective judgments,
extrinsic to )erson. intrinsic to person.
7. 1 am fluid alid spontaneous. [d 3 a
D 7. 1 am planned and structured.
8. 1 prefer esta~lished,certain [IU 3 U 8. 1 prefer elusive, uncertain infor-
= n information
9. 1 am a synttesizing reader. a
10. 1 rely primar ly on language in U CI Q Q
thinking and remembering.
a
mation.
[I 2 Q Q 9. 1 am an analytical reader.
10. 1 rely primarily on images in
thinking and remembering.
11. 1 prefer talk~ngand writing. U Q Q Q D 11. 1 prefer drawing and manipu-
Add up the number of Xs in ONLY three of lating objects.
the columns, as indicated. 12. 1 am easily tlistracted when [I U 2 Q 12. I concentrate easily when
(Ignore all other Xs.) Total those three num- trying to read in noisy or reading in noisy or crowded
bers to get a grand total and write i t in the crowded pl, ces. places.
box at the right. This is your score for the test. 13. 1 prefer worl, andlor studies [I B Q CI 13. 1 prefer work andlor studies that
that are opei-ended. are carefully planned.
Here's how to interpret your score:
14. 1 prefer hier.~rchical(ranked) U CI 0 Q Q 14. 1 prefer collegial (participative)
authority str ~ctures. authority structures.
13 and above: quite extroverted 15. 1 control my feelings. U CI Q 15. 1 am more free with my feelings.
9 to 12:
7 or 8:
moderately extroverted
moderately introverted
16. 1 respond bt st to kinetic a CI 0 16. 1 respond best to auditory, visual
stimuli (mobement, action). stimuli.
6 and below: quite introverted 17. 1 am good a interpreting body U CI Q Q a
17. 1 am good at paying attention to
language. people's exact words.
(Continuedl
215
 (Figure 14.3. continued)

18. 1 frequently use metaphors and Q 0 0 18. 1 rarely ~ s metaphors

e or analo-
analogies. gies.
HOW TO TEACH STRATEGIES IN THE CLASSROOM
19. 1 favorlogical problem solving. Q Q 0 0 0 19. 1 favor irtuitive ~roblcmsolving.
20.1 prefer multiplechoice tests. Q Q Q IJ Q 20. 1 prefer >pewendedquestions. Just what are all these tricks of the t r ~ d ethat we're calling "strategies"? Rebccca
Oxford (1990) provides the most comprehensive taxononiy of learning btrategies
Scoring directions. currently available. These str~tegiesare divided into what have come to tit' known
Score each item as follows: Some of the Items are scored according t t ~the numbers at the top as direct or cognitive strategies, which learners apply directly to the langu'tge itself,
of each column of boxes, others are reversc,d. For the iollow~ngitems use the indicated num- and indirect or metacognitive strategies, in which learners manage or control their
bers on the test page: own learning process. Direct stntegies include a number of different w;~!-sof
' 1 2 5 6 8 1 0 1 1 14151920 0 0 b] a
The rest of the Items are reversed in the~rstoring:. Score the following as indicated below remembering more effectively,
34791213161718 [I] El El El using all your cognitive processes,
/ Now total up all scores:
rn compensating for missing knowledge
L A
This was a test oi left-and right-brain preierence A score of 60 is the midpoint. The scoring lndircct stntegies, according to Oxford's taxononiy, include
chart below indicates that a score of 60, plus or minus 3, is a toss-up
Above 70 Quite right-brain oriented
64-70 Moderately right-brain orier~ted organizing and evaluating your learning,
57-63 No particular dominance 011either s~de managing your emotions,
50-56 Moderately left-brain arientrd learning with others.
Below 50 Quite lek-brain oriented
-- _I A list of filty specfic stntegies falling into these su: general categories is cmtained
in O'xford's (1990) Strategy Inventory for Language Inarning (SILL) in Figure 14.4
overcome them. Ten percent (this is lust a rough guess-it could be a higher or
pages 221-24. Turn to that inventory now, befort: reading on, in order to become
lower proportion depending on tlie makeup of your cla:,sroom and on tlie partic-
familiar with some specific stntegies for successfi~lLanguagc Icdrning.
ular style tendency in question) of your students could lean the other way. For
Strategies, like styles, can be taught, and because of their specificity, rvcn morr
them your job is to put the brakes on things like high (a!id haphazard) risk-taking,
easilv than styles. There are at least four diffen:nt approaches you can take to
excrssive impulsiveness, overinflated selkonfidence, an approach that is too "laid
teaching strategies in the language classroom.
back," and so forth. Further comments on this issue follow later in this chapter.
1. Teach strategies through interactive techniques.
Many stntegies are related to,and actually become, the outward rnanifesration of
styles. For example, a risk-taking style would result in seeking p ~ ~ c t i oppollunitics,
ce
Table 14.1. "Ten C:omrnandmcnts" for good language learning
making conversation even when it isn't "necessary," trying out language you'rc not
sure of, asking for correction, making guesses about what someone said. etc.
Teacher's Version Learner's Versi~~n
01lc way to familiarize your students with this plethora of possible strategies is
1. Lower inhibitions. Fear not! to promote the "ten commandments" above through your own classroonl tecl~niqucs.
2. Encourage risk-taking. Dive in. Some techniques will be the ones you would utilize anyway. Other trchniques will
3. Build self-confidence. Believe in yourself. pcrhs~psbe s~~ecitlcally grared toward building strategic compctmce. Ta1)le 1-4.2
4. Develop intrinsic motivation. Seize the day. offers some suggestions for crexting an atmosphere in your ciassroom In wl~ichstu-
5. Engage in cooperative learning Love thy neighimr. dents feel comfortable and art- encouraged to drvelop thrir own stntegirs
6. Use right-brain processes. Get the BIG pi5:ture. Kcbccca Oxford (1990) offered one of the best teacher resource be~okst o
7. Promote arnhiguity tolerance. Cope with the :haos.
appear o n the subject of SBI. She gave examples o f many different classroo~lltrch-
8. Practice intuition. Go with your bunches.
niques and showed which strategirs they encourage. For exsunple, an inl'or~iration-
9. Process error feedback. Make mistakes work FOR you.
gap listening tcchniqur was explained (pp. 109-1 10) in which studrnts lis~ento a
10. Set personal goals. Set your own g)als.
conversation on a tape and then, in groups, fill in an information grid (with blank
spaces for name, profession, address, age, and appearance) for each of four people

Table 14.2. Building strategic techniques
1. To lower inhibitions: play guessing games and communication games; do role-plays
and skits; sing songs; use plenty of group work; laugh with your students; have them
share their fears in small groups.
2. To encourage risk-taking: praise students for making sincere efforts to try out lan-
guage; use fluency exercises where errors are not corrected at that time; give outside-
of-class assignments to speak or write or otherwise try out the language.
3. To build students' self-confidence: tell students explicitly (verbally and nonverbally)
that you do indeed believe in them; have them make lists of their strengths, of what
they know or have accomplished so far in the course.
4. To help them to develop intrinsic motivation: remind them about the rewards for
learning English; describe (or have students look up) jobs that require English; play
down the final examination in favor of helping students to see rewards for themselves
beyontl the final exam.
5 . To promote cooperative learning: direct students to share their knowledge; play down
competition among students; get your class to think of themselves as a team; do a
considerable amc~untof small-group work.
6. To encourage them to use right-brain processing: use movies and tapes in class; have
them read passages rapidly; do skimming exercises; do rapid "free writes"; do oral
fluency exercises where the object is to get students to talk (or write) a lot without
being corrected.
7 . To promote ambiguity tolerance: encourage students to ask you, and each other,
questions when they don't understand something; keep your theoretical explanations
very simple and brief; deal with just a few rules at a time; occasionally resort to trans-
lat~oninto a native language to clarify a word or meaning.
6 . To help them use their intuition: praise students for good guesses; do not always give
explanations of errors-let a correction suffice; correct only selected errors, preferably
just those that interfere with learning.
9. To get students to make their mistakes work FOR them: tape-record students' oral
production and get them to identify errors; let students catch and correct each other's
errors; do not always give them the correct form; encourage students to make lists of
their common errors and to work on them on their own.
10. To get students to set their own goals: explicitly encourage or direct students to go
beyond the classroom goals; have them make lists of what they will accomplish on
their own in a particular week; get students to make specific time commitments at
home lo study the language; give "extra credit" work.
mentioned in the conversation. Oxford explained that such a task involves direct
strategies like practicing naturalistically, guessing, note-taking, focusing attention,
and cooperating with co-learners.
2. Use comperlsatory techniques.
A related avenue for SBI is in the specific identification of techniques that aim
to compensate for certain style weaknesses. Two decades ago, Alice Omaggio
CHAPTER 14 Strategies-Based instruction 219
(1981) published a little book that classified some f i - f i v e different techniques
according to numerous cognitive style "problems" that might prevent students from
reaching heir highest potential. For example,"excessive reflectiveness/cautionn is
a problen that might apply to certain students in your class: they are unwilling to
take risks, they pause too long before responding orally; they want to get everything
right before they attempt to speak or write. Several dozen techniques are thenupre-
scribed" to help buch students overcome their problem. Here are some typical cog-
nitive styb: *problemsnand a few techniques you might prescribe to help overcome
each problem.
1. Lou1tolerunce of ambiguio:. brainstorming, retell~ngstories, role-play,para-
phrasing, finding synonyms, jigsaw techniques, skimming tasks
2. Exces~iveimpulsiveness: making inferences, syntactic or semantic clue
searcl~es,scanning for specilic information, inductive rule generalization
3. Excessitle refectiueness/cnution: small-group techniques, role-play,brain-
storming, fluency techniques
4. 7'00 nruch right-bruin dominrince: syntactic or semantic clue searches, scan-
ning lor specific intormation, proofreading, categorizing and clustering activi-
ties, illformation-gap techniques
5 . Too nluch lgt-Drain doinintince: integrative language techniques, fluency
technques, retelling stories, skimming tasks
3. Administer a strategy inventory.
Earlier in this chapter ,were some suggestions for using a self-checklist and
formal style tests in the classroom. Following the same format, you could introduce
a strdtegy inventory. The best and most comprehensive of such instruments is
Rebecca C'xford's (1990) Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL), an exten-
sive questionnaire covering (in its ESL version) fifty separate strategies in six major
categories The SILL has now been used with learners in a number of different
countries including the US, and has proven to be exceptionally enlightening to
learners as they are exposed, perhaps for the first time, to so many different strategic
options. 1he SILL is reprinted in Figure 14.4.
The SILL can be used in class for developing awareness of stntegies in the same
way sugge:ited earlier for the self-checklist on styles. Or it could become an out-of-
class assig!lment for later chss rliscussion. Its scoring and interpretation can be
tricky, however, so make sure that in either case students are fully aware of how to
score it. AND the SILL can clo double duty as an instrument that enlightens you
about fifty different ways that your learners could become a little more successful
in their language learning entleavor.
4. Make use of impromptu teacher-initiated advice.
Finallj, as you may recall from the discussion of developing style awareness,
learners can benefit greatly from your daily attention to the many little tricks of the
trade that you can pass on to them. Think back to your own language learning
220 CHAPTER 14 Strategies-Based Inslruction ctiAPrER 14 Strategirs-Based Instrutrron 221

experiences and note what it was that you now attribut; your success (or failure!) Figure 14.4. Oxford's SILL (Oxford 1990)
to. and pass these insights on. Did you use flash cards? :)id you practice a lot? Did
-
you see-subtitled movies? read books7 pln rules and words up on your wall? When %
the appropriate moments occur In your class, seize the opportunity to teach your
Inventory for Language Learning (SILL)
students how to learn By doing so you will increaw their opportunities for Version for Speakers of Other
strategic investment in their learning process. f Languages Learning English
i
ip

"PACKAGED"MODELS OF SBI
Many of your opportunities for strategy training In the c lassroom will be "method-
4
.r,
tr
I, I Directions

ological." That is, you will opt for one of the four possible means suggested above.
There remain three more formallzed models of incotpmting strategy awareness
and practice in language classrooms. 'These are growing in popularity as more edu-
cational administrators appreciate the value of SHI for ultimate success in a foreign
language.
1. Textbook-embeddedinstructioll
An increasing number of ESI>textbooks are offering guidelines and exercises
for strategy awareness and practice within the stream of a chapter. For example,
Chamot, O'Malley, and Kupper's series, Building Bridges, provides strategy training
modules in each unit. One of thelr lessons recommends keeping a daily log for one
week and checking how many times a student uses any ',f fourteen different strate-
gies. A grid is provided for easy checking (see Figure 14.5 on p. 225). Brown's New
Vistas series for ESL learners is another prime ex;tmple of embedding strategy work
within the exercises of a textbook. Students are encouraged to continue their
learning outside the classroom, sometimes individually, sometimes with a partner.
One unit in the advanced-beginning level gives guide1inc.s for vocabulary study and
writing practice in a journal, as illustmted in Figure 14.6 (p. 226). The teacher's
resource manual for this book gives detailed directions to teachers on how to facil-
itate these extra-class learning ex1,ericnces.
2. Adjunct self-help guides
A second pre-packaged way of enlightening s t d e n t s about strategies is
through the assignment or recommendation of a self-help study guide, several of
which are referenced and described in the Further Reacring section of this chapter
(Brown [forthcoming], Rubin cYr Thompson 1994, Marshall 1989). Such *how-ton
guides tend to have short, easy-to-understand chapters m ith information, anecdotes,
tips, and exercises that will help 1c:arnc:rs to use stntegie:; successfully. They can be
offered to students as recommended reading over and dbove their regular course
assignments.
One drawback to books like these for English learners is that they are written
in English, and one could argur that d students are proficient enough to read the
book, they may not need all thc strategies suggested thtwin! However, i~ has been
This form of the STRATEGY INVENTORY FOR LANGUAGE LEARIVING (SILL) IS lor stu-
dents of Engl~shas a second or foreign language. You will find statements at~outlearn~ng
English. Please read each statement. On the separate Worksheet, writc the resporise (1,
2, 3, 4, or 5) that tells HOW TRUE OF YOU THE STATEMENT IS.
1. Never or almost never true of me
2. Usually not true of me
3. Somewhat true of me
4. Usually true of me
5. Always or almost always true of me
Never or almost true of me means that the statement is very rarely true of you.
Usually not true of me means that the statement is true less than half the time.
Somewhat true of me means that the statement is true of you h ~ h a l the f time
Usually true of me means that the statement is true more than half the time.
Always or almost always true of me means that the statement is true of you a h . t
always.
Answer in terms of how well the statement describes you, Do not answer how you think
you should be, or what people do. There are no right or wrong answers to t&
statements. Put your answers on the separate Worksheet. Please make no marks on the
items. Work as quickly as you can without being careless. This usually takes aboui
20-30 minutes to complete. If you have any questions, let the teacher know imm~.di-
ately.
--
Part A
1. I think of relationships between what I already know and new things I learn in
English.
2. 1 use new English words in a sentence so I can remember thern.
3. 1 connect the sound of a new English word and an Image or picture of the word to
help me remember the word.
4. 1 remember a new English word by making a mental picture of a situation in which
the word might be used.
 CHAI'TCK 14 Strategies-Basedlnstruct~on CHAPTER 14 Strategies-Based Instruction 223

I use rhymes to remember new English words.

1 use flashcards t c ~remember new English words.
I physically act out new English words.
I review English lessons often. 39. 1 try to rel,~xwhenever I feel afraid of using English.
I remember new English words or phrases by remembering their location on the 40. 1 encourage myself to speak English even when I am afraid of making a mistake.
page, on the board, or on a street sign. 41. 1 give myself a reward or treat when I do well in English.
42. 1 notice if ! am tense or nervous when I am studying or using English.
m 43. 1 write do\vn my feelings in a language learning diary.
I s~lyor write new English words several times. 44. 1 talk to someone else about liow I feel when I am learning English.
I try to talk like native English speakers.
I practice the sounds of English.
I use the English words I know in different ways.
I start conversations in English. 45. If I do not understand something in English, I ask the other person to slow down
I watch English IanguageTV shows spoken in English or go to movies spoken in or say it again.
English. 46. 1 ask Engliih speakers to corrc3ctme when I talk.
I read lor pleasure In English. 47. 1 practice lnglish with other students.
I write notes, messages, letters, or reports in English. 48. 1 ask for h1:lp from English speakers.
I first skim an English passage (read over the passage quickly), then go back and
read carefully.
19. 1 look for words in my own language that are similar to new words in English.
20. 1 try to find patterns in English.
21. 1 find the meaning of an English word by dividing it into parts that I understand.
22. 1 try not to translate word-for-word.
23. 1 make summaries of information that I hear or read in English.

u
24. To understand unfamiliar English words, I make guesses.
25. When I can't think of a word during a conversation in English, I use gestures.
26. 1 make up new words if I do not know the right ones in English.
27. 1 read English without looking up every new word.
28. 1 try to guess what the other person will say next in English.
29. If I can't think of an English word, I use a word or phrase that means the same thing.

rn
30. 1 try to find as many ways as I can to use my English.
31 1 notice my English mistakes and use that information to help me do better.
32. 1 pay attention when someone is speaking English.
33. 1 try to find out how to be a better learner of English.
34. 1 plan my schedule so I will have enough time to study English.
35. 1 look for people I can talk to in English.
36. 1 look for opportunities to read as much as possible in English.
37. 1 have clear goals for improving my English skills.
38. 1 think about my progress in learning English.
(Cont~nued)
224 CHAPrEu 14 Strategies-Based Instruct~on CHAPTFR 1.1 Strategegie,-Based Instruccinn 225

Figure 14.5. Self-help learning strategies (Charnot, O'Malley, & Kupper 1992: 98)
STRATEGY INVENTORY FOR LANGUAGE LEARNING

Your Name Date

Worksheet for-wering and Scorini;

1. Write your response to each item (thdt is, write 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5) in each of the blanks. I Keep a notebook about your learning
2. Add up each column. Put the result on the line marked SUh\.
3. Divide by the number under SUM to get the average for eacn column. Round this A. For the next week, keep a notebook about your learning. Pay attention to
what you do in school. This includes: what you think, how you read, how you
average off to the nearest tenth, as in 3.4
listen, when you take notes, when you listen hard, or when you don't listen.
4. Figure out your overall average. To do this, add up all the SLIMSfor the different parts
Use the chart below to help you.
of the SILL. Then divide by 50.
5. When you have finished, your teacht!r will give you the Prof~leof Results. Copy your
averages (for each part and for the whole SILL) from the Wol ksheet to the Profile. II WHAT I D O TO HELP MYSELF LEARN 7
Part A Part B Part C Part D Part E Par: F ( STRATEGIES DAY 1 DAY 2
I I paid attention to the teacher.
1 .- I I). 24. 3 0 . - 39. 45.
2 .- 11. 25. 31.-- 40. 46.--
3. 12. 26. 32. 41. 47.
4.- 13. 27. 33. 42 . - 48.
5.- 14. 28. 34. 43. 49.
6.- 15. 29. 35. 44. 50.
7.- 1O. 36.--
8.- 17. 37.--
9-. 18. 38.--
14.
20.
21.
22.
23.
A B C D E F TOTAL
S U M S U M S U M SUM-- S U M S u b \ SUM
+9 = + 1 4 = +6=- + 9.. -- i6=-. +6=-- +so=
(Overall average)
What These &ages Mean to You

1 The overall average tells how often you use strategies for learning English. Each part of
the SlLL represents a group of learning stratt:gies. The averages for each part of the SlLL
show which groups of strategies you use the most for learning ,inglish.

The best use of strategies depends on your dge, personality, and purpose for learning.
If you have a very low average on one or more parts of the SILI., there may be some
new strategies in these groups that you might want to use. Ask your teacher about these.
1 226 I4
r HAPTI:R ~trategier-Basedlnstructiun
1
I
Figure 14.6. Strategies for success (Brown 1999: New Vistas, I
> Connecting new words with real-life images
> Finding out the word for something
> Writing to practice English from your lessons
In this unit you learned the names of food items and about prices and shopping.
1. Go through your kitchen cabinets and refrigerator to see if you know the
English word for everything you see. Say the words aloud as you see the items.
2. Make a list in your journal of all the food items you identified. Make another
list (in your native language) of items that you did not know the English word
for. With your partner, find out the English word.
3. In your journal, write one paragraph about your favorite foods and why you
like them, and another paragraph about foods you don't like and why. Share
with a partner.
found that i11termedi;lte level learners of English have profited from reading such
books by simply skipping over some of the beginner level strategies. Brown's
guide, for examplt:, compens:ttes for potential learner obstacles by using very simple
language and by glossing low-frequency vocabulary. Unlike the other two books, it
also has aTeacher's Guide to enable teachers to integrate the material into virtually
any curriculum.
Another type of book is a hybrid between textbook-embedded SBI and the
adjunct guides described above: content-centered ESL textbooks in which the con-
tent itself is the study and utilization of learning strategies. For example, Gail Ellis
anti Barbara Sinclair (1989) get intermediate EFL learners to look systematically at
successful learning strategies through readings,checklists,and various techniques in
all four skills of listening, speaking, reading, and writing. Few institutional budgets
can offer courses that focus only on SBI itself, however, and so such materials have
been replaced by adjunct guides.
3. Learning centers
1)t:spite declining budgets in many school5 and universities, a considerable
number of learning centers around the world have an ESL-related component. Such
centers typic;~llymake available to learners a number of possible types of extra-class
assista~icein writing, reading, academic study skills, pronunciation, and other oral
CHAPTER 14 Strategies-Based Instruction 227
production. Assistance can inclutle diagnostic testing and interpretation, one+n-
one tutorials, small-group tutorials, audio and video teaching programs, and com-
puter progrlms ranging from grammatical brush-up to writing self-help.
A few progressive institutions view such learning centers not merely as a place
to offer frr'relnedial"
help but as a resource for all learners for the improvement of
their stratei.ic competence in language learning. In one such center, at the Defense
bnguage Irrstitute of Monterey,California,students needing assistance get an initial
interview to determine what kind of resources can benefit them the most. Then a
number of tliagnostic tests can be ;tdrninistered-tests of right/left-brain preference,
ambiguity t,~lennce. self-esteem,extroversion, motivation,Oxford's SILL, and others.
The test re,iults identlfy areas needing attention, such as using both sides of style
continua, firnotivation,strategy use, language-specific problems, and stress and time
managemellt. Numerous treatments are "prescribedn:workshops, self-instructional
programs, tutorials, clinics, and the like. Periodic evaluative instruments indicate
progress.
Interac tive language teachers must not underestimate the importance of get-
ting students strategically investetl in their language learning process. Perhaps the
most powet-ful principle of learning of all kinds is the Intrinsic Motivation Principle.
One of the best ways of getting students intrinsically involved in their language
learning is co offer them the opportunity to develop their own set of strategies for
success. H wing thus invested their time and effort into the learning of English, they
can take reiponsibility for a good deal of their own learning. This, in turn, generates
more moti\.ation as they become ;tutonomous learners.
TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION, ACTION, AND RESEARCH
[Note: 0 1:ldividualwork; (G) group or pair work; (C) whole-class discussion.]
1. (G/C) Direct groups to creatc: a publicity flyer for an imaginary new program
or scht)ol that they have started. One of the major selling points is an SBI
compc ~nent.What would the major features of the SBI program be? What
kind of guarantees, if any, could one make? Groups will share flyers and com-
ments with the rest of the class.
2. (C) Wllat are some of the tricks of the trade that class members have used to
try to >e more successful language learners? List suggestions on the board.
3. (G) G~oupswill look at the list of characteristics of "good language learnersn
on pa>:es209-10 and the "ten commandments" inTable 14.1 (p. 216). Among
the itcms in those two lists, which three or four principles or characteristics
shoultl be placed at the top of the list as most important? Groups should be
ready ro explain their choices to the rest of the class. After the discussion,
each group should decide whether they might quallfy or change any of their
choicc.~.
228 CHAPTEK 14 Strategies-Based Instruction

4. (Z/G) Fill out the checklist in Figure 14.1, based on a second language you Rubin, Jodn and Thumpson, Irene. 1994. Houl to Be a More Sltccessful Langurzge
have learned. How many 11 and E categories did you fall into? How many A Learner. Second Edition. Boston: Heinle & Heinle.
and B? With a partner, see if vou hoth agree that, in each case, A and B cate- Marshal1,'Terry. 1989. The Whole World Guide to Language Learning. Y~rmouth.
gories are more indicative of successful learning st) les. If you fell into some ME: Intercultural Press.
D and E categories,talk about what steps you migh~take to change your
Both (fthese bookc ($Jeer insights into stlccc~isfulstratcgic~sthut 1ungi~~~gc~
learning style. How would you teach these change i in an ESL classroom?
learner?; can adopt. T b q are u~riltenfor a rion-techr,iull azidiel~ceLL?ZL/
5. (ITake
) the two style tests on pages 2 14- 16. Do the results seem to be
therejim may prorlide sz~itable readirlg jirr i?~tr~rme,~liatc to atlva ~ l c e ~ i
indicative of the "real you"?\Vhat are some dnwbac,ks to tests l i e these? Do learners of English.
you see any crosscultural prohlems in their stnlcture, conceptualization,or
wording? Stevick, h r l . 1989. Sltccess with Foreign Languages:Seuerl W l ~ Achievetl
o It und
6. (C)Ask the class to cite examples or give stories th.rt illustrate how a teacher What Workedfor Them. New York: Prentice-Ilall.
they once had did some SBl.
T h i fi~scinating
~ hook chrotl ides the learning proce.s.ws qj'sc'i'enJi)rcl~~~?f
1utz-
7. (G) Direct small groups to look atTable 14.2 on page 218 and discuss the list.
gzuzge leumen- ~ v h ouxre inten~ieicledit1 depth about the slrcllegies rhq'
They should decide whether to add, subtract, or ch.~ngesome of the items to
twed-or failed to use-in their attempt to become succes~ful111 reaching
tit contexts that they are familiar with.
their goals.
8. (UC) Observe an ESL class and use the ten items fromTable 14.2 as a check-
list to see how much the teacher instilled stntegic "competencein the
learners. After observing,s h ~ r your
e conclusions mith other members of your
class.
9. (VC)'Sake the SILL, then, with the rest of the class, tliscuss how it could be

.
used, in your context in an ESL classroom that you're f~miliarwith. Could any
of the fifty items be practiced in the classroom?

FOR YOUR FURTHER READING

I
Cohen, Andrew 1998. Strrrtegzes in Learning and Uiing a Second Language. ;
Wh~tePlains, NY Addison Wesley I.ongman
The author (@en a cornpre!~enszuoollen/zezcof thc slate cfthe art tn SBI A
uery u~tfirlcrrld complete llst (f rejerences aji~ztndz 2 the bzbllography

Brown, H. Douglas Forthcoming Stnteg~esfor Success: A Practical Guide.

This is desigrled as a strategie.~gtrldc~to accontparly uirttrally any cotrrsc in
.,; I
ESL. Sttldents are led>throtrgk~sinrply urritten, short chapters, to understand ;
their ozilnpreferences a d tto ~lcuelopstrategies for sc~ccessfulacquisition of ,:.,

English. It is suitable for a low intermediate level oj'learners.

Oxford, Rebecca 1990. Language Learning Strategies: What Ezlery Teacher

Should Know. Ncw York: Newbury House.
This is a n excellent resource for teachen wishing tcl understand houl thcy
might incorporate strategy training i n their .'anguage classrooms.
Background theoretical information on learning strategies is provided
along u'ith c-~lreftlllyspeclji:ed chssroom techniques (2nd materials.

For more than six decades now. research and practice ir English language teaching
has identified the "four skills"-listening, speaking, readi~ig,and writing-as of para-
mount importance. ESL curricula and textbooks around the world tend to focus on
one or two of the four skills, sometimes to the exclusiol~of the others. And a visit
to the most recent TESOL Conventiorl will offer you a q-opious assortment of pre-
sentzltions indexed according to the four skills.
It is perfectly appropriate to identify language perfi)rmance thus. The human
race has fashioned two forms of prodtlctive performance., oral and written, and two
forms of receptive performance. aural (or auditory) and reading. There are, of
course, offshoots of each mode. 1.umped together under nonverbal communication
are various visually perceived mt:ssages delivered throl~ghgestures, facial expres-
sions, proximity, and so forth. Gnphic art (dnwings, paintings, and di;~grams)is
also a powerful form of communication. But attention to the four different skills
does indeed pay off as learners of a second language discover the differences and
interrelationships among these four primary modes of performance.
Despite our history of treziting the four skills in separate segments of a cur-
riculum, there is a recent trend toward skill integration. That is, rather than
designing a curriculum to teach the many aspects of .me skill, say, reading, cur-
riculum designers are taking more of a whole language approach wherehy reading
is treated as one of two or more interrelated skills. A course that deals with reading
skills, then, will also deal with re1;ned listening, speaking, ~ n dwriting skills. A lesson
in a so-called reading class, under this new paradigm, mi :ht include
a pre-reading discussion of the topic to activate chemata.
listening to a lecture or a aeries of informative st.ttemmts about the topic
of a passage to be read.
a foci~son a certain reading strategy, say, scannin:.
writing a paraphrase of ;I section of the reading ])assage.
This reading class, then, models for tht: students the real-life integration of language
skills, gets them to perceive the relationship among sevc.ral skills, and provides the
teacher with a great deal of flexibility in creating interesting, motivating lessons.
C H A P I E K15 Integrating the 'Four Sk 11s'' 233
WHY INTEGRATION?
Some may argue that the inteqation of the four skills diminishes the importance of
the rules of listening, speaking, reading, and writing that are unique to each separate
skill. Such an argument rarely holds up under careful scr~.~tinv of integr;~ted-skills
courses. If anything, the added richness of the latter gives students gre2tt.r motiva-
tion that converts to better retention of principles of effective speaking, listening,
reading, and writing. Rather than being forced to plod along through a course that
limits itself to one mode of performance, students are given a chance to diversify
their efforts in more meaningful tasks. Such integration can, of course, still utilize a
strong, principled approach to the separate, unique characteristics ot'eacti skill.
So you may be wondering why courses weren't always integmtcd ill the first
:' place. There are several reasons:
,?:
: 1. In the pre-Communicative LanguageTeaching (CLT) days of language
teaching, the focus on the forms of language almost predisposed curriculum
designers to segment courses into the separate language skills. It seemed log-
ical to fashion a syllabus that dealt with, say, pronunciation o f the phonemcs
of English, stress and intonation, oral structural pattcrns (carefillly sequenced
according to presumed grammatical difficult!i), and variations on thosc: pat-
terns. These language-based classes tended to he courses in "b;lby linguistics"
where a preoccupation with rules and paradigms tzrugld students a lot c ~ b o l ~ t
language but sometimes at the expense of teaching langu;~geitself.
2. Administrative considerations still make it easier to program sep;mte courses
in reading and speaking, ;tnd so on, as a glance at current intensive and uni-
versity English courses reveals. Such divisior~scan indeed I)e justified w11e11
one considers the practicalities of coordinating three-hour-per-week courses,
hiring teachers for cach, ordering textbooks, and placing students Into the
courses. It should be noted, however, that a proficient teacher who profeaaes
to follow principles of CL?' would never conduct, say, a "rtading"class without
extensive use of speaking, listening, and writing in the class.
3. Which leads to a third reason that not all clabses are i n t e q ~ t e d .Tlierc are
certain specific purposes for which students are studying English that may
best be labeled by one of the four skills, especially at the high inrermc.diate to
advanced levels. In an academic setting such as a university, speci:llizc.d work-
shops, modules, tutorials, or courses may be constructed explicitly to Improve
certain specialized skills. Thus a module in listening comprehension might
include instruction on listening effectively to academic lectures, to fellow s ~ u -
dents in the classroom, to audio programs where there are no visual cues, to
the consultative register used in the professor's office, and even lo feliow s ~ u -
dents in casual conversation. Such a course might encompass phonologic~l.
morphological, syntactic, lexical, semantic, and discourse elements.
234 CHAPnR I5 Ir~tegratfrtgthe "Four Sk~lls"
hsiile from these caveats, the integration of the four skills is the only plausible
;lpproach within a comn~unicative,interactive framework. Most of the interactive
techniques already described or referred to in this book involve the integration of
skills. The following observations support such techniques.
1. Production and reception are quite simply two sides of the same coin; one
cannot split the coin in two.
2. Interaction means sending arid receiving messages.
3. Wril.ten and spoken language often (but not always!) bear a relationship to
each other; to ignore that relationship is to ignore the richncss of language.
4. For literate learners, the interrelationship of written and spoken language is
an intrinsically motivating reflection of language and culture and society.
5. By attending primarily to what learners can do with language, and only secon-
darily to the fc~rmso f language, we invite any or all of the four skills that are
relevant into the classroom arena.
6. Often one skill will reinforce another; we learn to speak, for example, in part
by modeling what we hear, and we learn to write by examining what we can
read.
7. Proponents of the whole language approach (see Chapter 3) have shown us
that in the real worId of language use, most of our natural performance
involves not only the integration of one or more skills, but connections
Ijetween language and the way we think and feel and act.
How c;m you maintain an integrated-skills focus in your teaching?The following
live models are in common use. They all pull the direct ;ittention of the student
away from the separateness of the skills of language and toward the meaningful pur-
poses for which wt: use langnage.
CONTENT-BASED INSTRUCTION
The first of the five models of integrated-skills approaches is content-based instruc-
tlon. Quite simply. content-based (also known as "contentcentered") language
teaching integrates the learning of some specific subject-matter content with the
learning of a second language (see previous explanation in Chapter 3). The overall
structure of a content-based curriculum, in contrast to many traditional language
curricula, is dictated more by the nature of the subject matter than by language
forms anti sequences. The second language, then, is simply the medium to convey
informational content of interest and relevance to the learner. Here are some exarn-
ples of content-based curricula:
THEME-BASED INSTRUCTION
Immersion programs for elementary-school children
Sheltered English programs (mostly found at elementary- and secondary-
school levels)
CHAPTER IS lntegratlng the "Four Sk~lls" 235
W~itingacross the curric~~lum (where writing skills in secondary schools
ancl universities arc txught within subject-niattcr areas like biolog): history,
art etc.)
En;;lish for Specific Purposcs (ESP) (e.g., for engineering, agriculture, or
medicine)
It is perhaps alre:idy clear that content-based tcaching allows learners to acquire
knowledg~: and skills that transcend all the bits and pieces of language that may
occupy hc urs and days of ;~n;~lyzing in a traditional language classroom. Research on
second la~lgiageacquisitior~ at various ages indicates the ultimate strength of
learning that is pointcd tc.~wardpractical non-language goats. The meaningful
learning principle applies well here. Learners are focused on very useful, pnctical
objectives as the subject matter is perceived to be relevant to long-term goals. This
also increz~sesthe intrinsic motiv;~tionthat is so important to learning of any kind.
Can content-based teaching take place at all levels of proficiency, even begin-
ning level>?Whileit is possible to argue, for example, that certain basic survival skills
are themselves content-based and that a beginning level class could thercfore be
content-based, such an arggument extends the content-based notion beyond its
normal bounds. Content-bascd irwtnrction usually pertains to academic or occupa-
tional instruction over an extended period of time at intermediate-toadvanced p r e
ficiency levels. Talking about renting an apartment one day, shopping the next,
getting a driver's license the next, and so on, is certainly useful and meaningful for
beginners, but would be more appropriately called task-based than content-based.
Contrnt-based teaching presents some challenges to language teachers.
Allowing the subject matter to control the selection and sequencing of language
items rnea:a that you have 1.0view your teaching from an entirely different per-
spective. You are first and foremost teaching geography or math or culture; secon-
darily you are teaching language. So you may have to become a double expert!
Some tan-,-teaching models of content-based teaching alleviate this potential draw-
back. In same schools a subject-matter teacher and a language teacher link their
courses and curriculum so that each complements the other. Such an undertaking
is not unlike what Brinton, Snow, . ~ nWesche
d (1989) describe as an "adjunct" model
of content-based instruction.
Content-based instruction allows for the complete integration of language
skills. As you plan a lesson arountl a particular subtopic of your subject-matter area,
your task becomes how best to present that topic or concept or principle. In such
lessons it v.ould be difficult not to involve at least three of the four skills as your stu-
dents read, discuss, solve prol)lems, analyze data, and write opinions and reports.
In order to distinguish theme-based teaching from content-based,it is important to
distinguish between what I will call "strong" and "weak" versions of content-based
236 CHAPTER 15 Integratfng the "Four Skills" CHAVlEK 15 Il?tegrat~rlgthe "Four Sk 11s'' 237

teaching (not to be confused in any wav with "good" and' bad). In the strong ver- These principles are well servcd by theme-based instruction and/or by coclrses that
sion,the primary purpose of a course is to instruct students in a subject-matter area, are successfully able to get students excited and interested in some topic, issue, idea,
and language is of secondary and subordillate interest. All four of the examples of or problem.
content-based instruction are good illustntions of the stlong version. English for Numerous current ESL textbooks, especially at the intermediitte to .tdvanced
Specific Purposes (ESP) at the university level, for example, gathers engineering levels, offel [heme-basecl courses of study. Challenging topics in these textbooks
majors togethrr in a course designed to teach terminoloi:y, concepts, and current engage the curiosity and increase motivation of students as they grappl<,with an
issues in engineering. Because students are ESL students, they must of course learn array of real-life issues ranging from simple to complex ant1 also improve their lin-
this material in English, which the teacher is prepared to help them with. guistic skills.
Immersion and sheltered programs, along with programs in writing across the cur- Consider just one of an abundance of topics that havc bren used as themes
riculum, are similarly focused. through which language is taught: environmental awareness and action. (Iior a col-
A weak form of content-based teaching acti~allyplact s an equal value on con- lection of environmentally theme-based ESL activities, see Hockman, Let.-Fong, &
tent and language objectives. While the curriculum, to be sure, is organized around Lew 1991.) With this topic, you are sure to find immediate intrinsic m o t ~ ~ t t i o n -
subject-matter area, both students and teachers are fully aware that language skills we all want to survive! Herr are some possible theme-based activities:
do not occupy a subordinate role. Studt:nts have no doubt chosen to take a course
or curriculum because their language skills need improvtment, and they arc now 1. Use environmental statistics and facts for classroom reading, writing,
able to work toward that improvement without being battered with linguistically discussion, and debate. You don't have to look very Etr to find infommatlon
based topics. The ultimate payoff is that their language sktlls are indeed enhanced, about environmental crises, research on thr issues, and pointers on whit indi-
but through focal attention to topic and peripheral attenti )n to language. viduals can do to forestall a global disaster. Here are some things stutlents can
This weak version is actually vtry practical ant1 very t ffective in Inany instruc- do with such material:
tional settings. It typically manifests itself in what has come to be called theme-
based or topic-based teaching. Theme-based instruction provides an alternative to [for intermediate to advanced students]
what would otherwise be traditional language classes I)y structuring a course scan [reading selections] for particular information
around themes or topics. Theme-hased curricula can serve the multiple interests of do compare-and-contrast exercises
students in a classroom and can offer a fticus on content wl~ilestill adhering to insti- look for biases in statistics
tutional needs for offering a langi~agecourse per sr. So, f,)r example, an intensive use stiltistics in argument
English course for intermediate pre-university students might deal with topics of learn the discourse features of persuasive writing
current interest such as public health, e~lvironrnentalawaraess, world economics, write personal opinion essays
etc. In the c1assn)om students read articles or chapters, vrew video programs, dis- discuss issues
cuss issues, propose solutions, and carry out writing assignments on a given theme. engage in formal tiebates
English for Academic Purposes (EAI') in a university is an appropriate instance of
theme-based instruction. [for beginning students]
Granted, there is a luzzy line of distinction between theme-based instruction use imperatives ("Don't buy aerosol spray cans.")
and "traditional" language instruction. I'ou could easily apgue that many existing practice verb tenses ("The ozone layer is vanishing.")
reading and writing courses, for example, are theme-based in that they offer stu- develop new vocabulary
dents substantial opportunities to grapple with topics of ~elevanceand interest. I learn cardinal and ordinal numbers
do not think it is important, or necessary, to dichotomize here. What is important work with simple conversations/dialogues like:
is to put principles of effective learning into action. The major principles under- A: Why do you smoke?
lying both theme-based and content-based instruction are B: Because I like it.
A: You shouldn't smoke.
automaticity B: Well, it makes me less nervous.
meaningful learning A: Rut it's not good for your health
intrinsic motivation B: I don't care.
communicative competence. A: Well, you will die young.
238 C H A P T ~ K15 Integrating the "Four Skills"
2. Carry out research and writing projects. When your ESL syllabus calls
for a research project, an intrinsically motivating assignment is to research an
envil:onmental topic. Libnries, bookstores, newsstands, television and ndio,
and even political campaigns are fruitfill sources of information. While indi-
vidual projects are suitable, you can also encourage students to work in pairs
or teams, each assigned to a different aspect of an issue. Data are sought,
gxthered, and synthesized; counter-arguments are explored; and results are
presented onlly and/or in writing to the rest of the class.
3. Have student5 create their own environmental awareness material.
Whether you are teaching adults or children, beginning or advanced students,
you can get a great deal of language and content material out of a language
experience approach (see Chapter 17) in which students create leaflets,
posters, bulletin hoards, newsletter articles, or even a booklet that outlines
~)r;ltical things they can do to "save the earth." If time and equipment
permit, some exciting projects can he done with a video camen, such as an
information prognm, a drama, interviews, or news reports.
4. Arrange field trips. These could involve a pretrip module (of perhaps sev-
en1 days) of reading, researching, and other fact-finding, and a post-trip
nodule of sunlnyary and conclusions. Field trips can be made to recycling
ccnters, factories that practice recycling, wildlife preserves, areas that need
litter removed (abandoned lots, beaches, parks), etc.
5. Conduct simulation games. A number of simulation games are being cre-
ated that use the environmental crisis as a theme around which to build var-
ious scenarios for the gaming process. Some games get quite elaborate, with
countries of the world and their respective resources represented by objects
like egg cartons, bottles, cans, newspapers, and the like, and players charged
to n:solve pn~blemsof unequal distribution of wealth as well as environ-
mental controls.
EXPERIENllAL LEARNING
Closely related to and overlapping content-based and theme-based instruction is the
concept of experiential language learning. Experiential learning includes activities
that engage both left- and right-bnin processing. that contextualize language, that
integrate skills, and that point toward authentic, real-world purposes. So far, as Janct
Eyring (1991) points out, experiential learning is a p h n s e describing everything in
the last five chapters of this book. But what experiential learning highlights for us is
giving students concrete experiences through which they "discover" language princi-
ples (even if subconsciously) by trial and error, by processing feedback, by building
hypotheses about language, and by revising these assumptions in order to become
fluent (Eyring 1991: 347). That is, teachers do not simply tell students about how lan-
guage works; instead, they give students opportunities to use language as they
grapple with the problem-solving complexities of a variety of concrete experiences.
CHAPTER I S Integrating the "Four Skills" 239
According t ) Morris b e t o n and PimelaTate, in experiential learning
The learner is directly in touch with the realities being studied. It is con-
tnsted with learning in which the learner only reads about, hews about,
talks at~out,orwrites about these realities but never comes in contact with
them ai part of the learning process. . . .It involves direct encounter with
the phrnomenon being studied rather than merely thinking about the
e r only considering the possibility of doing something with it.
e n c o u ~ ~ tor
(1 978: 2)
Experiq:ntial learning is not so much a novel concept as it is an emph;uis on the
marriage ot two substantive principles of effective learning, principles espoused by
the famous h e r i c a n educator John Dewey: (a) one learns best by "doing;' by active
experimentation, and (b) i n d u c t i ~learning by discovery activates strategies that
enable stucents to "take charge" of their own learning progress. As such it is an
especially 11sefi11concept h)r teaching children, whose abstnct intellectual pro-
cessing abilities are not yet mdture.
Experiential learning techn~qi~es tend to be learnercentered by nature.
Examples c f 1e:lrner-centered exper~entialtechniques include:
hantls-on projects (such as nature projects)
computer activities (especially in small groups)
rescirch projects
crosscultural experiences (camps, dinner goups, etc.)
fielc trips and other "on-site"visits (such as to a grocery store)
role plays and simulatb.)ns.
But some teacher-controlled techniques may be considered experiential:
using props, realia, visuals, show-and-tell sessions
playing games (which often involve strategy) and singing
utilizing media (television, radio, and movies).
Experential learning tends to put an emphasis on the psychomotor aspects of
language learning by involving learners in physical actions into which language is
subsumed ind reinforced. Through action, students are drawn into a utilization of
multiple sb ills.
One specialized form of experiential learning that has been quite popular in
elementar!-school teaching for srvenl decades is the Language Experience
Approach (LEA) (Van Allen & Allen 1967), an integrated-skills approach initially
used in teaching native language reading skills,but more recently adapted to second
language lzarning contexts. With widely varying adaptations, students' personal
experiences (a trip to the zoo. a television story, a picture, etc.) are used as the basis
for discus>ion,and then the teacher writes down the "experience." Students can
then recol)y, edit, and/or illustnte the story, which is preserved in the form of a
"book:' A number of activities can then follow, including word study, spelling focus,
semantic tliscussions, inferer~ce,prediction, etc. The benefit of the LEA is in the
240 CHAPTER 15 Integrdting the "Four Skills"
intrinsic involvement of students in creating their owo stories rather than being
given other people's stories As in other experiential techniques, students are
directly involved in the crcative process of fashioning their own products
THE EPISODE HYPOTHESIS
More than a hundred years ago Franqois Gouin, if you ~villrccaU from Chapter 2,
designed a method of language te;~chir~g called the Serie? Method One of the keys
to the success of the method I ; I ~in the presentation ol language in an easily fol-
lowed storylinc. You may remember the sequence of szntences about opening a
door. In another lesson, Gouin teachts a number of ve-bs, verb forms, and other
vocabulary in a little story about a girl chopping wood:
The girl goes and seeks a piece of wood
She takes a hatchet.
She draws near to the block.
She pkaces the wood on this block.
She raises the hatchet.
She brings down the h.~tcllet
The blade strikes against the wood. etc
In easily visualized steps, the students ;Ire led through the. process of chopping and
gathering wood, all at a very clernentary level of the langjage.
In some ways, Gouin was utilizing a psychological dt vice that, a hundred years
later, John Oller called the episode hypothesis. Acconling to Oller (1983b: 12),
"text (i.e.,discourse in any form) will be easier to repn)duce,understand,andrecall,
to the extent that it is structured episodically,"By this ht meant that the presenta-
tion of language is enhanced if st~ldciltsrccrive intercc~nnectedsentences in an
interest-provoking episode rather than in a disconnected series of sentences.
The episode hypothesis goes well beyond simple "meaningful" learning. I.ook
at this dialogue:
Jack: Hi,Tony. What do you usually do on m eekends?
Tony: O h , l usually study, but sometimes 1 go to a movie.
Jack: Uh huh. Well, I often go to movies, bu: I seldom study.
Tony: Well, I don't study as much as Greg. He always studies on the
weekends. He \\ever goes out.
You can see that this conversation, while easily understo )d, clearly presented, and
perhaps quite relevant to students learning English, lacks a certain sense of drama-
of "what's going to happen next!" Most of our comm:micative textbooks have
many Jack andTony types of prehentation. They n~ayillu:.trate certain grammatical
or discourse features, but they don't grip the learner with suspense.
CHAP:EK 15 Integrat~ng
the "Four Sk,\ls" 241
Now cor~sideranother conversation (Brinton & Neuman 1982: 33) and notice
how it differs from Jack andTony's.
Darlene: I think I'll call Bettina's mother. It's almost tive and Chrissy
isn't homc yet.
Meg: I thought Rettina had the chicken pox.
Darlene: Oh, that's right. I forgot. Chrissy didn't go to Bettinzl's today
Where is she?
Meg: She's probably with Gary. He has Little League pclcticc until
five.
Darlene: 1 hear the front door. Maybe that's Gary and Chrissy.
(?dry: Hi.
Ilarlene: Where's Chrissy? Isn't she with you!
Gary: With me? Why with me? I saw hcr at two after school, tlut then
I went to Little League practice. I think she left with h(,r
friend.
Darlene: Which one?
Gary: The one next d o o r . . . thc one she walks to school wit11 evecy
day.
Darlene: Oh! you meanTimmy. She's prob;~blywith him.
Gary: Yeah, she probably is.
Darlene: I'm going next door to check.
This conversation uses a familiar setting and ordinary c~haractcrsto whet the
curiosity of the reader. Because the outcome is not clear, learners are motivated to
continue reading and to become more involved in the conterlt than in thc I;lnguage,
therefore increasing its episodic flavor. Oller notes that the interaction of cl jgnition
and language enables learners to form "expectancies" as they encounter eitl~erIogi-
cally or episodically linked sentences. Moreover, 'stories" are universal, and there-
fore students from many different cultures can understand thcir org;~nizational
structure and ident* with the characters.
You niay be wondering how the episode hypothesis contributes or rc lates to
integrated-skills teaching. Hcre are some possible ways:
Stories or episodes challenge the teacher and textbook writer to present
interesting, naturdl language, whether the language is viewed ;15 writLen tlis
course or oral discourse.
Episodes can be presented in either written or spoken form, thus re((uiri11g
reading andlor writing skills on the students' part.
Episodes can provide the stimulus for spoken or written questions tl~atstit
dcnts respond to, in turn, by speaking or writing.
Students can be encouraged to write their own episodes, or to complete an
episode whose resolution or climax is not presented (such as the abl )ve
conversation).
242 (HAPTEA IS Iotegrafrng the "Four Skrll~" CHAPTER IS Integrdlir~gthe "Four Skills" 243

Those written episode4 might then be dramatized in the classroom by the
students.
Now, it must be noted that the reality of the language classroom is such that not
every aspect of language can be embedded in gripping dramatic episodes that have
students yearning for the next day's events, as they might with a favorite soap open!
Linguistic samples like the conversation between Jack and Tony are quite
respectable and pedagogically useful. Drills, writing practice, gnmmar explana-
tions, essays on the world economy, and many other non-episodic activitics have a
viable place in the classroom. But to the extent that a curriculum allows it, episodic
teaching and testing may offer a rewarding alternative to sprinkle into your daily
diet of teaching techniques.
Pedagogical tasks are distinguished by their specific goals that point beyond
the language classroom to the target task. They may, however, include both formal
and functi ~ n a ltechniques. A pedagogical task designed to teach students to give
personal bformation in a job intt-rview might, for example, involve
1. exercises in comprehension of w k questions with do-insertion ("When do
you mork at Macy's?").
2. drills in the use of frequency adverbs ("1 usually work until five o'clock.").
3. listening to extracts of job interviews.
4. analyzing the grammar and discourse of the interviews.
5. modeling an interview: teacher and one student.
6. role-playing a simulated interview: students in pairs.

TASK-BASED TEACHING

Task-ba.sed learning was defined and briefly discussed in Chapters 3 and 9. As you
f While you might be tempted to consider only the climactic task (#6) as the one ful-
filling the criterion of pointing beyond the classroom to the real world, all of the
technique: build toward enabling the students to perform the final technique.
A task-based curriculum, then. specitles what a learner needs to do with the
will recall, there are a number of different interpretations in the literature on what, English language in terms of target tasks and organizes a series of pedagogical tasks
exactly. a task is. What these various understandings all emph:~size,however, is the intended lo reach those goals. Be careful that you do not look at t;uk-based
centrality of the {.askitself in a language course and, for task-based teaching as an teaching a a hodge-podge of useful little things that the learner should be able to
overall approach, the importance of organizing a course around communicative do, all thrown together haphazardly into the classroom. In fact,a distinguishing fea-
tasks that 1e;lrners need to engage in outside the classroom. Let me remind you of ture of ta>k-based curricula is their insistence on pedagogical soundness in the
Peter Skehan's (1098a: 95) capsulization of a task as an activit). in which developmtnt and sequencing of tasks. The teacher and curriculum planner are
called upo i to consider carefully the following dimensions of communicative tasks:
meaning is primary,
there is some communication problem to solve, goa
there is some sort of relationship to comparable real-world activitics, input from the teacher
task completion has some priority, tecl~niques
the assessment of the task is in terms of outcome. the role of the teacher
the role of the learner
I'ask-based teaching m;~kesan important distinction between target tasks, eva uation
which students must accomplish beyond the classroom, and pedagogical tasks,
which k)mm the r~ucleusof the classroom activity. Target tasks are not unlikc thc In task.-basedinstruction, the priority is not the bits and pieces of language, but
functions of langwage that are listed in Notional-Functional Syllabuses (see C h ~ p t e r nther the functional purposes for which language must be used. While content-
2. here. and Chapter 9 of PLLT); however, they are much more specific and more based instruction focuses on subject-matter content, task-based instruction focuses
explicitly related to classroom instruction. If, for example, "giving personal infor- on a whole set of real-world tasks themselves. Input for tasks can come from a
mation" is a communicative function for language, then an appropriately stated variety of iuthentic sources:
target t;lsk might be"giving personal information in a job interview." Notice that the
task specifies a context. Pedagogical tasks include any of a series of techniques speeches interviews
designed ultimately to teach students to perform the target task; the climactic ped- conversations oral descriptions
agogical task actually involves students in some form of simulation of the target task narlatives media extracts
itself (say, through a role-play simulation in which certain roles are assigned to pairs public announcements games and puzzles
of learners). cartoon strips photos
244 CHAPTER 15 Integrating the "Four Skills"
letters diaries
poems songs
directions telephone d :rectories
invitations menus
textbooks labels
And the list goes on and on. The pedagogical task speci:ies exactly what learners
will do with the input and what the respective roles of tht. teacher and learners are.
The evaluation thereof forms an essential component that determines its success
and offers feedback for performing the task again with an.)ther group of learners at
another time.
Task-based curricula differ from content-based, thenre-based, and experiential
instruction in that the course objectives are somewhat more language-based. While
there is an ultimate focus on c o ~ ~ n u n i c a t i oand
n purpot.,e and meaning, the goals
are linguistic in nature. They are nor linguistic in the traditional sense of just
focusing on grammar or phonology; but by maintaining the centrality of functions
like greeting people, expressing opinions, requesting information, etc., the course
goals center on learners' pragmatic language competence.
So we have in task-baxd teaching a well-integntc,d approach to language
teaching that asks you to organize your classroom around those practical tasks that
language users engage in "out there" in the real world. Tl~esetasks virtually always
imply several skill areas,not just one,and so by pointing toward tasks, we disengage
ourselves from thinking only in tcrms of the separate four skills. Instead, principles
of listening, speaking, reading, and writing become apprc,priately subsumed under
the rubric of what it is our learncrs are going to do with :.his language.
We have considered five different ways to approach I he integration of the four
skills. The principal idea here is for you not to assume that all your techniques
should be identified with just one of the lour, but rather that most successful inter-
active techniques will include seven1 skill areas. In the n::xt four chapters, we will
look at those four components, but not with a view to programming your language
teaching into compartments. Instead, these next chaplers should help you to
become aware of goals, problems, Issues, and trends that relate to each of the four
modes of communication.
CHAPTER 15 integratfng the "Tour Sk 111s" 245
TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION, RESEARCH, AND ACTION
[Note: (I
Individual
) work; (G) group or pair work; (C) whole-class discusion. (
1. (I ) the reasons (p. 233-34) for not integrating skills in ESL courses
Review
'f Can you add others? If you know of certain courses that are not integrated,
can these three-or any other-justifications be advanced for keeping them
,$ non-integrated'
;' 2. (G) Direct pairs to look at the seven observations (p. 234) in support of inte-
,,
grated-skills classes. Pairs will discuss whether or not they apply to contests
they are familiar with. Would one be able to add any more justificati~)n for
integrating the skills?
3. (G/C)Ask pairs to collaborate in writing brief definitions of each of the five
types of integrated-skills-instruction disci~ssedin this chapter: contcnt-bascd,
theme-based, experiential, the episode hypothesis, and task-based teac.hing.
Then, direct the whole class to make a list of various institutions that te;lcl~
ESL and discuss the extent to which each model does o r does not fit the insti-
tution.
4. (G)Ask pairs to consider the following: Suppose you are asked to employ ;I
teacher for a content-centered curriculum. What qualifications woul(l you
draw LIP for such a teacher?
5. (G) Direct groups each to consider a ditferent audience and context. I hen to
design a theme-based lesson or module on environmental action and .iware-
ness. As they plan the techniques, they should discuss any "political" ~ml)lica-
tions of what they might ask students to do. <;coups will then share their
lessons with the rest of the class.
6. (I/C) Look in a library or resource center for books that could I)e clas.iified as
theme-based. Select one to evaluate, perhaps with ;I partner. Arc: both lan-
g u a g and content goals fulfilled?Are the four skills well integrated? W'ill stu-
dents be intrinsically motivated to study the hook? Are the other tliret
principles (cited on p. 236) evident in the design of the book? Share y o ~ ~ r
thoughts with the rest of the class.
7. (G/C:)Ask pairs to design an episodic activity and share the activity v;ith the
rest of the class.
8. (G/C) Once again, the term "task-based"is presented in this chapter. Ask the
class to define it again without referring to this chapter or to Chapter 5.
Then, have partners design a task that involves several techniques, share their
task with the rest of the class, and give a rationale for the design.
246 CHAPTER 15 lntegratirrg the "Four Skills"

FOR YOUR FURTHER READING

Wilis, Jane. 1996. A Framework fbr Task-Baed Learning. London: Longman.
This bandbook,fbr teachers is designed to illustrate houi tmk-bused instruc-
tion can be tlseii as the central jbcz~sitr a st~pportivemetho~iologicalframe-
u'ork A nlzlltitilclr rd'dlfiretrt ~ p e s(oj'tasks(ire spelled out it1 detail.

I.ong, Michael H. and Crookes, Graham. 1992. "Three approaches to task-based

syllabus design." TESOL Quarterly 16:27-56.
7 hrc.c, ttisk-based sylbb~us types-procedz4r~i1, process, arrd t a s k a r e
de.scrihed urzd anrilvzed. ,411 three tlpes reject lirzgt~isticelements us the wnit
oJ' at~aiysisarrd opt instead jbr some cotrception oj' task. All three are
dijferent, ho~ccel~er;
in u l q s that are e ~ l a i n e din the articlt~. Three people were on a tnin in England. As they approached what appeared to be
Wemberly Station,one of the tnvelers said,"ls thiswemberly?" "No:'replied a second
Ilrinton, Donna M., Snow, Marguerite Ann, and Wesche, Marjorie B. 1989. Contcnt- passenger,'it'sThursday."Whereupon the third person remarked,"Oh, I am too; let's
Basecl Second 1:anguage Instruction. Rowley, MA: Newbury House. have a drink!"
The in~portanceof listening in language learning can hardly be overestimated.
Threc~d{fferetlt contetrt-based r@roaches-theme-b~~sed, sheltere~i, and
Through reception, we internalize linguistic information without which we could
acljr~~~ct-arec~xumined.7be hook prc.serrts pro/i:les of s~~r~eral
uerrrph7y
not produ-e language. In classrooms, students always do more listening than
progran~surid explores the conte.rts appropriott~for the diffc>rontmo~i~>ls.
<;~lidi>line.sj)r
(:losigninga content-based curriculum are ojfercd. speaking. Listening competence is universally "larger" than speaking competence.
Is it any a onder, then, that in recent years the language-teaching profession has
Legutke, Michael and Thomas, Howard. 1991. Process and Ekperience in the placed a concerted emphasis on listening comprehension?
Language Classroom. Longman. Listening comprehension has not always drawn the attention of educators to
the extent that it now has. Perhaps human beings have a natural tendency to look
Cb?n~nlrriicatiu~! lurigt~~~geteuching is seer1 in this book t i s a n experiential
at speakin>:as the major index of language proficiency. Consider, for example, our
arrd ,rusk-driven process. 7he authon describe practical attempts to utilizt~
commonly used query "Do you speak Japanese?" Of course we don't mean to
project t~1.sk.iespecially, both as a mearis oJ' realizitrg task-based lr~r~guagc
exclude comprehension when we say that, but when we think of foreign language
krlrt~ingurrcl qf'redefining the roles of teacher and learner within LI jointb
learning, we first think of speaking. In the decades of the 1950s and '6Os,language-
constn~ctcdc~lm'culum.
teaching n~ethodologywas preoccupied with the spoken language, and classrooms
full of students could be heard performing their oral drills. It was not uncommon
for studenls to practice phnses orally they didn't even understand!

I LISTENING (OMPREHENSION IN PEDAGOGICAL RESEARCH

Listening as a major component in language learning and teaching first hit the spot-
light in thc late 1970s with James lisher's (1977) work on Total Physical Response
(see Chapter 2). In TPR the role of comprehension was given prominence as
learners a r r e given great quantities of language to listen to before they were
encounged to respond orally. Similarly,the Natunl Approach (again see Chapter 2)
recommended a significant "silent period" during which learners were allowed the
248 CHAPTER 16 Teaching Listening
CHAPTER 16 Teaching Listt fling 249

security of listening without being forced to go through the anxiety of speaking AN INTERACTIVE MODEL OF LISTENING COMPREHENSION
before they were "ready" to do so.
Listening is not a one-way street. It is not merely the process of a unitlirectional
Such approaches were an oi~tgrowrhof a variety oF research studies that
receiving of audible symbols. One Pacet-the first step-of listening comprehcn-
showed evidence of the importance of input in second language acquisition (see
sion is the psychomotor process of receiving sound waves through thc ear ant1
PLLT, Chapter 10). Stephen Knshcn (1985), For example borrowing insights From
transmitting nerve impulses to the brain. But that is just the beginning of what is
first language acquisition, stressed the significance of comprehensible input, or
clearly an interactive process as the brain acts on the impulses, bringing to hrar a
the aural reception of language that is just a little beycnd the learner's present
number of different cognitive and affective mechanisms.
ability. About the same time, researchers were also stressillg the crucial importance
The following eight processes (adapted from Clark & Clark 1977 and Richards
of whatever mental processes were brought to bear on the learner's converting
1983) are all involved in comprehension. With the exception of the initiar and final
input into intake, or that which is actually stored in a learner's competence. In
processes below, no sequence is implied here; they all occur if not sin~ul~aneo~~sly,
other words, you can be "exposed" to great quantities of jnput, but what counts is
then in extremely rapid succession. Neurological time rnust bc viewed in ternis of
the linguistic information that you illtimatcly glean from that exposure through con-
microseconds.
scious and subconscious attention, through cognitive strategies of retention,
through feedback,and through interaction. As we shall set., the conversion of input
1. The hearer processes what we'll call " n w speechnand holds an .'imag "of it in
into intake is absolutely crucial in considering the role of listening in language
short-term memory. This image consists of the constituents (phmses, ~:lausrs,
learning. As you consider the role of listening technique: in your classes, you ulti-
cohesive markers, intonation, and stress patterns) of ;I stream of speecll.
mately want to ask yourself what students have taken in ?om perhaps an army of
2. The hearer determines the type of speech event being processed (for
comprehension activity.
example, a conversation, a speech, a radio broadcast) and then appro1,riately
Subsequent pedagogical rese;~rchon listening comprt hension made si@~cant
"colors" the interpretation of the perceived message.
refinements in the process of listening. Studies looked at tht. effect of a number of dif-
3. The hearer infers the objectives of the speakcr through considcmtion of the
ferent contextual characteristics and how they affect the s p x d and efficiency of prtr
type of speech event, the context, and the content. So, for exanlple, one
cessing aural Inngoag. Ruhin (l99'i) identified five such ;actors: text, interlocutor,
determines whether the speaker wishes to pcfrsuade, to request, to exc,hange
task, listener, ;md process chancteristics. In each case, imp1 ~rtantelements of the lis
pleasantries, to affirm, to deny, to inform, and so forth. Thus thc h ~ n c t ~ ount
tening process were identified. For example, the listener characteristics of proficiency,
the message is inferred.
memory, attention, affect, age, gender. background schemata, and even learning disabil-
4. The hearer recalls background irlformation (or schemata;see Chaptel. 18 for
ities in the LL all affect the process of listening (pp. 2 6 1 0 ) . Even more recently,
more on this topic) relevant to the particular context and subjecr matler. I\
great attention has been devoted to strategy-basedinstr~ctio~l of listening comprehen-
lifetime of experiences and knowledge is used to perfo1.m cognit~vea$soci;~-
sion (Mendelsohn 1998). Studies tend to agree that listeninq, especially for academic
tions in order to bring a plausible interpretation to the message.
and professional contexts, is a highly refined skill that requires a learner's attention to
5. The hearer assigns a literal meaning to the uttennce. This process in\olvcs a
a battery of strategies for extracting meaning from texts.
set of semantic interpretations of the surface titrings that the ear has per-
All of these issues prompt te~chersto consider some specific cluestions about
ceived. In many instances, Literal and intended (see iten1 6 ) meanings match.
listening comprehension:
So, for example, if one of your students walks into your office while ycu arc
inadly gnding papers and says she has a question that she would apprt:ciatc
What are listeners "doing" when they listen?
your answer to, then rays,"Do you have the tirne!" the litem1 meaning ( D o you
What factors affect good listening?
possess enough time now to answer me?) is appropriate. Itowever, this
What are the chancteristics of "real-life"listening?
process mdy take on a peripheral role in cases where litenl meanings ;Ire
What ;ire the many things listeners listen for?
irrelevant to the message, as in metaphorical or "idiumatic" language. [I, for
What ;Ire some principles for designing listening te :hniques?
example, a stranger sitting beside you on a bus has been silent for a 1)eriod of
How can listening techniques be interactive?
time and then says,"Do you have the time?;' your appropriate response is no1
What are some common techniques for traching ktening?
yes or no but rdther "It's quarter to nine," or whatever. Second language
learners must, in such cases, learn to go "beneath" the surbcc of such I ; r -
Thesc and other related questions will be ;~ddressedin thi:. chapter.
guage in order to interpret correctly.
250 CHAPTFR 16 Teaching Listening
.'
6. 'The hearer assigns an intended meaning to the uttennce. The person on the
1x1s intended to find out what time of day it was, even though the literal
meaning didn't directly convey that message. How often do misunderstand-
ings stem from false assumptions that are made on the hearer's pan about the
intended meaning of the speaker?A key to human communication is the
ability to match perceived meaning with intended meaning. This match-
making, of course, can extend well beyond simple metaphorical and idiomatic
language. It can apply to short and long stretches of discourse, and its break-
down can be caused by careless speech, inattention of the hearer, conceptual
complexity, contextual miscues, psychological barriers, and a host of other
performance variables.
7. 'I'he hearer determines whether information should be retained in short-term
or long-term memory. Short-term memory-a matter of a few seconds-is
appropriate in contexts that call for a quick oral response from the hearer.
Long-term memory is more common when, say, you are processing informa-
tion in a lecture. There are, of course, many points in between.
8. The hearer deletes the form in which the message was originally rrceived.
The words, phrases, and sentences are quickly forgotten-"pruned"-in
99 Ixrcent of speech acts. You have no need to retain this sort of cognitive
"clutter." Instead, the important information, if any (see item 7 above), is
retained conceptually. (See also PLLT, Chapter 4.)
It should be clear from the foregoing that listening comprehension is an inter-
active process. After the initial reception of sound, we human beings perform at
least seven other major operations on that set of sound waves. In conversational set-
tings, of course, further interaction takes place immediately -after the listening stage
as the hcarer becomes speaker in a response of some kind. All of these processes are
important for you to keep in mind as you teach. l'hey are all relevant to a learner's
purpose for listening, to performance factors that mq cause difficulty in processing
speech, to ovenll principles of effective listening techniques, and to the choices you
make of what techniques to use and when to use them in your classroom.
TYPES OF SPOKEN LANGUAGE
Much of o w kdnguage-teaching energy is devoted to instruction in mastering English
conversation. However, numerous other forms of spoken language are also
important to incorporate into a language course, especially in teaching listening
comprehension. As you plan lessons o r curricula, the classification of types of oral
language shown in Figure 16.1 should enable you to see the big picture of what
teaching aural comprehension entails.
CHAPTER 16 Teaching Listening 251
Figure 16.1. T y p ? ~of oral language (adapted from Nunan 1991 b: 20-21)
r 7
In monologues, when one speaker uses spoken language for any length of time,
as in speeches, lectures, readings, news broadcasts, and the like, the hearer must
process loag stretches of spcech without interruption-the stream of speech will
go on whether or not the hearer comprehends. Planned, as opposed to unplanned,
monologu~:~ differ consideral)ly in their discourse structures. Planned monologues
(such as speeches and othcr prewritten material) ust~allymanifest little redundancy
and are therefore relatively ditficult to comprehend. Unplanned monologues
(impn)mpl u lectures and long "stories" in conversations, for example) exhibit more
redundanc y, which makes for ease in comprehension, but the presence of more per-
formance \ ariables and other hesitations (see below) can either help or hinder com-
prehensio~I.
Dialog.ues involve two or more speakers and can be subdivided into those
exchanges that promote social relationshil>s (interpersonal) and those for which
the purpo:e is to convey propositional or factual information (transactional). In
each case, participants may have a good deal of shared knowledge (background
information, schemata); therefore the familiarity of the interlocutors will produce
conversations wit11 more assumptions, implications, and other meanings hidden
between the lines. In conversations between or among participants who are unfa-
miliar with each other, references and meanings have to be made more explicit to
assure effe1:tive comprehension. When such references are not explicit, misunder-
standings can easily follow.
One c,)uld also have subdivided diakogues between those in which the hearer
is a partici1)ant and those in which the hearer is an "eavesdropper." In both cases,
the above conversational descriptions apply, but the major-and highly signs-
cant-difference is that in the latter the hearer is, as in monologues, unable to inter-
rupt or otherwise participate voc;dly in the negotiation of meaning.
Remerllber that in all cases these categories are really not discrete, mutually
exclusive domains; rather, each dichotomy, as usual, represents a continuum of pos-
sibilities. For example, everyday social conversations can easily contain elements of
transaction11 dialogues, and vice versa. Similarly, "familiar" participants may share
very little common knowledge on a particular topic. If each category, then, is
viewed as an end point, you can aim your teaching at appropriate ranges in
between.
252 CHAPTER 16 Teachirlg Listening
WHAT MAKES LISTENING DIFFICULT?
AS you contemplate designing lessons and techniqr~esfor teaching listening
skills, or that have listening components in them, a number of special characteristics
of spoken language need to be taken into consideration. Second language learners
need to pay special attention to such factors because they strongly influence the
processing of speech, and can even block comprehensio~if they are not attended
to. In other words, they can make the listening procesi difficult. The following
eight characteristics of spoken language are adapted frorl several sources (Dunkel
1991; Richards 1983; Ur 1984).
1. Clustering
In written hnguage we are conditioned to attend to the sentence as the basic
unit of organization. In spoken language, due to memory limitations and our pre-
disposition for "chunking: or clustering, we break down speech into smaller
groups of words. Clauses are common constituents, but 1)hrases within clauses are
even more easily retained for comprehension. In teaching listening comprehen-
sion, therefore,you need to help students to pick out manigeable clusters of words;
sometimes second language learners will try to retain oqerly long constituents (a
whole sentence or even seveml sr~ltences),orthey will el r in the other direction in
trying to attend to every word in an utterance.
2. Redundancy
Spoken language, unlike most written language, has a good deal of redundancy.
The next time you're in a conversation. notice the rephra:;ings, repetitions, elabon-
tions, and little insertions of "I mean" and "you know." S11ch redundancy helps the
hearer to process meaning by offering more time and extn information. Learners can
train themselves to protit from such redundancy by fust bec, ming aware that not every
new sentence or phnse will necessarily contain new information and by looking for
the signals of redundancy. Consider the following excerpt )fa conversation.
Amos: Hey, Andy, how's il going?
Andy: Pretty good, Amos. How was your weekend?
Amos: Aw, it was terrible. 1 mean the worst you could imagine. You
know what I mean?
Andy: Yeah, I've had those days. Well, like w h a ~happened?
Amos: Well, you're not gonna believe this, but my girlfriend and I-you
know Rachel? I thlnk you met her at my party-anyway, she and 1
drove up to Point Reyes, you know, up in Marin County? So w e
were driving along minding our own business, you know, when
this dude in one of those four-wheelers, you know, like a Bronco
or something, comes up like three feet bt:hind us and like tailgates
us on these crazy mountain roads up thepe--you know what
they're like. So, ht:'s about to run me off the road, and it's all 1 can
do to just concentrate. Then . . .
You can easily pick out quite a few redundancies in Amos's recounting of his hor-
rendous experience. Learners might initially get confused by this, but with some
training, they can Learn to take advantage of redundancies as well as other markers
that provide more processing time.
3. Reduced forms
While spoken language does indeed contain a good deal of redundancy. it ;(Is0
has many reduced forms. Reduction can be phonological ("Djeetyet?" for -'Did you
eat yet?"), morphological (contractions like "I'll"), syntactic (elliptical 6)rms like
"When will you be back?" "Tonlorrow, may be."). or pragnratic (phone rings I n a
house, child answers and yells to another room in the I-louse. "Mom! l'honc!").
These reductions pose signiticant difficulties, especially for c1assn)om lear~lerswho
may have initially been exposed to the full forms of the English language.
4. Performance variables
In spoken language, except for planned discourse (speeches, lectu~es,etc.),
hesitations, false starts, pauses, and corrections are common. Native 1istt.ners arc
conrlitioncd from very young ages to weed out such performance varkthles. whereas
they can easily interfere with comprehension in second language learners. Imagine
listening to the following verbatim excerpt of a sportsman talking about h ~ game:
s
Rut, uh-1 also-to go with this of course if you're playing well-if
you're playing well then you get uptight about your game. You get
keyed up and it's easy to concentrate. You know you're playing well
2nd you know . . . in with a chance then it's easier, rnuch easier to- -to
you know get in there and-and start to . . .you don't have to think
about it. 1 mean it's gotta be automatic.
In written form this looks like gibberish, but it's the kind of language we hcar
and process all the time. Learners have to train themselves to listen for meaning in
the midst of distracting performance variables.
Everyday casual speech by native speakers also commonly contains ungnm-
matical forms. Some of these forms are simple performance slips. For example,
"We arrived in a little town that there was no hotel anywhert:"is something a native
speaker could easily self-correct. Other ungrammaticality arises out of dkklect tlif-
ferences ("I don't get no respect") that second language learners are likely to hcar
sooner or later.
5. Colloquial language
Learners who have been exposed to standard written English and/or "tcxt-
book" language sometimes find it surprising and difficult to deal with colloquial lan-
guage. Idioms, slang, reduced forms, and shared cu1tur;ll knowledge are all
manifested at some point in conversations. Colloquialisms appear in hot11 mono-
logues and dialogues.
254 CHAPTER 16 Teachin: listen~ng
6. Rate of delivery
Virtually every language learner initially thinks that native speakers speak too
fast! Actually, as Jack Richards (1983) points out, the number and length of pauses
used by a speaker is more crucial to comprehension than sheer speed. Learners
will nevertheless eventually need to be able to comprehend language delivered at
varying rates of speed and, at times, delivered with few pauses. Unlike reading,
where a person can stop and go back to reread, in listening the hearer may not
always have the opportunity to stop the speaker. Instead, the stream of speech will
continuci to flow!
7. Stress, rhythm, a n d intonation
The prosodic features of the English hnguage are very importi~ntfor compre-
hension. Because English is a stress-timed language, English speech can be a terror
for some learners :amouthfuls of syllables come spilling out between stress points.
The sentence "The PKEsident is INTerested in eLIMinating the emllARgo,"with four
stressed syllables out of eighteen, theoretic;tlly takes about the s;lme amount of time
to utter as "Dead men wear plaid."Also, intonation patterns arc vcry significant (see
Chapter 17) not just for interpreting straightforward elements such as questions,
statements, and emphasis but for understanding more subtle messages like sarcasm,
endearnlent, insult, solicitation, praise, etc.
8. Interaction
I.lnless a language learner's objective is exclusively to master some specialized
skill like monitoring ndio broadcasts or attending lectures, interaction will play a
large n)le in listening comprehension. Conversation is especially subject to all the
rules of intenction: negotiation, clarification,attending signals, turn-t;tking, and topic
nomination, maintenance, ant1 termination (see Chapter 9 of PLLT). So, to learn to
listen is also to learn to respond and to continue a chain of listening and responding.
Classroom techniques that include listening components must at some point include
instn~ctionin the twwway nature of Listening. Students need to understand that
good listeners (in conversation) are good responders. They know how to negotiate
meaning (to give feedback, to ask for clarification, to maintain a topic) so that the
process of comprehending can be complete rather than being aborted by insuffi-
cient interaction.
A fourthcentury Chinese proverb says it more eloquently:
Not to let a word get in the wrry of its sentence
Nor to let a sentence get in the way of its intention.
But to send your mind out to meet the intention as a guest;
THAT is understanding.
1 sive-as 01)posed to extenswe--in their requirement that students single out
CHAPTER 16 Teaching Listening 255
MICROSKILLS OF LISTENING COMPREHENSION
Jack Richa1.d~(1983), in his seminal article on teaching listening skills, provided a
comprehei~sivetaxonomy of aural skills involved in conversational discourse. Such
lists are ve-y usefill in helping you to break down just what it is that your learners
need to actually perform as they acquire effective listening strategies. Through a
checklist of microskills, you can get a good idea of what your techniques need to
cover in the domain of listen~ngcomprehension. As you plan a specific technique
or listening module, such a list helps you to focus on clearly conceptualized objec-
tives. And in your evaluation of listening, these microskills can become testing cri-
teria. Tabl~.16.1 is just such ;I checklist, adapted from Richards and other sources.
It is in~portantto note that these seventeen microskills apply to conversational
discourse. Less interactive forms of discourse, such as listening to monologues like
academic Ic.ctures,include further, more specific microskills. Students in an academic
setting nee11 to be able to perform such things as identifying the structure of a lecture,
weeding out what may be irrelevant or tangential, detecting the possible biases of the
speaker, critically evaluating the speaker's assertions, and developing means (through
note-taking for example) of retaining the content of a lecture.
TYPES OF CLASSROOM LISTENING PERFORMANCE
With literally hundreds of possible techniques available for teaching listening skills,
it will be Itelpful for you to thirtk in terms of several kinds of listening perfor-
mance-thlt is, what your students do in a Listening technique. Sometimes these
types of performance are embedded in a broader technique or task, and sometimes
they are th~~mselves the sum rota1 of the activity of a technique.
1. Reactive
Somet mes you want ;l learner simply to listen to the surface structure of an
utterance f ) r the sole purpose of reprating it back to you. While this kind of lis-
tening perlormance requircs little meaningful processing, it nevertheless may be a
legitimate, even though a minor, aspect of an interactive, communicative classroom.
This role o ' the listener as mmc:rely a "tape recorder" (Nunan 1991b: 18) is very lim-
ited because the listener is not generating meaning. About the only role that reac-
tive listeni~~g can play in an interactive classroom is in brief choral or individual
drills that f~)cuson pronunciation.
2. Intensive
Techn~queswhose only purpose is to focus on components (phonemes,words,
intonation, discourse markers, etc.) of discourse may be considered to be inten-
256 CHAPTER 16 Teaching Listening
Table 16.1. Microskills of listening comprehension (adapted from Richards 1983)
1. Retain chunks of language of difierent lengths in short-tt~rmmemory.
2. Discriminate among the distinctive sounds of English.
3. Recognize English stress patterns, words in stressed and unstressed positions,
rhythmic structure, intonational contours, and their role in signaling information.
4. Recognize reduced forms of words.
5. Distinguish word boundaries, recognize a core of words, and interpret word order
patterns and their significance.
6. Process speech at different rates of delivery.
7. Process speech containing pauses, terrors, corrections, and other performance
variables.
8. Recognize grammatical word classes (nouns, verbs, elc.), systems (e.g., tense,
agreement, pluralization), patterrls, rules, and elliptical fwms.
9. Detect sentence constituents and distinguish betbeen major and minor
constituents.
10. Recognize that a particular meaning may be expressed in different grammatical
forms.
11. Recognize cohesive devices in spoken discourse
12. Recognize the communicative functions of utterances, according to situations,
participants, goals.
13. Infer situations, participants, goals uslng real-world kno~~ledge.
14. From events, ideas, etc., described, predict outcomes, iner links and connections
between events, deduce causes and effects, and detect such relations as main
idea, supporting idea, new information, given inforrna ion, generalization, and
exemplification.
15. Distinguish between literal and implied meanings.
16. Use facial, kinesic, body language, ancl other nonverbal c l ~ ~to
e sdecipher meanings.
17. Develop and use a battery of listening strategies, such as detecting key words,
guessing the meaning of words from context, appeal for help, and signaling
comprehension or lack thereof.
I certain facts or events
certain elements of spoken language. 'They include the bottom-up skills (see p. 260)
that are important at all levels of proficiency. Examples of intensive listening per-
formance include these:
Students listen for cues in certain choral or individual drills.
The teacher repeats a word or sentence several times to "imprint" it in the
students' mind.
CHAPTFR 1 h Teachi~lgLister,ing 257
The teacher asks students to listen to a sentence or ;I longer stretch of dis
course and to notice a specified element, such as intonation, stress a con-
traction, a grammatical structure, etc.
3. Responsive
A significant proportion of cl;rssroom listening activity consists of short
stretches of teacher language designed to elicit immediate responses. The 4tudents'
task in such listening is to process the teacher talk immediately and to hshion an
appropriate reply. Examples include
asking questions ("How are you today?""What did you do last nigh~i")
giving commands ("Take a sheet of paper and a pencil.")
seeking clarification ("What was that word you said?")
checking comprehension ("So, how many people wcre in the elev;~tor
when the power went out?").
4. Selective
In longer stretches of discourse such as monr~loguesof a couple of mlnuteh or
considerably longer, the task of the student is not to process everything (hat w;w
said. hut nther to scan the material selectively for certain information. The purpose
of such performance is not to look for global or general mt:anings, neces>.~rily, hut
to b e able to find important information in a field of potenti;~llyclistrxcting infor-
mation. Such activity requires field independence (see PLLT, Chapter 5.1 on the
part of the learner. Selective listening differs from intensive listening in t h ; ~the
~ dis-
course is in relatively long lengths. Examples of such discourse include
speeches
media broadcasts
stories and anecdotes
conversations in which learners are "eavesdroppers."
Techniques promoting selective listening slulls could ask students to listtn for
people's names
dates
location, situation, context, etc.
main ideas and/or conclusion.
5. Extensive
This sort of performance, unlike the intensive processing (item 2) dcscrihed
above, aims to develop a topdown, global understantling of spoken I:~ngulge.
Extensive performance could nnge from listening to lengthy lectures, t o listening to
a convers:~tion and deriving a comprehensive message or purpose Exte~~sive lis
 258 (.HAPTFI.* 16 T e , ~ h i ~Latening
lg
tening may require the student to invoke other interactive skills (e.g., note-taking
and/or discussion) for h l l comprehension.
6. Interactive
Finally, there is listening performance that can include all five of the above
types as learners actively participate in discussions, debates, conversations, role-
plays, and other pair and group work. Their listening performance must be intri-
cately intepated with speaking (and perhaps other) skills in the authentic give and
take of communicative interchange.
PRINCIPLES FOR DESIGNING LISTENING TECHNIQUES
Several decades of research and practice in teaching listening comprehension have
yielded some practical principles for designing techniques that include ai~ralcom-
prehension. Thebe principles are sumnlarized below. Some of them, especially the
first two, actually apply to any technique; the others are more germane to listening.
1. In an interactive, four-skills curriculum, make sure that you don't over-
look the importance of techniques that specifically develop listening com-
prehension competence.
If your curriculum is strongly content-based,or otherwise dedicated to the inte-
gntion of skills, rememb~rthat each of the separate skills deserves special focus in
appropriate doses. It is easy to adopt a philosophy of just letting students "experi-
ence" language without careful attention to component skills. Because aural com-
prehension itself cannot be overtly "observed" (see item 4), teachers sometimes
incorrt:ctly assume that the input provicled in the classroom will always be con-
verted into intake. The creation of effective listening techniques requires studied
attention to all the principles of listening already summarized in this chapter.
2. Use techniques that are intrinsically motivating.
Appeal to listeners' personal interests and goals. Since background information
(schemata) is an important factor in listening, take into full account the experi-
ences, goals, and abilities of your students as you design lessons. Also, remember
that the cultural background(s) of your students can be both facilitating and inter-
fering in the process of listening. Then, once a technique is Launched, try to con-
struct it in such a way that students are caught up in the activity and feel
self-pn)pelled toward its final objective.
3. Utilize authentic language and contexts.
I Anthentic language and real-world tasks enable students to see the relevance of
I classroom activity to their long-term conl~nunicativegoals. If you introduce natural
ill texts (for a list of ral-world texts, see pp. 243-14) rather than concocted, artificial
materixl, students will more readily dive into the activity.
CHAPTER 16 Teaching L~stening 259
4. Carefully consider the forrn of listeners' responses.
Comprehension itself is not externally observable. We cannot peer into a
learner's bnin through a little window and empirically observe what is stored there
after someone else has said something. We can only infer that certain things have
been comprehended through students' overt (verbal or nonverbal) responses to
speech. It is therefore important for teachers to design techniques in such a way that
students' responses indicate whether or not their comprehension has been correct.
Lund (1990) offered nine differen; ways that we can check listeners'comprehension:
doi.~g-the listener responds physically to a command
ch~osing-the listener selects from alternatives such as pictures, objects,
and texts
trar,sferring--the listener draws a picture of what is heard
answering-the listener ariswers questions about the message
condensing-the listener outlines or takes notes on a lecture
extc:nding-the listener provides an ending to a story heard
* du~licating-the listener translates the message into the native language or
repayats it verbatim
motleling-the listener ortlers a meal, for example, after listening to a
motlel order
conversing-the listener engages in a conversation that indicates appro-
priate processing of inforniation.
5. Encourage the development of listening strategies.
Most foreign language students are simply not aware of how to listen. One of
your jobs ii to equip them with listening strategies that extend beyond the class-
room. Dmw their attention to the value of such strategies as
looh irig for key words
look ing for nonverbal cues to meaning
predicting a speaker's purpose by the context of the spoken discourse
* associating informatioli with one's existing cognitive structure (activating
backsground information)
gue:sing at meanings
* seeking clarification
listening for the gener.11 gist
various test-taking strategies for listening comprehension.
As you "teach learners how to learn" by helping them to develop their overall
strategic competence (morc on this in Chapter 22), strategies for effective listening
can becomc: a highly significant p;lrt of their chances for successful learning.
260 CHAPTERI 6 Teaching listening
6. Include both bottom-up and top-down listening tt:chniques.
Speech-processing theory distinguishes between two types of processing in
both listening and reading comprehension. Bottom-up pi-ocessing proceeds from
sounds to words to grammatical relationships to lexical rneanings, etc., to a final
"message."Top-down processing is evoked from "a bank of prior knowledge and
global expectations" (Morley 1991: 87) and other bickground information
(schemata) that the listener brings to the text. Bottom-up techniques typically
focus on sounds, words, intonation, gnnlmatical structure?.and other components
of spoken language. Top-down techniques are more conct rned with the activation
of schemata,with deriving meaning, with global understanding, and with the inter-
pretation of a text. It is important for learners to operate from both directions since
both can offer keys to determining the u~eaningof spoken 3liscourse. But in a com-
municative, interactive context, you don't want to dwell ton) heavily on the bottom-
up, for to do so may hamper the development of a learner's all-important
automaticity in processing speech
LISTENING TECHNIQUES FROM BEGINNING TO ADVANCED
'rechniques for teaching listening will vary considerably acloss the proficiency con-
tinuum. Chapter 7 has already dealt with general chancteristics. Listening tech-
niques are no exception to the gener;~lrule. Table 16.2 provides threc lists of
techniques for each of three proficiency levels. Each li: t is broken down into
bottom-up,top-down, and intenctivc types of activity.
The importance of listening comprehension in langliage learning should by
now be quite apparent. As we move on to look at speaking skills,always remember
the ever-present relationship among all four skills and tht necessity in authentic,
interactive classes to integrate these skills even as you focu.; on the specifics of one
skill area.
ted from Peterson 1991:
Table 16.2. Techniques for teaching listening comprehension ( a d a ~
114-121)
FOR BEGINNING-LEVEL LISTENERS
--
--
Bottom-Up Exercises
1) Goal: Discriminating Between Intonation Contours in Sentences
Listen to a sequence of sentence patterns with either rising or ialli~lgintonation. Place a
check in column 1 (rising) or colurrir~2 (falling), depending on the pattern you hear.
2) Goal: Discriminating Between Phonemes
Listen to pairs of words. Some pairs differ in thelr final consonant, and some pairs are the
same. Circle the word "sanle" or "diiferent," depending on what qou hear.
3) Goal: Selective Listening for Morphologic?l Endings
Listen to a series of sentences. Circle "yes" if the verb ~ J an
S -ede iding, and circle "no" if
it does not.
CkiAPTFK 16 Teachirig Li5ter1mg 261
r- Listen to a series of sentences. On your answer sheet, clrcle the one (01 three) verb
contained in the sentence that yo; hear.
4) Goal: Selecting Details from the Text (Word Recognition)
Match a word that you hear with its picture.
Listen to a weather report. Look at a list of words and circle the words that ~ O L hear
I
Listen to a sentence that contains clock time. Circle the clock time that you hear. arrong
three choices (530, 5:45, 6:15).
Listen to an advertisement, select the price of an item, and write the amount OII a pr!ce tag.
Listen to a series of recorded telephone messages trom an answering machine. Fill irl a ch,lrt
with the following information trom each caller: name. number, time, and rrlcbssagt
51 Coal: Listening for Normal Sentence Word Order
Listcn to a short dialogue and fill in the missing words that have been tleleted in a p.irtl,~l
transcript.
Top-Down Exercises
61 Coal: Discriminating Between Emotional Reactions
Listcn to a sequence of utterances. Place a check in the column that describes the er ~ot~on,ll
reaction that you hear: interested, happy, surprised, or unhappy.
7) Goal: Getting the Gist of a Sentence
Listen to a sentence describing a picture and select the correct picture.
8 ) Coal: Recognize the Topic
Listen to a dialogue and decide where the conversation occurred. Circle thr correct location
among three multiple-choice items.
Listen to a conversation and look at the pictured greeting cards. D e r i d ~
which ot the grrcting
cards was sent. Write the greeting under the appropriate card.
Listen to a conversation and decide what the people are talking ahnut. Choose thr pi tclrc
hat shows the topic.
interactive Exercises
9) Coal: Build a Semantic Network of Word Associations
Listen to a word and associate all the related words that come to mind.
10) Coal: Recognize a Familiar Word and Relate It to a Category
Listen to words from a shopping list and match each word to the store that sells it
1 1) Coal: Following Directions
Listen to a description of a route and trace it on a map.
---
FOR INTERMEDIATE LEVEL LISTENERS
Bottom-Up Exercises
--
-I
12) Coal: Recognizing Fast Speech Forms
Iisten to a series of sentences that contain unstressed function words. Circ-leyour cho~:e
among three words on the answer sheet-for example: "up," "a," "oi."
13) Goal: Finding the Stressed Syllable
Listen to words of two (or three) syllables. Mark them for word stress and predict the
pronunciation of the unstressed syllable.
14) Goal: Recognizing Words with Reduced Syllables
1 Read a list of polysyllabic words and predict which syllab~cvowel will be dropped. Li,ten
the words read in fast speech and confirm your prediction.
I
262 CHAPTER 10 Teaching hten~ng
15) Goal: Recognize Words as They Are Linked in the Speech Stream
Listen to a series of short sentences with consonant/vowel linking between words. Mark the
linkage5 on your answer sheet.
16) Goal: Recognizing Pertinent Details in the Speech Stream
Listen to a short dialogue between a boss and a secretary regarding changes in the daily
schedule. Use an appointment calendar. Cross out appointments that are being changed
and write in new ones.
Listen to announcements of airline arrivals and departures. With a model of an airline
information board in front of you, fill in the flight numbers, destinations, gale numbers, and
del)~rturetimes.
Listen to a series of sl~ortdialogues after reading questions that apply to the dialogues. While
listening, find the answers to questions about prices, places, names, and numbers. Example:
"Where are the shooptrs?" "How much is whole wheat bread?"
Listen to a sliort telephone conversation between a customer and a servic.e station manager.
Fill I ~ aI chart which lists the car repairs that must be done. Check the part of the car that
needs repair, the reason, and the approximate cost.
Top-Down Exercises
1 7 ) Goal: Analyze Discourse Structure to Suggest Effective Listening Strategies
Listen to six radio conimercials with attention to the use o l music, repetition of key words,
and nu~nberof spe,lkers. Talk at~outthe effect these techniques have on the listeners.
18) Goal: Listen to Identify the Speaker or the Topic
[.isten to a series of r,ldio con~mercials.On your answrr sheet, choose anlong four types o f
sponsors or products and identify the picture that goes with the conimercidl.
19) Coal: Listen to Evaluate Themes and Motives
Listen to a serles of r ~ d i ocommercials. On your answer sheet are four possible motives that
the c.on~panirsuse to appeal to the~rcustomers. Circle all the motives that you feel each
c-olnmercial promotes: escape from reality, family security, snob appeal, sex appeal.
201 (,oal: Finding Main Ideas and Supporting Details
[.isten to a short conversation between two friends. O n your answer sheet are scenes from
television progrdnis. Find and write the name of the program and the channel. Decide
whtch speaker watched which program.
2 1 ) Goal: Making Inferences
Listen to a sc!rics of scJntences, which may be either statenients or questions. After each
senttmce, answer inierential questions such as "Where might the speaker be?" "How might
the spe'iker be feelhng?" "What might the speaker be referring to?"
Listen to a series of sentences. After each sentence, suggest a possible context for the
sentence (place, situation, time, participants).
Interactive Exercises
22) Goal: Discriminating Between Registers of Speech and Tones of Voice
Listen to a series of sentences. O n your answer sheet, mark whether the sentence is polite or
impolitt!.
2 3 ) Goal: Recognize Missing Grammar Markers in Colloquial Speech
Listen to J series of short questions in which the auxiliary verb and subject have been deleted.
Use gramnidtical knowledge to fill in the missing words: ("Have you) got some extra?"
Listen to a series of questions with reduced verb auxiliary and subject and Identify the
missing verb (does ir/is it) by checking the form o i the main verb. Exaniple: "'Zit come with
anything else? 'Lit xriving on time?"
CHAPTFR 16 Teaching listening 263
- --
24) Goal: Use K~~owledge of Reduced Forms to Clarify the Meaning of an Utferance
Listen to a . hort sentence containing .i reduced form. Decide what the sentence means. On
your ansuer sheet, choose the one (of three) alternatives that is the best paraphrase of the
sentence '.ou heard. Example: You hear "You can't be happy with that." You read: (a) "Why
can't you 3e happy?" (b) "That will make you happy." [c) "I don't think you are happy."
2 5) Goal: Use Context to Build Listening Erpectations
Read a shoit want-ad describing job qualifications from the employment section o i a
newspaper. Brainstorm additior~alqualifications that would be important for that type of
job.
26) Goal: Listen "o Confirm Your Expectations
Listen to short radio advertiseniel~tsfor jobs that are avail,it)le. Check the job qualifications
against yoJr expectations.
27) Goal: Use Ccntext to Build Expectatior~s.Use Bottom-Up Processing to Recognize Missing
Words. Compare Your Predictions to What You Actually Heard
Read some [elephone messages with missing words. Decide what kinds of information are
missing sc you know what to lijten lor. Listen to the information and fill in the blanks.
Finally, di:cuss with the class what strategies you used lor your predictions.
28) Goal: Use Inl,omplete Sensory Data and Cultural Background Information to Construct a
More Complete Understanding of a Text
Listen to on! side of a telephone conkersation. Decide what the topic of the conversation
might be ;nd create a title for it.
Listen to thr beginning of a conversation between two people and answer questions about
the numbc r o i participants, their ages, gender, and social roles. Guess the time of day,
location, t,!mperature, season, and topic. Choose among some statements to guess what
might c o n e next.
-. - --
FOR ADVANCE11 LEVEL LEARNERS
Bottom-Up Exercises
29) Goal: Use Fe'rtures of Sentence Stress and Volume to Identify Important Information for
Note-Takink
Listen to a Fumber of sentences and e<tract the content words, which are read with greater
stress. Wri e the content words S I, notes.
30) Coal: Become, Aware of Sentence-Level Features in Lecture Text
Listen to a s,!gment o f a lecture while re,lding a transcript o i the material. Notice the
incornpletc sentences, pauses, and v~:rl)al fillers.
31 Goal: Becom~Aware of Organizational Cues in Lecture Text
Look at a lei.ture transcript and c~rcle.dl the cue words used to enumerate the main points.
Then lister to the lecture segment and note the organizational cues.
32) Goal: Becorn18Aware of Lexical and Suprasegmental Markers for Definitions
Read a list c f lexical cues that signal a definition; listen to signals of the speaker's intent, such
as rhetoric 11 questions; listen to special intonation patterns and pause patterns used with
appositive!.
Listen to s h ~ r lecture
t segments that cclntain new terms and their definitions in context. Use
knowledge of lexical and intonational cues to identify the definition of the word.
264 CHAPTER 16 Teaching Listening
--
TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION, RESEARCH, AND ACTION
Read a skeleton outline of a lecture in which the main categorier are given but the specific
examples are leit blank. Listen to the lecture and find the intorrlation that belongs in the
blanks.
Top-Down Exercises
34) Cual: Use the Introduction to the Lecture to Predict Its Focus anif Direction
Listen to the introductory section of lecture. Then read a numb1.r of topics on your answer
sheet and choose the topic that best expresses what the lecture will discuss.
35) Goal: Use the Lecture Transcript to Predict the Content of the Nert Section
Read a section of a lecture transcript. >top reading at a juncture /Joint and predict what will
come next. Then read on to confirm your prediction.
36) Goal: Find the Main Idea of a Lecture Segment
Listen to a section of a lecture that describes ;I statistical trend. M'hile you listen, look at threc
graphs that show a change over time and select the graph that I~estillustrates the lecture.
I
Interactive Exercises
37) Goal: Use Incoming Details to Determine the Accuracy of Predictions About Content
Listen to the introductory sentences l o predict some of the main deas you expect to hear in
the lecture. Then listen to the lectu~e.Note whether or not the iistructor talks about the
points you predicted. If shethe does, note ,I detail about the po~nt.
38) Goal: Determine the Main ldeas of a Section of a Lecture by Analysis of the Details in That
Section
Listen to a section of a lecture and takca notes on the important df.tails. Then relate the details
to form an understanding of the main point of that section. Choose from a list o i possible
controlling ideas.
39) Coal: Make Inferences by Identifying ldeas on the Sentence Level That Lead to Evaluative
Statements
Listen to a statement and take notes on the ~mportantwords. Indi.dte what further meaning
can be inferred irom the statement. lndicale the worcls in the or~ginalstatement. Indicate
the words in the original statement that serve to cue the inferen -e.
40) Coal: Use Knowledge of the Text and the Lecture Content to Fill In Missing Information
Listen to a lecture segment for its gist. Then listen to a statement lrom whirh words have beer
omitted. Using your knowledge of tht~text and of the general content, fill in the missing
information. Check your understantling by listening to the entirt, segment.
41) Goal: Use Knowledge of the Text and the Lecture Content to Discover the Lecturer's
Misstatements and to Supply the ldeas That He Meant to Say
Listen to a lec.ture segment that contains an inc.orrect term. Write the incorrect term '~ndthe
term that the lecturer should have ~lsc~d.Fiqally, indicate what clues helped you find the
misstatement.
O ~ A ~ EI IR, Teaching listen ng 265
[Note: Individual work; (G) group or pair work; (C) wholeclass discuss~on.]
1. (G) Direct pairs to review the difference between input and intake I refer-
ring, if necessary, to PLLT, Chapter 10) and to illustrate with classroon~exam-
ples how input gets converted into intakc. What hints or ideas could one
recomnlend for helping students to maximize the conversion of inpu~to
intake?
2. (C) Ask the class for specific language examples of each of the eight
processes of listening referred to on pages 249-50. How are factors ;'
through 8 interactive by definition?
3. (G)Ask pairs to look at the chart in Figure 10. I and make sure they u ~ ~ d e r -
stand each type of oral language. Pairs will then devise an illustration of each
and compare their illustrations with those of some other pairs.
4. (C) Pick an English language news program and audiot;ipe a two- or tl~ree-
minute segment. In class, have students listen to the tape and identif) the
"clusters" of words that form thought groups. Then, direct then1 to b~:~in-
storm hints they could give to ESL students to help them to listen to ?uch
clusters rather than to each separate word.
5. (G) Instruct pairs to specifically identify the redundant words/phmsrs in t l ~ e
conversation between Amos and Andy (p. 253), and to brainstorm ho1.v thrv
would teach students (a) to use such redundancies for comprehensio~land
(b) to overlook them when comprehension is already sufficient.
6. (c)T~pe-recorda casual conversation between two native speakers of
English. In class, play the tape and ask stlldents to pick out as m ~ n y ' l ~ e r f o r ~
mance variab1es"as they can. How do these perforrnance variables ditfer
from those of a learner of English? Can students be taught to overlook or to
compensate for such naturally occurring perlormance variables)
7. (G) Direct small groups to look again at the taxonomy of listening n~icrosk~lls
(Table 16.1) and to make sure they understand each item by offering ;in
example. Groups will then look at the six typcs of classroom listening perti~r-
mance (pp. 255-58) and share examples of each and discuss their ;lpi>ropri-
ateness in the classroom.
8. (G/C) Tell pairs to consider the listening strategies referred to on pagt 257
and to make sure they understand each strategy. Then, have them ske~chout
some techniques that they coilld use to teach such str~tegiesto stucle~lts.
Thcy can then share their techniques with the rest of the class.
9. (G)hs a whole class, review the six principles for effective listening ttch-
niques on pages 258-60. Then, assign to pairs one or two of the 4 1 tt ch-
niques outlined inTable 16.2,and have them systematically evalu:~tcttle
techniques they have been given. Their evaluation should be based OII the
six principles.
 10. (I) One type of listening technique (combined with writing) not considered
in tliis chapter is dictation. How useful is dictation? What are the pros and
cons of using dictation in a classroom?
FOR YOUR FUR'IMER READING
Itubin, Joan. 1994. "A review of second language listening comprehension
rcsearch."Modenz Lnngzrnge Journal 78: 199-221.
Mendelsohn, David J. 1998. 'Teaching listening." Annual Reuieuf of Applied
Lingzristics 18: 81-101.
Both o4'1hesejolrr~l~rl articles reoieu~research on teaching listening contpre-
hensron. Rubin s uflicle looks at five dgerewt characttlistic-s of intrractizle
1i.itenitzg: text, interlocutor, tusk, listener, and process. ,Vfendelsohnfocuses
more on a strut(?g>l-basedapproach to teachlng listerring and atids an anno-
tated hihliogrcrpby of profixqiorzul resource boob.
Mendelsohn, Davitl and Rubin, Joan (Eds.). 1995. A Guide for the Teaching of
Sc~t:otrdLarrguu~eListeniris. San Diego: Dominie Press.
tc,~rchersand teuchen in truinitlg, thrs hook oJ]>n- buckgroz~nd
It~ten,:i~~~lji)r
k n o ~ ~ ' l eon
~ i qreseurch
~ on 1i.stening compreber~sionas ur.11 cis pructical
inJbrtnution on the rebtionship between speaking and listc>lziy~g, or1 strute-
giwj0r teuchir1,q listening, crnd on cum'culum planning. A comprehensire
s6.1 of refkrences is uery helpful.
hchards, Jack C. 1983. "Listening comprehension: Approach, design, procedure."
TESOL Quarterly 17: 219-39.
IT/ this n~uch-quoted,sen~inularticle. Ricbards giues a comprehensir~etreat-
rnt,nf oj'the naturr-'ctlistening, using his approach/desigrt/procc~duremodel.
Numrrozn theoretical and practical teaching issz~esare covered. %is article
is reprinted in Lotzg and Richards (19871.
Nunan, David and .Miller, Lindsay (Eds.). 1995. New Ways i n Teaching Listening.
Alex~ndria,VA:Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages.
Rost, Michael. 1991. Listening i n Action:Acticities for Detleloping Listening in
Lunguage Teuc/~ing.Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Llr, Penny. 1984. l'eacbitzg Listening Comprehension. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
All three of these highly w-eji~lteucber reference boob are gold mines of
ideas on many differerrt kinds of techniques that can be used to teach lis-
tening comprehension. from listening jorperception only, to interactive real-
lye listening M(rriy lechniqtres are graded bv larzguuge proficiency level.
I-
From a communicative, pngmatic view of the language classroom, listening and
speaking sliills are closely intertwined. More often than not, ESL curricula that treat
oral communication skills will simply be labeled as "Listening/Speakingn courses.
The intenction between these two modes of perforn~anceapplies especially
strongly to conversation, the most popular discourse category in the profession.
And, in the cklssroom, even rt-laticely unidirectional types of spoken language input
(speeches, lectures, etc.) are often followed or preceded by various forms of oral
productiorl on the part of students.
Some of the components of teaching spoken language were covered in the pre-
vious chapter as we looked closely at teaching listening comprehension: types of
spoken lan~:uage,idiosyncr,isiesof spoken language that make listening difficult, and
listening microskills that are a Factor of the oral code. This chapter will build on
those consrderations as we investipte the teaching of oral communication skills.
ORAL COMMVJNICATION SKILLS IN PEDAGOGICAL RESEARCH
A review 01 some of the current issues in teaching oral communication will help to
provide some pcrspective to the more practical considerations that follow in this
chapter.
1. Conversational discourse
When someone asks you "Do you speak English?: they usually mean: Can you
carry on a (onversation reasonably competently?The benchmark of successful lan-
guage acquisition is almost always the demonstration of an ability to accomplish
pragmatic g.oals through interactive discourse with other speakers of the language.
And yet, as Richards (1990: 67) noted, "the conversation class is something of an
enigma in I lnguage teaching."The goals and the techniques for teaching conversa-
tion are ext eniely diverse, depending on the student, teacher, and overall context of
268 CHAPTER 17 Teachrng Speaking
the class. Historically,"conversation"classes have ranged from quasicommunicative
drilling to free, open, and sometimes agenda-less discuss~onsamong students.
Recent pedagogicai research on teaching conversation has provided some pan-
meters for developing objectives ;lnd techniques. We h!ve learned to differentiate
between transactional and interactional conversation (lee Chapter 16). We have
discovered techniques for teaching students conversation rules for topic nomina-
tion, maintaining a conversation, turn-taking, interruption, and termination. Our
pedagogical storehouse has equipped us with ways to tt,ach sociolinguistic a p p r e
priateness, styles of speech, nonverbal communication, and conversational routines
(such as "Wcll, I've gotta go now.' "Great weather today. huh?""Haven't I met you
somewhere before?"). Within all thesr foci, the phonolo:ical, lexical, and syntactic
properties of language can be attended to either directly or indirectly.
2. Teaching pronunciation
There has been some controversy over the role of pronunciation work in a
communicative, interactive course of s~udy.Because the nverwhelming majority of
adult learners will never acquire an accent-free command of a foreign language,
should a language prognm that ernph;~sizeswhole langiiage, meaningful contexts,
and automaticity of production focus on these tiny phonoiogical details of language?
The answer is "yes: but in a different way from what was perceived to be essential
a couple of decades ago. This topic will be taken up later in the chapter.
3. Accuracy and fluency
An issue that pervades all of hnguage performance centers on the distinction
between accuracy and fluency. In spoken language the question we face as
teachers is: How shall we prioritize the two clearly important speaker goals of
accurate (clear, articulate, grammatically and phonologically correct) language and
fluent (tlowing, natural) language?
In the mid to late 1970s, egged on by a somewhat short-lived anti-grammar
approach, some teachers turned away liom accuracy issues in favor of providing a
plethora of "naturaln language activity in their classrooms. The argument was, of
course, that adult second language acquisition should sirr ulate the child's first lan-
guage learning processes. Our classrooms must not becorne linguistics courscs but
mthcr the Locus of meaningful language involvement, oi. so the argument went.
Unfortunately, such classrooms so strongly emphasized the importance of fluency-
with a concomitant playing down of the bits and ;,ieces of gnmmar and
phonology-that many students managed to produce fairly fluent but barely com-
prehensible language. Something was lacking.
It is now very clear that fluency and accuracy are both important goals to
pursue in CLT. While fluency may in many communicative language courses be an
initial goal in language teaching, at:cur.~cyis achieved to some extent by allowing
students to focus on the elements of phonology, gramm;l.r,and discourse in their
spoken output. If you were learning to play tennis inste;rd of a second language,
this same philosophy would initially get you out on the tennis court to feel what it's
CHAPTER I 7 Teaching Speak ~ n g 269
like to hold a racket, to hit the ball, to serve, etc.,and then h;~veyou focus nlore cog-
nitively on certain fundamentals. Fluency is probably best achieved by allowing the
"stream" of speech to "flow"; then, as some of this speech spills over beylnd com-
prehensil>ili~:,the "riverbanks" of instruction on some details of pl~onology,
grammar, o; discourse can channel the speech on a more purposeful c o u ~se.
The fluency/accuracy issue often boils down to the extent to which our tcch-
niqlles should be message oriented (or, as some call it, te:~chingI:~nguagcuse) as
opposed to language oriented (also known as teaching language usage). Current
approaches to language teaching lean strongly toward message orientation with lan-
guage usage offering a supporting role.
4. Affective factors
One of the major obstacles learners have to overcome in leari~ingtc speak is
the anxiety generated over the risks of blurting things out that are wrong, \ti~pitl,or
incomprehensible. Because of the hnguage ego (sec YLL'I',Chapters 3 arid 6) that
informs people that"you are what you speak," learners are rt:luctant to be jcldgetl by
hearers. Language learners can put a new twist on Mark Twain's quip t h ~ "It's t
better to keep your mouth closed and have others think you are ignonnr than to
open it and remove all doubt." Our job as teachers is to provide thr kind < t f warm,
embracing climate that encounges students to speak, however halting 01.broken
their attempts may be.
5. The interaction effect
The greatest difficulty that learners encounter in attempts tc) speak i \ not the
multiplicity of sounds, words, phnses,and discourse forms that char,icterizi: any Ian-
guage, but rather the interactive nature of most communication. Conversations are
collaborative as participants engage in a process of neg)tiation of nlraning. SCI,for
the learner, the matter of what to say-a tremendous task, to be sure- .is often
eclipsed by conventions of how to say things, when to speak, and other tliscourse
constraints. For example, among the many possible grammatical sentences thxt a
learner could produce in response to a comment, how does that learner. millie a
choice?
David Nunan (1991b: 47) notes a further complication in intemctive dlscoi~rse:
what he calls the interlocutor effect,or the difficulty of a speaking task as gauged
by the skills of one's interlocutor. In other words, one learner's perfor~nanccis
always colored by that of the person (interlocutor) he or she is talking wirh.
TYPES OF SPOKEN LANGUAGE
In the previous chapter, several categories were defined for understanding types of
spoken language (see especially Figure 16.I , page 251). In beginning through inter-
mediate levels of proficiency, most of the efforts of students in oral pa)duction
1 come in the form of conversation, or dialogue. As you plan and implem1:nt tech-
270 CHAPTER 17 Teaching Speak~ng
niques in your interactive classroom, make sure your students can deal with both
interpersonal (sometimes referred to as interactional) and transactional dia-
logue and that they are able to converse with a total stranger as well as someone
with whom they are quite familiar.
WHAT MAKES SPEAKING DIFFICULT?
Again, Chapter 1 6 outlined some idiosyncrasies of spoken language that make lis
tening skills somewhat difficult to acquire. These same chamcteristics must be
taken into account in the productive generation of speech, but with a slight twist in
that the learner is now the producer. Bear in mind that the following characteris
tics of spoken language can make oral performance easy as well as, in some cases,
difficult.
1. Clustering
Fluent speech is phrual, not word by word. Learners can organize their output
both cognitively 2nd physically (in breath groups) through such clustering.
2. Redundancy
The speaker has an opportunity to make meaning clearer through the redun-
dancy ol'language. Learners can capitalize on this feature of spoken language.
3. Reduced forms
(;ontractions, elisions, reduced vowels, etc., all form special problems in
teaching spoken English (see the section below on Teaching Pronunciation).
Students who don't learn colloquial contractions can sometimes develop a stilted,
bookish quality of speaking that in turn stigmatizes them.
4. Performance variables
Ont: of the advantages of spoken language is that the process of thinking as you
speak allows you to manifest a certain number of performance hesitations, pauses,
backtr;icking, and corrections. Learners can actually be taught how to pause and hesi-
tate. For example, in English our "thinkingtime" is not silent;we insert certain "ftllers"
such as ub, urn, wel1,pu know, I mean, like, etc. One of the most salient diFferences
between native and nonnative speakers of a language is in their hesitation phenomena.
5. Colloquial language
Make sure your students are reasonably well acquainted with the words,
idioms, and phrases of colloquial language and that they get practice in producing
these forms.
(HAPTER 17 Teaching Speaking 271
6. Rate of delivery
Anothcr salient charactenstir. t)f fluency is rate of delivery. One of your tasks
in teaching spoken English is to help learners achieve an acceptable speed along
with other attributes of fluency.
7. Stress, rhythm, and intonation
This i! the most important characteristic of English pronunciation, as will be
explained 1)elow. The stress-timed rhythm of spoken English and its intonation pat-
terns convt:y important messages
8. Interaction
As noied in the previous section, learning to produce waves of language in a
vacuum-~vithout interlocutors--would rob speaking skill of its richest compo-
nent: the c~~ativity
of conversational negotiation.
MICROSKIU9 OF ORAL COMMUNICATION
In the prev~ouschapter, seventeen nlicroskills for listening comprehension (adapted
from Richards 1983) were prt:senled. Here, many of the same microskills apply, but
because of major cognitivr and physical differences between listening and
speaking, sl )me noticeable alterations have been made, asTable 17.1 illustrates.
One ir lplication of such a list is the importance of focusing on both the forms
of languagc and the functions of language. In teaching oral communication, we
don't limit students' attention to the whole picture, even though that whole picture
is importa~it.We also help students to see the pieces-right down to the small
parts-of Illnguage that make up the whole. Just as you would instruct a novice
artist in co~nposition,the effect of color hues, shading,and brush stroke techniques,
so languagc students need to be shown the details of how to convey and negotiate
the ever-e111sivemeanings of language.
TYPES OF CLASSROOM SPEAKING PERFORMANCE
In Chapter 16,six types of listening performance were listed. With the obvious con-
nection be~weenlistening and speaking, six similar categories apply to the kinds of
oral produc.tion that students are expected to carry out in the classroom.
1. Imitative
A veq limited portion of classroom speaking time may legitimately be spent
generating 'human tape recorder" speech, where, for example, learners practice an
intonation :ontour or try to pinpoint a certain vowel sound. Imitation of this kind
is carried c~utnot for the purpose of meaningful interaction, but for focusing on
some partit:ular element of language form.
 CHAPTEK 17 Jearhing Spe;king 273
272 ctrArrrR I7 Teaching Speak~ng

Table 17.1. Microskills of oral communicati~,n

I Igrammatical forms with their appropriate context. Here are some useful guidelines

I 1. Produce chunl:: of language of different lengths.

2. Orally produce differences among the English phonemes and allophonic variants.
for successful drills:

Keep thcm short (a few minutes of a class hour only).

I 3 . Produce English stress patterns, words in stressed aid unstressed positions,

rhythmic structure, and intonatior~alcontours.
4. Produce reduced forms of words 3nd phrases.
1 Keep thcm simple (preferably just one point at a time).
Keep them "snappy."
Make sure students know why they are doing the drill.
5. Use an adequate number of lexic;ll units (words) in order to accomplish pragmatic Limit them to phonology or grammar points.
purposes. Make sure they ultimately lead to communicative goals
6 . Produce fluent speech at different rate.5 of delivery. Don't overuse them.
7 . Monitor your own oral production ;~nduse various stfategic devices-pauses,
2. Intensive
fillers, self corrections, backtracking-to enhance the cla~ityof the message.
Intensive speaking goes one step beyond imitative to include any speaking per-
8. Use grammatical word classes (nouns, verbs, elc.), systems (e.g., tense, agreement, formance that is designed to practice some phonological or grammatical .ispect of
pluralization), word order, patterns, rules, and elliptical fcmrms. language. Intensive speaking can be self-initiated or it can even form part of some
9. Produce speech in natural constituer~ts-in appropriate phrases, pause groups, pair work activity, where learners are "going over" certain forms of lang~1aj:e.
breath groups, and sentences
1 10. Express a particular meaning in different grammatical forr IS. I 3. Responsive
I 1 1 . Use cohesive devices in spoken discoursc~. I A good deal o f student speech in the classroom is responsive: short replies to
teacher- or student-initiated questions or comments. These replies are us~~ally suf-
12. Accomplish appropriately communicative functions accorling to situations, partic- ficient and do not extend into dialogues (categories 4 and 5) Such speecli can be
ipants, and goals. meaningful and authentic:
13. Use appropriate registers, implicature, pragmatic convent nns, and other sociolin-
guistic features In face-to-face conversat'Ions. T: How are you today?
S: Pretty good, thanks, and you?
14. Convey links and connections between events and commt~nicatesuch relations as
main idea, supporting idea, new iniorrnntion, given information, generalization,
T: What is the main idea in this essay?
and exemplification.
S: The United Nations should have more authorit)
15. Use facial features, kinesics, body language, and other nonverbal cues along with
verbal language to convey meanings. SI: So, what did you write for question number on(:?
I h. Develop and use a battery of speaking strategies, such as :mphasizing key words, S2: Well, I wasn't sure, so I left it blank.
rephrasing, providing a context for ~nterpretingthe nieaninl, of words, appealing for
help, and accurately assessing how well your interlocutor i ; understanding you. 4. Transactional (dialogue)
'Transactional language,carried out for the purj~oseof convrying or excl~anging
specific information, is an extended form of responsive 1angu:~ge.<:onversltions,
A question that new teachers in the field always warlt to have answered is: Is for example, may have more of a negotiative nature to them than does reslxmsive
drilling a legitimate part of the communicative language ~:lassroom?'I'heanswer is speech:
a qu;~lified"yes." 1)rills ofkr students an opportunity to l~stenand to orally repeat
certain strings of language that may pose some linguistic d'ifrculty-either phone T: What is the main idea in this essay?
logical or grammatical. Drills are to language teaching wl~atthe pitching machine S: The United Nations should have more authority
is to baseball. They offer limited practice through repetition. They allow one to T: More authority than what?
focus on one element of language in a (:ontrolled activity. They can help to estab- S: Than it does right now.
lish certain psychomotor patterns (to"bosen the tongue") and to associate selected T: What do you mean?
274 C H A P T ~ RJ 7 Te~~-hlng
Speakrng CHAPTER I7 Teaching Speaking 275

S: Well, for example, the UN should have the power to force a country
like Iraq to destroy its nuclear weapons.
'T: You don't think the UN has that power now?
S: Obviously not. Iraq is still manufacturing nuclear bombs.
Such conversations could readily be part of group work activity as well.
5. Interpersonal (dialogue)
n ~ other
e form of conversation mentioned in the previous chapter was inter-
personal dialogue, carried out more for the purpose of maintaining social relationships
than for the t~msmissionof facts and information. These conversations are a little
trickier for learners because they can involve some or all of the following factors:
PRINCIPLES FOR DESIGNING SPEAKING TECHNIQUES
1. Use techniques that cover the spectrum of learner needs, from language-
based focus on accuracy to message-based focus on interaction, meaning,
and fluency.
In o u ~current zeal for interactive language teaching, we can easily slip into a
pattern of providing zesty content-based, intenctive activities that don't capitalize
on gnmm;~ticalpointers or pronunciation tips. When you do a jigsaw group tech-
nique, play a game, or discuss solutions to the environmental crisis, make sure that
your tasks include techniques designed to help students to perceive and use the
building blocks of language. At the same time, don't bore your students to death

- a casual register
colloquial language
with lifele:$s, repetitious drills. As noted above, make any drilling you do as mean-
ingful as pmible.

emotionally charged language 2. Provide intrinsically motivating techniques.

slang Try at all times to appeal to students' ultimate gwals and interests, to their need
ellipsis for knowledge,for status, for achieving competence and autonomy, and forUbeingall
sarcasm that they tan be." Even in those techniques that don't send students into ecstasy,
a covert "agen&aV help them to see how the activity will benefit them. Often students don't know
why we as< them to do certain things; it usually pays to tell them.
For cxample:
3. Encourage the use of authentic language in meaningful contexts.
Amy: Iii, Bob, how's it going? This theme has been played time and again in this book, but one more
Bob: Oh, so-so. reminder shouldn't hurt! It is not easy to keep coming up with meaningful intenc-
.hy: Not a great weekend, huh? tion. We ail succun~bto the temptation to do, say, disconnected little gnmmar exer-
Hob: Well, far be it from me to criticize, but I'm pretty miffed about cises when. we go around the room calling on students one by one to pick the right
last week. answer. lt takes energy and creativity to devise authentic contexts and meaningful
Amy: What are you talking about? intenction but with the help of a storehouse of teacher resource material (see rec-
Bob: 1 think you know perfectly well what I'm talking about. ommendec books and articles at the end of this chapter) it can be done. Even drills
Amy: Oh, that . . . How come you get so bent out of shape over some- (see pages 286-88) can be structured to provide a sense of authenticity.
thing like that?
Hob: Well, whose fault was it, huh? 4. Provide appropriate feedback and correction.
Amy: Oh, wow, this is great. Wonderful. Back to square one. For In moxt EFL situations, sti~dcntsare totally dependent on the teacher for useful
crying out loud, Bob, I thought we'd settled this before. Well, linguistic feedback. In ESL situations, they may get such feedback "out there"
what more can I say? beyond tht classroom, but even then you are in a position to be of great benefit. It
is i m p o r t a ~ ~that
t you take advantage of your knowledge of English to inject the
Learners would need to learn how such features as the relationship between inter-
kinds of corrective feedback that are appropriate for the moment.
locutors, casual style, and sarcasm are coded linguistically in this conversation.
5. Capitalize on the natural link between speaking and listening.
6. Extensive (monologue)
Many jnteractive techniques that involve speaking will also of course include
Finally, students at intermediate to advanced levels are called on to give
listening. Ilon't lose out on opportunities to i n t e ~ a t ethese two skills. As you are
extendecl monologues in the form of on1 reports, summaries, or perhaps short
perhaps f01:using on speaking goals, listening goals may naturally coincide, and the
speeches. Here the register is more formal and delibentive. These monologues
two skills can reint'orce each other. Skills in producing language are often initiated
can be planned or impromptu.
through comprehension.
276 CHAPTER 17 reaching Speaking
6. Give students opportunities to initiate oral comnmnication.
A good deal of typical classroom intenction is charazterized by teacher initia-
tion of language. We ask questions, give directions, and provide information, and
students have been conditioned or~lyto "speak when spclken to." Part of oral com-
munication competence is the ability to initiate conversations, to nominate topics,
to ask questions, to control conversations, and to change tne subject. As you design
and use speaking techniques, ask vourself if you have allowed students to initiate
language.
7. Encourage the development of speaking strategies.
The concept of strategic competence (see Chapter I,i;PLLT,Chapters5 and 9)
is one that few beginning language stirdents are aware o f . They simply have not
thought about developing their own pel.sonal strategies fo .accomplishing oral com-
niunicativc purposes. Your classroom can be one in which students become aware
of, and have a chance to practice. such strategies as
asking for clarification (Whrltfi.
asking someone to repeat something (Huh? EXCLLS~, me.').
using fillers (Uh, I mean, WNl)in order to gain tiwe to process.
using conversation maintenance cues (Uh huh, Ri,yht, I'eah, Okax Hm).
getting sonieone's attention (Hey, Suy, So).
using paraphrases for structures one can't product.
appealing for assistance from tht: interlocutor (to l,et a word or phrase, for
exan~ple).
using formulaic expressiot~s(at the survival stage) :Houf rnrlch does -
cost? How d o you get to the --?).
irsing mime and nonverbal c.xprt:ssions to convey rneaning.
TEACHING CONVERSATION
According to Richards (1990: 76-7"), two major approac1.e~characterize "current"
teaching of conversation, an indirect approach in which learners are more or less
set loose to engage in interaction, and a direct approach that "involves planning a
conversation program around the specitic micn)skills, stra:egies, and processes that
are involved in fluent conversation." The indirect approach implies that one does
not actually teach conversation, but rather that students acquire conversational
competence, periphenlly, by engxging in meaningful tlsks. A direct approach
explicitly calls students' attention to conversational rules, conventions, and strate-
gies. Richards (p. 79) was somewhat critical of task-bas1.d instruction, which he
labeled an indirect approach, because in tasks, "the focu! is on using language to
complete a task, nther than on practicing language."
CHAPTFR 1 7 Jrarhing Sped in6 277
Whilc both approaches can be found in language-teaching institutiorls around
the world, recent developments in such models as task-based instruction, now more
than a decade or so since Richards made his observations, h:tve taken the learner
'f
$. well beyond simply using language. Willis's (1996) framework for t.~sk-based
$ instruction, for example, involves focus on form, including analysis and p~actice,as
,+"5. an integral part of every task. Likewise, Skehan (1998a: 131) recomniends that com-
municative tasks "maximize the chances of a focus on form through ar tentional
manipulation." It is clear, upon scanning current English Lrnguage textbooks, that
the prevailing approach to teaching conversatiol~includes the learner's ~nductive
involvement in meaningful tasks as well as consciousness- rising element:. of focus
on form.
Richards (1990: 79-80) offered the following list of features 01' convcrsation
that can receive specific focus in classroom instrrrction:
how to use conversation for both transactional and interactional plirposcs
how to produce both short and long turns in conversation
strategies for managing turn-taking in conversation, including takinq ;I turn.
holding a turn, and relinquishing a turn
strategies for opening and closing conversations
how to initiate and respond to talk on a broad range of tropics, ancl 110% to
develop and maintain talk on these topics
how to use both a casual style of speaking and a neutral or more formal
style
how to use conversation in different social settings and for different kinds
of social encounters, such as on the telephone and in informal and form:~l
social gatherings
- strategies for repairing trouble spots in corlvcrsation, including con~munic;~-
tion breakdown and comprehension problems
how to maintain fluency in conversation through avoiding excessi\ e
pausing, breakdowns, and errors of grammar or pronunciation
how to produce talk in a conversational mode, using a conversatio~~al reg-
ister and syntax
how to use conversational fillers and small talk
how to use conversational routines
It is not possible in the context of one introductory chapter on reaching
speaking to call attention to all the possible techniques and tasks available for
teaching these features of conversation. I recommend that you turn to s11c.h books
as Bailey and Savage (1994), Golebiowska (1990), and Klippel (19841 for an
exploratory journey into some of the possibilities. What follows here (iiicluding
Figures 17.1,17.2, and 17.3) are some sample tasks that illustrate teaching ~ i r i o u s
aspects of conversation,as well as an oral grammar practice techniqi~e(Figure 17.4).
(Note: For more on oral grammar instruction, see Chapter 20.)
.\.Conversation-Indirect (strategy consciousness-raising) !
$
Figure 17.1. (adapted from Nolasco & Arthur 1987: 105-6)
- - 1 B. Conversaticm-Direct (gambits)
Plan your time
Figure 17.2. (ac!apted from Nolasco & ,4rthur 1987: 4 0 4 1 )
-
/ LEVEL
1 TIME
I AIM
PREPARATION
Intermediate or above
30-35 minutes
For students to consider ways in which they can learn English
outs~dethe classroom.
Make photocopies of the task sheet for your class.
I----
LEVEL
TIME
-
Elementary and above
-
10-15 minutes
Is that right?

AIMTo help studcnts recognize gambits.

PROCEDURE 1. Arouse student interest in the planning task.
2. Set up the initial pair work and give the students five to ten
PREPARAT~ON -
Find a short cassette or video recording of two or three people
minutes to discuss, add to, or modify the list of suggestions. chatting naturally. Identify examples of short responses being used
3. When the initial discussion is over, you should Facilitate the and put them in random order on a task sheet, chalkboard, or
setting up of groups. Allow the groups a maximum of twenty
minutes to complete the planning task. OHT, along the following lines. You can add distractors if you
4. Chair the report-back session in which each group presents its I wish. The task sheet might look like this:
suggestions. Make OHTs or posters available to help the groups
present their ideas.
TASK SHEET Read thr. following list of expressions, listen to the tape. Tick ( d )
TASK SHEET Here is a list of techniques that people use to hclp them learn any of the expressions you hear. You may hear some expressions
English outside the classroom:
more than once:
-memorizing a list of words
-reading a grammar book Is that r1ght.7 That's greut! --

-doing grammar exercises Reallv . .? - Oh, dear:

-reading a book or magazine in English
How intt,resting! What a shame!
-re-copying things from their class notebook
pp

+orrecting mistakes made in written work E r . . . h~tm. Oh, no! --

-preparing the next unit of the coursebook Fine. Yo~t're jokir~g! -

Work with a partner and add any others of your own. Tell each
other which ones in the list you find helpful, if any, then tell the I s6.e. -
class about the new ones you have added.
Arrange yourselves in groups and take a time period from this list:
-thirty minutes per day for six days a week PROCEDURE 1. Give a task sheet to each student and ask them to tick off the
-one hour per day for five days a week examples they hear on the tape.
-two hours per day for four days a week.
In your group, plan a program to show how you could make use 2. When they have done this, choose two or three examples to
of the time to do extra work on your English. Use the ideas from focus on and see if the students can recall the utterances that
the earlier list, as well as any others you can think of. Choose
precede or foilow them on the tape.
! one person to present your plan to the rest of the class.

1 REMARKS
If students agree to experiment with a study plan, some time should
be allowed in class for them to discuss how they are getting on.
C. ~onversatiok-Transactional(ordering from a catalog)
F~gure17.3a. (from Brown, New V~stas-7, 1990: 13 1) Figure 17.3b. (from Brown, New Vistas 2, 1999: 1 3 2 )
1
r

Information Gap Activity Student A Information Gap Activity Student B

You are a telephone salesperson for the Best Wear Company. Your partner is a customer. You want to place a catalog order. Your partner is a telephone salesperson. Look at the
Your partner calls to order some items from your company's catalog. Take the order and catalog page below. Choose two items you want to buy. Call the Best Wear Company and
fill out the order form. Make sure you have written the order correctly by asking your give your order to your partner. Make sure that your partner takes the order correctly bv
partner to confirm it. Don't look at your partner's page! confirming the information. Don't look at your partner's page!
--
Ordered by: Shim to: 1 ~ 5 e o n I IyIdiffer .nt ~ r o r nORDEREDBY I ALL WATCHES
ARE ON SALE!
Name . Name $29.99 each WK~EH-RES1S.I4N.r
Address - hd(lress -- SP~K.ISW:VI.(Ilk.,'.
#1134S BOY\'
Clty - i:ltv ------ A
A. # 78751' EIPI OHI k
State - Zip -- 'itdte Zlp -
Sl/c\ 5 . M, L, SL
Telephone -
Kc:: $20 Sale 8 11.99 t{cg t i 9 '9'1, Salt. $29.99

number Ouantlty Color Slze

Check ~ e t h o d01Pannet
( ) check /
1 money order
Cdrd number
Expiration date
Answering the telephone:
Asking for information:
Confirming the order:
Ending the conversation:
EVERYSWEATER
FOR HER IS ON
#0017C (;IRLS' HIGH
MOUN'IAIN JEANS SALE!
C o l ~ l r iBlut,. Rrnwn, BIxL #i 123W C~.~T~N/ACIIYL.I(.
SWEATEHS
Kcg $15, Salr $9.99
Slres S, M, L
Coli~ra Black, Ht.<l. Green. 1311
Kc:: $28, Sale $ l i 9Y
M e r c h a n 3ise T o t a l
Shlpplng a i d Handllng
( )VISA
( ) MASTERCARD 1 ~otall
25%-40%OFFALL
WOMENS' HANDBAGS!
-.
A. A #444OH VINI. .11,rti
Hlrch rinlv. R c y $ 1 r S;IV $10.99
R U 4 4 4 5 B PATCHED LBATHI H BA(.
U 11851) CLAS'IIC SUEDE C<rlar\ t:l.lck. Kruivr~
SLIPPF R\
Reg 8!1 BY. S;de $19.99
SII~\ 7'X-l?'l3
C UJ44:B DENIMsn( K P A C . ~
Usetul Language Hcg $?[I S d k $14 95
Rlue onl). Reg $20 Sale $14.99
Hello, Bestwear Company.
What's the item number (or price)!
What color (or size) would you like?
Did you say the item number Useful Language
(or price or color or size) was .? .. Starting the conversation: Hello. I'd like to place an order.
Thank you for your order. Good-bye. Placing an order: I'd like ....
Confirming the order: Yes,l said the item number (price or
color or size) is ....

o 1999 Prentlce Hall Regents Dupllcatlon for classrmm us IS perrn~tted Unit 7 tllackline Master Unit 7 Blackline Master O 1999 Prenllce Hall Regmls Dupllcatlon tor classroom use IS permlttm

-
 CHAPTER 17 Teaching Speaking 283

the teacht r reads and resporlds with written comments) have been in use for some
D. ~eaningfuloral grammar practice (modal auxiliary woulrl) time. W ~ not J use the convenience of a tape recorder for audiotaped journals?
Figure 17.1. (adapted from Kolasco & Arthur 1987: 4 5 4 6 ) With largt classes, such a technique is too timesonsuming for the teacher, hut for

r-
i
Je ne regrette rien
individual students, tutees, or very small classes, it offers students a way to express
themselves (without risking ridicule from peers) orally, to convey real concerns and
thoughts, o practice speaking, and to get feedback from the teacher on both form
and conte it.
LEVEL Intermediate and above
TIME 15-20 minutes F. Other interactive techniques
AIM To give students practrce in hypothetical ~jould. Of course, many other tasks and techniques can be applied to the teaching of
PREPARATION None. conversati In. They are almost in~possibleto categorize, but here are a few possible
PROCEDURE I Put the following list on the board or on an OHT: types, gleaned simply from the table of contents of Friederike Klippel's (1984) pnc-
-Your school. ticaI little '.esource book:
-Your job or occupation.
-Your friends. 1ntc.rviews Values clarification
Guc:ssing games Problem-solving activities
-Your hablts, e.g. smoking, esercise. rating, etc.
Jigs~wtasks Role-play
-Your hobbies, e.g playing rhe piuno, stamp coller,tir~g,elc. Ran king exercises Simulations
-Your skills. e.g. bnguuges, curpentry, elc. Dist:ussions
2 Ask the students to write a personal entry for each heading. i.e.
the name of their school, job, etc. They should then decide which
TEACHING PRONUNCIATION
of these they would or would not change if they were to live their
lives again. Views on .-aching pronunciatioll changed dramatically over the last half of the
3 Once they have done this, encourage them to share their twentieth 8:mtury. In the heyday of audiolingualism and its various behavioristic
methodological variants, the pronunciation component of a course or program was
thoughts in small groups of three or four.
a mainstay. In the 1970s, as thc language-tcaching profession began to experience
4 Ask the students to take turns telling others in the group what a revolution of sofls (see Chapter 2), explicit pedagogical focus on anything that
they would change if they had their life again. The others can ask smacked 01' linguistic nuts and bolts was under siege by proponcnts of the various
questions or comment. nondirective "let-it-just-happt:nmapproaches to language teaching. Pronunciation
5 Wind up the activity by seeing if there are any areas that most instruction became somewhat incidental to a course of study. By the mid-1980s.
with greater attention to gammatical structures as important elements in discourse,
of the class would want to change.
to a balanor between fluency and accuracy, and to the explicit specification of ped-
REMARKS The title of the activity comes from an Edith Piaf song. An agogical tasks that a learner should accomplish, it became clear that pronunciation
English version is called "No Regrets:' It would make a lively was a key to gaining full comrnunicativc competence.
Curre~tt approaches to pronunciation contrast starkly with the early
and stimulating start to this activity.
approachel. Rather than attempting only to build a learner's articulatory compe-
tence from the bottom up, and simply as the mastery of a list of phonemes and allo-
phones, a opdown approach is taken in which the most relevant features of
E. Individual practice: oral dialogue journals pronunciation-stress, rhythm, and intonation-are given high priority. Instead of
For extra-class practice, aside from recommending that your students seek out
teaching orsly the role of articulatioll within words, or at best, phrases, we teach its
opporti~nitiesfor authentic use of English, several teacher trainers (Celce-Murcia &
role in a wl~olestream of discourse. Rita Wong (1987: 21) reminded 11s that
Goodw~n199 1 , McI)onalii 1989) recommend using on1 dialogue journals. Written
dialogue journals (where the student records thoughts, ideas, and/or reactions, and
CHArrEK 17 Teach~ngSpeaking
contcmponry views [of language] hold that the sounds of language
are less crucial for understanding than the way they are organized.
The rhythm and intonation of English are two n~ajororganizing struc-
tures that native speakers rely on to process soeech. . . . Because of
their major roles in communication, rhythm ,ind intonation merit
greater priority in the teaching program than attention to individual
sounds.
Wong's comments reflect an .ipproach that puts ill1 lspects of English pronun-
ciation into the perspective of a c:ommunicative, intenctive, whole language view
of human speech. Once again, history taught us the 1cssl)n of maintaining halance.
Many learners of foreign languages feel that their l~ltimateg a l in pronuncia-
tion should be accent-free speech thxt is indistinguis11;ble from that of a native
speaker Such a goal is not only unaltainable (see PLLr, Chapter 3) for virtually
every adult learner, but in a multilingual, multicultural world, accents are quite
acceptable. With the rapid spread of English ;IS an international language, native
accents have become almost irrelevant to cross-cultural c: )mmunication. Moreover,
as the world community comes ro appreciate and value people's heritage, one's
accent is just another symbol of that heritage.
Our goal as teachers of English pronunciation shoultl therefore be more realis
tically focused on clear, compreheilsible pronunciation. h t the beginning levels,we
want learners to surpass that threshold beneath which pronunciation detracts from
their ability to communicate. At the advanced levels, pro~lunciationgoals can focus
on elements that enhance communication: intonation fealures that go beyond basic
patterns, voice quality, phonetic tlistinctions between registers, and other refine-
ments that are far more important in the overall stream of clear communication than
rolling the English /r/ or getting a vowel to perfectly imitite a "native speaker?
What are the factors within learners that affect prclnunciation, and how can
you deal with each of them? Below is ;I list (adapted from Kenworthy 1987:4-8) of
variables that you should consider.
1. Native language. Clearly, the native language is the most influential factor
affecting a learner's pronunciation (see PLLT, Chipter 8). If you are familiar
with the sound system of a leiuner's native language you will be better able
to diagnose student difficulties. Many LI -L2 carryobers can be overcome
through a focused ywareness and effort on the 1earnt:r's part.
2. Age. Gener~llyspeaking, children under the age of jmberty stand an excel-
lent chance of "sounding like :I native" if they have ctmtinued exposure in
authentic contexts. Beyond the a g of puberty, whilt: adults will almost surely
maintain a "foreign accent," there is no particular adv lntage attributed to age
(see PLL'f',Chapter 3). A fifty-vear-old can be as successful as an eighteen-
year-old if all other factors are equal. Remind your students, cspccially if your
students are older, that "the voungcr, the betternis a nyth.
C ~ ~ A P T17
IR Teaching Speak cng 285
3. Exposure. It is difficult to define exposure One can actually live in a for-
eign country for some time but not take advantage of being"with the people."
Research seems to support the notion that the quality and intensity c-t' I expo-
sure are more important than mere length of time. If class time spenr
focusing on pronunciation demands the full attention and interest of vour stu-
dents, then they stand a good chance of reaching tlicir goals.
4. Innate phonetic ability. Often referred to as having an "ear" for languagc,
some people manifest a phonetic coding ability that others do not. h~ marly
cases, if a person has had exposure to a foreign language :I?; a child, t b ~ s
"knack" is present whether the early language is remembered or not. Others
are simply more attuned to phonetic discriminations. Some pcoplc a,ould
have you believe that you either have such a knack, or you don't. St~~trgics-
based instruction (see Chapter 14), however, has proven that some cltmen~s
of learning are a matter of an awareness of your own limitations coml)ined
with a conscious focus on doing something to compensate for those 1imit;l-
tions. Therefore, if pronunciation seems to be naturally difficult for some sru-
dents, they should not despair; with sonie effort anti concentration, they c;~ll
improve their competence.
5. Identity and language ego. Yet another influence is one's attitude toward
speakers of the target language and the extent to which the language ego
identifies with those speakers. Learners need to be reminded of the iinpor-
tance of positive attitudes toward the people who speak the language (if such
a target is identifiable), but more important, students need to become .tw;lrc
of-and not afraid of-the second identity that may be emerging w i t h ~ n
them.
6. Motivation and concern for good pronunciation. Some lcarncrs Lire not
particularly concerned about their pronunciation, while others are. Tlre
extent to which learners' intrinsic motivation propels them toward improve-
ment will be perhaps the strongest influence of all six of the factors irl this
list. If that motivation and concern are high, then the necessary effort will he
expended in pursuit of goals. You can help learners to perceive o r deirlop
that motivation by showing, among other things. how c h i ? of speecb is sig-
nificant in shaping their self-imagc and, ultiniately, in reaching somr of their
higher goals.
1U1 six of the above factors suggest that any learncr who really wants to cxn learn
to pronounce English clearly and comprehensibly. You can assist in the process by
gearing your planned and unplanned instruction toward these six factors.
On the next few pages (including Figures 17.5 and 17.6), you will find ~ h r r e
techniques for teaching different aspects of English pronunciation. Take note of
how those techniques may capitalize on the positive benefits of the six bctors above,
and the extent to which they reflect a discourse-basetl view of pronunciatic~n
teaching. A significant factor for you in the success of such techniques lies tn your
286 CHAPTER 17 Teaching Speaking B. S t r e s s - C o l l t r a s t i n g N o u n s CHAPTER 17 Teachrng Speak~ng 287

Figure 17.6. (ad lpted from Nolasco & Aahur 1987: 67-68)
ability to instill in your students the motivatioll to put forth the effort needed to
develop clear, comprehensible pronunciation. 38 1 w a z a blue one!
A. Intonation-Listening f o r P i t c h Changes LEVEL -
Elementary to Intermediate
TIME
AIM
-
10-15 minutes
To give studznts stress practice in the context of a drill.
F~gure17.5. (i~daptedfrom Wong 1987: 61)
-
P R E P A R A T ~ O NPrepare twenty-seven little cards with a picture on each to cover all
the possible permutations of the following colors, fabrics, and items
Record the following conversation and play it for the students. Establish the par- of clothing. 'The items can be increased andlor varied i f required:
ticipants, the setting, and the event by asking the students to guess who and what red woole~i dress
they are. blue cotton shirt
black nylon sweater
He: Ready! f
The cards should look like this:
She: No. k
He: Why? k
She: Problems. k
He: Problems? f
She: Yes.
He: What? k nylon
She: Babys~tter.

After the students have figured out what is going on, you can play the conver- PROCEDURE - 1. Set up a clothing store situation. Show students the cards to indi-
sition gain. This time put the transcription of the conversation on the board or on cate what they can buy, and write a substitution table on the board
an overhead projector and ask the students to try to determine for each utterance like this:
whether the speaker's voice ends with a rising or falling pitch. Draw arrows next to I'd like a red woolen dress, please.
each utterance and play the conversation once more. To isolate pitch from the blue cotton sweater,
words, you can use a kazoo, which can be purchased at a toy store (see Gilbert black nylon shirt,
1978). By humming into it, you can demonstrate rising and falling pitch to the
amusement and illurn~nationof your students. 2. Take the role of the sales clerk, and ask the students to take turns
Ask the students to explain what each utterance means. Then point out that a to ask for something i n the shop. Whenever a student asks for some-
change in pitch can indicate a change in meaning. (e.g., "Ready?" with a rising pitch thing. you should hand over a picture making an error in either the
means "Are you reatly?" but "Ready" with a falling pitch means "I am ready."). color, the fabric, or the item of clothing. The student then has to cor-
rect the error using appropriate stress and intonation. The
Additional practice dialogues are provided here. Make up more for your partic- dialogue should go like this:
ular students. Follow the procedure described for the first conversation.
Student I'd like red cotton dress, please.
Teacher Here you are.
Conversation 6 Conversation C Conversation D Student NO.Iasked for a red cotton dress. not a blue one.
or
A: Single? A: Good? A: Locked?
B: Locked. Student I'd like a black woolen shirt, please.
B: Double. B: Delicious.
Teacher Here you ;Ire.
A: Double? A: More? A: Key?
B: Key? Student No. 1 said a black woolen shirt, not a black woolen skirt.
B: Yes. B: Please.
A: Cone? A: Key. REMARKS 3. When they havt: got the hang of the exercise, divide the cards out
B: Cup. B: Oh-oh. among pairs of students so that they can practice on their own.

!
I Thls activity coul(l be used with other objects m d adjectives.
--
288 CHAPTER 17 Teaching Speaking

C. Meaningful Minimal Pairs described Vigil and Oller's (1976) model of how affective and cognitive feedback
Traditional minimal-pair drills, used for decades in language teaching, go some- affects the mcssage-sending process. Figure 17.7 depicts, metaphoricall., at least,
'yg
thing like this: &
+..:.
what happens in Vigil and Oller's model in the case of learners' oclllv produced
.s. utterances.
T: Okay, class, on the board, picture number I s a "pen:' and picture .ii
.:v

number 2 is a "pini' Listen: Pen (points to n~rrnberI ] , pin (points to $< Figure 17.7. Affective and cognitive feedback
>;'
number 21 [several repetitions]. Now, I'm !:oing to say either .',?:. -
number 1 or nun~ber2. You tell me which. Ready? [pause] Pin. .. -, I 1
Ss: Number 2.
T: Good. Ready. Pin.
Ss: Number 2. ABORT 1
RED (-1
T: Okay. @[pause]Pen.
Ss: Number 1.
'
YELLOW (0) ), CONTlNl
CLT principles prod us to be a little more meaninghll. ln the following exam-
ples (see Celce-Murcia Sr Goodwin 1991,Bowen 1972) you can see that a little con-
textualization goes a long way:
1. T: This pen leaks.
AFFECTIVE
FEEDBACK
COGNITIVE
FEEDBACK 1
S: Then don't write with it.
T: This pan leaks.
S: Then don't cook with it. 'The "green light" of the affective feedback mode allows the sender to colltil~ue
attempting to get a message across; a "red light" causes the sender to ;ibort the
2. T: Where can I buy cold cream? attempt. (The metaphorical nature of such a chart is evident in the I c t that affec-
S: At the dairy. tive feedback does not precede cognitive feedback, as this chart n~aylead you to
T: Where can I buy cold cream? believe; both modes can take place simultaneously.)The tmffic sig~ralof ognitive
(

S: At the drugstore. feedback is the point at which error correction enters. A green light hcrt syml)ol-
3. T: The sun is hot on my head! izes noncorrective feedback that says "I understand your rness;lge."A red lrght sym-
S: Then get a cap. bolizes corrective feedback that takes on a myriad of possible f o r m coutli~led
T: Oh, no, I missed thc bus. I'm going to 13,: late! below) and causes the learner to make some kind of altention in plndut tion. 'ro
S: Then get a cab. push the metaphor hlrther, a yellow light could represent those v:lrious shnde%of
color that are interpreted by the learner as Falling somewhere in betwee.1 a com-
These are good examples of drilling techniques that h a ~ ebeen modified to bring plete green light and a red light, causing the learner to adjust, to alter. tc~rccycle
context, interest, and a modicum of authenticity to what would otherwise be a very back, to try again in some way. Note that fossilization may be the result o f t ~ ) m:my
o
mechanical task. green lights when there should have been some yellow or red lights.
The most useful implication ofvigil and Oller's model for determining ow you
will administer error treatment is that cognitive feedback must be optimal in order
A MODEL FOR CORRECTION OF SPEECH ERRORS to be effective. Too much negative cognitive feedback-a barrage of interruptions,
corrections, and overt attention to malformations-often leads learners to shut off
One of the most frequently posed questions by teachers who are new to the trade their attempts at communication. They perceive that so much is wrong mith their
is: When and how should I correct th(: speech errors of learners in my classroom7 production that there is little hope of gettinganything right. On the other t~and,too
Thib happens also to be one of the most complex questio~lsin the profession! Some much positive cognitive feedback-willingness of the teacher-hearer to Irt t,rrors go
guidelines are offered here. uncorrected, to indicate understanding when understanding may not hxve
One of the keys, but not the only key, to successful second language learning occurred-serves to reinforce the errors of the speaker-learner. The res~lltis the
lies in the feedback that a learner receives from otl~ers.Chapter 8 of PLLT persistence, and perhaps the eventual fossilization, of such c m r s . The task of the
 CHAPTER 17 Teaching Speaking 291

teacher is to discern the optimal tension between positive and negative cognitive
feedhack: providing enough green lights to encourage continued communication,
but not so many that crucial errors go unnoticed; and providing enough red lights
to call xttention to those crucial errors, but not so many that the learner is discour-
;~gedfrom attempting to speak at all.
We do well to rec:~llat this point the application of Skinner's operant condi-
tioning nlodel of learning (see PLLT, Chapter 4). The affective and cognitive modes
of fecdb~ckare reinforcers to speakers' responses. As speakers perceive "posi-
tive" reinforcement (the green lights of Figure I?.?), they will be led to internalize
certain speech patterns. Corrective feedback can still be 'positive" in the
Skinncrian sense, as we shall see below. Because ignoring erroneous behavior also
has the effect of a positive reinforcer, teachers must be very careful to discern the
possible reinforcing consequences of neutral feedback. What we must avoid at all
costs is the administration ofpunitiz~ereinforcement-correction that is viewed by
learners as an affective red light-devaluing, dehumanizing, o r insulting them.
Against this t11eoretic;ll backdrop we can evaluate some possibilities of when
;lnd how to treat errors in the language classroom. Michael Long (1977: 288) Sug-
gested that the question of zu6e~zto treat an error (that is, which errors to provide
some sort of feedback on) has no simple answer.
Having noticed an error, the first (and,] would argue, crucial) decision
the teacher makes is whether or not to treat it at all. In order to make
the decision the teacher may have recourse to factors with imme-
diate, temponry bearing, such as the importance of the error to the
current pedagogical focus on the lesson, the teacher's perception of
the chance of eliciting correct performance from the student if nega-
tive feedback is given, and so on. Consideration of these ephemeral
factors may be preempted, however, by the teacher's beliefs (con-
scious or unconscious) as to what a language is and how a new one
is learnecl. These beliefs may have been formed years before the
lesson in question.
In :I very practical article on error treatment, James Hendrickson (1980)
advised teachers to try to discern the difference between global and local errors,
(to be described later in this chapter). Once a learner of English was describing a
quaint old hotel in Europe and said,"There is a French widow in every bedroom."
The local error is clearly, and humorously, recognized. Hendrickson recommended
that local ern)rs usually need not be corrected since the message is clear and cor-
rection rnight interrupt a learner in the flow of productive communication. Global
errors need to be treated in some way since the message may otherwise remain gar-
bled. "The different city is another one in the another two" is a sentence that would
certainly nced treatment because it is incomprehensible as is. Many utterances are
not clearly global or local, and it is difficult to discern the necessity for corrective
feedback. A learner once wrote,"The grammar is the basement of every language."
Whiie this witty little proclamation may indeed sound more like Chomsky than
Chomsky tloes, it behooves the teacher to ascertain just what the learner meant here
(no doubt' basis" rather than"basementn),and to provide some feedback to clarify the
difference between the two. The bottom line is that we simply must not stine our
students' a.tempts at production hy smothering them with corrective feedback.
The rratter of how to correct errors is exceedingly complex. Research on
error correction methods is not at all conclusive on the most effective method or
technique. It seems quite clear that students in the classroom genenlly want and
expect errors to be corrected. However,some methods recommend no direct treat-
ment of error at all (Krashen &l'errell 1983). After alI, in natural, untutored envi-
ronments, Ionnative speakers generally get corrected by native speakers on only a
small percentage of errors that they make. Balancing these perspectives, 1 think we
can safely ~ ~ o n c l u dthat
e a sensitive and perceptive language teacher should make
the language classroom a happy optimum between some of the overpoliteness of
the real wc rld and the expectatiol~sthat learners bring with them to the classroom.
Error Ireatment options can he classified in a number of possible ways, but one
useful taxonomy was recommended by Kathleen Bailey (1985). Seven "basic
options" ar-: complemented by eight "possible features" within each option (Bailey
1985: 11 1)
Basic Opt cons Possible Features
1. To tre.~tor to ignore 1. Fact of error indicated
2. To tre.it immediately or t ~ delay
) 2. Location indicated
3. To tnl~sfertreatment (to say, 3. Opportunity for new
other learners) or not attempt given
4. To trar sfer to another indlvid~ral, 4. Model provided
a subg up, or the whole class 5- Error type indicated
5. To return, or not, to the original 6. Remedy indicated
error r laker after treatmrnt 7. Improvement indicated
6. To permit other learners to 8. Praise indicated
initiatt treatment
7. To test for the efficacy of the
treatme -nt
All of the basic options and features within each option are viable modes of
error corre8:tion in the classroom. The teacher needs to develop the intuition,
through experience and established theoretical foundations, for ascertaining which
option or c )mbination of options is appropriate at given moments. Principles of
optimal afftctive and cognitive feedback, of reinforcement theory, and of commu-
nicative language teaching all combine to form those intuitions.
One stcp toward developing such intuitions may taken by considering the
model in Figure 17.8,which illustrates what I wouldclaim are the split-second series
292 C H A P T ~ K17 Teathmng Speak~ng

.I
of decisions that a teacher makes whrn student has uttered somc deviant form of Figure 17.8. A model for treatment of classroom speech errors
Engl~shin the classroom In those few nanoseconds information is accessed, $
processed, and evaluated, with a clec~s~on Forthcoming 011what the teacher is going
to "do" about the deviant form Imaglne that you are the teacher and let me walk
you through the flow chart.
Some sort of deviant utterance 1s made by a studt nt Instantly, you run this 1.Type
speech event through a number of ne:lrlv simultaneous s-reens (1)You identlfy the .,
lexical, phonological, grammatical,
.. 11, L2, teacher-induccd.
type of devtation (lexical, phonological, rtc ),and (2) oftel, but not always,you iden- ( discourse, pragmatic,
I
. - sociocultural ( I- ( other Ss, outside L2 input, /
tify its source, which will be useful in determining how you might treat the devia- ANlprintlF.lectronic media

tion. (3) Next, the complexity of the deviation may dete .mine not only whether to 3. Linguistic complexity
intricate & involved or 4. Local or Global
treat or ignore but how to treat, if that is your decision. In some cases a deviation
may require so much explanation, or so much interruption of the task at hand, that
( easy to explaintdeal with 1 16. Learner's affective state

it isn't worth treating it. (4) Your most cri~cial:lnd poss~blythe very first decision
among these ten factors is to quickly decide whether tht uttermce is interpretable
5. Mistake or Error
-- confidence, receptivene5\

7. Learner's linguistic stage

(local) or not (global). Local errors can sometimes be igr~oredfor the sake of main- 8. Pedagogical focus
taining a flow of communication. Global errors by definition often call for some emergent, pre-systematic, -+ immediate task goals,
systematic, post-systematic lesson objectives,
sort of treatment, even if only in the form of a clarificatiol~request. Then, from your course goals/purpost~s 1
knowledge of this student, (5) you make a guess at whetl~erit is a performance slip
(mistake) or competence error (see PLLT, Chapter 2); this is not always easy to do, conversational flow factors, 10. Teacher style
individual, group, or whole-class work, direct or indirvct.
but you mav be snrprised to know that a teacher's intuitin~non this factor will often

rer-
intervent~(~ni<t,laissez-fsirc
be correct. Mistakes rarely call for tre;it~~~ent,
while errors more frequently demand
some sort of te;lcher response.
The above information is quickly stored as you pt rhaps simultaneously run
through the next five possible considerations. (6)From !,our knowledge about this TREAT IGNORE
learner, yo11 make a series of instant judgments about the learner's language ego
fragility, anxiety level, confidence, and willingness to accept correction. If, for
WHEN? immediately end of utterance much later
example, the learner rarely speaks in class or shows high anxiety and low confi- - 7

dence when attempting to speak, you may decide to ignore the deviant utterance.
(7) Your knowledge of the learrier's linguistic stage of development will help you WHO? T another S whole class sc!lf
4 *
decide how to treat the deviation (8)Your own pedagoyical focus at the moment
(Is this a forrn-focused task to begin with? Does this lesson focus on the form that HOW? fact location correction typelsource metalinguistic
a. input to S indicated indicated modeled indicated cxplan.~tion
was deviant? What are the ovenll objectives of the lessor or task?) will help you to
decide whether or not to treat. (9)Also consider the con.municative context of the
deviation (Was the student in the middle of a productije flow of language? HOW b. manner indirectiunintrusive
- 7

easily could you interrupt?). (10) Somewhere in this rapid-fire processing, your
own style a h a tcacher comes into play: Are you generally an interventionist? laissez- c. S's output none rephrase utterance
faire? If, for example, you tend as a rule to make very few error treatments, a treat-
ment now on a minor deviation would be out of character and misinterpreted by
d. follow-up
the student. affective none "okay" "good" 1;<ushl ,
You are now ready to decide whether to treat or igtzoru the deviation! If you +- w
decide to do nothing, you simply move on. But if you decide to do something in the cognitive none acknowledge verbalize further clarification
way of treatment, you h ~ v ae numher of treatment option:., as discussed earlier. You
have to decide when to treat, who will treat, and how t treat, and each of those
294 CHAI~TFPI7 Teaching Speaking
tlecisions otlers a range of possibilities as indicated in the chart. Notice that you,
the teacher. do not always have to be the person who provides the treatment.
Manner of treatment varies according to the input to the student., the directness of
the treatment, the student's output, and your followup.
After one very quick deviant utterance by a student, you have made an amazing
nunher of observations and evaluations that go into the process of error treatment.
New teachers will find such a prospect daunting, perhaps, but with experience,
many of these considerations will become automatic.
Listening and speaking are the two skills that are most widely used for class
room interaction. 13y now you have at least encountered many different panmeters
of these two skills, what they are, types of each, issues, and some idea of the kinds
of techniques that help to focus on either one or both of them. We now move on
to another very important set of skills, reading and writing.
TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION, ACTION, AND RESEARCH
t and make any changes you might want to. Then use those maxims as guide-
\Note (I) Individual work; (G) group or pair work; (C) whole-class discussion.]
f chose to correct something or not, and (b) how the correction was made.
1. (C)Xsk your students to think about the concept of fluency. Is it possible to
devise an operational detinition (in which measurable factors are specified) of
fluc~lcythrough such variables as n t e , pronunciation accuracy, colloquial lan-
guage, crrors, clarity, and other factors?What does the operational definition
say bout what you should teach your students?
2. (G) tlave pairs explain the difference between accuracy and fluency, and dis-
cuss which should come first in a curriculum and under what circumstances.
Then tell then1 to think of some examples of how both fluency and accuncy
might get attention within one task or techniquc.
3. (C) On page 269 the interlocutor effect was described. Ask the class to think
of some specific examples of this interlocutor effect and share them with the
rest of the class. How might this effect help one to formulate certain plans
for grouping or pairing students?
4. (C) With your students, review the eight factors (pp. 270-71) that make
spoken language difficult. Which is more difficult, speaking or listening (com-
pare pp. 252-%)?Ask for justific;~tionsof their responses.
5. (G/C) Riclv~rds(1990) listed many features of conversation that need to be
attended to in an on1 communication class. Divide up the features among
pairs and ask each pair to (a) cite some examples of the feature and @) spec-
uk~tea little on how one would teach that aspect of conversation. Have pairs
share their conclusions with the rest of the class.
6. @) Observe a class in which there is a considerable amount of oral activity.
Using the list of microskills Ogble 17.1) as a checklist, take some notes that
CHAPTER 17 Teaching Speaking 295
wouI(I enable you to report back to your class on how various microskills
manilested themselves.
7. (G) A:;k students to look again at the conversation between Bob and Amy
(p. 274) and, in pairs, to identi@ as many of the seven factors of interpersonal
exchange (cited just prior to the conversation) as possible. Pairs should dis-
cuss 11owthey would teach these factors, and then share their ideas with the
rest of the class.
8. (G/C) Ask groups or pairs to demonstrate (peer-teach) the techniques
described in the sections on Teaching Conversation and Tcaching
Pronunciation. Direct other members of the class to decide the extent to
which the seven principles for designing speaking techniques were appropri-
ately included.
9. (I/G) In the last section of this chapter, a number of principles of error cor-
rectio I are cited. In your own words, make up a short list (3 or 4) ofg'error
correction maxims." Con~parcvour maxims with those of others in the class,
lines f8)r observing a class in which you try to understand (a) why the teacher
FOR YOUR FURTHER READING
Bailey, Kathleen M. and Savage, Lance (Eds.). 1994. New Ways of Teaching
Speakitlg. Alexandria,VA: Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages.
Golebiowslta, Aleksandn. 1990. Getting Students to Talk: A Resource Book for
Teachers. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall Regents.
Klippel, Fr ederike. 1984. Kc~ep Talking: Comntunicatiue Fluency Actiuities for
Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Errcb oj tht?sehooksprooides a cc>rnpentiium($techniques designed to stim-
trhfe otal prodzlctiont conz!ers~ltions,t a s k games, role-plays, and much
more. j hey arc1t1sefi11rqfi?relzcesfor yo~rpe~so~~alprofes.sio~zal
libruly.
Celce-Murc.a, Marianne, Brinton, Ilonna M., and Goodwin, Janet. 1996. Teaching
Pronun~.iation:A Refere~rcefor Teachers of English to Speakers of Other
Languqes. Cambridge: C~mbritlgeUniversity Press.
$.you 'n 1ookingJi)ra rehrente thut tells you wrything you uunt to know
about tcacbirlg pronunc.iutiorz, this book is for you. It is a cornprchelisiz~
and reselzrch in pronulziiation pedago,g. It incllrdes
treutnze~~tc!fpr~~ztice
techniqzzes,diagnostic tools, asscJssmentmeasures, and suEestions fiir syl-
labus design.
 CHAPn R 17 ieachrrlg S p e d t , ~ r ~ 297
296 CHAPTER 17 Teaching Speakiug

Littlewood, Wil1i;lm. 1992. Teac.hirrg Oral C~~mmunic.~tion:

A Methodological '6 Figure 17.9. (from Nilsen & Nilsen 1971: ix)
Framework. Oxford: Blackwell.
2.
'A-
..,a,.

< Consonant/Vowel Charts

I,ittleuuod r~rlitesthe dillergen/ dirtxi and indirect a,?procachesto tcachin,g
oral conzrnunication by shutuir2g holc~ "ulhole tusk" practice can be com- English Consonants
b i n d wlthfoc1.i~on skills artclj6rrn.i. Classroom tusks ure outlined in detail.

Wong, Rita. 1987. Teachirig Protrunciation: Foczrs o English Rbythm and

Intonation. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
'fiis little hook (89pagesj is a gokl rnirle oj' irforrnationfor the clu.smorn
teacher u6o ul~shessolid theoretical grollnriing ans/practicul classrootn
techniqitcs in teachi~zgthepro.codic fiatrrres qf Englisr?in a commi~nicutiue
ji-ameiuork.

h w f e S
CON TI NU AN^^
h vc,icelcss 1
...-...._
. ...._ _ _
....~ ..... ......... ~~ ..... .... ...-.......
~
~-
I
w v b z/Y/~ r 2 Voiced (Oral )
----------- - ~ ~ - . --- - - - - ----------------
~
....._
..._
... ...............-..........
.. ~ ..... ......... ~ _
m n r3 Voiced (Nasal)

-
AFFRICATES

-------
c Voiceless
.... ..... .... ....~...
~ ~ .... _ ....... ~ ~ . .

i j I I 1 Voiced

English Vowels
Front Central Back Diphthor~gs
r I p-7

Tense
High
hx
Tense
Mid

Te2
Low
Lax

1
CHAPTFR
TEACHINGREADING - Virtually all reading involves a risk-a gucssing game, in Goodman's words-
711e written word surrounds us daily. It con€uses us and enlightens us, it depresses
us and anluses us, it sickens 11sand heals us. At every turn, we who arc mcmbcrs of
a literr~tesociety are dependent on twenty-some-odd letters and a handful of other
written svmbols for significant,even life-and-death,matters in our lives. How do wc
teach second language learners to master this written code? What do we teach
them? What are the issues?
As yo11 read this chapter, keep in mind that once again, intenctive, integrated
appn);lchcs to L~nguageteaching emphasize the interrelationship of skills. Reading
ability will be developed best in association with writing, listening, and speaking
activities. Even in those courses that may be labeled "reading," your goals will be
best achleved by capitalizing on the interrelationship of skills, especially the
reading-writing connection. So, we focus here on reading as a component of gen-
eral second language proficiency, but ultimately reading must be considered only in
the perspective of the whole picture of intenctive language teaching.
RESEARCH ON KEADING A SECOND LANGUAGE
By the 1970s, first language reading research had been flourishing for a couple of
decades as solutions were being sought to why some children couldn't read. Rut
research on reading in a second language was almost nonexistent. Then, with
Kenneth Goodman's (1970) seminal article, "Reading: A Psycholinguistic Guessing
Game,"and other subsequent work, sccond language specialists began to tackle the
unique issues and questions facing second language reading pedagogy. A glance
through what is now three decades of research reveals some significant findings
that will affect you and your approach to teaching reading skills. Some of the high-
lights are reviewed here.
1. Bottom-upand top-down processing
kt1 Ily Goodman's (1970) work, the distinction between bottom-up and top-
down processing became a cornerstone of reading methodology for years to come.
299
CHAPTER 18 Teaching Read~ng
In bottom-op processing, readers must first recognize a multiplicity of linguistic sig-
nals (lette.~,morphemes, syllables, words, phrases, gnmmatical cues, discourse
markers) and use their linguistic data-processing mechanisms to impose some sort
of order or! these signals. These data-driven operations obviously require a sophis-
ticated knowledge of the klnguagc itsclf. From among all the perceived data, the
reader selects the signals thal make some sense, that cohere, that "mean:'
because re ~ d e r must,
s through a puzzle-solving process, infer me:lnings, decide what
to retain and not to retain, and move on. This is wherc a complementary method
of processing written text is imperative: top-down,or conceptually driven, p r e
cessing in which we draw on our own intelligence :lnd experience to understand a
text. Christine Nuttall (1996: 16- 17) compares bottom-up processes with the image
of a scienti ;t with a magnifying gl;~ssor microscope examining all the minute dctails
of some p t enomenon, while top-tlown processing is like taking an eagle's-eye view
of a landsc:~pebelow. Such a picture reminds us that field-independentand field-
dependent cognitive styles (see PI.LT, Chapter 5) are analogous to bottom-up and
top-down ~)rocessing,respectively.
A half-zeritury ago, perhaps, reading specialists might have argued that the best
way to ttach reading is 1.hrough bottom-up methodology: teach symbols,
grapheme-phoneme correspondences, syllables, and lexical recognition first, then
compreher:sion would be derived from the slim of the parts. More recent research
on teachin!: reading has shown that a combination of topdown and bottom-up pro-
cessing, or what has come to be called interactive reading,is almost always a pri-
mary ingredient in successful teaching methodology because both processes are
important. "In pmctice, a reader continually shifts from one focus to another, now
adopting a topdown approach to predict probable meaning, then moving to the
bottom-up approach to check whether that is really what the writer says" (Nuttall
1996: 17).
2. Schem;~theory and backgrtbund knowledge
How c o readers construc:t meaning? How do they decide what to hold on to,
and having made that decision, how do they infer a writer's mcssage?These are the
sorts of quc,stions addressed by what has come to be known as schema theory, the
hallmark 01 which is that a text does not by itself carry meaning. The reader brings
informatior, knowledge, emotior~,experience, and ci~lture-that is, schemata
(plural)-tc~ the printed word. Mark Clarke and Sandra Silberstein (1977: 136-37)
capture the essence of schema theory:
R(.search has show11 that reading is only incitlentally visual. More
information is contributetl by the reader than by the print on the
p;,ge. That is, readers understand what they read because they are
atle to take the stimulus beyond its graphic representation and assign
it membership to an appropriate group of concepts already stored in
300 CHAPTER 18 Jeach~ngReading
their memories. . .Skill in reading depends on the efficient interac-
tion between linguistic knowledge and knowledge of the world.
"
<r
A good example of the role of schemata in reading is found in the following
anecdote:
A fifteen-year-old boy got up the nerve one d;,y to try out for the
school chorus, despite the potential ridicule from his classmates. His
a u d ~ t ~ otlme
n made him a good fifteen minutes late to the next class
His hall permit clutched nervously in hand, he nevertheless tried sur-
reptitiously to slip into his sear, but his entrance didn't go unnoticed.
"And where were yo^^?" bellowed the teach~lr.
Caught off guard by the suddcn attention, a r d h c e d Harold replied
meekly,"Oh, uh, er, somcarhert: between tenor artd bass, sir."
A full unders~mdingof this story and its humorous p ~ ~ n clineh requires that the
reader know two categories of schemata: content and f c ~ r m a lschemata. Content
schemata include what we know about people, the world, culhlre, and the universe,
while formal schen~ataconsist of our knowledge about diycourse structure. For the
above anecdote. these content scht:n~ata:(re a prerequisite tc understanding its humor:
1
Fifteen-year-old boys might I)e e~obarrassedabout :inging in a choir.
Hall permits allow students to bt: outside a classroom during the class hour.
Teenagers often find it embarrassing to be singled ~ u int a class.
Something about voice ranges.
Fifteen-year-olds'voicesare often "breaking."
Formal schemata also reveal some rmplied connectio IS:
The chorus tryout was the cause of potential ridicl~le.
The audition occurred just before the class period.
Continuing to'clutch" the permit means he did nor give it to the teacher
The teacher did indeed notice his entry.
The teacher's question referred to location, not a nlusical part.
3. T h e role of affect a n d culturc:
It is readily apparent from just :I cursory survey of research on second language
acquisition that affective factors play major roles in ultimate success. Just as language
ego, self-esteem, empathy, and motivation undergird the acquisition of spoken dis
course, reading is subject to variability within the affective domain. The "love" of
reading has propelled many a learner to successful acq~lisitionof reading skills.
Instruction has been found to be effective when students' self-esteem is high (Dole,
CHAPTFR I8 Teachrn~Re*adlrlg 301
Brown,&Trathen 1996). The autonomy gained through the learning of re;~d~ng stnte-
gies has been shown to be a powerful motivator (Bamford & I h y 1998), not to men-
tion the affective power of reading itself. Similarly, culture plays an acthe rolc in
motivating and rewarding people for literacy. We cannot simply ashumc that cogni-
tive factors alone will account for the eventual succes of second lang~~agv reaclers
(Fitzgerald 1994).
4. T h e p o w e r of extensive reading
One of the ongoing themes among researchers ; ~ n dteachers o f foreign lan-
guages is the tension between what in the last chapter we rcferred to as direct ; ~ n d
indirect approaches to teaching language skills. This continuum of possil)ilitics is
highlighted in debates over conscious and subconsciol~sacquisition, explicit ; ~ n d
implicit learning, focal and p e r i p h e ~ ~processing,
l and Stephen W s h e n 5 (1985)
learning vs, acquisition. A current issue in pedagogical research on reading is the
extent to which learners will learn to read better in a laissez-faire atmosphere of
enriched surroundings or in an instructed sequence of direct altention to tne stmte-
gies of efficient reading. Knshen's (1993) The Power r,f Reriditzg and [Yay :~nd
Bamford (1998) both made the case that extensive reading (free volunt;~r! rrading
[FVR].as Knslien callecl it) is a key to student gains in reading ability, lingui\iic corn-
pctence, vocabulary, spelling, and writing. John Green and Kebecca OxSorrl (1995)
found that reading for pleasure and reading without looking up all thc 1 nknown
words were both highly correlated with overall language proficiency.
All of this research suggests that instructional programs in reacling should give
strong consideration to the teaching of extensive reading. It does not suggest. of
course, that foclised approaches to specdlc strategies for intensive rcadiltg ought to
be abandoned, but strengthens the notion that an extensive reading component in
conjunction with other focused reading instruction is highly warnntcd.
5. Adult Literacy training
As ESL materials and methods continue to apply both bottom-lip ;~ntltl~p-down
models of reading to programs and curricula, one p;~rticularlychallenging focus of
effort for researchers and teachers has been literacy-level teaching of adulls. A sig-
nificant number of immigrants arriving on the shores of the United States are non-
literate in their native languages, posing special issues in the teaching of English.
What are sometimes referred to as "skills-based" (bottom-up) and "stri~tegit';-basedn
(top-down) approaches are both used in adult literacy training.
Teaching literacy is a specialized field of research and practice that derives
insights from a number of psycholinguistic and pedagogical domains of incluiry. In
order to become familiar with basic principles and pncticcs at this level. you rr~ight
carefully consult some of the excellent material available (for instance Bell Ji
Burnaby 1984. Haverson cOr Hxynes 1982). The material in the remainder of t his
chapter will not attempt to deal specitically with adult litemcy training.
Aside from the five major issues touched on ;tbove. :I multitude of ot1ic.r topics
are grist for current researchers' mills:
302 CHAPTER Itl Teaching Reading

the role of cognition in reading maps

the role of automaticity in word recognition
the role of coilsdous strategies in learning to read a second language
effective techniques for activating schemata
relationships of reading to writing
And the list goes on. At this stage in your professional career when you are
learning to teach, rather than immersing you in oceans of research data, it is perhaps
more i~nportlntto lay some basic foundations for the development of an effective
teaching approach, which we now turn to.
TYPES OF WRI'ITEN LANGUAGE
In the previous two chapters we looked at types of spoken language so that you
could identify the kinds of language your listening and speaking techniques should
include. Here, we do the samc for reading arid writing.
In our highly literate society, there are literally hundreds of different types of
written texts, a much larger variety than found in spoken texts. Each of the types
listed below represents, or is an example of, a genre of written language. Each has
certain rules or conventions for its manifestation,and we are thus able immediately
to identlfy a genre and to know what to look for within the text. Consider the fol-
lowing non-exhaustive list:
manuals
merus
scht dules (e.g., transportation information)
advt.rtisemcnts:commercial, personal ("want ads")
invilations
directories (e.g., telephone, yellow pages)
comic stripb, cartoons
And I'm sure you could name a few more! It is interesting that every litente
adult knows the distinctive features of each of these genres. You can immediately
distinguish J menu from a map, an interoffice memo from a telephone message, and
a bill from an invitation-well, okay, some bills are invitations to pay! When you
encounter (me of the above,you usu;dly know what your purpose is in reading it,and
therefore you know what to hclcct ;md what not to select for short- and long-term
memory-i 1 other words, you bring various schemata to bear on the message that
you have chosen to retain. What would happen if you didn't know some of these dif-
ferences?Tltatis what your stirdents may encounter when they read English, so part
of your job is a teacher is to enlighten your students on features of these gnrcs and
to help them to develop stc~tegiesfor extracting necessary meaning from each.
CHARACTERI9TICS OF WRI'ITEN LANGUAGE

non-fiction: reports, editorials,essays and articles,reference (dictionaries, There are quite a number of salient and relevant differcnccs between spoken and
encyclopedias) written 1ant:uage. Students already litente in their native languages will of course
fiction: novels, short stories, jokes, drama, poetry be familiar with the broad, basic characteristics of written language; however, some
letters: perso~ial,business characterist ccs of English writ~ng,especially certain rhetorical conventions, may be
greeting cards so different from their native language that reading efforts are blocked. The char-
diaries,journ;lls acteristics listed below will also bc of some help for you in
memos (e.g., interoffice memos)
messages (e.g., phone messages) a. diagno>ingcertaln reading difficulties arising from the idio5yncmsies of
announcements written language,
newspaper"journalese" b. pointin: your techniques tow:~rdspecific objectives,and
academic writing: short answer test responses, reports, essays and papers, c. remind ng students of some of the advantages of the written language over
theses and books spoken
forms, applications
1. Permanence
questionnaires
Spoken language is fleeting. Once you speak a sentence,it vanishes (unless there
dirtzctions
is a tapc rccorder around). The hearer, therefore, is called upon to make immediate
labels
perceptions and immediate storage. Written language is permanent (or as permanent
signs
as paper and computer disks are!). and therefore the reader has an opportunity to
recipes
return again and again, if necessary, to a word or phrase or sentence, or even a whole
bills (~ndother financial statements)
text.
304 CI~APTFR18 Te~chingReading
2. Processing time
A corollary to the above is the processing time that the reader gains. Most
reading contexts allow readers to read at their own rate. They aren't forced into fol-
lowing the rate of delivery, as in spoken language. A good dt.al of emphasis is placed
on reading speed in our fast-paced.timeconscious society, which is good news and
bad news. The good news is that readers can indeed capitalize on the nature of the
printed word and develop very npid reading rates. The bad news is that many
people who are "slow"readers are made to feel inferior. In practice, except for the
time factor itself,fast readers do not necessarily have an advantage over slow readers.
3. Distance
The written word allows messages to be sent across two dimensions:physical dis
tance and temporal distance. The pcclagogical significance of this centers on inter-
pretation. The task of the reader is to interpret language that was written in some
other place at some other time with only the written words rhemselves as contextual
clues. Readers can't confront an author and say,"Now,what exactly did you mean by
that?"Nor can they transport themselves back through a time machine and "see"the
surrounding context, as we can in face-tobce conversations This sometimes decon-
textualized nature of writing is one of the things that makes reading difficult.
4. Orthography
In spoken I;~nguage,we hale phonemeh that correspond to writing's
gr~phemes.But we also have stress, rhythm, juncture, intonation, pauses, volume,
voice quality settings, and nonverbal cues, all of which enhance the message. In
writing we have graphemes-that's it! Yes, sometin~espunctuation, pictures, or
charts lend a helping hand. And. yes, a writer can describe the aforementioned
phonological cues, as in,
With loud, rasping grunts, punctuated by roars of pain, he slowly
dragged himself out of the line of enemy fire.
l h t these written symbols stand alone rls the one set elf signals that the reader
must perceive. Because of the Frequent ambiguity that is present in a good deal of
writing, rexiers must do their best to infer,to interpret,and tc "read between the lines."
English orthography itself,in spite of its reputation for ,,eing "irregular,"is highly
predictable from its spoken counterpart, especially when one considers morpho-
logic:~linformation as well. For litelate learners of English our spelling system pre-
sents only minor difficulties, even for those whose natix~elanguages have quite
different systems. Actually, most of thc. irregularity in English manifests itself in
high-frequency words (of, to, have, do, done, w~zs,etc.), a ~ once ~ d those words are
in place, the rest of the system car1 ~suallybe mastered w i hout~ special instruction.
CHAPTFR 18 Teaching Kead ng 305
5. Complexity
You might be tempted to say that writing is more complex than spcec,h,but in
reality, that would be difficult to demonstrate. Writing and speech reprtwnt dif-
ferent modes of complexity, and the most salient difference is in the nature of
clauses. Spoken language tends to have shorter clauses connected by morc coordi-
nate conjunctions, while writing has longer clauses and more subordination. l'he
shorter clauses are often a factor of the redundancy we build into speech (rcpeatrng
subjects and verbs for clarity). Look at the following pair:
1. Because of the Frequent ambiguity that therefore is present in a good (lealof
writing, readers must do their best to infer, to interpret, and to "read h,:twec.n
the lines."
2. There's frequent ambiguity in a lot of writing.
And so, readers have to infer a lot.
They also have to interpret what they read.
And sometimes they have to "read between the lines:'
The cognitive complexity of version I , the written version, is no greater than ver-
sion 2, the spoken version. But structurally, four clauses were used ~nverslon 2 to
replace the one long clause in version 1.
Readers-especially second language readers who may he quite adept in the
spoken language-have to retool their cognitive perceptors ill order to estrilct
meaning from the written code. The linguistic differences between spec.ch arid
writing are another major contributing cause to difficulty.
6. Vocabulary
It is true that written English typically utilizes a greater variety of 1exic;ll items
than spoken conversational English. In our everyd;~ygive and take with family,
friends, and colleagues, vocabulary is limited. Because writing allows tht. writer
more processing time, because of a desire to be precise in writing, and sinlply
because of the formal conventions of writing (see #7 below), lower-frtquency
words often appear. Such words can present stumbling blocks to 11.arners.
However, because the meaning of a good many unknown worcls can I>e prcdictcd
from their context, and because sometimes the overall meaning of a sentame or
paragraph is nevertheless still clear, learners should refrain froni the frequenr use of
a bilingual dictionary.
7. Formality
Writing is quite frequentty more formal than speech. What do we mean hy that?
Formality refers to prescribed forms that certain written messages must adhere to.
The rcason that you can both recognize a menu and decide what to eat fairly quickly
is that menus conform to certain conventions. Things are categorized (appetizers,
salads, entrees, desserts, etc.) in logical order and subcategorized (all se.alood dishes
are listed together); exotic or creative names for dishes are usualty defined; pr.ces are
306 ( HAPTEK 18 7'e.lchrng Reading
''.
~ i v e nfor each item; and the menu isn't so long that it overwhelms you. We have
rhetorical,or organizational, formality in essay writing that demands a writer's con-
formity to conventions like pangnph topics; we have logical order for,say, comparing
and contrasting something; we have openings and closings, and a preference for non-
redunkmcy and subordination of clauses, etc. Until a reader is familiar with the
formal features of a written text, some difficulty in interpretation may ensue.
MICROSKILlS FOR READING COMPREHENSION
Table 18.1,an adaptation of the models of microskills offeferedin the previous two chap
lers, is a breakdown of what students of ESL need to do to become efficient readers.
STRATEGIES FOR READING COMPREHENSION
]:or most second kanguage learners who are already literate in a previous kanguage,
reading comprehension is primarily a matter of developing appropriate, efficient
comprehension strategies. Some stntegies are related to I~ottom-upprocedures,
and others cnhancc the top-down processes. Following are ten such strategies,
each of which can be practically applied to your classroom techniques.
I. Identify the purpose in reading.
How m;lny times have you been told to read something yet you don't know
why you're being asked to read it?You did only a mediocre job of retaining what you
.'read" ant1 perhaps were nther slow in the process. Efficient reading consists of
clearly identifying the purpose in reading something. By doing so, you know what
you're looking for and can weed out potential distracting information. Whenever
YOLI are teaching a reading technique, make sure students know their purpose in
reading something.
2. Use graphemic rules and patterns to aid in bottom-up decoding
(especially for beginning level learners).
At the beginning levels of learning English, one of the difficulties students
encounter in learning to read is making the correspondences between spoken and
written English. In many cases, learners have become acquainted with oral lan-
guage ant1 havc some difficulty learning English spelling conventions. They mdy
need hints and explanations about certain English orthogaphic rules and peculiar-
ities. While you can often assume that one-to-one grapheme-phoneme correspon-
dences will be acquired with ease, other relationships might prove difficult.
Consider how you might provide hints and pointers on such patterns as these:
"short" vowel sound in VC patterns (bat, him, leg, wish, etc.)
"long" vowel sound inVCe (final silent e) patterns (lute, time, bite, etc.)
CHAPTER I8 Teaching Reading 307
Table 18.1. Microskills for listening comprehension
1. Discrimir ate among the distinctive graphemes and orthographic patterns of
English.
2. Retain chunks of language of different lengths in short-term memory.
3. Process vvriting at an efficient rate of speed to suit the purpose.
4. Recognize! a core of words, and interpret word order patterns and their significance.
5. Recogniz. grammatical word classes (nouns, verbs, etc.), systems (e.g., tense,
agreemer t, pluralization), patterns, rules, and elliptical forms.
6. Recogniz. that a particular meaning may be expressed in different grammatical
forms.
7. Recogniz. cohesive devices in written discourse and their role in signaling the
relationst ip between and anlong clauses.
8. Recogniz? the rhetorical forms oi written discourse and their significance for
interprets tion.
9. Recogniz: the communicative functions of written texts, according to form and
purpose.
10. lnfer coniext that is not explicit by using background knowledge.
11. lnfer link: and connections between events, ideas, etc., deduce causes and effects,
and detect such relations as main idea, supporting idea, new information, given
informati~m,generalization, and exemplification.
12. Distinguic.h between literal and implied meanings.
13. Detect c ~lturally specific refer~nzes and interpret them in a context of the
appropriate cultural schemata.
14. Develop jnd use a battery of reading strategies such as scanning and skimming,
detecting discourse markers, guessing the meaning of words from context, and
activating schemata for tho interpretation of texts.
"long"vowel sound in W patterns (seat, coat, etc.)
distinguishing "hard" c and g from "softnc and g (cat vs. city,game vs. gem,
etc.
These and .Imultitude of othtbrphorricsapproaches to reading can prove useful for
learners at the beginning level and especially useful for teaching children and non-
literate adults.
3. Use efficient silent reading techniques for relatively rapid comprehen-
sion (for intermediate to advanced levels).
If you are teaching beginning level students, this particular stntegy will not
apply becacise they are still struggling with the control of a limited vocabulary and
 308 CHAPTER 18 T e a ~ h ~ nRead~ng
g CHAPTER 18 Teach~ngKea ling 309

g~-amrnaticalpatterns. Your intermediate-toadvanced level sludents need not be speed Figure 18.1. Semantic map (from Brown, Cohen, & O'Day 1991: 50-51)
mders, but you can help them i n c m efficiency by teachim: a few silent readmg rules:
i 7--
(total ecliPs< \
You don't need to "pronounce" each word to your:,elf.
Try to visually perceive more t h ~ none word at a tlme, preferably phrases. I \
Unless a word is absolutely crucial to global undehtanding, skip over it and Java
try to infer its meaning from1 its context. \
Patuk myth of
Aside from these fundamental guidelines, which if followed can help learners /
1983
giant eating
the sun
to be efficient readers, reading speed is usually not much of an issue for all but the
most advanced learners. Academic reading, for example,i> something most learners
? \
manage to accomplish by allocating whatever time they pthrsonally need in order to eclipse 1 '(----
compare to: )
complete the material. If your students can read 250 to 3'10 words per minute, fur-
i
I highltech of
ther concern over speed may not be necessary singing villagers today:
drums
4. Skim the text for main ideZ1.s.
Perhaps the two most valuable reatling strategies for iearners (as well as native
chimes
torches \
spaceships
,, 1,;. :.;: z
speakers) are skimming and scanning. Skimming consists of quicW runnjng~on5'e' /
'eerie disk"
pro be5
.;
:I,

-IC:'
' :,
,
.','
,

. .
,
5f.~
eyes across a whole text (such as all essay,article, or chapter) for its &t. Skimming
gives readers the advantage of being able to predict the purpose of thG-passage,the 'black hole"
satellites
' '( 'earthqua ken
I main topic, or message, and possibly some of the developing or supporting ideas. "sunrise"
This gives them a head start as they embark on more focus.-d reading. You can train
students to skim passages by giving them, say, thirty secor ds to look through a few
7. Guess when you aren't certain.
pages of material, close their books, and then tell you whct they learned.
This is an extremely broad category. Learners can use guessing to tllt lr i~dvan-
5. Scan the text for specific information. tage to
The second in the most valuable category is scanning, or quicuy searching for
some particular piece or p~iecesof information in a text. Scanning exercises may guess the meaning of a word
ask students to look for names or clates, to find a definiticm of a key concept, or to guess a grammatical relationship (e.g., a pronoun reference)
list a certain number of supporting details. The purpose of scanning is to ex= guess a discourse relationship
speciFic information without reading through the wl~ole text. For academic infer implied meaning ("between the lines")
~ n G i s hscanning
, is absolutely essential. In vocational or general English, scanning guess about a cultural reference
is important in dealing with genres like schedules, manuals, forms, etc. guess content messages.

6. Use semantic mapping or clustering.
Readers can easily be overnhelmtd by a long string. of ideas or events. The
strategy of semantic mapping, or grouping ideas into mea~iingtulclusters, helps the
reader to provide some order to the chaos. Making such semantic maps can be
done individually,but they make for a procluctive group w ~ x ktechnique as students
collectively induce order and hienrchy to a passage. Earl) drafts of these maps can
be quite messy-which is perfectly acceptable. Figure 1:$.1,for example, shows a
first attempt by a small group of students to draw a semantic map of an article by
Rick Gore called "Between Fire and Ice: The Planets;' an hrticle about a total solar
eclipse as seen through the eyes of villagers in Patuk, Java
Now, you of course don't want to encourage your learners to becomc h;rphaz;urd
readers!They should utilize all their skills and put forth as much effort as possible to
be on target with their hypotheses. But the point here is that reading is, ai.ter all, a
guessing game of sorts, and the sooner learners understand this game, the better off
they are. The key to successful guessing is to make it reasonably uccurute.
You can help learners to become accurate guessers by encouraging thcm to
use effective compensation strategies in which they fili gaps in their coml~etence
by intelligent attempts to use whatever clues are available to them. Language-based
clues include word analysis (see #8 on page 310), word associations, and textual
structure. Nonlinguistic clues come from context, situation, and other schc.mata.
31 0 CHAPTER I8 Teaching Reading CHAPTER 18 Tearhing Reading 31 1

g. Analyze vocabulary. Table 18.2. Typc,s of discourse markers ,,Mackay 1987: 254)
One way for learners to make guessing pay off when they don't immediately
recognize a word is to analyze it in terms of what they know about it. Several tech- Notional categorytmeaning Marker
niques are useful here: - - - -- p p --

1. Enume~tiveIntroduce In order in firstily),second(ly),third(ly1, one, two,

;I. Look for prefixes (co-,inter-, un-, etc.) that may give clues.
which point: are to he made or the time three / a, b, c, next, then, finally, last(ly),in
b. Look for suff~ves(-tion,-tiwe. ally, etc.) that may indicate what part of speech
sequence in which actions or processes the first / second place, for one thing i for
it is. took place. another thing, to begin with, subsequently,
c. Look for roots that are familiar (e.g., interzlening may be a word a student eventually, finally, in the end, to conclude
doesn't know, but recognizing that the mot lien comes from Latinuto come" 2. Additive
would yield the meaning "to come in between"). 2.1 Reinforc,ng. Introciuces a reinforce- again, then again, also, moreover, further-
tl. Look for grammatical contexts that may signal information. ment or confirmation of what h;~s more, in addition, above all, what is more
e. Look at the semantic context (topic) for clues. precedec 1.
2.2 Similarit). lntroduces a statement of equally, likewise, similarly, correspond-
9. Distinguish between literal and implied meanings. similarit),with what has preced(.d. ingly, in the same way
This requires the application of sophisticated topdown processing skills. The 2.3 Transitio 1. lntroduces a new stage in now, well, incidentally, by the way, O.K., fine
h c t that not all I;uigirage cca be interpreted appropriately by attending to its literal, the sequ-nce of presentation of
syntactic surface structure makes special demands on readers. Implied meaning informat on.
usually h;ls to be derived from pn)cessing pragmatic information, as in the fol-
3. Logical Sequence
lowing examples:
3.1 Summative. lntroduces a summary so, so far, altogether, overall, then, thus,
.I. Bill walked into the frigid classroonl and immediately noticed Bob, sitting by of what lias preceded. therefore, in short, to sum up, to conclude,
the open window. to summarize
"Brrr'" he exclaimed, simultaneously eyeing Bob and the open windows,"It's 3.2 Resultatide. Introduces an expres- so, as a result, consequently, hence, now,
sure cold in here, Bob? sion of t l ~ eresult or conseqljence of therefore, thus, as a consequence, in con-
Bob glanced up from his book and growled,"Oh, all right, I'll close the what preceded (and includes inciuc- sequence
window." tive and deductive acts).
1). The policeman held up his hand and stopped the c:~r.
c. Mary heard the ice cream man coming down the street. She remembered her 4. Explicative. I itroduces an explanation or namely, in other words, that is to say,
birthday money and rushed into the house . . . (Rummelhart 1977:265) reformulatior of what preceded. better, rather, by (this) we mean
Each o f these excerpts has implied information. The request in (a) is obvious 5. Illustrative. Ir troduces an illustration or for example, for instance
only if' thc reader recognizes the nature of many indirect requests in which we ask example of \n,hat preceded.
people l o do things without ever forming a question. We can't be sure in (b) if' the
6. Contrastive
policeman literally (physically) stopped the car with his hand, but the assumption is
that this is a traffic policeman whose hand signal was obeyed by a driver. 6.1 Replaciv,:. lntroduces an alterna~ive alternatively, (or) again, (or) rather, (but)
Rumn~elhart'sclassic example in (c) leads the reader, without any other context, to to what [)receded. then, on the other hand
believe Mary is going into the house to get money to buy ice cream until the last 6.2 Antithetil-.Introduces inforniation in conversely, instead, then, on the contrary,
few words are supplied:". . . and locked the door!" oppositicznto what preceded. by contrast, on the other hand
6.3 Concessige. lntroduces information anyway, anyhow, however, nevertheless,
10. Capitalize on discourse markers to process relationships. which is unexpected in view of nonetheless, notwithstanding, still, though,
Many discourse markers in English signal relationships among ideas as what pre~ecled. yet, for all that, in spite of (that), at the
expressed through phrases, clauses, and sentences. A clear comprehension of such same time, all the same
markers can greatly enhance learners' reading efficiency. Table 18.2 enumerates
almost one hundred of these markers with which learners of intermediate profi-
ciency levels ought to be thoroughly familiar.
 CHArrER 18 Teachrng Kealiing 31 3
31 2 CHAPTER 18 Teachrng Reading

A complex cognitive concept may be "trapped" inside the words of a sentence or

TYPES OF CLASSROOM READING PERFORMANCE paragnph, and a good reader will then very slowly and methodically extract meaning
i" therefrom.
Var~etyof reading pertormance in the ldnguage classroom is derived more from the
Extensive rcading is carried out to achieve a general understanding 01 a usually
variety of texts (refer to the list e:trlier in this chapter) to which you can expose stu-
somewhat longer text (book, long article,or essays,etc.). Most extensive reading is
dents than from the variety of overt types of performanct,. Consider Figure 18.2.
performed outside of class time. Pleasure reading is often extensive. Tcd~nical, sci-
Figure 18.2. Types of classroom reading perform'lnce entific, and professional reading can, under certain spccial circumstances, he exten-
sive when one is simply striving for global or general meaning from longer pass;tges.
1
4-

reading performance
j~lassroorn The advantages of extensive reading were discussed in the first section of the
..
-
--/ chapter. By stimulating reading for enjoyment or reading where all c.oncepts,
Oral Xent
//--------..
Intensive E Snsive
names, dates, and other details need not be retained, studerits gain an appreciation
for the affective and cognitive window of reading: an eritrkc into neu wot.lds.
Extensive reading can sometimes help learners get away from their tentlency to
-
1 I
Linguistic (:o;iten~ Sk~mm~ng
-0ba1 overanalyze or look up words they don't know, and c a d for understandin:.

1. Oral and silent reading PRINCIPLES FOR DESIGNING INTERACTIVE READING

Occasionally, you will have reason to ask a student to read o ~ ~ l l At
y . the begin- TECHNIQUES
ning and intermediate levels, oral rc:adi~igcan

a. serve as an evaluative check on bottom-up processinl: skills,
b. double as a pronunciation check, and
c. serve to add some extrA student participation if you want to highlight a cer.
tain short segment of a reading passage.
For advanced levels, usually only advantage (c) can be gained by reading orally. As
a rule of thumb, you want to use ofill reading to serve thes.: three purposes because
the disadz~ant~~ges of too much oral reading can easily c o n e into play:
a. Oral reading is not a very authentic language :~ctivity.
b. While o w student is reading, others cm easily lose attention (or be silently
rehearsing the next paragraph!).
c. It ma): have the outward appeamnce of student partic ipation when in reality
it is mere recitation.
2. Intensive and extensive reading
Silent reatling may be subcategorized into intensive and extensive reading.
Intensive reading, analogous to intensive listening (described in Chapter 16),is usu-
ally ;i classroomuriented activity in which students fo~:us on the linguistic or
semantic details of a passage. Intensive reading calls stu'dents' attention to gram-
matical forms, discourse markers, and other surface structure details for the purpose
of understanding literal meaning, implications, rhetorical n:lationsllips, and the like.
As a "zoom lens" strategy for taking a closer look at a tc:xt, intensive reading also
may be a totally content-related reading initiated because oi' subject-matter difficulty.
1. In an interactive curriculum, make sure that you don't overlook the
importance of specific instruction in reading skills.
ESL students who are literate in their own language sometimes are leh to their
own devices when it comes to learning reading skills. We often assume that they
will learn good reading simply by absorption through generous offerings of exten-
sive reading opportunities. In reality, there is much to be gained by your tocusing
on reading skills. This chapter has provided some guidelines on how to direct that
focus. On the other hand, it should be clear from previous conlment:, in this
chapter that it is important to make sure that your students 1i:tve ample time tijr
extensive reading. Sustained silent reading allows them to develop a sensc of fl11-
ency. Also, silent reading then becomes an rxcellrnt methocl for self-instruf:tion on
the part of the learner.
2. Use techniques that are intrinsically motivating.
What do you think makes for interesting and relevant reading for your students?
Of the long list of texts at the beginning of this chapter, how many will your 3tu-
dents encounter in "real life"? Use those texts. What are your students' goals in
learning to read Fnglish? Focus on those goals. Choose material that is re1~11~intto
those goals.
One popular and intrinsically motivating approach to reading instruction is the
Language Experience Approach (LEA), referrrd to in Chapter 15,where s~udents
create their own material for reading. Other approaches in which learners itre
given choices in selecting reading material offer a degree of intrinsic motivation.
Carefully sequenced readings and instructional strategies that Ire success-orientwl

give further intrinsic involvement in the process. Another way to enhance intrinsic
motives is to offer opportunities for le:lmers to gauge their progress through peri-
odic instructor-initiated and self-assessments.
3. Balance authenticity and readability in choosing texts.
l3y now, the importance of :tuthentic language should be more than clrar. But
in teaching rcading, one issue that has invited some controversy is the advisability of
what :Ire called "simplified texts," in which an otherwise authentic text is edited to
keep language within the proficiency level of a set of students. In order for you to
make a decision on this issue, it is important to distinguish between (a) simple texts
and (b) siml3lified texts and to understand sources of complexity in rcading material.
Autllentic simple texts can either be devised or located in the real world. From
ads to lal3els to reports to essays, texts are available that are grammatically and lexi-
cally simple. Simpldying an existing potential reading selection may not be neces
sary. Yet if simplification must be done, it is important to preserve the natural
retlund:lncy, humor, wit, and other captivating features of the original material.
Second, you might ask yourself what "simplicity" is and then determine if a s o
called simplified text is really simpler than its original. Sometimes simplified texts
remove so much natural redundancy that they actually become difficult. And what
vou perceive as textual complexity may be more a product of background schemata
than of linguistic complexity. Take another look at the list of characteristics of
written language earlier in this chapter and you will no doubt see what it is that
makes a text dicficult. In light of those criteria, is a simplified text really simpler?
'I'he answer may he "no." &chard Day and Julian Bamford (1998: 53), in warning
dgainst "the cult of authenticity and the myth of simplification,"contended that our
<;KC approach has overemphasized the need for sc-called ;~uthenticity,andthat there
is indeed a place for simplified texts in reading instruction.
Christine NuttaU (1996) offered three criteria for choosing reading texts for stu-
dents: (1) suitability of content: material that students will fiid interesting, enjoy:tble,
challenging, and appropriate for their goals in learning English; (2) exploitability:a
text that facilitates the achievement of certain language and content goals, that is
exploitable for instnlctional tasks and techniques, and that is integratable with other
skills (listening, speaking, writing); (3) readability:a text with lexical and structural
difficulty that will challenge students without overwhelming them.
4. Encourage the development of reading strategies.
Already in this chapter, ten different reading stfittegies have been discussed. To
what extent are you getting your students to use all these strategies?
5. Include both bottom-up and top-down techniques.
In our craze for communicative, authentic language activity in the classroom,
we sometimes forget that learners can indeed benefit from studying the fundamen-
tals. Make sure that you give enough classroom time to focusing on the building
blocks of written language, geared appropriately for each level.
CHAPTER 18 Teaching Re,ld~ng 3 15
6. Follow the "SQ3Rnsequence.
One e 'fective series of procedures for approaching a reading text has come to
be labeled the SQ3R technique, a process consisting of the following five steps:
1. Surzq :Skim the text for an overview of main ideas.
2. Qttesti >n:The reader ask5 questions about what he or she wishes to get out
of the rext.
3. Read: tead the text whilc looking for answers to the previously formulated
questicas.
4. Recite: Reprocess the salient points of the text through oral or written lan-
guage.
5. Review:Assess the importance of what one has just read and incorponte it
into lo ~g-termassociatiorls.
This series )f techniques of coursc m y not fit all classes and contexts, but it serves
as a genera guide for a reading cl;iss.
7. Subdivide your techniques into pre-reading, during-reading, and after-
reading pl lases.
It is te npting, especially at intermediate and atlvanced levels, to tell students,
"Okay now, class, rrad the next two pages silently."N o introduction, no hints on any-
thing specid to do while re;~drng,and nary a thought about something to follow the
silent r e a d i ~ ~period.
g A good rubric to keep in mind for teaching reading is the fol-
lowing three-part framework:
a. Before you read: Spend some time introducing a topic, encouraging skim-
ming, s lanning, predicting, and activating schemata. Students can bring the
best of their knowledge and skills to a text when they have been given a
chance to "ease into" the passage.
b. While you read: Not all reading is simply extensive or global reading. There
may be certain facts or rhetorical devices that students should take note of
while t'ley read. Give students a sense of purpose for reading rather than just
reading because you ordered it.
c. After you read: Comprehension questions are just one form of activity
appropriate for post-reading. Also consider vocabulary study, identifying the
author' i purpose, discussing the author's line of reasoning, examining gram-
matical structures, or steering students toward a followup writing exercise.
8. Build in some evaluative aspect to your techniques.
Becausp: reading, like listening comprehension, is totally unobservable (we have
to infer conrprehension from other behavior), it is as important in reading as it is in
listening to be able to accurately assess students' comprehension and development
of skills. C<nsider some of the following overt responses (modeled after the list in
Chapter 16 for listening) that indicate comprehension:
31 6 CHAPTER 18 Teach~ngReading CHAPTER 18 Teachirig KeJ ling 31 7

1. Doing-the reader responds physically to a comman~l. Figure 18.3. Rain forests (from Boone, Bennett, & Motai 1988: 14-1 5)
2. Choosing-the reader selects from alternatives posetl orally or in writing. -- --A-

3. Transferring-the reader summari7.e~orally what is read. RAIN FORESTS

4. Answering-the reader answers questions about the passage. by Scott Adelson
5. Condensing-the reader outlir~esor takes notes on a passage. Have you ever seen a rain forest? Where do rain forests grow? What is unusuiil or
6. Extending-the reader prov~desan ending to a story unique about rain forests? Are they important to the world?
7. Duplicating-the reader translates the message into the native language or This text is about special forests in tropical areas of the world that are belng clrt
copies it (beginning level, for very short passages only). down, and about a special group that is trying to save them.
8. Modeling-the reader puts together a toy, for example, after reading direc-
tions for assembly. Vocabulary to Watch for
9. Converhing-the reader engages in a conversation that indicates appropriate debt -money you owe to another person
processing of information. organization --group
conservation -saving the land and the animals
reserve -a safe place for animals and nature
TWO READING LESSONS basin -valley where there is a river
region -area, large place
Following are excerpts from two different ESL textbooks designed to teach reading savannah --dry, flat land; plain
(and, in the case of the second book, writing) skills. 'Tht, first excerpt is designed
for beginners; the second is for advanced students.

Lesson 1 (Beginning Level)

Figure 18.3 illustrates the use of n;itural, authentic language and tasks at the begin-
ning level. Some attention is given to bottom-up skills, but not at the expense of
topdown procehsing, even at this level
In many tropical countries, people are cutting down rain torests to make room
for farms.They hope that the farms will make money for them so that they can pay
their debts. But a new organization is trying to help these countries save their
forests. The name of this organization is Conservation International. Conservation
International pays countries not to cut down their rain forests.
Their first agreement was with Bolivia, for a 4,000,000 acre reserve in the
Amazon River basin in northeast Bolivia.The region has savannahs, deep woods,
and rain forests. It is famous for the different plants and unusual wildlife that live there
Bolivia and Conservation International will take care of the reserve together.
This idea of helping countries make rain forest reserves is so unusual that
Brazil and Ecuador, which are both interested in this program, are already having
talks with Conservation International.
 CI~APTER I8 Teaching Reading 31 9
3 18 CHAPTEK 18 Teaching Reading

usson 2 (Advanced Level)

@I
This excerpt from Ct?ullenges:Process Approach to Acudemic English illustrates the
use of an article from a popular magazine for advanced level classes. Notice that
mostly top-clown processing is emphasized on the assumption that at this level, the
RESPOND greater net d is for activating schemata (note the "Before You Read" sections) and
understanding the organization and purpose of the article. I n a topically related
( @I Understanding the Details piece of authentic material, a sample of classified ads, scanning is practiced and fol-
lowed up with a writing activity.
Do you understand the text?
Figure 18.4. Our Future Stock (from Brown, Cohen, & O'Day 1991: 7-1 8)
Try to answer the following questions.You may look in the text.
Practice scanning for important words or numbers.
Can you do this exercise in five minutes?

1. Why do some tropical countries cut down their rain forests?

2. What is the name of the organization that is helping to save rain forests?
3. What country did they do business with first?
4. How much land did they get for a reserve?
5. Where is the reserve located?
6. Why is this reserve interesting to save?
7. Who will take care of the reserve? About the Selection:
8. What other countries are interested in this program?
In the first lesson you had an opportunity to explore some of your thoughts
@I The Big Picture: Reading for the Main Idea about change ;and about the future of your field or occupation. Now you will have
What do you think is the most important idea in this text? a chance to compare your predictions for the future with those of experts who
have studied these issues in depth. The following reading selection is from the
-- a. Small countries need help to save their rain forests.
popular science magazine Omni. In 1982 the editors of Omni gathered information
- b. Bolivia is taking care of its rain forests in the Amazon River Basin.
from various U.S. government agencies and industry experts.They used this infor-
-- c. Conservation groups are trying to help tropical countries save their rain forests.
mation to develop a picture of what the work force and the economy of the future
may look like. This selection is an excerpt from the article reporting their predic-
tions. As you read through it, consider whether the changes mentioned here are
similar to those you wrote about in lesson 1.

!I I

I;(, ;
Ria @I
DISCUSS
What Do You Think?
The First Reading

Before You Rvad: Anticipating the Topic

Are people in your country worried about conservation?
!I
! and graphics. Stock often refers to an investment or an accumu-
Look at t h ~title
ill Do you think it is a good idea to pay countries not to cut down their forests? lation of something for future use. Judging from the subtitles and the pictures, what
1\1
What do you think is the most important conservation problem? do you think srock refers to in this case?
 What type of future developments dors this excerpt

Based on the results of your brainstorming in lesson I , write two to three sen-
tences about the kinds of careers and workplace changes me could "put stock in"
[expect; have faith in) for the future.

( As You Read: Looking for the General Ideas

First read the article quickly to discovt:r its main points <rndgeneral organization.
Then do the activities that follow. Later, in your second rea-iing, you can go through
the entire ai-ticle more carefully or foc:us in on particular set:tions to pick up the spe-
cific details and development of t h main ~ points. You will see that two or three
quick, purposeful readings will bt: Inort: efficient and pr~ductivethan one slow,
detailed reading.
Don't worry about vocabulary! As you read, you will find words you do not know.
Don't worry about these. Either guess their meanings or skip them entirely. Do not
look up any words in the dictionary at thi:; time. To do so would only slow you down
and prevent you horn focusing on the key points. Vocabulary exercises will follow.

/ OUR FUTURE STOCK:

A Survey of Jobs, New Technology, and the
World Economy in the Next Millennium
Durilig the next 50 years an incredilde array of new tecllno ogies is expected to movc
from the lab to the world of bnsiness. We
are already seeing evidence of this today.
Robots are replacing humans on the pro-
duction lines. Microcomputers have
become fixtures in offices. Biohctories are
beginning to rnanufacture hatches of engi-
neered hunlan insulin.. .. The coming
decades promise to be especially vol;~tile'
not only our live:,but those of our chidren
and grandchildren,
For tlle rnore Jcvcoped nations, lhis era
of turmoil will bc. marked by economic diE
liculties, problelns with waste and pollu-
tion, and continilally dwindling2resources.
By contrast, the 'Third World cou~ltrieswill
spearhexi a neli industrial agc with the
Job Markets and Careers
The technological revolution that
will prevail" for the remainder of this cen-
tury will create jobs and professio~rsthat as
little as five years ago were nonexistent.
These newly developed markets will
demand of workers an rinderstantiirig of
sophisticated technical com~nuriicatioris
systenis as well as an incrcascd teclir~ical
expertise. By the year 2001 basic skills that
obsolete. The spot welder olr tht: ;llrtonr~)-
bile production line, thr clerk typi,>t in i r r i
office, the field worker- on a Far~rrwill go
the way of the stearnl,oat pilot atid the
blacksmith.
Tlie rnost signilicant trend in !.cars to
come will be rhe shilt From t'orn~;rti~ ,n-myl,e
jobs (factory wvi-k, offi1.t: typi~rg,and Sell-
era1 clerical work) to information-tyl>e,jol)s
(prograrn~ning, word proc.rssinp. artti
supervising ~echriic:iI niachiriery) .' 'Tl~e
American econorny will witnesa the lenlise t

arid exciting for American business. 'The
expected upheaval wit1 profoundly change
I volatile: changeable
dwindling: becoming smaller and smaller (in
amount)
same fervor and energy that characterized
hnerican inriust .ial expansion in the days
of Vanderbilt, Carnegie, Morgan and
Kockefrller.. .
once were vital to business will be rendered
1 prevail: occur as the most important feature I
formation-type jobs: lobs which result In the actual "formation"of .I material produ~t,such a, a car. a r~i'1nuallc
typed report, and so on.
information-type jobs: jobs which focus on the electronic processing of iniormdtion, whether that ~nh,rrn.)t~orr is
used in an office or business setting or used lo control machines whlch then produce material g ~ x d sancl ser-
virr; Nclte that this informationmay never take concrete rnater~alform, it can be pn~essedand htured 1 It~troni
cally in our computer systems, transmitted fmm one place to another by complex electronic tekcrmrnu~\cattons
systems, and read on a computer screen rather than on separate sheets ot paper.
-
 I Identifying the Main Idea
DIRECTIONS: Chc ose the answer that best expresses the main idea.
1. Based on paragraphs 1 and 2 , c:hoose the statement that best expresses the main
idea of the a]ticle.
a. Industrialized nations will face many problems in the years ahead.
b. New technological dekeloy~ntentswill greatly change our lives and the
lives of our children.
c. Robc~tswill replace humans on factory production lines.
d. C h a ~ ~ giseeverywhere.
2. The main id~:afor the section "Job Markets and Careers" is:
a. Our future world will be very different from today's world.
h. Farn~workwill be largely automated and computerized in the future.
c. T h e ~ will
e be more office jo1)s and fewer factory jobs in the future.
of the hll~c-colla~. workrr as automatiorl and down to the lowliest clerk ... d. New technology will create many new jobs and professions and will
robotics hrcomca morc prevalent, heralding For the job hunter of 20'20, scanning6 mak ? many old ones outdated.
I he I ise of' the steel-collilr worker. Such tra- classified ads will be a quick education in
ditional bluc-collar eruployers as General how dl-astically' the workplace will have
[Motors ar~tlI1.S. Stecl have already begun changed. He 01-she is likely to see openings
-
Guessing \'ocabulary from Context
I o ;lrl tolnate their fictories-a fact reflected
When you encounter unfamiliar vocabulary in an English reading selection.
for such positions as biological historians, what is your ty pica1 response? Do you bring out your bilingual or English monolin-
in the swollt.~~' ~~rrerrlployrnent rolls in our biofarn~ingexperts, computer art curators,
gual dictionary to look up the word? Do you then spend precious moments looking
~ndr~strial slates. fiberoptics technicians, robot setrainers,
Kv co~~trast, of'firc and 5ervic.cjobs will space traflic controllers, and teleconfer- through all the -1efinitions to decide which one fits? Have you ever finally decided on
I)e ,~l~l~utlaut, bui oilly for tllose preprlrrd to encing coordinators, to cite but a few. a definition on y to realize that you have forgotten what you were reading and must
in~lxove(hell. technical skills. Again it will begin the seinte,~ceor paragraph i111 over again?
There will always he b r n ~ sbut
, by the Over-relia~~ce on a dictionarv not only slows down your reading but may inter-
be ;~r~to~natiorr that will displ;tce nlany of next century farn~worl\c.rsas we know thern
thc. low-skill(.d and seli~iskillrdworkers in will be scarcer. The business of farming will
fere with your comprehension as w~?ll.A better strategy is to use the context, the
tht. 1"-e"~111 "C0n"'ny words and sen ences surrounding a particular word, to help you guess that word's
becon~cever more complex. With colnput. meaning. Usually the guesses you make will be accurate enough for you to under-
I n fact, thr c.r.;l 01' thr paperless office erized operations and robot harvesters.
l~;ls;~lreatlybegun. It has been promoted b) there will be no rreed for i~nskilledlabor. stand the authc r's ideas. When they are not, or when the terms require an exact tech-
two prirrc-ip;d develop~nents: conrputers The farm will be a pl;~ceLor people with
nical definitioi , you can use your English dictionary as a back-up resource.
that process business insor~nationand the training as electl.o~lictechnicians. hioengi
cuplosivc. g~owth of- teleco~nml~~~ications DIRECTIONS:The following exercise contains words taken from the reading selection.
neers, and con~puter programmers Use the new context to select the most appropriate meaning.
systelns and protlucts. This of'fice revolu- Iudeeti, the hurnan firri~workersomedal
tion trot o11ly h;w c.11angcdhow work is done nlay be silnply the person with the phont 1. Just as the illvention of the automobile rendered horse-drawn carriages obsolete in
anti inSol mation is ha~rtlletlbur has rede- 11~1mher of the n a r e s ( robot repairn~an. modern cit es, so the use of computers and word processors will make the
fineti the h~rlctionof everyone who wor-ks common ty ~ewritermuch scarcer ill offices of the future.
in an office, f r o r ~the ~ col-pol-ateexecutive render obsolete: a. cause ii to be outdated and no longer useful
swollen: m l a r ~ rha\mg
, got bigger
61 scanning: loklng aver or reading qu~rkly(often to flnd specific lnformdhon)
drastically: severely: suddenly
1
~ b. cause it to increase in price
c. cause ii to change
scarcer: ; . inore comnlon
Reprinted with permissl<~nfrom The O m n ~Future Almanac, copyr~ght01982 Omni Publicati~,ns,Pharos Books. New
11. more efficient
York, NY lOlh6 more rare
--

323
 ---
2. Becduse business computers are becomlng more and more complex, many office
workers have had to get new training to handle these soshisticated electronic sys- 7 %
1/ The Second Reading
Before You Read: Knowing Your Purpose
7
terns.
sophisticated: a. complex
In the first reading you were looking for the main ideas of the article, this
b. business
time, your purpose is to see how these ideas are supported. You might want to
c. worldly
think about the following questions as you read:
3 . Computers are even becoming mclre prevalent in Arner~canschools and homes;
perhaps in another twenty years every school-age child n the United States will I
1. What is the main change that will take place in the workforce?
be able to operate a computer. 2. What types of jobs will be affected by this change?
prevalent: a. large 3. What are some specific examples of the jobs and careers we might e x p e ~ ~tot
b. common
c. expensive
4. Some automobile factories have begun to automate their assembly lines 11y using
see in the future?
I
robots instead of human workers. This automation will increase the amount of
nloney needed for machinery but will decrease the cost of labor. Understanding the Author's Plan
automate: a. to increase the number of human worke-s
b. to produce a greater variety of products
c. to operate or cont~olsu~nethingby macf ine rather than by In order to better understand what you read, it is often helpful to c:onsiler tlie
human labor author's plan of organization and method of develop~nent.In the following er ercise,
the purpose of each paragraph in the section "Job Markets and Careers" is explaint:d
automation: the noun form of auton~ate,referring to tile process of automating in the left-hand column.
5. Unlike whitc-collar workers, who usually work in an of 'ice, blue-collar workers
may he found in many different work settings. For example, they may work out- DIRECTIONS: Read each explanation and then answer the comprehension qut:s-
doors to construct a new highway, or they may assemble new cars in an auto fac- tions to the right.
tory or repair damaged ones in a mechanic shop. Authors' Plan Comprehension Questions
blue-collar workers: a, business executives Paragrapb 3: states the main idea 1. What kind of knowledge will the neiv jotls
b. secretar~es for this section: The new techno- require workers to have?
c. manual laborers logical revolution will create 2. What will happen to Inally of the existing
6. The earty industrial revolution cor~tributodto the demist; of the feudal lords and many new jobs and make old jobs and skills?
the rise of the \,o~irgeoisie.Likewise, the ncw technc logical revolution may jobs obsolete. 3. Do the authors give exanlples trf outdater1
herald major social and economic changes in the societies of the future. Paragraph 4: expands the main jobs? What are they?
idea by defining the ~ r i n c i p a l 4 What is the most important change ,aking
demise: a. creation
trend in the job market. place in the American job market?
b. loss of power
Paragraphs 4-8: discuss specific 5. What will cause the "demise of the blue-
c. gain in power
types of work and the expected collar worker?"
herald: a. introduce developments in each. Why?
11. end Paragraph 4: examines factory 6 . What has been the result of the a u t o n ~ a t i o ~ ~
r;. respond to work. which has already occurred in Gvneral
7. Blue-collar workers were originally given this name beca~lseof the blue workshirts Motors and U.S. Steel factories?
they often wore. Given this infonn;dioll and the precedinl; vocabulary clues, reread Paragraphs 5-6: discuss office 7. Will office and service jobs be plelltilul or
paragraph 4. Can you guess what or who the "steel-col ar workers" are who are work. scarce in the future?
replacing the blue-collar workers'? \Yritt! your answer in tk e space provided. 8. What kind of workers will he nettded to fill
these positions?
steel-collar worker: -- 9. What is meant by the "paperless office?"
--
 10. What two major developments have con-
tributed to the growth of the paperless
office?
Paragraph 7: introduces other new 11. How do the examples given in paragraph
oc:cupations of the future. 7 show the "drastic" change in the work-
place? Choose one example and explain.
P;iragraph 8: discusses farmwork. 12. Why will farmworkers as we know them
be scarcer in the next century?
13. Who will perform the unskilled labor on
the farms?
We I:;II~ see that the authors have established a specific purpose for each para-
graph. Recognizing the function of each paragraph helps us to understand the ideas
prasentecl in a reading.
A Deeper Look: Discussion Questions
DIRECTIONS:Discuss the following questions in small groups. Compare your
answers with those of your classmates.
1. 'Tht: authors of "Our Future Stock" predict a greater demand for technically
skillet1 lahor anti a decreased demand for unskilled labor. How do you think
t h ~ swill affect employment in industrialized nations? Have these effects
alrcady been seen in some areas?
2. How can the problem of displaced workers be resolved? Give examples.
3. In paragraph 2 , the authors say, "the Third World countries will spearhead a
new industrial age ..." In a later section (not included in this textbook) they
discuss several factors that will contribute to this advance in Third World
countries. These factors include:
-large populations
--large amounts of unused resources
-I in some cases) conservative governmellts that are opposed to labor leg-
slation and antipollution laws.
Do you agree t h d these factors may contribute to rapid economic developn~ent
in many developing countries? Why or why not? If possible, give examples of
specific countries to support your view.
4. Have the technological advances mentioned in this article affected your
nation or area? ln what ways? What will these changes mean for your future?
5. Some critics of the new technology argue that if humans rely on computers
and robots, we will become mentally lazy; we will lose our artistic creativity
and our ability or desire to invent new ways of doing things. Do you agree?
Why or why not?
Becoming an Efficient Reader: Scanning
To scan is to read quickly to locate specific information or details.
On the n :xt page is an imaginary Help Wanted section of the classified ads for
the year 2020. The jobs listed in this section are based on the predictions made in
the previous article and on other sources. The form of this ad section is similar to
that used in n-any U.S. newspapers.
DIRECTIONS: A iswer the following cpestions by scanning the Help Wanted ads.
First, observe how the information is organized in the ads. Then, read
each question carefully to understand what is being asked. To locate the
information you need, move your eyes quickly over the printed page,
pcying particular attent~onto bold headlines and key words. Finally,
w ite the answers ir. the spaces provided.
1. What is t ie date of this ad section?
2. Where is there a position clpen for a space traffic controller? How many jobs
are available?
3. In order to be hired as the robot psychologist at West Docks Engineering
Corporati In, what experience must you have? Is this same experience required
for the pcsition at Robopsyc:he Institute?
4. If you enj >y working on a team with other robot psychologists, which position
would you apply for?
5. If you art looking for training in a space-related field, which position would
you appl! for?
6. What benefits are available for new sales people at Compu-Sales, Inc? Is on-
the-job twining offered for this position?
7. What job !s listed as a temporary position? How long will the job last'! Is there
a possibility that there will be a permanent job with this company in the
future?
8. If you are 1 teleconferencing coordinator (TC) ant1 you speak several languages,
where miqht you apply for il job? What languages are required?
9. Which T( positioi~requires experience with TeleTech Systems?
10. What pos tion is available ;at Hayward State University? What qualifications
are needel l?
 HELP WANTED: J O B OPPORTUNITIES
ROBOT PSYCHOLOGIST
needed for scientific crew at West Docks
Engineering Corp.
Res~onsibilities: t o provide counseling a n d
reprogramming t o research robots suffering
from directive overload and primary order c o n -
flict.
Qualifications: Must b e independent and 'self-
sufficient; able t o g e t along without h u m a n
companionship. B.S. in robotic psychology
a n d experience with E n 5 0 0 Series robots
required.
Process resume t o CompuStation 6 2 ,
Entry #435592
Are YOU a
ROBOT PSYCHOLOGIST
looking for a CHANGE?
Are you tired of working in isolation for a
single the qualified profes- Z t s and handling existing valued clients. TELECONFERENCING
sional t e a m a t
ROBOPSYCHE INSTITUTE.
I L ~ ~
a I ~ C ~ I c>iaLii>i~cd
~ c > c a ~iaciii~y
ci~ iucaici
in sunny S a n J o s e , California. Enjoy working
with stimulating colleagues while you receive
excellent s a l a r y a n d c a r e e r a d v a n c e m e n t
opportunities.
All you need is a Master's degree in robotic
psychology and a cooperative, energetic per-
sonality. We will provide additional training a n d
o n - t h e job experience.
Process your resume today to Robopsyche
Institute. CompuStation 5C. Entry#41156
TEMPORARY ROBOT RETRAINERS
NEEDED NOW!
6 0 0 Series-2Z3 Domestic Robots must b e
reprogrammed for new duties in a major S a n
Francisco Hotel.
4-week deadline!
Programming degree and experience
required. Good salary now with c h a n c e for per-
m a n e n t position t o follow.
Call irnmediatelv: Elizabeth Cortex, per-
sonnel manager, 4 1 5 - 9 9 9 - 6 4 4 3 .
SALESIMARKETING: S a n Francisco-based
firm is expanding business-computer opera-
tions. Needs 4 creative and energetic sales-
people.
Qualifications; At least 2 years experience in
computer sales; knowledge of "value star" and
related business software.
~ ~~ ~~ ~
i for initiating
~~ ~~ new
~ : sales ~
Benefits: B a s e s a l a r y + cornmission, Trans-Po Bank a n d Trust Co. Energetic, effi-
health and dental insurance. nppr(pr(
T.C, ..----- F-. intprn2tinnml
....-... -..-..-. -h l l C i n p c c
Apply now: Send resume and current earnings
Statement to
COMPU-SALES, Inc.
CompuStation 9 , Entry # 6 7 2 5
SPACE TRAFFIC CONTROLLER: 6 positions
available for experienced s p a c e traffic c o n -
trollers at the new s p a c e port in Santa Clara
Valley. Excellent salary and benefits. Process
resume t o CompuStation 9 , Entry # 4 4 1 3
SEPTEMBER 15, 2 0 2 0
SALES MANAGER; GFC, Inc. Agriculture
Division. Knowledge of robot harvesters and
agricultural operations software required. B.S.
in Agricultural Management preferred. Send
Resume a n d salary history t o GFC, Inc.,
CompuStation 1 5 , Entry # 2 195.
LOOKING FOR ADVENTURE?
Become a S p a c e Geographer! O n Oct. 9 Astro
Travel, Inc. will begin a 4-month training s e s -
sion for s p a c e geographers: 3 months on-the-
ground training in a classroom and 1 month
actual s p a c e travel. Tuition includes travel
expenses. J o b placement guaranteed.
Call 773-1 2 1 2 for m o r e information.
TELECONFERENCING COORDlN.A.TOR is
being sought by L.A.-based law firm.
Must have experience with TeleTech systems,
a n d T.C. training certificate. Call ( 2 1 3 ) 5 9 2 -
6 3i1 2 forb details.
l ~
COORDINATOR:
conferences. Fluency in Spanish, J a p a n e s e ,
and English is a must. Experience with Tele-
Tech s y s t e m s preferred. Salary a n d benefits
negotiable. Call ( 4 1 5 ) 5 9 9 - 6 4 3 2 .
UNIVERSITY PROFESSOR O F HISTORY
FIELD: Early s p a c e exploration. Ph.D. in
History with a concentration in international
s p a c e programs. Send resume a n d related
publications to History Dept., Hayward State
University, Cornpustation 7, E ##7924

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Now, imagine that you are an applicant for this job and you have just received
a c;lll from the persolinel manager with the good news that you have been hired.
Write a letter to a friend descrihing your new job. Notice that this time you are
writing for a very different reason and to a very different person than you did in the
first paragraph. This time you will not include the same kind of dctailed informa-
tion about the job. However, you should include more specific information about
the compaliy than in thc previous paragraph. Remember, your friend has never
heard of Compu-sales. Inc.
You might begin like this:
Dear
Guess what! I just got hired for a new job.
You will notice that the two paragraphs that you just wrote are quite different.
Think about the person to whom you were writing these l~aragraphsand about your
reasons for writing them. In the first paragraph you were writing to your boss to
describe a position that he knew something about already. In the second paragraph
you were writing to a friend to describe a job that he knew nothing about. The dif-
ferences in these two paragraphs are a result of having different audiences (intended
readers) ant1 different purposes for your writing. You can see that the considerations
of audience and purpose are very important in the writing process. They affect to a
great extent what you choose to include, what you can leave out, the tone and style
of the piece, and other important aspects of writing that we will focus on later in this
text. You need to think about these two aspects of writing before you actually begin
composing, as you write, and when you revise what you have written. More than any
other considerations, audience and purpose shape writing.
CHAPTER 18 Teaching Reddfng 331
Thib chapter has only begun to scratch the surface of idormation on the
teaching ol reading, but you should now have a grasp of some issues surrounding
this challeoging task, and a sense of how to go about designing effective techniques.
Of further Importance is the reading-writing connection, the second half of which
we turn to in the next chapter.
TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION, ACIXON, AND RESEARCH
[Note: (l
I~~dividuill
) work; (G) group or pair work; (C) wholeclass discussion.]
I. (G/C) Bring to class a number of different samples of types (genres) of
writtell language (see pp. 302-3), such as a memo, a newspaper article, a
questic maire, a telephone directory, and give one each to small groups. The
group':; task is to review the meaning of bottom-up and top-down prc-
cessing: of written material, then offer examples of each for its assigned genre.
Ask groups to then report back to the whole class.
2 . (G/C)'Tell small groups to think of an anecdote or joke that one could tell
classm.~tes.Then, after rt:viewing the meaning of content and formal
schem.~ta,identify examples of each type of schemata in the anecdote. They
will t h m report back to the class.
3. (G/C),\sk small groups to choose a pair of contrasting genres of written lan-
guage ;ind list their distinctive features, that is, what readers need to know
about c:ach with a specific focus on formal characteristics. Next, tell them to
dcvise a technique that woultl t a c h the genres and demonstrate them to the
rest of the class.
4. (C) Redew the meaning of skimming m d scanning. What are the Lifer-
ences 1)etween them?What purposes does each serve?Ask your students to
suggesl hints they would give to a student who just doesn't seem to be able
to skin a passage.
5. (G)Tell reading stntegies are discussed on pages 306-1 1. Direct pairs to look
at "Les:on 2,"beginning on page 319, and (a) note which strategies are being
encouraged in cach activity, and (b) think of other activitics that would fill
any galls.
6. ( C / G ) iIcview with the class the discussion of semantic mapping on pages
308-9. Ask pairs to skim the reading selection "Our Future Stock" in Figure
18.4 ar d to draw a semantic map of it. Then, have pairs compare their maps
with olhers in the class and txlk about why they drew theirs the way they
did.
7. (D On page 309, compenhation strategies were mentioned. What are these?
Give sc,me concrete examples. How might they be taught?
8. (G)TeL; pairs to look at the textbook lesson o n n i n forests (Figure 18.3) and
to criti~lueit in terms of its adherence to principles of teaching interactive
332 CHAPTER 18 Teaching Reading

reading. What changes might one recornmend and why? Have them share
their conclusions with the rest of the class. If time permits, talk about how
one would teach this lesson to a specified group 01 beginning students, and to
share those ideas with the rest of the class.
9. S k ~ mLesson 2 (Figure 18 4 ) at the end of the chapter. Evaluate this lesson
on the basis of (a) opportunit~esfor students to lea-n stntegles of read~ngand
(b) the eight princlplcs for designing ~nteractlvetec hn~ques(especially #3 on
choos~ngtexts)
10. (G/C) Divide Lesson 2 into segments and give a sebment to each of a number
of small groups. The group task IS to decide how they woulcl teach that seg-
ment to a specified group of learners, then demonsrate those techniques to
the rest of the class
; Carrell, Patricia L. and Eisterhold, Joan C. 1983. "Schema theory and ESI reading
pedagogy." TESOL Quarterly 1 7: 553-73.
7his article is ilf historical significance in clc>(rr!)i ..
lajir~gout the ilnj)or,curcc
of back.,oroundknou~lecigein a theov of second latzguuge rtJcrciirig. Ih:' rel-
"
etjatrce ofschcmu theov, in which reading cumprehrilsion is se~wti\ tlrl
interactice process befzueetz the text and rbe readerj plior k?mu!le~[!e.1.s
shvwn through prac.tica1 classroom applicutio~~s.

FOR YOUR FURTHER READING

Nuttall, Christine. 1996. Teacf~ingReading Skills in a Jbreiyn Lar~guage.Second
Edition. Oxford: Heinemann.
Ael)ersold, Jo Ann and Field, Mary Lee. 1997. From Rc ader to Reading Tericber:
Issues and Strategiesfor Secotrd Liinguuge Clussroot~s.Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Both these books ofler corrprehensii/etreatmc~rltso/'re;earch issues aancl class-
room practice in teachirig rcading skills. 7brr are f 7r teachers in truining
but oJer excellent reviews ofi.~st21ancl tecbr~iqut,sji~rexperienced ~cuchen
as uell.

Barnford, Julian and Day, Richard R. 1998. "'reaching rcading."Annuul Review of

Applied Linguistics 18: 124-4 1
7he at~thorso f i r a n e.xcellc>nl ra&w of current deoel(pmmts in research on
reading in this state-of-the~urt srrrL1ey orticle. A comprehensicv bibliog-
raphy, with some annotatiorrs, is ~1/Jpe~ided.

Day, Richard R. and Bamford, Julian. 1998. Extensive Reading i n the Second
Language Classroom. Cambridge: Cambridge Univer5ity Press.
Consult tbis hookfor a comp~.ehtcnsivelook ut dwpowtr of extensiue re~rdir~g.
The a t ~ t l ~ odispel
n some myths and (dfer u balanced i miew of recent research
a~rdopirzion.

Day, Richard R. (Ed.). 1993. Ne~:el~Ways in Teaching Reading. Alexandria, VA:

Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages.
An e-rcellent collectiorr oj'more tharz 100prcrctical ac,iuities, all cot~trihuted
by L 2 tecrchen- ant1 graded by proJicierrcy kuel. Actloities are divicie~iinto
r>ctensiz~tl,
intensive, and oral reading.

EACHING WRITING
How is writing like swimming? Give up?Answer: The psycholinguist Eric Lenneberg
(1967) once noted, in a discussion of "species specific" human behavior, that human
beings universally learn to walk and to talk, but that swimming and writing are cul-
turally specific, learned behaviors. K'e learn to swim if there is a body of water avail-
able and usually only if someone teaches us. We learn to write if we are members of
a literate society, and usually only if someone teaches us.
lust as thcre are non-swimmers, poor swimmers. and excellent swimmers, so it
is for writers. Why isn't everyone an excellent writer? What is it about writing that
blocks so many people, even in their own native language?Why don't people learn
to write "naturally,"as they learn to talk? How can we best teach second language
learners of English how to write? What should we be trying to teach? Let's look at
these and many other related questions as we tackle the last of the "four skills."
RESEARCH ON SECOND LANGUAGE WRITlNG
Trends in the teaching of writing in ESL and other foreign languages have, not sur-
pribingly, coincided with those o i the teaching of other skills. especially listening
and speaking. You will recall from earlier chapters that as communicative language
teaching gathered momentum in the 1980s, teachers learned more and more about
how to teach fluency, not just accuncy, how to use authentic texts and contexts in
the classroom, how to focus on the purposes of linguistic communication, and how
to capitalize on learners'intrinsic motives to learn. Those same trends and the prin-
ciples that undergirded them also applied to advances in the teaching of writing in
second language contexts.
Over the past few decades of research on teaching writing to second language
learners, a number of issues have appeared, some of which remain controversial in
spite of reams of data on second language writing. Here is a brief look at some of
those issues.
CHAPTER 19 Teaching Writing 335
1. Composing vs. writing
A simj>listic view of writing would assume that written language is simply the
graphic representation of spoken language, and that written performance is much
like oral p:rformance, the only difference lying in graphic instead of auditory sig-
nals. Fortiinately, no one holcls this view today. The process of writing requires an
entirely dilferent set of competencies and is fundamentally different from speaking
in ways th;~thave already becn reviewed in the last chapter. The permanence and
distance 01'writing, coupled with its unique rhetorical conventions, indeed make
writing as .liferent from speaking as swimming is from walking.
One n~ajortheme in pedagogical research on writing is the nature of the com-
posing process of writing. Written products are often the result of thinking.
drafting, and revising pn~ceduresthat require specialized skills, skills that not every
speaker develops naturally. ?'he upshot of the compositional nature of writing has
produced writing pedagogy that focuses students on how to generate ideas, how to
organize them coherently, how to use discourse markers and rhetorical conventions
to put them cohesively into a written text, how to revise text for clearer meaning,
how to edi: text for appropri:lte grammar, and how to produce a final product.
2. Process vs. product
Recogglition of the compositional nature of writing has changed the face of
writing cla:,ses. A half a century ago, writing teachers were mostly concerned with
the final product of writing: the essay, the report, the story, and what that product
should "look" like. Composit~onswere supposed to (a) meet certain standards of
prescribed English rhetorical style, (b) reflect accurate grammar, and (c) be orga-
nized in coaformity with what the audience would consider to be conventional. A
good deal ,)f attention was placed on "model" compositions that students would
emulate an11on how well a student's final product measured up against a list of cri-
teria that included content, organization, vocabulary use, grammatical use, and
mechrnical considerations such as spelling and punctuation.
There IS nothing inherently wrong with attention to any of the above criteria.
They are slill the concern of writing teachers. Hut in due course of time, we
became be! ter attuned to the advantage given to learners when they were seen as
creators of Language,when they were allowed to focus on content and message, and
when their own individual intrinsic motives were piit at the center of learning. We
began to develop what is now termed the process approach to writing instruction.
Process ;~pllroachesdo nlost o f thc following (adapted from Shih 1986):
a. focus cn the process of writing that leads to the final written product;
b. help svldent writers to understand their own composing process;
c. help them to build repertoires of strategies for prewriting, drafting, and
rewriting;
d. give students time to write and rewrite;
e. place central importance on thr process of revision;

336 CHAPTER 19 Teaching Writing
f. let students discover what they want to say as they write;
g. give students feedback throughout the composing process (not just on the
final product) as they attempt to bring their expression closer and closer to
intention;
h encourage feedback from both the Instructor and peers,
i include individual conferences bt.tween teachcr an11student during the
process of composition
Perhaps you can personally 'cppreciate what ~t means to be asked to write
something-say, a letter to an editor, an ;~rticlefor a newsletter, a paper for a course
you're taking-and to allow the very process of putting ideas down on paper to
transfor111thoughts Into words, to sharpen your main ideas, to give them structure
and coherent organization. As your first draft goes through perhaps several steps of
revision, your thesis and developing itleas more and mole resemble something that
you would consider a final product. If you have done this, you have used your own
process approach to writing.
You may also know firsthand wh;lt it is like to try to come up with n "perfect"
finicl product without the abovt: pn)cess. Yo11 may have experienced "writer's
cramp" (mental blocks) thxt severely hampered any progress. You may have felt a
certain level of anxiety building within you as you felt the pressure to write an in-
class essay that would be judged by the teacher, graded, and returned with no
chance for your future revision. I h e process approach i c an attempt to txke advan-
tage of the nature of the written codc (unlike conversalion, it can be planned and
given an unlimited number of revisions before its "release") to give students a
chance to think as they write. ~lnothrrway of putting ir is that writing is indeed a
tl~inkirrgprocess.
Peter Elbow (1973: 14-16) expressed this conccpt eloquently in his essay of
two decades ago (he was a person well before his time!: :
'The common sense, convention;tl understandil~gof writing is as fol-
lows. Writing is a twtrstep process. First iou figure out your
meaning, then you put il into language:. . . figure out what you want
to say;don't start writing till you do; make a plan; use an outline; begin
writing only afterward. Cenlnl to this model :s thc idea of keeping
control, keeping things in hand. Don't let things wander into a mess.
. . . I contend that virtually all of us carry this model of the writing
process around in our heads ; ~ n that
d it sabotagc:~our efforts to write.
. . .This idea of writing is backwards. That's m hy it causes so much
trouble. Instead of a twestep transaction of nceaning-intelangltage,
think of writing as an organic, developmental process in which you
start writing at the very beginning-before you know your meaning
at all-and encourage your words gradually to change and evolve.
Only at the end will you know what you want to say or the words you
I
CHAPTER 19 Teachrng W r ~ ~ r n g 337
want to say it with. You should expect yourself to end up s~)me-
where different from where you started. Meaning is not what you
start out with but what you end up with. Control, coherence. and
knowing your mind are not what you start out with but what you end
up with. Think of writing, then, not as a way to tmnsmit a message
-5
r I'
but as a way to grow and cook a message. Writing is a way to e n ~up l
thinking something you couldn't have started out thinking. Wnting
is, in fact, a transaction with words whereby you free yourself Irom
r
; what you presently think, feel, and perceive. You make avail;~bleto
,
yourself something better than what you'd be stuck with if you'd ;cctu-
ally succeeded in making your meaning clear at the start. What b ~ o k s
inefficient-a rambling process with lots of writing ;111d lot\ of
-:
throwing away-is really efficient since it's the best way you can
-. work up to what you really want to say and how to say it. The re:d
: inefficiency is to beat your head against the brick wall of trying to say
what you mean or trying to say it well before you are ready.
The current emphasis on process writing must of course be seen in the per-
spective of a balance between process and product. As in most language reaching
approaches, it is quite possible for you to go to an extreme in emphasizinp process
to the extent that the final product diminishes in importac~ce.Try not to let this
happen! The product is, after all, the ultimate goal; it is the reason thar wc gu
through the process of prewriting, drifting, revising, and editing. Witllout chat linal
product firmly in view,we could quite simply drown ourselves in a sea of rc-visions.
Process is not the end; it is the means to the end.
3. Contrastive rhetoric
In 1966 an article was published by Robert K;~planthat has been the slthject of
much discussion and debate ever since. Kaplan's thesis was that different I;~ngu;~ges
(and their cultures) have different patterns of written discourse. English di.;course,
according to Kaplan (p. 14),was schematically described as proceeding in L srnight
line, Semitic writing in a zigzag formation, Oriental [sic] written discotcrse in a api-
raling line, and so forth (see Figure 19.1).
Figure 19.1 . Patterns of written discourse (Kaplan 1966: 14)
-- -- --
r
I English Semitic Oriental Romance
---
Russian
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340 cHAPTER 19 Teaching Wrillng
Another way to look at the authenticity issue in cl~ssroomwriting is to distin-
guish between real writing and display writing. Real writing, as explained by Ann
Raimes (1991), IS w n t ~ n gwhen the reader doesn't know the answer and genuinely
wants information. In many acaclemic/school contexts, however, if the instructor is
the sole reader, writing is prin~arily for the display of a student's knowledge.
Written exercises, short answer essays, and other w~itingin test situations are
instances of display writing.
Should we as teachers incclrpo~atemore real wr ting in our classrooms? In
some ways, yes. If ESL courses strive to be more content-based, theme-based, or
task-based, students are more likely to be given the opportunity to convey genuine
information on topics of intrinsic intcrest. But display writing is not totally unjusti-
fled. Writing to display onc's knowletlge is a fact of life in the classroom,and by get-
ting your students to perform well in display writing ext:rcises, they can learn skills
that will help them to succeed in further acatleniic purmits.
6. T h e role of t h e teacher
The gradu:il recognition of writing ;IS a process of tl~inkingand con~posingwas
a natural byproduct of CLT. With its rmphasis on learner-centercd instruction, stu-
dent-student negotiation, and strategies-based instructio? that values-the variability
of learners' pathways to success,(:LT is an appropriate locus for process writing. As
students are encouraged (in reading) to bring their own ichemata to bear on under-
standing texts, and in writing to devc:lop their own idc as, offer their own critical
analysis, and tlnd their own "voice," tht: role of teacher m -1st be one of facilitator and
co;lch, not an authoritative director and arbiter.
This facilitative role of the writing teacher has insp~redresearch on the role of
the teacher as a respotidrr to students' writing. As a facilitator, the teacher offers
guidance in helping students to rngage in the thinking process of composing but,
in a spirit of respect for student opinion, must not impo ;e his or her own thoughts
on student writing. However, as Joy Reid (1994: 273) pointed out,our penchant for
laissez-faire approaches to commenting on student writ!ng nlay have gone too far.
"Instead of entering the conversation of composing and drafting, instead of helping
students negotiate between their interests and purposes and the experiences and
intentions of their academic readers, rnany teachers haw: retreated into a handsoff
approach to student writing." Short of "appropriating" itudent text, we can offer
useful feedback that respects students' values and beliefs. Dana Ferris (1997)
offered useful guidelines for making teacher commeltary more effective. For
example, Ferris found that when teachers (a) requested s;~ecificinformation and @)
made summary comments on grammar, more substantive student revisions ensued
than when teachers (a) posed questions and (b) made positive comments. We are
still exploring ways to offer optimal feedback to student writing.
These six categories comprise just a few of the maliy intriguing current ques
tions in teaching writing. By acquaint~ngyourself with the issues of composing vs.
writing, process vs. product, contrastive rhetoric, L1 vs. L2 writing differences,
authenticity, and the role of teacher commentary in writing, you will begin to gain
"
an appreciation of some of the challenges of becoming an effective writing teacher.
';
TYPES OF WRITTEN LANGUAGE
In Chapter 18, on pages 302-3, were some thirtyudd types of written language
"forms:' As you consider an ESL class that you might be teaching. how many oE
these types of writing will your students be likely to produce thenixlv-1.s': Those
types that thcy will indeed need, either for further stl~dyof English or for their ulti-
mate acatlemiclvocational goals, should then become the prime focus of "real"
writing in your classroom.
CHARACTERISTICS OF WRITI'EN LANGUAGE: A WRITER'S VIEW
In Chapter 18,some characteristics of written language, from the perspective of 2
reader, were set forth. Let's revisit those from a writer's viewpoint.
1. Permanence
Once something is written down and delivered in its final form to its 8ntencled
audience, the writer abdicates a certain power: the power to enlend, to c larib, to
withdraw. That prospect is the single most significant contributor to making
writing a scary operation! Student writers often feel that the act of relcasinl: a
written work to an instructor is not unlike putting themselves in front ol a firing
squad. Therefore, whatever you can do as a teacher, guide, and facilitator to help
your students to revise and refine their work before final subniission will tselp give
them confidence in their work.
2. Production t h e
The good news is that, given appropriate stretches of time, a writer car1 indeed
become a "good" writer by developing efficient processes for achieving the final
product. The bad news is that many educational contexts demand student writing
within time limits, or "writing for display" as noted in the previous section (exarni-
nation writing, for example). So, one of your goals, especially if p u ;ire tea~.hingin
an EAP context, would be to train your students to make the best possibl~.use of
such time lin~itations.This may mean sacrificing some process time, but with sucfi-
cient training in process writing, combined with practice in display writinb, vou can
help your students deal with time limitations.
3. Distance
One of the thorniest problems writers facc is anticipating their audience. That
anticipation nnges from general audience characteristics to how specific words,
phrases, sentences, and pardgraphs will be interpreted. The distance F~ctorrequires
342 nurrtn l11 Teachins Wrirjng
what might be termed 'cognitive" empathy, in that good writers canUre;ld"their own
writing from the perspective of the mind of the targeted audience. Writers need to
be able to predict tine audience's general knowledge, cultural and literary schemata,
specific subject-matter knowledge, and very important, how their choice of lan-
gulge will be interpreted.
4. o r t h o g r a p h y
Everything from simple greetings to extremely complex ideas is Captured
through the manipulation of a few dozen letters and other written symbols.
Sometimes we take for granted the mastering of the mechanics of English writing
by our students. If students are non-literate in the native language, you must begin
at the vcrv beginning with hlndamentals of reading and writing. For literate stu-
dents, if their native language system is not alphabetic, new symbols have to be p m
duced by hands that may have become accustomed to another system. If the native
language has a different phoneme-grapheme system (most do!), then some atten-
tion is due liere.
5. Complexity
In the previous chapter, the complexity of written-as opposed to spoken-
language was illustnted. Writers milst learn how to remove redundancy (which
may not jibe with their first language rhetorical tradition), how to combine sen-
tences, how to make references to other elements in a text, how to create syntactic
and lexical variety, and much more.
6. Vocabulary
As was noted in Chapter 18, written language places a heavier demand on
voc;~bi~laryuse than does speaking. Good writers will learn to take advantage of
the richness of English vocabulary.
7 . Formality
Whether a student is filling out a questionnaire or writing a full-blown essay, the
conventions of each form must be followed. For ESL students, the most difficult and
complex conventions occur in academic writing where students have to lcarn how
to describe, explain, compare, contrast, illustrate, defend, criticize, and argue.
MICROSKILLS FOR WRITING
Following the format from the previous three chapters, microskills for writing p r e
duction are enumerated inTable 19.1.
CHAPTER 19 Teach~ngWrfbng 343
rable 19.1. Microskills for writing
7
+ 1. Produce gr'lphemes and orthographic patterns of English.
:.'
. 2. Produce writing at an efficient rate of speed to suit the purpose.
3. Produce an acceptable core of words and use appropriate word order patterns.
4. Use accept~blegrammatical systems (e.g., tense, agreement, pluralization), patterns,
and rules.
5. Express a plrticular meaning in different grammatical forms.
6. Use cohesi>ledevices in written discourse.
7. Use the rhetorical forms and conventions of written discourse.
8. Appropriatctly accomplish the communicative functions of written texts according to
form and p lrpose.
9. Convey lints and connection5 between events and communicate such relations as
main idea, supporting idea, new information, given information, generalization, and
exemplific?tion.
10. Distinguish between literal and implied meanings when writing.
1 1 . Correctly c8)nvey culturally spc.cific references in the context of the written text.
12. Develop a ~ ~used a battery of writing strategies, such as accurately assessing the
audience's interpretation, using prewriting devices, writing with fluency in the first
drafts, usin; paraphrases and synonyms, soliciting peer and instructor feedback, and
using feedback for revising 2nd editing.
TYPES OF CLASSROOM WRITING PERFORMANCE
While varic~usgenres of written texts abound, classroom writing performance is, by
compariso~i,limited. Consider the following five major categories of classroom
writing performance:
1. Imitative, or writing d o w n
At the beginning level of learning to write, students will simply "write down"
English leners, words, and possibly sentences in order to learn the conventions of
the orthographic code. Some forms of dictation fall into this category, although
dictations :an serve to teach and test higher-order processing as well. Dictations
typically involve the following steps:
a. Trach(,r reads a short paragraph once or twice at normal speed.
b. Teachcr reads the p a n g n p h in short phrase units of three or four words
each, ; ~ n deach unit is followed by a pause.
c. Durin!: the pause,students write exactly what they hear.
I
 dents can check their writlng.
e . Scoring of students'written work can utilize a number of rubrics for assigning
points. Usually spelling and puncti~ationerrors are not considered as severe
as gmmmatlcal errors.

2. Intensive, or controlled
Writing is sometimes used as a pn)duction mode -or learning, reinforcing, or
testing grammatical concepts. ?his intensive writing typically appears in con-
trolled, written grammar exercises. This type of writing 'does not allow much, if any,
creativity on the pan of the writer.
A common form of controlled writing is to presen' a paragraph to students in
which they have to alter a given structure throughout. S.),for example, they may be
asked to change all present tense verbs to past tense; in such a case, students may
need to alter other time references in the paragraph.
Guided writing loosens the teacher's control but s~illoffers a series of stimu-
lators. For example, the teacher might get students to tc:ll a story just viewed on a
videotape by asking them a series of questions: Where does the story take place?
Ilescribe the principal character. What does he say to t l ~ ewoman in the car?
Yet ,mother form of controlled wri~ingis a dicto-comp. Here, a pangraph is read
at normal speed, usually two or three times; then the teacher asks students to rewrite
the palagnph to the best of their recollection of the read~ng.In one of seven1 varia-
tions of the dictcxomp technique, the teacher, after rea'liig the passage, puts key
words from the paragraph, in sequence, on the chalkboard as cues for the students.

3. Self-writing
A significant proportion of classroom writing may bt devoted to self-writing, or
writing with only the self in mind as an audience. The most salient instance of this
category in classrooms is note-taking, where students takt notes during a lecture for
the purpose of later recall. Other note-taking may be d o l ~ ein the margins of books
and on odd scraps of paper.
Diary or journal writing also falls into this categoy. However, in many cir-
cumstances a dialogue journal. in which a student records thoughts, feelings, and
reactions and which an instructor reads and responds tc , while ostensibly written
for oneself, has two audiences.
Figure 19.2 is an entry from a journal written by an advanced ESL student from
China, followed by the teacher's response.

4. Display writing
It was noted earlier that writing within the school clrricular context is a way
of life. For all language students, short answer exercise:, essay examinations, and
even research reports will involve an t:lement of dispIay For academically bound
ESL students,one of the academic skills that they need to m:lster is a whole army of
display writing techniques.
Figure 19.2. Journal enlry (fromVanett & Jur~ch)
--
Journal Entry:
Yesterday at about eight o'clock I was sltting in front
of my table holding a fork and eating tasteless noodles wlLlch
I usually really like to eat but I lost my taste yesterdax,
because I didn't feel well. I had a headache and a fever. My
head seemed to be broken. I sometimes felt cold, sometime:
hot. I didn't feel comfortable standing up and I didnlt feel
comfortable sitting down. I hated eveything around me. It
seemed to me that I got a great pressure from the atmosphr re
and I could not breath. I was so sleepy since I had taken somr
medicine which functioned as an antibiotic.
The room was so quiet. I was there by myself and felt
very solitary. This dinner reminded me of my mother. W~enejer I
was sick in China, my mother always took care of me and cc oketi
rice gruel, which has to cook more than three hours and 1:
very delicious, I think. I would be better very soon under the
care of my mother. But yesterday, I had to cook by myself ever,
though I was sick, The more I thought, the less I wanted lo
eat, Half an hour passed. The noodles were cold, but I was
still sitting there and thinking about my mother, Finally I
threw out the noodles and went to bed.

Miny Ling, PFC

Teacher's Response: This is a powerful piece of writing

because you really communicate what you were feeling. You llsed
vivid details, like "...eating tasteless noodles...","my head
'
seemed to be broken. . . " and " . . .rice gruel, which has to c nok
more than three hours and is very delicious." These make i~
easy for the reader to picture exactly what you were goins
through. The other strong point about this piece is that ysu
bring the reader full circle by beginning and ending with "the
noodles."
Being alone when you are sick is difficult. Now, I know
why you were so quiet in class.
If you want to do another entry related to this m e , you
could have a dialogue with your "sick" self. What ,would yo:lr
"healthy" self say to the "sick" self? Is there some atlvic?
that could be exchanged about how to prevent illness or hcw to
take care of yourself better when you do get sick? Start t?e
dialogue with your "sick" self speaking first.
346 (.I+AI>TEK I9 Te'lching Writing
5. Real writing
While virtullv every c1;issroom writing task will have an element of display
writing in it, some classroom writing aims at the geniuine communication of mes
sages to an audience in need of those messages. The two categories of real and dis
play writing are actually two ends of a continuum, and in between the two extremes
lies some combination of display and real writing. Three subcategories illustrate
how reality can be injected:
a. Academic. The Langu;~geExperience Approach gives groups of students
opportunities to convey genuine information to each other. Content-based
instruction encounges the exchange of useful information. and some of this
learning uses the written word. Group problem-solving tasks, especially those
that relate to current issues and other personally relevant topics, may have a
writing component in which information is genuinely sought and conveyed.
Peer-editing work adds to what would otherwise be an audience of one (the
instructor) and provides real writing opportunity. In certain ESP and EAP
courses, students may exchange new information with each other and with
the instructor.
b. VocationaVtechnical. Quite a variety of real writing can take plzce in
classes of students studying English for advancement in their occupation.
Real letters am be written; genuine directions for some operation or assembly
might be given: and actual forms can be filled out. These possibilities are
even greater in wh;~thas come to be called "English in the Workplace,"where
ESL is offered within companies and corporations.
c. Personal. In virtually any ESL class, diaries,letters, post cards, notes, personal
messages, and other informal writing can take place, especially within the
context of an interactive classroom. While certain tasks may be somewhat
contrived, nevertheless the genuine exchange of information can happen.
PRtNCIPLES FOR DESIGNING WRITING TECHNIQUES
Out of all of these chancteristics of the written word, along with microskills and
research issues, a number of specific principles for designing writing techniques
emerge
1. Incorporate practices of "good" writers.
This first guideline is sweeping. But as you contemplate devising a technique
that has a writing goal in it, consider the various things that efficient writers do, and
see if your technique includes some of these practices. For example, good writers
focus on a goal or main idea in writing,
perceptively gauge their audience,
spend some time (but not too much!) planning to write,
CHAPTER 19 Teaching Writing 347
eas:ly let their first ideas flow onto the paper,
foll )w a general organizational plan as they write,
solicit and utilize feedback on their writing,
are not wedded to certain surface structures,
revse their work willingty and efficiently,
pat:ently make as many revisions as needed.
2. Balance process a n d product.
Because writing is a colnposillg proccss and usually requires multiple drafts
before an effective product is created, make sure that students are carefully led
through allpropriate stages in the process of composing. This includes careful
attention to your own role as a guide and as a responder (see 68). At the same time,
don't get s ) caught LIPin thc stages leading up to the €ma1 product that you lose
sight of thc ultimate attainment: a clear, articulate, well-organized,effective piece of
writing. Mdke sure students see that everything leading up to this final creation was
worth the effort.
3. Account for culturaVlitcrary backgrounds.
Make 5ure that your techniques do not assume that your students know English
rhetorical c,onventions. If there ;Ire some apparent contrasts between students'
native tndiions and those that yo^^ are trying to teach, try to help students to under-
stand what it is, exactly, that they are accustomed to and then, by degrees, bring
them to thc use of acceptable English rhetoric.
4. Connect reading a n d writing.
Clearly students learn to write in part by carefully observing what is already
written. Tkat is, they learn by observing, or reading, the written word. Hy reading
and studyini: a variety of relevant types of text, students can gain important insights
both about how they should write and about subject mdtter that may become the
topic of the~rwriting.
5. Provide as much authentic writing as possible.
Wheththr writing is real writing or for display,it can still be authentic in that the
purposes foi writing are clear to the students, the audience is specified overtly, and
there is at least some intent to convey meaning. Sharing writing with other stu-
dents in t h ~ chss
, is one way to add authenticity. Publishing a class newsletter,
wr~tinglettcrs to people outsicle of class, writing a script for a skit or dramatic pre-
sentation, v,riting a resume, writing advertisements-all these can be seen as
authentic writing.
 Figure 19.3. Brainstorming and freewr~t~ng
(from Brown, Cohen, X O'Day, 1991)
348 CHAPTER 19 Teaching Writ~rlg
pigIdeas -----I
6. Frame y o u r techniques in terms of prewriting, drafting, and revising
stages.
/ Brainstorming I
Process writing approaches tend to be fr~rnedin three stages of writing. The Let's think about the future for a moment. Let's focns our attention o ~ ihow it
prewriting stage encourages the generation of ide w, which can happen in might affect your present or future job. Have you thought about tlie changes tliqitmlght
numerous ways: occur ill your field? To help you think about this question, you are going to make two
I
lists of ideas concerning changes in your field or in the field you plan to elitel
I
reading (extensively) a passage
skimming and/or scanning a p;issilgt:
/ D~RECTIONS:
Use your knowledge and imagination to follow these steps.
1
1 . Prepare two sheets of paper with the following:
conducting some outside research
brainstorming (see below) a. What changes have occurred in my field in the last twenty years?
Your field-today's date
listing (in writing-individuall) )
b. What changes do I expect to occur in my field in the next twenty years?
clustering (begin with a key w ~ ~ rthen
d , add othe - words, using free
Your field-the date twenty years from now
association)
2. As cluickly as possible, think of as many ideas as you can to answer the q~iestior~
discussing a topic or question on sheet a.
instructor-initiated questions aitd probes a. Takc between five and ten minutes to list every idea that cornns to your
freewriting (see below) mind.
b. DO not evaluate your itleas. That will come later.
Examples of brainstorming and freewriting are shown in Figure 19.3. 3. When you have written down everything you [:an think ol', go over tht, list to
The draFting and revising stages are the core of process writing. In tndi- evaluate what you have written. Cross out the ideas that tlori't fit.
tional approaches to writing instruction, students either are given timed in-class 4. Repeat this process (steps 2 and 3) for sheet b.
I
compositions to write from start to finish within a clast hour, or they are given a
This process, called brainstorming, is a useful technique in writing bet ause it
homework writing assignment. 'The first option gives no ~pportunityfor systematic
permits you to approach a topic with an open mind. Because you do not judge your
drafting, and the second assumes that ~fstudents did any drafting at all, they would
ideas as they emerge, you free yourself to come u p with ideas that you might not
simply have to learn the tricks of the t r ~ d eon their owl]. In a process approach,
even knc~wyou had. Brainstorming is one of several different ways to begin writing.
dnfting is viewed as an important and coinplex set of strategies, the mastery of In the following pages, we will introduce some other methods that will help you to
which takes time, patience, and trainetl instmction. explore ideas that you might want to write about.
Several strategies and skills ;~ppIyto the drafting/rev~singprocess in writing:

getting started (adapting the freewriting technique,)

/ Working in a Group
"optimal"monitoring of one's writing (without premature editing and
diverted attention to wortling, grammar, etc )
peer-reviewing for content t acccpting/using classr~iates'comments)
using the instructor's feedh~ck
editing for grammatical errors
"read aloud" technique (in small groups or pairs, students read their almost-
final drafts to each other for a filial check on errori, flow of ideas, etc.)
proofreading
I
In the preceding exercise you worked individually, using brainstorming to
establish your own ideas, to follow your own train of thought. Another eftective
way to generate ideas is to work in a small group where you share vour brain-
stormed ideas with the rest of the group members. By doing this, each of y c ~ will
i
have an opportunity to further expand your own ideas.
DIRECTIONS:
Form a small group (three to five people). Use the following guil le-
lines for your group discussion.
1. Take turns reading your lists of changes in your field to each other.
2. Cornpare your classmates' lists to yours, lonking for similarities and differlhnces
a. Mark the changes on your list that are similar.
b. Add to your list new ideas of changes that apply to your field.

If you have time, you call discuss these three ideas.

1
3. As a group, select thrcc changes that applied to the fields of each group member.
((:ontinued)

349
 CHAPTER 19 Teaching bvriting 351

1 I3e1e is , I n exanlple of what the conlpared lists of a group of three students might look Figure - 9.4 is another sanlple from the student book of Cballenps, illustrating
likft. (Notice that each list has some ideas that have been crossed out. These ideas had some of the lbove strategies,especially peer-editing,from the dratiing and revising
alrc3atly been eliminated by the student in the last step of the brainstorming exercise stages.
bet ause they did not fit.) The changes that were similar in each list have been labeled.
I r- I 7 1
Teaching-Today Health Care-Today
I( Figure 19.4. Addit onal writing strategies (from Brown, Cohen, & O'Day 1991: 4 2 4 5 )
.~ttitndestoward leachers @
infrrrmation explosion @
union activity
computerized inventory
customers' bad attitudes
distance from owners
0 malpractice suits
less respect @
-lmm-
r- 7
Inore joh securit pressure
\letter benefits @$ [iicational demands
use- incentive pay pressure
larger class size consumer action ~nformationincrease @
~:omputcrsas teachin tools need to know more about products @ consulting with othen
computers for recordteeping@ more responsibility competition for clients
[:ompetition for johs more advancement changes advertising
sreater student maturity fewer ersonnel computerized business @
higher tliplomas time cPocks computerized diagnosis
students' inceased knowledge less pay, greater benefits @
better benefits @

I Freewriting
I t In this unit you have read about the issues surrounding the predicted popula-
You havt? just begun to explore the question of changes in your field. Some of tion explosion. 'iou have also wc~rkedwith important writing techniques such as
volir itlr:as will interest you more than others. Now you will have an opportunity to showing and usi11g facts and statistics. Let's now try to apply what you have learned
1 elop your thinking about one of these ideas. I 1 to the writing process.
/ DU~BCTIIINS: Follow these steps to generate further ideas on this topic.
( I. From your lists of changes, choose one idea that interested you.
I1 II
he First Draft

I /
2. Writt! that idea at the top of a clean sheet of paper.
3. For ten minutes, write about this topic without stopping. This means that you
should be writing something constantly. Choosing a Topic
a. Write down everything that comes to your mind.
b. Do not judge yonr ideas.
c. Do not worry about your spelling and grammar.
d. If you run out of things to say, continue writing whatever comes to your
DIRECTIONS:
Chocse one of the following topics to write about in a paragraph.

A. Explain the ir formation introduced in the Following bar graph.

mind.
This process is called freewriting. It is designed to help you free ideas that you
rni:;ht not realize that you have. An importarlt aspect of freewriting is that you write
witbout being concerned about spelling, punctuation, or grammar. Of course, these
eletnonts of writing are important, but studerlts' concern about them can sometimes
inhibit the free flow of their ideas. Freewriting is a technique to generate ideas; it
shc uld be used as a beginning, as an initial exploration of the ideas that you have
ah( ut a topic.
You can us[: your freewriting to help you get started with related tasks. In fact
you niight want to refer to this freewriting when you are doing other writing tasks later
in his urlit. Therefore, you should put this and all other freewriting that you do into a
notebook that you can refer to when you are generating ideas for future assignments.
I
B. In the final pt ragraphs of the article "The World's Urban Explosion," the author
raises the que: tion of what the t!ffects of the population explosiorl might be in the
future. Imagir e your city, town. or village in the year 2025. Imagine that the pop-
ulation predictions did, in fact, corne true. Place yourself in the scene, and
describe what you set:.
Note: Notice how different these topics are from one another. The first topic asks
you to write an rtxplanation which analyzes a graph. The second topic asks for a
 -
352 CHAPTER 19 Texhing Writing Writing the First Draft
----I
After exploring your ideas, put them into paragraph form. keeping in mind how
showing and using facts and statistics makes writing powerful and convincing. Our
task here is to discover how we can best express our ideas in the clearest nlanner pos-
sible so that our readers will receive the same message, with the same impact, that
we intended.

What follows is an element of the writing process that is t:specially im1)ortallt:

DEVELOPED DEVELOPING sharing what we have written with others, our readers, to see if we have been suc-
cessful in c:onveying our intended meaning. This step can be a fascinating adkcnture.
COUNTRIES COUNTRIES We step out of our own selves, to see what we have created through the eyes of others.
to discover the impact of our words on the thoughts of our readers, so that we can
then use the information to improve what we have written. We call this peer-c~diting.
Peer-editing is a true sharing process. Not only do you get feedback from your. class-
mates, but you also give feedback to them. It is a two-way street. You learn to bt: 2
better writer and a better render. In the following exercise you will work with :;everal
classmates. taking the roles of both reader and writer.

DIRECTIONS:
Work with a group of four other classmates who chose to write on t l ~ e
same topic as you did.

populations in billions
description. Think about the possiblr purposes of each topic:. How d o you think
these purposes will affect the tone of each piece?
. Discuss the idea-generating techniques that you each used to write this co~nposi-
tion.
. Read each other's papers silently, and answer the following questions for tach
paper:
a. What do you like the most about the writing?
b. What is the main idea?
c. Who is the audience, and what is the purpose?
d. What convincing details does the writer use?
e. Where could the writer add details to make the piece rnore convi~~c:ing!
f. What areas in the writing seem unclear?
g. How could the writer make the piece clearer?
I. Now, for each paper, compare your notes on the questions to help the write: think
of ways to improve the piece.

Generating Ideas
(You have gotten feedback about your compositiorl from several classmates. Ncw you 1
First, we need to find ways to unlock tlie hidden ideas u e have in our minds. can use what you learned about your writing to improve it, to make it c1earc:r and
In this unit you have learned to use hrainstorming, freewriting, and looping. Try more convincing. Writers call this step of the process revising. All good writers go
these techniques in any combination that works for you. Reading also helps to gen- through several steps of revision because they want to make their writing the hest it
erate ideas. As you write, keep in mind the information you learned about this can bk. At this point they reconsider what they have written, get feetiback.
topic in the readings. then make changes. -

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356 CHAPTER 19 Teaching Writing CHAPrER 1 9 Teaching Wr~ring 357

For the subsequent drafts, your responses can include all of the above except
that (a) now mq change its character slightly:
Table 19.2. Categories for evaluating writing (adapted from

Content
-
I. D. Browr 1991)

g. Minor ("local") grdmmatical and mechanical (spelling, 1)unctuation)errors thesis statement

should be indicated, but not corrected for the student. related ideas
development of ideas through personal experience, itlustratit ,n, f~cts,
h. Comment on the specific clarity and strength of all ma,n ideas, supporting
opinions
ideas, and on argument and logic.
use of description, causeleffect, comparison/contrast
i. Comment on any further word choices and expression i that may not be "awk-
consistent focus
ward" but are not as clear or direct as they could be.
1. Check cohesive devices within and across paragraphs. Organization
k. In academic papers, comment on documentation, citinj: sources, evidence, effectiveness of introduction
and other support. logical sequence of ideas
I. Comment on the adequacy and strength of the conc1u:ion. conclusion
appropriate length
9. Clearly instruct students on the rhetorical, formal cc~nventionsof writing. Discourse
Each type of writing has its formal properties. Don't jmt assume that students topic sentences
will pick these up by absorption. Make them explicit. ,i reading approach to paragraph unity
writing is very helpful here. For academic writing, for ex;tmple, some of the fea- transitions
tures of English rhetorical discourse that writers use to explain, propose solutions, discourse markers
debate, and argue are as follows: cohesion
rhetorical conventions
a clear statement of the thrsis or topic or purpose reference
use of main ideas to develop or clar* the thesis fluency
use of supporting ideas economy
supporting by "telling":describing variation
supporting by "showing": giving etidence, facts, stati ,tics, etc.
supporting by linking cause and effect Syntax
supporting by using comparison and/or contrast
Vocabulary

Mechanics
EVALUATING S D E N T WRITING
spelling
The eva1u;ttion of writing, especially in a process-oriented classroom, is a thorny punctuation
issue. If you are a guide and facilitator of students' performance in the ongoing citation of references (if applicable)
process of developing a piece of written work, how can you also be the judge? What
do you judge?The answer to thc first ciues~ion-how can you be a judge and a guide
neatness and appearance
-
at the same time-is one of the primary dilemmas of all teachers. Juggling this dual Experts disagree somewhat on the system of weighting cach of the above c;~t-
role requires wisdom and sensitivity The key to being a judt:e is fairness and explic- egories, that is, which of the six is most important, next, and so on. Nevenheless,
itness in what you take into account in your evaluation. the order in which the six are listed here at the very least emphasizes the Impor-
T~ble19.2 shows the six general categories that are often the basis for the eval- tance of content over syntax and vocabulary, which ta~ditionallymight have had
uation of student writing. high priority.
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o~~ arp M + I ~ J 01 sdno.18 Ir,al a (313) -Z
360 CHAPTER 19 Tt.dch;ng Writing
might want to experiment with assigning a numerics: weighting scale
(p. 358). Facilitate the comparison of the various "diagnoses,"and discuss
how well the scale served its purpose.
10. @ / G )If possible, observe an ESL writing class. Use the list of nine principles
(pp. 34648,355-56) for designing writing technique5 to evaluate what you
see. Discuss your observations in a small group.
FOR YOUR FURTHER READING
Keid, Joy M. 1093. Teaching ESI. Writing. Englewood Cliffs, N J : Prentice HaU
Regents.
Directed a1 arz atrdielzce of teacher trainees, this book ffers a silrvcy of the
field of L2 turitir~g,including illzlstratiw techtliyl~es,1e;son plans, informa-
tion on ct~rriczrhrmpla~znir~g, ond assessmerzt techn ques for hrgirzrling,
it~termcdiate,and adzwnced leoels.
Raimes, Ann. 1998. "Teaching writir~g" A~rntialReaieu~qrApplied Linguistics 18:
142-67.
One td'the It?urlirlgexperts in writ~ngf~edcig~gy cd]ers, in this article. a recent
stin,cy .yo' rc,seurch on tcaching !c3ritingzr:ith specinl attention to jozrrnal
~uriting,int(;qratir;q writirlg i ~ ~ i other
t l , skills, pmr collaloration, respotzcling
to writing, and ti note on techno lop^ in zoritilz,q.
White, Ronald V. 1995. New W v s ill Tesrct~ingWriting. Alcxandria.VA: Teachers
of English to Spcakers of Other Langu;~ges.
Tl~ispmctictll book in TE..\'OLj- I \ ~ : L J ways series cfleen. all mtensiive ratlgc of
uttiz~itiesthat dc~t~c~lop
d q f i r ~ w compt
t airzg skills, inznlz peer groirp eunlu-
ulin<qand rc~sporiding,and focils ,on dgerent tjpes and fr,rmnls of writing.
Zamel, Vivian. 1982. "Writing: The process of discovel-ing meaning." TESOL
Quarterly 16 195-209.
'This was one oj' the first c o m p r e h e n . ~o~eniie~us
~~ I$ the process ulrititzg
upprouih Jor secolrd hnguage lcurners. Writterr in the errrly 1980s, it still
slunds us an eJfectiz1estciteme?zt oj'tl~ephilosu~hy uttderlyir rg an approach that
has nouJbeeti revised and rejned into srurrd~irclpracticei I marly irntittitions.
Raimes, Ann. 1991.. "Out of the woods: Emerging traditions in the teaching of
writing." TESOL Quarterly 25: 407-30
7fiis is cinother in a series of c~nzprehensir!eslrmrnaries carried ill the
tzten!yfijl;h a?znii~ersaryuolume of the TESOL Quarterly . Raimes descril7cs
and comments on f i l s "thorny" isbues in the teathirtz oy'u%riting:topicsjbr
writing, "rcal" writi?zg, writing iri the acadenlic arena, c ?ntrmtir>erhetoric,
and responding to iclriting.
CHAPTER
'i
"
USED INSTRUCTION --- .- -
..
A glance through the last century of language-teachingp~tcticesreve:~lsmixed opin-
ions about the place of teaching language forms, depending on the mcthotl or CKI.
In the GnmmarTranslation Method and in cognitive code learnir~g(see <;h.lpter 2).
formal aspects of language received central attention. In the Direct Method and the
Natural Approach, overt focus on form was almost forbidden. Some manifc,s~ations
of CLT, especially indirect approaches, advocated only a passing attention ro form,
while other proponents of CLT injected healthy doses of form-focused tethnic)ues
into a communicative curriculum. A dccade ago, perllaps,our profession m'as inun-
dated with a swarm of mixed messages about the pbce of gr.lmnlar and voc abulr~ry
in the commlmicative language classroom, with strong advocates on both :~dcs.
Today, only a handfill of language-teaching experts advocate what Rod lillis
(1997: 47) referred to as the zero option of no form-focused instruction at all, ;l
prime advocate of which is Stephen Krashen (1997) with his input hypothesis
(see PLLT, Chapter 10). Current views of second language. classroom methi)dology
are almost universally agreed on the importance of some form-focused instruction
within the communicative framework, ranging from explicit treatment of rules to
noticing and coflsciousness-raising(Fotos Sr Ellis 1991, Fotos 1994) tecllniq~~es
for structuring input to learners. This of course still leavcs open a wide I.;lngr of
options from which you must choose, depending on your students, their prlrposeb,
and the context.
The forms of language include the organizational components o f language ;ind
the systematic niles that govern their structure. Phonological,~;lmmatic;ll, ;lnd Icx-
ical forms occupy the three principal formal categories that typically appear In a Ian-
guage curriculum. Sincc phonology was discussed in Chapter 17 in the lorn) of
pronunciation teaching, our focus here will be on the place of granmm:lr :~ntlvocab-
ulary in language tcaching. First, grammar.
362 c-trnrrt~20 Forrn-Focused ln5truchon CHAPTEK 20 Form-Focused lnstruclion 363

THE PLACE OF GRAMMAR TO TEACH OR NOT TO TEACH GRAMMAR

Grammar is the system of rules governing the conventional arrangement and rela-
tionship of words in a sentence. In place of "words,"I could, for more specificity,
have said "morphemes."but for the moment just remember that the components of
words (prefixes, suffixes, roots, verb and noun endings, etc.) are indeed a part of
grammar. Technically, grammar refers to sentence-level rules only, and not to rules
governing the relationship among sentences, which we refer to as discourse rules.
HUI h)r the sake of simplicity, I will include discourse considerations in this discus
sion of grammar-focused instruction.
In the widely accepted definition of communicative competence that was
revicwed in Chapters 3 and 4 (see also PLLT, Chapter 9), grammatical competence
occilpies a 1)n)rninent position as a major component of communicative compe-
tence. Organizational competence is an intricate, complex army of rules, some of
which govern the sentence (grammar), while others govern how we string sen-
tences together (discourse). Without the structure that organizational constraints
inilx)se oil our communicative attempts, our language would simply be chaotic.
Organiz:~tionalcompetence is necessrzry for communication to take place, but
tlot sr~fliciet~tto account for all production and reception in language. As Diane
I.arsen-Freeman (1991) pointed out, grammar is one of three dimensions of language
that are interconnected. Grammar gives us the form or the structures of language,
but those forms are literally meaningless without a second dimension, that of seman-
tics (meilning),and ;I third dimension,pragmatics. In other words, grammar tells us
liow to construct a sentence (word order,verb and noun systems, modifiers, phrases,
clauses, etc.), and discourse rules tell us how to string those sentences together.
Senl;~nticstells us something about the meaning(s) of words and strings of words.
Then pmgrn:itics tells 11sabout which of several meanings to assign given the context
of an utterance or written text. Context takes into account such things as
The next question, then, is whether to teach grammar in language classes, and if so,
how to teach it. As noted above, varied opinions on the question can be found in
the literatun on language teaching. Reason, balance, and the experience of
teachers in rt cent CLI' tradition tell us that judicious attention to grammatical form
in the adult c:lassroom is not only helpful, if appropriate techniques are used, but
essential to a speedy learning process (see Fotos 1994, Doughty &Williams 1998).
Appropriate jpanlmar-focusing techniques
are en~bcddedin meaningful, communicative contexts,
contribute positively to communicative goals,
promote :~ccur.~cy within fluent, communicative Ii~nguage,
do no overwhelm students with lingilistic terminology,
are as lively and intrinsically motivating as possible.
For adul s, the question is not so much whether to teach grammar. but rather,
what the op~imalcontlitions for overt teaching of gramm;lr are. Marianne Celce-
Murcia (1991 ) offered six easily identifiable variables that can help you to determine
the role of g-ammar in language teaching (see Figure 20.1). Notice that for each
variable. the ~.ontinuumruns from less to more important; grammar is ~mportantto
some degree in all the six variables
1. Age
It is clear that due to normal intellectual developmental variables, young chil-
dren can profit from a focus on form i€attention to form is offered through struc-
tured input and incidental, indirect error treatment. Somewhat older children may
Figure 20.1. Variab es that determine the importance of grammar (Celce-Murcia 1991: 465)

who the speaker/writer is,

who the audience is,
ylmporranr t- Focur on Form --tFz1
where the communication takes place. Learner Variables
what conlmunication takes place before and after a sentence in question, Age Children Adolescents Adults
implied vs. 1iter.d meanings, Proficiency Beginning Intermediate Advanced
styles and registers, level
the alternative forms among which a producer can choose. Educational Preliterate Semiliterate Literate
background No formal Some formal Well-educated
It is importi~ntto gr.~spthe significance of the interconnectedness of all three education education
tlimensions: no one dimension is sufficient.
So, no one can tell you that grammar is irrelevant, or that grammar is no longer Instructional Variables
needed in a CLT framework. No one doubts the prominence of grammar as an organ- Skill Listening, reading Speaking Writing
izational framework within which communication operates. Register Informal Consultative Formal
NeedIUse Survival Vocational Professional
364 CHAPTER 20 Fornl-Focused instruction
benefit as well from very simple generalizations (such as "This is the way we say it
when we're talking about yesterday") and concrete illustr:~tions.Adults, with their -
abstract intellectu;~lcapabilities,can use gr.~mmaticalpointers to advance their corn-
municative abilities.
2. Proficiency level
If we force too much grammar focr~son beginning I(.vel learners, we run the
risk of blocking their acquisition of fluency skills. At this Icvel, grammatical focus is
helpful as an occasional "zoom lens" wit11 which we zero In on some aspect of Ian-
guage but not helpful if it becomes the major focus of clas, work. At the advanced
level, grammar is not necessarily "more ~mportant,"as Celce-Murcia would suggest
by her chart. Rather, it is less likely to dibturb communit ative fluency. It may or
may not be more important, depending on the accuracy already achieved by
learners.
3. Educational background
Students who are non-litente or who have no formal educational background
may find it diticult to grasp the complexity of grammatical terms and explanations.
Highly educated students, on the other hand, are cognit~velymore receptive to
grammar focus and may insist on ernlr correction to help refine their already fluent
skills.
4. Language skills
Because of the permanence ot writing and thc demanll for perfection in gnm-
matical form in written English, grammar focus may be mole effective in improving
written English than speaking, reading, and writing.
5. Style (register)
1nform;il contexts often make fewer demands on a lea~ner'sgnmmatical accu-
ncy. In casual conversation among peers, for exanlple, minl ~rerrors are acceptable,
while more formal contexts (say, a student consulting with a teacher) usually require
greater gnmmatical accuracy. Similarly, in writing, tolec~nce for error is higher in,
say, a quick e-mailed message than in a formal essay
6. Needs a n d goals
If learners are headed toward prc~fessionalgoals, they nay need to stress formal
accuracy more than learners at the survival level. In eitliel case, message clarity is
a prime criterion.
These six categories should be looked on as general guidelines for judging the
need for conscious grammatical focus in the classroom, but none of these sugges-
tions is absolute! For example, you can probably think of riu~rleroussituations where
it is important to ft)cus on form with beginners, or to get learners away from too
intense a grammatical focus in the context of a formal register.
.. ISSUES ABOUT HOW TO TEACH GRAMMAR
< While the professional community in general agrees on the importance of form-
focused instruction, there are still degrees of opinion on what kind o f instruction
should be offered to learners. Four primary issues characterize this ongolng pro-
fessio~aldiscussion
'
1. Should grammar be presented inductively o r deductively?
Do learners benefit from an inductive approach in which various k~ngu:~ge
forms are practiced but in which the Icarners are left to discover or induce rules and
generalizations on their own? Or would they be better off being given a ri~le/gen-
eralization by the teacher or textbook and then allowed to practice various
instances of language to which the rule applies? 'These two approaches are of en
contrasted with each other when questions about gramn1;lr leaching arise.
In most contexts, an inductive approach is more appropriate becaux
a. it is more in keeping with natural language acquisition (where rules arc
absorbed subconsciously with little or no conscious focus).
b. it conforms more easily to the concept of interlanguage develop~nentill whicli
Learners progress, on variable timetables, through stages of rule accluisition.
c. it allows students to get a communicative "feel" for some aspect of lang~~agc
before possibly being overwhelmed by grammatical explanations.
d. it builds more intrinsic motivation by allowing students to discover ru!es
rather than being told them.
There may be occasional moments, of course, when a deductive appro;ich-or
a blend between the two-is indeed warranted. In practice. the distinctic~nis no1
always apparent. Consider the following excerpt from a low interniecliace cl;iss-
room (theT has asked Ss to tell the rest of the class about a recent journey J:
S1: And so, you see, I tell the, eh, uh, stewardess. to bring me hot tc.~!
Well, she doesn't!
T: Uh huh, okay. [patfie;Kamal raises his hand K;~mal?
S2: Yes, eh, well, I am also very, eh, frustrated last wcek. When I, c 11,
travel in the airplane, I get no sleep . . .
T: Okay, Kamal, before you go on, since we need to review the p.bt
tense anyway,let me remind you that you should be using the 1,ast
tense here, okay? So,you want to say "I LUUS frustrated," "I got n o
sleep," "I told the stewardess."Okay, Kamal, go ahead and con1 lnue
your story.
M e r Kamal finished his story,this time with a little more accurate use of the plht
tense,the teacher put the verbs they used on the board, listed their past tense forms,
and had students practice them. While you might question the appropriatenehsof the
interruption here, the point is that the lesson's objective was to use the past tt nse, and
366 ( H,\rnR 20 Form-FOIused Instructron
the teacher's b c u s on the past tense in this particular instance was deductive for the
rest of the students in the class who were listening. But it was inductive in that the
focus on the past actually was triggered by students' meaningful performance.
2. Should we use grammatical explanations and technical terminology in
a CLT classroom?
Our historical roots (in Grammar Translation methodology) placed a strong
emphasis on grammatical expla~lations(in the mother tongue) and on the termi-
nology necessary to carry out those expl;~nations. Many foreign language learners
in thc US have remarked that their first and only encounter with grammatical con-
cept$ was not in English (language arts classes) but in a foreign language class,
where that they learned about subjects, predicates, direct objects, and intransitive
verbs.
ln CLT classes, the use of grammatical explan:~tionand terminology must be
approxhed with care. We teachers are sometimes so eager to display our hard-
e a m t d metalinguistic knowledge that we forget that our students are so busy just
learning the language itself that the added load of complex rules and terms is too
m u c l ~ to bear. But clearly, adults can benefit from occasional explanations.
Following a few simple (but not always easily interpreted) rulea of rhumb will
enhance any gammatical explanations you undertake.
a. Keep your explanations brief and simple. Use the mother tongue if students
cannot follow an explanation in English.
b. llse charts and other visuals whenever possible t o graphically depict gnm-
~mticalrelationships.
c. Illustrate with clear, unambiguous examples.
d. Try to account for varying cognitive styles among your students (for example,
;~nalyticallearners will h;me an easier time picking up on gammatical expla-
nations than will holistic learners).
e . Do not get yourself (and students!) tied up in knots over so-called "excep-
tions" to rilles.
f. If you don't know how to explain something (for instance, if a student asks
you about a point of grammar and you are not sure of the rule), do not risk
giving hlse information (that you may have to retract later, which will cause
even more embarrassment). Rather, tell students you will research that point
and bring an answer back the next day.
3. Should grammar be taught in separate "grammar only* classes?
The collective exl~erienceof the last two decades or so of CLT pnctice, com-
bined with the rt-scarch on the effectiveness of grammatical instruction (see Fotos
1994, Long 1983, Eisenstein 1980), indicates the advisability of embedding grim-
matical techniques into general language courses, rather than singling grammar out
as a discrete "skill" and treating it in a separate course. Gnmmatical information,
whether consciously or subconsciously learned, is an enabling system, a component
CHAPTER 20 Form-Focused Instruction 367
of commun~cative competence like phonology, discourse, the lexicon, etc.
Therefore, as courses help students to pursue relevant language goals, grammar is
best brought into the picture as a contributor toward those goals.
In some curricula, howevc:r, certain class hours, workshops, or courses are set
aside for p l n m a r instruction. In :I language-teaching pandigm that stresses com-
municative, ~ntenctive,rneanlngh~l learning, sucli courses may appear to be
anachronism;. Under certain conditions, however, they can provide a useful func-
tion, especially for high intermediate to advanced learners, where a modicum of f l i t
ency is alreatly in pl;~ce.Those conditions follow:
a. The grammar course is exj~licitlyintcgnted into the total curriculum so that
students can readily relate grammatical pointers to their other work in
EngIish.
b. The rest of the curriculum (or the bulk of students'use of lang~rageoutside of
the gr,nmar class) controls the content of the grammar course, and not vice
versa. Tirat is, the grammar col.lrse "serves" (enhances) the curriculum. For
wample a significant portion of the agenda for the grammar class should
come frcm students' work in other courses.
c. gram ma^. is contextualized in meaningh~llanguage use.
d . The coulse is tailored as much as possihle for specific problems students are
experiencing. For examplt:, in grammar "workshops" for intermediate and
advancec students, grammatical topics come from the students' own perfor-
mance in other classes, ratl~erthan being pre-set by a curriculum or textbook.
e . Sometimes grammar moclules in a standardized test preparation course serve
as helphl reviews of gammatical principles that may be incorporated into
the test.
f. The ultinlate test of the suc:cess of such courses is in the improvement of
students' performance outside of the gammar class, not in their score on
discrete-1wint grammar tcsls.
Under these conditions, then, grammar assumes its logical role as one of several sup-
porting foundation stones for communication.
4. Should teachers correct grammatical errors?
Many student errors in speech and writing performance are grammatical. It is
interesting th:~tlittle research e ~ i d e n c eshows that overt grammatical correction by
teachers in the classroom is of any consequence in improving learners' language.
But w e do l ~ a evidence
. ~ that various other forms of attention to and treatment of
grammatical errors have an impact on learners. (See Chapter 17 for a detailed dis-
cussion of error correction.)Tht:refore, it is prudent for you to engage in such treat-
ment, as long as you adhere to prir~ciplesof maintaining communicative flow, of
maximizing student self~orrection,; ~ n dof sensitively considering the affective and
linguistic plact the learner is in.
368 CHAPTER 20 Fornl-Focused Instruction

The treatment of grammatical (and discourse) errors n writing is a different Another grammatical system that lends itself well to charts is the verb system.
Figure 20.3 illustrates a commonly used system of depicting some verb tenses
matter. In process writing approaches, overt attention to local grammatical and
rhetorical (discourse) errors is normally del;lyed until 1earnc.r~have completed one
or two d r ~ f t sof a paper. Global errors that impede meaning must of course be
attended to earlier in the process. Studies have shown (Fzrris 1997) that certain
attention to errors does indeed malie a difference in the final written products. Figure 20.3. (from Cross 1991 : 29-301

GRAMMAR TECHNIQUES
Following are some sample techniques for teaching grJmm:lr, using S a n d r ~McKay's
(1 985) classifications.
1. Charts
Charts and g r ~ p h sare useful devices for pr~cticingp ltterns, clarilying gram-
matical relationships, and even for understanding sociolinguistic and discourse con-
stmints. The exercix in Figure 20.2 stimulates students to pnctice frequency
adverbs.
Figure 20.2 (from H. D. Brown, 1992, Vist'~s, Botrk 1, p. 99)
A visual representation can often be clearer than a verl~alonc to inrrod11c.ea tel~se.This
is especially true wllrr-e students do not have similar tensc systems in their mothel. tongue.
Time can be shown by a line across the board. An m o w pointing clown indic;~testhis
moment now. To the left of the an-ow is pzst time, io the right is the future. A cr:)ss indi-
cates a single event, 3 row of dots denotes an action that lasted or will last for ;I rlcriotl of
time. The u.ws of most tenses can be shown and contrasted pictorir~llyon s~lch:I t !nc.line,
as shown in the following examples.
1 ffe iised to smoke (in the past, not any more).
I
12 ir work? in the rnu~ket(did in the past :lnd will amtinue in thy tllture,

~ a ~ a. q -i o p on
h page
s 98 ogain.menchoose the appropriate adverb of frequency, / I
Keiko works hard.
She is on time for work. 3 IJe is baztirzghis supper (eating now, having started :I short a~hilr;[go in tl~rpa-t, hul
She is late or sick. this will not continue for any appreciable length of time).
She is early for work.
She types letters.
She files.
She makes copies. . . .
She makes mistakes when she types.
She answers the phone politely. 4 tfegot up ut six o'clock (in the past, a single event)
She is angry.

INOW
I
say the complete sentences.
I
I. Keiko always works hard.
2. She is always on time for work. 1 5 J'ue been t e a c h u i f l r LZ br2g tine (started in the p s t , still doing it today).
I
 QIAPTEK 20 Form-Focu~edInstruction 371

6 w~'litrclu~ih,vplc,,i,w(in the future) 1 Figure 20.4. (from H. D. Brown, 1992, Vistas, Book 1, p. 43)

,
I i
:1
UI, wrrr olri u,aliirig u d ~ nit startt~lto rain (a continuous p a r iiclioo inrerruptd by
: . I ~ Qcuenu.
I~
( 1 ( Review the vocat~ularyon p a g e 10.Ther talk about possessions. I

H It s: h o'clock nolo. Ishall har~e.finishedby 8 o'clock ( a task st:rrted earlier and which
will I ontinue lor 2 more hours).
4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 1 1
1

-1'1,s I I)!. no ine;inh the full range of tenses, but once yo11 have grasped the idea you
w~llI)c ~ l ~tol cuse the techniclue to introduce others the same way. You can also use a
till e \r,tls to sllow concepts likv for 2 rr~onths, siric(>April ancl.froni April 10 mid J~rure.
'Tl1~5 is clone Irr t l ~ efollowing example.

~,I:II. h.b. M:~rcll April Mny J111rc July Aug. S t Ocl Nov. Uec.1

2. Objects
Objects brought into the cl:issroom not only liven u p the context but provide
;I kinesthetic, hands-on dimension to your teaching. By engaging students in com-
Work with a grouF. Ask questions about Listen and match the people with the
things in the classroom. things.
munication with each other, you also stimulate them to practice conversation rules
;ind other discourse constnints. To teach the possessive to beginning level stu-
dents, for example, bring in a few small items such as a necklace, a purse, and some Excuse me. Is this your handbag? 1. Lucy a. glasses
B: No, it's Lucy's. (Yes, it is. Thank 2. Tony b. English book
glasses. Then ask students to put two or three of their own things on their d e s k . 3. Gina c. handbag
YOU.)
'Then d o something like the three exercises in Figure 20.4. Notice that embedded 4. Mrs. Brennan d. gloves
in grammatical attention to possessives are politeness forms ("Excuse me") and dis- k. Excuse me. Are these your papers? 5. Lynn e. money
coursal ellipsis rules that allow a person to say "No, it's Lucy's," n t h e r than "No, it's B: No. They're Pruvii's: (Yes, they are. 6. Carlos f. briefcase
Thank you.) 7. Olga g. wallet
Lucy's handbag." 8. Tetsuo h. earrings
 CHAPTER 20 F o r m - F K U S l~n~~ t r ~ c l i o n 373

3. Maps and Drawings 4. Dialogues

Maps, also mentioned in Chapter 12 in the discussion about group work, are
practical and simple visual aids in a classroom. Useful for jigsaw, information-gap,
and other interactive techniques, they can also serve to illu$trate certain grammat-
ical structures. For example, maps can sti~nulatelearners' u: e of
prepositional phnses (up t h ~street,
. on t l ~ eleft, oocler the bill, etc.),
question forms (ulhert., 6oul (lo I g ~ to.
t can yo~itell me, is this, etc.),
imperatives Cpo, ulalk, look oul for, etc.),
appropriate discourse for getting someone's attention asking for directions,
receiving and clartfying given information, and ternlindting the conversation.
Dialogues are an age-old technique for introducing and practicing grammatical
points. Consider the dialogue in Figure 20.6, with the suggestions for te.~chersin
Figure 20.8 (both from H. D. Brown 1992).
5. Written Texts
At the very simple, mechanical level, a text might be used to get at a certain
verb tense, such as in the passage in Figure 20.7, or simply to illustrdte a grammat-
ical category, as in Figure 20.6 (both from H. D. Brown 1992). In the latter, written
discourse rules for paragraphing and sequencing ideas can also be auendtd to.

Sandra McKay suggested using drawings of circles, squxres, and other familiar GRAMMAR SEQUENCING IN TEXTBOOKS AND CLWCULA
shapes to teach locative words (see Figure 20.5).
Grammatical sequencing received a great deal of attention in the 1950s ; ~ n d'60s
Figure 20.5. (from McKay 1985: 61) when curricula and textbooks were organized around grammatical categories.
--
Some language professionals were of the opinion that difficulty could be predicted
SIMPLE DRAWINGS (especially if the native language were taken into consideration) and that therefore
grammar in a curriculum should be sequenced in a progression of easier to rnorr
With Prepositional Phrases To Describts Locations difficdt items. Yet no one had been able to verify empirically such hierarchieh of
of Location To Give Directions difficulty by the time the debate over grammatical sequencing whimpered to a halt
Drawings of simple shapes can be used to provide practice in stating loc itions and giving direc- and situational and notional-functional curricula assumed popularity. At that point
tions. In order to do this, you might begin by using the following drawin<, modeling the expres- the question shifted more to whether or not there was an optimal fur~ctional
sions which Follow. sequence.
In recent years, we have witnessed a return to a more balanced viempoinr in
which grammar is seen as one of several organizational aspects of communicative
competence, all of which shodd be considered in programming a textl~ookor a cur-
riculum. In this perspective, the question of an optimal sequence of g-ar~lmat~c;d
structures is not irrelevant, but with our current disciplinary maturity, we seem to
agree that

grammatical categories are one of several considerations in curricul tr

sequencing.
The circle is in the cvnter of the paper. a curriculum usually manifests a logical sequence of basic grammatic:al
The diamond is directly above the circle. structures (such as introducing the past perfect tense after the past Lensr,
The square is to the right ofthe circle. relative clauses after question formation), but such a sequence may he
The rectangle is in the upper right-hand corner. more a factor of frequency and usefulness than of clearly identified ilegrces
The triangle is in the lower lrfr-hand corner.
of linguistic difficulty
After you have introduced thcsc tcrms tell ~ h cslu~lentsto take out a plece of paper. Give beyond those basic structures, a few permutations here and there m111
them a series of commands and have them draw these on this paper. (E.p ,Draw a square in the make little difference in the eventual success of students, as long as lan-
upper left hand comer. Draw a circle inside the square.) guage is being learned in the context of a communicative c u r r i c u l u ~ ~ ~ .
Later you might use this same technique to ~n~roduce more technical vc.cabulary of shapes
along with the relative proportion (E.g.. Draw a triangle in the center of t h ~
paper. Draw a circle
above the triangle. The diameter of the circle should be the same length as the base of the triangle.)
Figure 20.6. (from H. D. Brown 1992: p. 360) CHAPTER 20 Form-Focused lnstruclion 375

What are you doing next week?

1 Look at the picture.Then llsten as you read the conversation.
1 What does Lucy do every day? What is she doing now? Choose the correct form of the 1

I I 'Lucy Mendoza is a nurse. She is never bored 1

brcause she is always busy. She usually (I. workslis
working) in a hospital, but sometimes she (2.
works/is working) in a special home for old people.
Lucy (3. enjoyslis enjoying) her work every day, and
she never (takeslis taking) a day off. She is always
h;ippy. She is never sad. Today she (4. doesn't
work/lsn't working) in the hospital. She (5. workslis
working) in the home for old people. Right now she
(6, talkslis talking) to a woman. The woman is very
lonely because her children never (7. visitlare vis-
iting).'

What about you?

What do you usually do every day3
What are you doing right now?

Ple:ae turn back to pages 104-7 in Chapter 7 and review the sequence of
grammatical ; ~ n dcommunication skills of the Vistc~.sseries (H. D. Brown 1992). This
"scope and sequence" chart is illustrative of a typical sequence of grammatic;d
structures in a basal ESL series. In arranging the order of structures, the principles
of simplicity and frequency were lbllowed. Therefore, the more "complex" tenses
and clause fornutions come later in the series. While one could quibble with cer-
tain elements and suggest alternat~vepermutations, nevertheless learners' success
in a course ltke this seems to be more a factor of (a) clear, unambiguous present*
tion of mate1 ial and (b) opportunity for meaningful, interactive practice, rather than
a factor of a grammar point presented a week earlier or later.

A "WORD"ABOUT VOCABUIARY TEACHING

One of the c ~sualtiesof the early approaches to CLT was a loss of a concerted focus
on the lexical forms of language. While traditional language-teaching methods
highlighted ~,ocabularystudy with lists, definitions, written and oral drills,and flash

Figure 20.0. (from H. D. Brown 1992: p. 361)
--
( Preparing the students
k Introduce future time expressions and the
future with the present continuous tense
On the board, write the following sen-
tence. Underline is and -ing:
Mark d r i v d to Colorado tomorrow.
Tell the students that you want them to
help you continue to write a story about
Mark. Write another sentence on the
board:
He's leaving early in the morning, and ht:S
taking a friend with him.
Presentation: Conversation
I Current practices in teaching vocabulary, however, are not simj>ly a r1:birth of
A. Have the students look at the picture.
Establish the cont.:xt-Carlos and Tetsuo
are talking about school break. Read the
conversation or pl:\y the cassette. Have
the students lister as they read along
silently in their bc oks.
B. Answer any quest.ons students have
about vocabulary or structures. Introduce
or review the wortls during, break, stay, go
away, beach, vacation, and rest. Then have
the students close their books. Ask them
questions about tl e conversation. For
example:
Lexical Approach, to more indirect approaches in which voc;tbulary is i n c o r p o ~ ~ t e d
into communicative tasks,attention to lexical forms is now more central to the devel-
opment of language curricula (see Nation & Newton 1997). Research contirms that
more than incidental exposure may be important for second language ;iccluisition,
with'good grounds for intervening at the metacognitive level"(Singleton 1907: 222).
the same methods of halfa century ago. Rather than viewing vocabulary items ;IS a
long and boring list of words to be defined and memorized, lexical f o r n ~ s:Ire seen
in their c e n t n l role in contextualized, meaninghl language. Le:~rnersare g~~iclecl
in
specitic ways to intrrnalize these important building blocks o f language. B~.loware
some guidelines for the communicative treatment of vocabularv instructio!~.
1. AUocate specific class time to vocabulary learning.
In the hustle and bustle of our interactive classrooms, sometimes w.: get so
caught up in lively group work and mraningful conununic:ttion that w c doc-t pause
to devote some attention to words. After all, words are basic building blocks of kin-
guage; in fact, surviv~dlevel communication can take place ([uite intelligibly when
people simply string words together-without applying any ~ a r n m a t i c : ~
ru1c.s
l at all!
So, if we're interested in being communic;ttive, words are among the first priorities.

Do Carlos and Tet:iuo have a break soon? 2. Help students to learn vocabulary in context.
Now have the class suggest other lines for
the story. Write them on the board. Are they both s t a ~ i n gin Dallas? The best internalization of vocabulary comes from encounters (comprchcn-
Finally, call on students to underline all Where are they gc ing? sion o r production) with words within the context of surrounding di>.course.
the examples of the present continuous Why's Carlos going to Los Angeles? Rather than isolating words and/or focusing on dictionary definitions, a t ~ r n dto
tense. When's he leaving? vocabulary within a communicative framework in which items appear. Sludents
Do they think the7 need a rest?
Are they both goilrg to drink a soda? will then associate new words with a meaningful context to which t t ~ e y;~pl>ly.
B. Review the word let's used in making sug-
gestions or invitations. Have the students How much does a soda cost?
3. play down the role of bilingual dictionaries.
perform actions which you suggest. For
C. In pairs, have the students practice the A corollary to the above is to help students to resist the temptation t o tjvenlse
example, with appropriate gestures, say
"Let's stand up and stretch." (The stu- conversation. Enc )urage them to use their their bilingual dictionaries. In recent years, with the common availability of elrc-
dents stand up and stret.ch.) Make several own ideas by charging the names of tronic pocket dictionaries, stutlents are even more easily tempted to punc.11 in ;I
other suggestions and have the class carry places, times, and activities. Call on sev- word they don't know and get an instant response. It is urlfortulratr t l ~ such
t Imc-
out the actions. Be sure that you partici- era1 pairs to present their conversations to
tices rarely help students to internalize the word for later recall and use.
pate. the class.
4. Encourage students to develop strategies for determining the mctaning
cards, there was a period of time when 'the teaching and learning of vocabu1;lry
of words.
Included in the discuss~onof learning stntegics in Chapter 14 ;ire references to
[were] undervalued" (Zimmerman 1997: 5). In the zeal for natural, authentic class-
learning words. A number of "c1ucs"are available to learners to develop 'wort1 attack"
room tasks and activities, vocabulary focus was swept under the rug. Further, as
stntegics. Figure 20.9 provides a detailed t;ixonomy of such strategies w ~ t hexam-
teachers more and more perceived their role as facilitators ;tnd guides, they became
ples.
more reluctant to t;ike the directive and sonletin~esintrusive steps to turn students'
focus to lexical form. 5. Engage in "unplanned"vocabulary teaching.
Toward the end of the twentieth cer~tury,w e saw a r e v i d of systematic atten- In all likelihood, most of the attention you give to vocabulary learning will be
i
tion to vocabulary learning across a number of proficiericy levels and contexts unplanned: those moments when a student asks about a word or when a word has
Ranging from very explicit focus. such as t h ~ found
t in Micl:ael Lewis's (1993,1997) i appeared that you feel deserves some attention. These impromptu moments are

Figure 20.7. (from Kruse 1987: 31 5-1 6)
VOCABULARY DEVELOPMENT SKILLS
I . (;oals
;L. To Improve the reading vocabulary
skills of ESL students.
I). To teach ESL studenta word-building
skills.
I:. To teach ESL students to guess word
meanings from context clues.
2. Word building
I. Suffixes: 11 may be a good idea simply to
give a list of these to the student for
memorization. Roots used for this sec-
tion should be familiar.
( I ) Practice in suffix recognition, i.e.,
simple exercises in isolation of suf-
fixes:
I goodn1,s.s famili (ar) (ly)
( 2 ) L.essc~nand practice Ln noting gram-
matical changes effected by sufiixes.
Word tables might be very useful
here.
Adj. (good)+ness=N (goodness)
Adj. (gloomy)+ly=Adv. (gloomily)
( 3 1I'racticc rn word formeltion through
exercises in which the student adds
xnd sub~racts suffixes. Again the
word table is useful. The student fills
In the appropriate forms of a word by
~nanipulatingsuffixes. It is of great
rmportance to group words by the
way they form variations so that all
words being studied at one time add
the same suffixes in the same manner
and regularity of change can be
emphasized.
b. Prefixe~:These ;Ire more varied and less
regular and therefore should not be pre-
sented until after suffixes have been
mastered. A list of these can also be
memorized.
I
(1)Practice in prefix recognition.
(2)Lesson and practice in meaning
changes resulting from the use of pre-
fixes, e.g., in + formcll = not
formal=casual. This is fairly difficult.
The examples used should be
straightforward in the early stages.
Here again, the groupings must be of (
words that add the same prefixes in
the same manner to achieve the same
type of meaning. Groupings like un
II
i n untie and un in unfair must be)
avoided. As these are mastered, more
difficult items requiring progres-
sively higher degrees of interpreta-
tion nlay be introduced.
(3)Practice in word formation:
(a) Addition of prefixes. These exer-
cises should progress in difficulty.
E.g., Make a word meaning "not
natural" (unnatural).
(b) Addition of prefixes and suffixes.
c. Roofs: These are quite difficult and
should not be taught at all unless the stu-
dent is fairly advanced and flexible in
his approach to word forms. For a good
list of Latin and Greek roots, refer to
Dechant (1970, Ch. 12).
(I) Recognizing roots. Isolation of roo1
forms.
(2)Effect of prefixes and suffixes on roo1
forms.
3. Definition clue3
a. Parentheses and footnotes X (Y); X*
(1) A lesson would first be given on
these two types of clues, stressing
their physical structure and how to (
1 to do the same kind of inferring that 21
read them correctly.
(2) Practice in recognizing these clues.
E.g., Draw a line under the words in
parentheses: The panther (u
black animal related to a cat) is vev
dangerous and dec~rily.
(3) Practice in using the clue. Here exer-
cises of the following sort are useful:
- --
The prirr c,ipal (main) reelson for
n'earing ,lathes is to keep wan,?.
What is tile meaning of principal In
the scnte~lce'!
b. Synonyms an 1 antonyms: Most st~dents
have studied and enjoy learning worcls
with similar and opposite meanings.
The task is tc get them to recognize the
definitional r 11e these often play.
(1) X is Y; X . thrlt is. Y. Students can be
taught th lt an unfamiliar word 1s
often defi led in a sentence using the
copula be and a synonym.
(a) Clue rlcognitions, both of signal
words and synonyms. E.g., Un-
derlint the signal word & or th;a
&: A birtlzday party is an obser-
vcmce, that a rernembrancc L I ~
someo#te'sday of birth.
(b) Practic~.in using the cluc. Again
exercis~~s in producing or recog-
nizing .I synonym are useful.
(2) X-Y-; Y, which is Y ; X . or Y; X ,
Y. Appos tival constructions. This
can be approached in essentially the
same marner as the is and theft is
clues wert .
4. Infererrre c1~ir.r
These types of c!ues require a higher level
of analytical skill and practice thar. pre-
vious types dea t with. They should be
approached slowly, moving from obvious
answers to incrt asingly vague exercises.
The ESL student should never be expected
native speaker could do, but should br:
encouraged to go as far as possible as long
as the guessing is not allowed to be~:omr.
wild. For all three types of clues (exa~nple.
summary, and :xperience) the same
method of pract ce in (i) recognititrn 01'
clue elements and (ii) obtaining n~e;~ning
from the element; can be followed.
a. Exnrnple:
( I ) Specific cl les: X, e.g., Y; X , i.c.., Y;
CHAPTFR 20 Form-Focused Inctrucfion 379
----
X , for example, Y 1
E.g., Iran is trying lo restoremany of
ils ancient monuments. Persepolis,
for example, is being partly rebuilt
by n group of Italian experts.
(2) No physical clue.
E.g., Roberta Flack, Aretha
Franklin, urtd Olivia Newton-John
are populir female vocalists.
b. Summuty:
(1) Restatement
(a) With a physical clue: . . . X. This
Y . . .; . . . X. X isY.
E.g.. Many pnjdure cfre sold to
stop pers~iration.This wetness
thar comes front your body
whenever you are too warm,
work very hard, or are afraid I
usually doesn't smt,ll very goori.
(b) Without physical clue.
Either: The same meaning. X, Y.
E.g., He's a really good w .
He plays sports nsell.
Or: Opposite meaning. X . (neg)
Y. E.g., He > bound lo win. He
can't lose.
(2) Information. E.g., The forsythia wris
covered with the goldenflowers thur
bloom early in the spring.
c. Experience: The reader must decide 1
from his own experiences what is prob-
ably meant by a word. E.g., The old dog
snuffled and &as he slowly walked
380 L-HAPTER20 Fornf-Focusedln~trucl~on
very important. Sometimes, they are simply brief Little pointers; for example, the
word "clumsy"once appcared in a paragraph students were reading and the teacher
volunteered:
T: Okay,"clumsy"Does anyone know what t k i t means? [writes the word
on the hoard]
Ss: [silence1
T: No one? Oka): well, take a look at the sentencr it's in. "His clumsy
efforts to imitate a dancer were almost amusin":." Now, w;~sBernard a
good dancer? [iMona rczises her hand.] Ok;q hlona?
S I : Well, no. He was a very bad dancer, as we see In the next sentence.
T: Excellent! So, what do you think "clumsy"migl t mean?
S2: Not graceful.
T: Good, what else?Anyone?
S3: Uncoordinated?
T: Great! Okay, so "clumsy" means awkward, ungr;,ceful,uncoordinated.
[writes synonyms on the' bol~rd]Is that cle;lr r ow?
Ss: [most Ss not1 in agree~nlmt]
Sometimes, such imp romp ti^ momelits may be exten .led: thc teacher gives
several examples and/or encourages students to use the word in other sentences.
Make sure that such unplanned teaching, however, does not detnct from the cen-
tral focus of activity by going on ant1 on, ad nauseam.
IJnfortunately, professional pendt~lumshave a disturbir g way of swinging too
far one way or the other, and sometimes the only way we c;ln get enough perspec-
tive to see these overly long arcs is through hindsight. Hinkiight has now taught us
that there was some overre:~ctionto the almost exclusive attention that grammar
and vocabulary received in the first two-thirds of the twentieth century. So-called
"natural" approaches in which grammar was considered dam;lging were overreac-
tive. Advocating the "absorption" of gnmrn:ir and vocabulary with no overt atten-
tion whatsoever to language forms went coo hr. We now :eem to have a healthy
respect for the place of form-focuserl instruction-;ittention to those basic "bits and
pieces" of a language-in an interactive curriculum. Ant1 n IW we can pursue the
business of finding better and better techniques for gettint, these bits and pieces
into the communicative repertoires of our learners.
TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION, ACTION, AND RESEARCH
[Note: (I)
Individual work; (G) group or p;~irwork; (C) w11ol~:-classdiscussion.]
1. (I) It might be useful to review the section on form-foci~sedinstruction and
error treatment in PLLT, Chapter 8,wliere background ~esearchand termi-
nology are explained.
CHAPTLR 20 Fornl-Fot used Ifrsfrut t ,)n 381
,.
2. (G) Sometimes grammatical knowledge isn't sufficie~itto understand' hidden"
or implied meanings of what people say or write. Tell pairs to look at the fol-
lowing:
a. "Oh! That's just great!"
b. "Good to see you again, Helen. You've lost some weight, ha1trn.t
you?"
c. "Brrrr! It's sure cold in this house:'
Tlie "surface"qammatical meaning differs from potential "deep"struc~urc
meanings. Ask the pairs to ident* those meanings, and, if possible, to think
of other examples. Then have them devise a few techniques tl1:11 coulrl I)e
used to teach such pragmatic aspects of English, and sh;ire their ideas with
the rest of the class.
3. 0/C) Observe a class in which the teacher uses some form-focused in~truc-
tion. Evaluate the effectiveness of thc class using the five criteria on
page 363. Share your observations with the whole class.
4. (G) Assign a sepante, different grammar "point" to every tu30pairs and liavr.
them do the following: one pair figures out how to teach that point w ~ t ha
deductive approach and describes students for which such an approac.11 is jus-
tified; the other pair is directed to do the same with an inductive appr:racli.
Pairs then prescnt their suggestions to the whole class for comparison
5. (C) On page 365, an example of a teacher's intervention is given. 1)iscu.s tht
following as a whole class: Was the teacher's interruption warranted?W.hat are
some n ~ l e for
s interruption? (See the section on error treatment in Chapter I-.)
6. (C) On pages 366-67 some justifications are offered for sepafiite gntmlirar
classes. Ask the class if they agree with all the reasons. Do they knon o f any
institutions that offer such courses? Do they follow all the criteria listed here?
7. (T) Review the section on error correction in <;h:lpter 17 (pp. 288-9.1)
Observe a class and try to determine if all the principles of rrror correction
were followed. How, specifically,did the teacher treat grainmatical (as
opposed to vocabulary, pronunciation, etc.) errors?
8. (G/C) A number of grammar-focusing techniques are i1lustr:ited :it the I-nd01'
the chapter. Tell groups or pairs, each assigned to one technique, to dtnlon-
strate (pccr-teach) ttlat technique to the rest of the class. Ask the cl;lss to
offer collective critiques of what worked well, what didn't, and why.
9. (G/C) Ask pairs to look back at the grammar sequence chart in Chapter 7
(pp. 104-107) and decide $311 the grammatical items are in an appropriate
sequence. Which items could be placed significantly earlier or later in the
course without posing undue difficulty for the students? Pairs will tiler' sharc
their thoughts with the rest of the class.
10. (G) Direct pairs to review the sections of Chapters I4 and LX that deal with
vocabulary acquisition. Then, referring to fiuse's taxonomy (Figure 2(17), icll
them to figure out what word-attack skills are appropriate for a contcxl with
which they are familiar.
FOR YOUR FURTHER READING
Doughty, C;;~tlierineand Williams, Jessica. 1998. Focus on FOWL in Classroom
Secorrd Language Acquisition. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Coady, James and Huckin, Thomas. 1997. Second Lrrngurige V o ~ a b u l a y
Acquisition: A Rationale fbr Pedagogy. Cdmbridge: Cambridge University
Press.
Both r?j'tl~e.ssc.cir~tholo~qies oJer chapter.$ by (irffirent authors, arch of ulhorn
u>ri/eson at1 aspc~ctof rc~se~rrch on, in thc~jint book, cbssroom focus on
jbrrt~, t:r?ld in /hc second, uocabuby learning. They ofler excellent
ot~en~icl~l.\
q/'i.i-.il.srles~uithson~epractical implicationsfor teaching as well.

Nation, Paul (Ed.). 1994. New Wa-vs in Teaching Vocablrlary. Alexandria, VA:
'T~achersof English to Speakers of Other Languages.
.4tzotljcr 111 TESOL :s uscjirl arldpractical NL'W Wu.y.s serie.~,tt1i.s ziol~inzeoflim
W I N ~ I J1)arietie.s
~ of i~ocabul~zry
teaching techlziyties, eczch irlrlexeci for its
upprol)rirrtenessfvrprcficienc-y le~lt.1.It also instructs ttc~acbtmon t t ~process
c
c?flexicalric'rlziisi/ion and otr stra/cgiesfor uocabtrlary learnir~g.

McKay, Sandra. 1985. Teaching Grammrrr:Fornz, Function, and Technique. New

York: Pergamon Press.
IJ r, Penny. 1988. Grammar Prrictice Actiuities: A Practical Guirle for Teachers.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Celce-Murcia, Marianne and Hilles, Sharon. 1988. Techniques and Resources in
Tea~.hirrgGratntnar. Oxford: Oxford IJniversity I'ress.
~ lthrcle
l cfihcl.scpnrctical teacher's resource booki denlolutrcrtc hozil to corn-
Oine grarrlmur teaching with a con~n~uniccrtitlc~approach. These col1t.ction.s
(!/'dozens of licely and mo/iuatir~gtechriiques arc enhurzced 6y the spccrfi-
ccltion o$' gerleral guidelines for eJ2ctit.e teaching toz~lardgranzmrrtical
points.

Taylor, Lincla. 1990. Teuching and Learning Vocabulaly. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prenticc-Hall Regents.
Allcn,Virginia French. 1983. Techniques in Teaching Vocabulary. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
These t~10hundbook-s are collections c?f numerous techniques for teachi~zg
r!ocahlilu~.13ott1giue the teacber some background otz the pl~rceoj' uocab-
~i1ar)l[t~cbitlg
withitz commu~zicatiue frameworks.

ENT I: BASIC
So tar, if you have been reading thib hook chapter by chap~erfrom the beginning,
you have gathered ;I great deal of i~ifi)rm;~tion about the piocess of the classroom
teaching of second language learners: principles underlying ;I sound approach, con-
textu;ll considcmtions, lesson design xnd classroom management, and teaching lan-
guage skills. In all these discussions, the notion of language assessment has
emerged implicitly on a number of occasions, b~itnot ex,>licitlyto the point of
examining what the discipline knows about testing laiigu.~geability and looking
closely at various options av:ilable lor periodic classroom-based assessment of stu-
dents' development:~lprogress in a coursc. This and the following chapter will do
just that.
This chapter focuses on basic concepts and constructs in language assessment.
The focus will be on what we traditionally think of ;IS a "test"nther than the broader
notion of"asscssment,"and special attention will be given to large-scale svandardized
testing as opposed to classroom testing. Criteria for measuring a test, typcs of test,
and a synthesis of issues in testing will be centered on formal measurements of lan-
guage: those designated moments during which we adniin~stera prepared instru-
ment to students for the purpose of rneasuring their language competence.
Chapter 22 will look at practical classrooin contexts for assessment; these include
some formal measurements as well as informal :Issessmetlt. The latter includes
moment-by-moment incidental and intended judgments of itudents' performance,
techniqiies that are not traditionally thought of as assessment devices, and other
procedures that have come to be callcd "alternative"assesswent methods.
WHAT IS A TEST?
A test, in plain words. is a method of measuring a person's ability or knowlcdgc in
a given domain. The definition captures the essential components of a test. A test
is first a method. It is a set of techniques, procedures, and items that constitute an
instrument of some sort that requires performance or activity on the part of the test-
CHAPTER 2 1 LanguageAssessmen1I:Ba.sic Concellls in Test Devr~lrqmcnt 385
taker (and sometimes on the part of the tester as well). The method niay be iiitu-
itivc and informal, as in the case of a holistic impression of someone's authenticity
of pronunciation. Or it may be quite explicit and structured, as in a mdtiplk'-choice
technique in which correct responses have already been sprcikied by som~k~'?objcc-
tive" means.
Next, a test has the purpose of memuring. Some measurements arc: rather
broad and inexact, while others are quantified in mathematically precise terms. 'l'he
difference between formal and informal assessment (which will be discl~bsedin
detail in Chapter 22) exists to a great degree in the nature of the q~1antific;ltionof
data. The informal, everyday intuitive judging that wc do as laypersons or !e;~chcrs
is difficult to quantify. Judgments are rendered in somewhat global rcrlns. For
example, it is common to speak of a "good"tennis player, a"fairnpcrformaiic e by ail
actor in a play, or a"poornreader. Formal tests, in which c;~refi~lly
planned techniq~ies
of assessment are used, rely more on quantification,especially for comparison either
within an individual (say, at the beginning and the end of a course) or acra ~ s incli-
s
viduals.
A test measures apersotl's ability or knowledge. Care must bc taken in any tcst to
understand who the test-takers are. What is their previous experience ancl hack-
ground? Is the test appropriate for them? How are scores to he interpreted for individ-
uals?
Also being measured in a test is nbiliv or competence. A rest s;tmple: pcrtor-
mance but infers certain competence. A driving test for a drivcr's license is a test
requiring a sample of performance, but that performance is used by the tc.ster to
infer someone's general competence to drive a car. A lang~lzlgetest samplcs Ixn-
guage behavior and infers general ability in a language. A test of reading c.onipre-
hension may consist of some questions following one or two parag~~pli:;, a tiny
sample of a second language learner's total reading behavior. From the results of
that test the examiner infers a certain level of general reading ability.
Finally, a test measures a givcn domain. In the case of a proficiency test, even
though the actual performance on the test involves only a sampling of sk~lls,that
domain is overall proficiency in a language-general competence in all skills of :I
language. Other tests may have more specific criteria. A test of pronui~ciation
might well be a test only of a particular phonemic minimal pair in a language. Onr
of the biggest obstacles to overcome in constructing adequate tests is to nieasurc'
the desired criterion and not inadvertently include other hctors.
How do you know if a test is a "good" test or not? Is it administrable within
given constraints? Is it dependable? Does it accurately measure what you w:int it to
measure?These questions can be answered through three classic criteria for"testi11g
a test": practicality, reliability,and validity.
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 Language Assessment I: Bdsic Concepts rn Test Developnient
388 ~XAPTER 21
exam of a foreign language course will t)e substantiated by "actual" proficiency in
the language. A classroom test des~gnedto assess mastery a point of grammar in
11f
communicative use will have validity if test scores correlate either with observed
subsequent behavior or with other comniunicative measures of the grammar point
in question.
How can teachers be somewh;lt assured that a test,whether it is a standardized
test or one constructed for classroom use, is indeed valid?l3hreetypes of validation
are important in your role as a classroom teacher: content qalidity, face validity, and
construct validity.
Content Validity
If a test actually s;~mplesthe subject matter a b o ~ ~ wliicl~
t conclusions are to be
drawn, if it requires the test-taker to perform the behavior that is being measured,it
c;un claim content validity. You can usually determine content validity, observa-
tionally, if you can clearly define the ;~chit:vementthat you .Ire measuring. A test of
tennis competency that asks someone to run a 100-yard da:h lacks content validity.
If YOU are trying to assess a person's ;tbility to speak a seco~ldlanguage in a conver-
sational setting, a test that asks the learner to answer paper-and-pencil multiple-
choice questions requiring grammatic;ll judgments docs not achieve content
validity. A test that requires the lei~rneractuallv t o spe; k within some sort of
authentic context does.
In most human situations, we arc best tested in scmething when we are
required to perform a sampling of the criterion behavior. But there are a few highly
specialized and sophisticated testing instrllments that do not have high content
validity yet are nevertheless valid. Projective personality tec;tsare a prime example.
The Thematic Apperception Test and the Rorschach "inkblot" tests have little con-
tent validity, yet they have been shown to be acc1u;lte in a:sessing certain types of
deviant personality behavior. A test of field independence as a prediction of lan-
guage success in the classroom may have potentially good criterion validity but poor
content validity in that the ability to detect an embedded geometric figure bears
little direct resemblance to the ability to speak and hear a language. As already
noted, standard proficiency tests often don't get high scores on content validity.
Face Validity
A concept that is very closely related to content validity is face validity, which asks
the question "lloes the testyonthe 'face'of it, appear from the learner's perspective
to test what it is designed to test?" To achieve "peak" performance on a test, a
learner needs to be convinced that tlie test is indeed testing what it claims to test.
Once 1 administered a dictation test ; ~ n d;Icloze test (see below for a discussion of
clozc tests) as ;I placement test for all experimental group .,f learners of English as
a second language. Some learners were upset because such tests, on the face of it,
did not appear to them to test their true abilities in English. Face validity is almost
CHAPTER21 Language Assessment I: Bds~cConcepts in kst Dc,velol~m~
,nr 389
always perceived in terms of content: if the test samples the actual contem of what
the learner has achieved or expects to achieve, then face validity will be pc.rce~ved.
Construct Validity
A third category of validity that teachers must be aware of in considering I;~nguage
tests is construct validity. One way to look at construct validiy is to ask the ques-
tion "Does this test actually tap into the theoretical construct as it h ~ bcen s
defined?" "Proficiency" is a construct. "Communicative compete~lc:e"i:. a L.on-
stmet. *Self-esteem"is a construct. Virtually every issue in language lear~~ing and
teaching involves theoretical constructs. Tests are, in a manner of speaking, opcrnc
tional definitions of such constructs in that they operntionalize the entic, that is
being measured (see Davidson, Hudson, & Lynch 1985).
A teacher needs to be satisfied that a particular test is an adequate definition of
a construct. Let's say you have been given a procedure for conducting an 01x1inter-
view. The scoring analysis for the interview weigh>several factors into a finill score:
pronunciation, fluency, grammatical accuracy, voc;tbulary use, and sociolinguistic
appropriateness. The justif~cationfor these five fi~ctorslies in a theorctiq al con-
struct that claims those factors as major components of oral proficiency. Sc on the
other hand, if you were asked to conduct an oral proficiency interview that
accounted only for pronunciation and grammar, you could be justifiably su:.picious
about the construct validity of such a test.
Most of the tests that you will encounter as a classroonl tcacher can be v:lli-
dated adequately through content; if the test samples the outcome hrhavi, jr. then
validity will have been achieved. But when there is Inw, or questionable, t ontent
validity in a test, it becomes very important for a tcacher to be assured of its con-
struct validity. Standardized tests designed to be given to large numbers o f students
typically suffer from poor content validity but are retleemed thn~ughtheir construct
validation. The'l'OEFI., for example, does not sample oral jlroduction, yct oral pro-
duction is obviously an important part of succeeding academically in a university
course of study. The TOEFL's absence of oral production content is justitied by
research that has shown positive correlations between oral production ant1 the
behaviors (listening, reading, grammaticality detection, and writing) actually sani-
pled on the TOEFL. Because of the crucial need to offer a financially affordal~leprcF
ficiency test and the high cost of administering and scoring oral productiorr tests,
the omission of oral content from the TOEFL has been accepted as a nece:,sity in
tlie professional community.
Validity is a complex concept, yet it is indispensable to the tcaccber's under-
standing of what makes a "good" test. If in your language teaching you can attend
to the practicality, reliability, and validity of tests of language,whether those tests are
classroon~tests related to a part of a lesson, or final exams, or proficiencv tests, thrn
you are well on the way to making accurate judgments about the competence of the
learners with whom you are working.
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 (-HAPTER2 Language Assessment I: Basic G ~ n c e j ~~n
t s T a r Development
392 I
ency or pronunci;ltion of a particubr subset of phonology, ;ind can take the form of
imitation, structured responses, or free responses. Similarly, listening comprehen-
sion tests can concentrate on a particular feature of languag.e or on overall listening
for genenl meaning. Tests of reading can cover the range of language units and can
aim to test comprehension of long or short passages, si~lglesentences, or even
phrxses and words. Writing tests can take on an open-ended form with free com-
position, or be structured to elicit anything from correct spelling to discourse-level
competence.
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENTS IN LANGUAGE TEST1 VG
Historically,language-testing trends arld practices hwe follo\ued the changing winds
and shifting sands of methodology described earlier in thi: book (Chapter 2). For
examplc, in the 1950s, an era of befraviorism and special attention to contrastive
:lnalysis, testing focused o n specific language elenients such as the phonological,
grxmmatical, and lexical contrasts betwecln two languages In the 1970s and '80s,
communicative theories of language brought on more ol an integrative view of
testing in which testing specialists claimed that "the whol,r of the communicative
event was conside~lblygreater than the sum of its linguistic: elements" (Clark 1983:
432). Today, test designers are still challenged in their quest for more authentic,
content-valid instruments that simulate rexl-worlcl interac,ion while still meeting
rc1i:tbility and practicality criteria.
This historical perspective underscores two major >pproaches to language
testing that still prevail, even if in mutated form, today: the c'loice between discrete
point ;rnd integrative testing methods. Discrete-point te:.ts were constructed on
the assumption that language can bc. broken down into ils component parts and
those parts adeq11;~tely tested. Those components are h~sicallythe skills of lis
tening, speaking, reading, writing, the v;rrious hierarchical units of language
(phonology/gr.lphology, morphology lexicon, syiltax, disc( urse) within each skill,
:lnd subcategories within those units So,for example, it wls claimed that a typical
proficiency test with its sets of muitiplcchoice question! divided into grammar,
vocabulary, reading, and the like, wirh some items attending to smaller units and
others to larger units, can measure these tliscretc points c~flanguage and, by ade-
quate s~mplingof these units, can achieve validity. Such .L rationale is not unrea-
sonahlt if one considers types of testing theory in whicl~certain constructs are
measured by breitking down their cornpclnent parts.
The discrete-point approach met with some criticism as we emerged into an
em of emphasizing communication, authenticity, and c0nter.t. The earliest criticism
(Oller 1979) argued that language competence is a unified set of interacting i~hilities
that cannot be tested separately. The claim was, in short, tl~atcommunicative com-
petence is so global and requires s11c11integration (hencrt the term "inteptiven
testing) that it cannot be captured in additive tests of gnmmar and reading and
CHAPTER 2 1 Language Assessment I: B'ISIC Co~~cepfs
in J?sf Dc~v,~lq)mt
111 393
vocabulary and other discrete points of language. Others (Cziko 1982, bavignon
1982) soon followed in their support for integrative testing.
Just what does an integrative test look like?Two types of test have been held
up as examples of integrative tests: cloze tests and dictations. A cloze test is a
reading passage (of, say. 150 to 300 words) that has been "mutil;~ted" by the deletion
of roughly every sixth or seventh word; the test-txker is required to supply wortls
that fit into those blanks. John Oller (1979) claimed that cloze test results .ire good
measures of overall proficiency. According to theoretical constructs untlerlving this
claim, the ability to supply appropriate words in blanks requircs a number. o f al~ili-
ties that lie at the very heart of competence in a language: knowledgt of voc.abul:~ry,
gnmniatical structure, discourse structure, reading skills and str;ltcgics,and ;In inter-
nalized "expectancy" grammar (that enables one to predict an item that n i l l come
next in a sequence). It is argued that successful completion ofcloze items cxps into
all of those abilities, which are the essence of global language proficicnc.y.
The dictation is familiar to virt~lallyall c1assn)orn laiig~lageItarners. ('l'he
steps for administering a dictation are outlined in Chapter 19.) The argument for
claiming dictation as an integrative test is that it taps into gmmmatical ant1 drscourse
competencies required for other modes of performance in a Iangiuge. Further, tlic-
tation test results tend to correlate strongly with other tests of proficiency. Success
on a dictation requires careful listening, reproduction in writing of what head, l \
efficient short-term memory, and, to an extent, some expectancy rules tc aid the
short-term memory. Dictation testing rem:lins more c1:asroom-centered ibec:~use
large-scale administration of dictations is quite imprnctical from a scoring st;ultl-
point. Reliability of scoring criteria is also a problem that is not present in ~nultiple-
choice, exact-word cloze test scoring.
Proponents of integrative test methods (Lowe Sr Stansfieltl 1988,Oll1.r 19'9)
soon centered their argument on what became known as the unitary trait
hypothesis, which suggested an "indivisible"view of language proficiency nanic-lv,
that vocabulary, grammar, phonology, the "four skills,"and othcr discrete points of
language cannot, in fact, be distinguished from each other. Tlie unitary trait hypoth-
esis contended that there is a general factor of language proficiency such th.~tall the
discrete points do not add up to that whole.
Others argued strongly against the unitary tnit position. For example, fjosscin
Farhady (1982) found significant and widely varying differences in pcrfornmncc on
six different components of an ESL proficiency test, depending on subject,' native
country, major field of study, :~ndgraduate versus undergraduate status. So, for
example, Brazilians scored very low in listening comprehension and relativr:ly high
in reading comprehension. Filipinos, whose scores on five of the six componcllts
of the test were considerably higher than Brazilians'scores,were actually lo\ver than
Brazilians in reading comprehension scores. Farhady's contentions were supporred
in other research that seriot~slyquestioned the unitary tnit hypothesis. F~nall):in
the face of the evidence, Oller ( 1983: 352) backed clown and admitted t h ~' tthe uni-
tary tmit hypothesis was wrong."
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396 CHAPTER 2 1 Language Assessment 1: Basic Corlcepls in Test Development CHAPTER 27 Ldnguage Assessmen! I: Basic Concept\ ln Test Df~rrlopmt~nr397

around the world. "FSI levels"' (zero through five) hive become standard indicators Table 21 . I . Operationalization of traits in second language proficiency test (Swain 1 490: 403)
within the profession of a person's L2 spei~kingproficiency, u already explained in
Chapter 7 , page 97, where the five levels are described. In a series of structured
TRAIT: Grammar Discourse Sociolinguistic
tasks, the OPI is carefully designed to elicit pronunciation, tluc:ncy/integntive ability,
sociolinguistic and cultural knowletlge, grammar, and vocal)ulary. Performance is focus on grammatical focus on textual iorus on social
judged by the interviewer, through a detailed checklist,to fall hetween level zero (the awtracy within cohesion and appropr~,~tenessoi
interviewee cannot perform at aIl in the language) and levc.1 five (speaking profi- METHOD sentences coherence language me
P
ciency equivalent to that of an educated native speaker).
Oral struclured interview story retelling ,~nd role-play of spec ,.h
In the late 1980s and '9Os, the OPI came under harsh criticism from a large argurnentation~suasion dc 15: requests, or,r~,
number of language-testing specialists. Albert Valdman (lC)8t;:125) summed u p the con7plaints
complaint: scored tor accuracy of detailed ratings for, e.g., .cored tor .~b~lityto
verb morphology, identificatiuri, logical liiit~nguishtorm,el ,~nd
From a Vygotskyan perspective, thc OPI forces rest takers into a prepositions, syntax sequence, time informal reqlster
closed system where, because the interviewer is endowed with full organization, and global
ratings for coherence
social control, they are un:tble to negotiate a :,ocial wo;ld. For
example, they cannot nominate topics for discussion, they cannot Multiple Choice senlerice-level 'select pardgrdph-level 'select speec-h-act-levelwlrct
switch formality levels, they cannot display a full range of stylistic the correct form' the coherent sentence' [ t 1 ( 3 dppropri,~tr

maneuver. The total control the (-)PIinterviewers p<)ssessis reflected exercise exercise 1rtter;rnce' exerc:; .,,
by the parlance of the test methodology . . . . In short. the OPI can only (45 items) (29 items) (20 items)
inform us of how learners c;tn deal with an ;~rtficials o c i ~imposition
l involving verh
rather than enabling us to predict how they would be likely to morphology,
manage authentic linguistic inter.~clionswith targr t-language native prepositions, and other
items
speakers.
Written narrative and letter ol narrative and letter of k)rnial request 1etit.r
Uachman (1988: 149) also pointed out that the validity of the OPI sinlply cannot Composition suasion suasion and ir~fornizlnotc
be demonstrated "because it confou~ldsabilities with elicitarion procedures in its scored ior accuracy of detailed ratings, much scored ior ahllity lo
design, and it provides only a single rating, which has no ba:;is in either thcory or verb morphology, as for oral discourse distinguish iorn~al,~nd
research." prepositions, syntax and global rating informal rt3gistt.r
Meanwhile, a great deal of experimentation continues to be conducted to
design better om1 proficiency testing methods (Bailey 1')9t., Young & He 1998).
coherence
-
With continued critical attention to issues crf language testing in the years to come, CRITICAL LANGUAGE TESTING: ETHICAL ISSUES
w e will most likely solve some of the thorny problenls of ho;y to specify the t r ~ i t s
of on1 proficiency and how to devise valid, reliable, and practical methods to mea- One of the byproducts of a rapidly growing testing industry is the danger of ;tn
sure those traits. abuse of power. "Tests represent a social technology deeply embecidcd in ccluca-
tion, government, and business; as such they provide the mechanism for enlorcing
power and control. Tests are most powerful as they are oken the single indicators
* It should b r noted that FSI levels are no longer referred to as s ~ c h Through
. a
for determining the future of individuals" (Shohamy 1997: 2). Test designers, and
historical progression of collaboration with different agencies, n hat was known as the
FSI test is now under the administratio11of the Americ:~nCounc~lfor theTeaching of the corporate sociopolitical infrastructure that they represent, have an obligation ro
Foreign hnguages (ACTFL). However, A(,TFL:s interest in this On1 Proficiency maintain certain standards as specified by their client educational institutions.
Interview (OPI) has involved collaboralion w ~ t hthe Educational Testing Service (ETS) These standards bring with them certain ethical issues surrounding the "gate-
and another group of researchers known as the lntengency Lan,:uage Roi~ndtable keeping" nature of standardized tests.
(lLR).This chaotic potpourri of acronyms has prompted most ptople simply to call Elana Shohamy (1997) and others (for examplc, Spolsky 1997) see the ethics
the old FSI (now revised several times) the OPI.This nornenclatl re, thankfully, saves us of testing as a case of critical language testing (see Chapter 2 3 for somt: con>-
from having to call it the FSIACFLETSILI<OPI! ments on critical language pedagogy in g e n e ~ ~ l Critical
). language testing c'l;linls
398 (HAPTEK2 I Ldngudge Asessment I: Basic Concepts in Test Developmen1
that large-scale testing is not an unbiased process, but mther is the "agent of cultural,
social, political, educational, and ideological agendas that shape the lives of indi-
vidual participants, teachers, and learners" (Shohamy 1997: 3). The issues of critical
language testing are numerous.
Psychometric traditions are challenged by interpretive, individualized pro-
cedures for predicting success and evaluating ability.
Test designers have a responsibility to offer multil>le modes of performance
to account for varying styles and abilities among test-takers.
'rests are deeply embedded in culture and ideology.
'Test-takers are political subjects in a political context.
These issues are not new. More than a century ago, British educator EY.
Eclgeworth (1888) challenged tlie potential inaccuracy of contemporary qualifying
examinations for university entrance. Rut in recent years, the debate has heated up.
In 1907, an entire issue of the journal Language Testing was devoted to questions
about ethics in language testing.
Onc of the problems of critical language testing surrounds the widespread con-
viction that standartlized tests designed by reputable test manubcturers (such as the
Edncation:~lTesting Service, among the world's largest deliverers of large-scale tests
for admissions to programs in institutions of higher education) are infallible in their
predictive validity. IJniversities,for example, will deny admission to a student whose
TOEFL score falls one point below the requisite score (usually around 500), even
though that student, if offered other measures of language ability, might demonstrate
abilities necessary for success in a university prognm. One standardized test is
deemed to be sufficient;followup measures are considered to be too costly.
A hlrther problem with our test-oriented culture lies in the agendas of those
who design and those who utilize the tests. Tests are used in some countries to
deny citizenship (Shohamy 1997: 10). Tests are by nature culture-biased and there-
f o r ~may disenfranchise niembers of a non-mainstream value system. Test-b' 'IVCTS are
always ill a position of power over test-takers and therefore can impose social and
political ideologies on test-takers through standards of acceptable and unacceptable
items. Tests promote the notion that answers to real-world prol~lemshave unam-
biguous right and wrong answers with no shades of gray. A corollary to the latter
is that tests presume to reflect an appropriate core of common knowledge and
acceptable behavior; therefore the test-taker must buy into such a system of beliefs
in order to make the cut.
Language tests may be argued to be less susceptible to such sociopolitical over-
tones. The research process that undergirds the TOEFI. goes to great lengths to
screen out Western culture bias, monocultural belief systems, and other potential
agendas. Nevertheless, the process of the selection of content alone for theTOEFL
involves certain standards that may not be universal, and the very fact that the
TOEFL is used as an absolute standard of English proficiency by most universities
does not exonerate this particular standardized test.
CHAPTER 2 1 L.~ngu,!geAssessment I: Basic Concepts in Test Development 399
As a language teacher, you might be able to exercise some influence in the ways
tests are used and interpreted in your own context. Perhaps, if you are offered a
variety of ch<~icesin standardized tests, you could choose a test that offers the least
degree of culture bias. Better yet, can you encourage the use of multiple measures
of performarice (varying item types,onl and written production, for example) even
though this may cost more money? Furthermore, you might be instrumental in
establishing In institutional system of evaluation that places less emphasis on stan-
dardized tesls and more emphasis on the ongoing process of formative evaluation
you and your co-teachers can offer. In so doing, you might offer educational oppor-
tunity to a ftw more people who would otherwise be eliminated from contention.
TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION, ACIION, AND RESEARCH
[Note: (0 Intlividual work; (G) group or pair work; (C) whole-class discussion.]
1. (C) If a :itandardized or cklssroom test of language is readily available, photo-
copy it I be sure to check for copyright limitations) and distribute it. With the
class, an.~lyzeit to discover what the method of measurement is, for whom
the test is intended, what competence it purports to measure, and exactly
what it .lctually measures.
2. (G) Assi::n groups to either practicality, reliability, content validity, or
face validity, and have them look at the same test (item I above) and decide,
based 011 tlie group's factor, if it is a "good" test.
3. 0) Disti,iguish between content and construct validity. If content validity is
absent, ~ h does y construct validity assume greater importance? Explain the
fact that there is no final, :lbsolute, and objective measure of validity. Why
does validity ultimately go back to the nther subjective opinion of testers and
theorist;?
4. (G/C)Aik pairs to share experiences from their past about tests that they
thought had high and low face validity Why is face validity important? Rave
pairs sh Ire their examples with the rest of the class.
5. (C) Lanb:uage aptitude tests were discussed briefly here, and in more detail in
PLLT, Cl~apter4. In light of the discussion at the end of this chapter about
ethical issues in language testing, ask your students how aptitude testing
might b,: suspect.
6. (G) Loo~ingagain at the language test used in item number 1, break the class
into sm;lll groups and have each group assess it again from the point of view
of the v ~riouscriteria for a. communicative test discussed in this chapter.
7. (C) Ask the class if there is any way to resolve the dilemma of giving large-
scale communicative tests while still maintaining a sense of practicality (the
feasibili!y of scoring thousands of tests relatively quickly and cheaply).
400 CHAPT~K2 I Ldngudge Assessment I: Basfc Concepts in T P SVevelq~ment
~
8. (r) Why is oral proficiency testing difficult?What is inadequate about a five-
point scale to indicate oral proficiency? What contextual f ~ c t o r does
s the
interview format fail to provide?
9. (C) Review with the class the notion that tests serve as "g,itekeepersnin
society. Among familiar standardized tests, what ethical issues might emerge?
Does the testing industry promote a widening of gaps between educated and
uneducated, rich and poor,'haves" and "have nots"?
FOR YOUR FURTHER READING
Hughes, Arthur. 1985). Testing for La~zguc6ge Teachers. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
This extrerrre1.y prac/ical primer o)l /~rngucigctesting focu.;es ulmost exclu-
sirlely on chssroonr testing, the sul,jrlct (!f i,Thcpti~r22 here in. Houl~z~er,
the
jitst hcllJ'of the book explain.sju~~dczn~cnta1 concepts oflank uage testing and
therebj,prouidis some good brzckgrolr rid.
Railey, Kathleen M. 1998. Leumirzg Abozit Lnngzluge A ~ s ~ ~ s s m eL)ile?nmas,
nt:
Decisions, und Directions. Boston: EIeinle & Heinle.
In this s~~ersonalizeci"overview of langzruge-testirlg is.sucJs 2nd practice, the
al~thorojfers her o l o ~
examples and storles and tl.toscfrom other real people
to illr~stmtethe world ($testing. The book c.ollersth~~oreticul issrslrtJsas well as
pructical, incli~dinga close look at (lict~ition,cloze, role-J lay, writing tests,
and portfolio ~tssessment.
Bachrnan, 1,yle. 1990. Fundarnental Corlsirlerations i n Language Testing.
Oxford: Oxford University Press.
7hi.s is a standard manzlal of theon?ticcrl czrid resccrrch isques in larrgt~agc
testing. The book is dlfji'czrltreading at timts, but a must-ri.adjOr the seriolis
stll~b!ntc?f languaghrp testing.
Language Testing. 1997. Special Issue, November. Ethics in language Testing.
7hi.s special issue ojfkrs ten crrticlcs on the topic oj'cthics in language testing.
Tests have become a way of life in the educational world. In every learning expc-
rience there comes a time to pause and take stock, to put our focal processes to
their best use, and to demonstnte accumulated skills o r knowledge. Fro111pop
quizzes to final exams to standardized entrance exams, tests are crucial milejtones
in the journey to success. It is unfortunate that learners all too often view t;: StS ;Is
f
dark clouds hanging over their heads, upsetting them with lightning bolts of a ~ ~ x i e t v
as they anticipate a hail of questions they can't answer and, worst of all, a flood of
disappointment if they don't make the grade. Students tend to feel "prodded, jos-
tled, o r dragged by an establishment bent on spoiling what might otherwisl: be .I
pleasant student lifen(Mueller 1987: 124)
Within this atmosphere of gloom and doom, can tests be positive expericmces?
Can they build a person's confidence? Can they be part of an ongoing inter.rction
between teacher and leainers? Can they bring out the best in students?The allswer.
surprisingly, is an encouraging "yesnwhen teachers and other rdiicators undel.st:lntl
the benefits of tests and their place within the superordinate domain of assess-
ment. In this chapter, we will explore two clussroom-related domains of assess-
ment: (a) teacherdesigned formal tests and (b) informal assessment in the context
of day-by-day interaction with students. The underlying theme of this explor:rtion
is an emphasis o n assessment as a positive, motivating, feedback-giving eleml.nt ol
second language learning in the classroom.
ASSESSING, TESTING, AND TEACHING
The first order of business in an exploration of classroom assessment ib to i~nder-
stand what "assessment" means and how it differs from what was defined as a .testv
in the previous chapter. You might be tempted to think of them as synonymous
terms, but they are not. A test is an instrument o r procedure designed to elicit per.
formance from learners with the purpose of measuring their attainment of spe~.ified
criteria. Tests are almost always identifiable time periods in ;I curriculum when

learners muster all their faculties to offer peak performance, knowing that their
responses are being measured and evaluated. Tests can be useful devices among
other procedures and tasks designed to assess students.
Assessment encompasses a much wider domain than tests. Whenever a stu-
dent responds to a question, offers a comment, or tries out a new word or structure,
thr teacher makes an assessment of the student's performance. Written work-
from :l jotted-down phrase to formal essays to journals-is performance that ulti-
niatcly is :~ssessed by self, teacher, and possibly other students. Reading and
listening activities usually require some sort of productive performance that the
tucher then assesses. A good teacher never ceases to assess students, whether
those assessments are incidental or intended.
But now, you might be thinking, if you make assessments every time you teach
something in the classroom, does all "teaching" involve assessment?The answer is a
qualified "yes."For optimal learning to take place, students must have the freedom
in the classroom to experiment, to try out their own hypotheses about language
RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN CLASSROOM TESTING
without feeling that their overall competence is being "judged" in terms of these
trials and errors. In the same way that, say, tournzlment tennis pkayers must, before
the tournament begins, kave the freedom to practice their skills with no implica-
tior~sfor their final placement, so also must learners hwe ample opportunities to
"pkay" with language in your classroom without being graded formally. Teaching
sets up the practice games of language learning: the opportunities for learners to
listen, think, take risks, set goals, and process feedback from the coach and then
recycle through whatrver it is that they are trying to set in place.
At the same time, during these practice activities, teachers (and tennis coaches)
arc indced offerillg some feedb;~ck, and it would be misleading if I didn't admit that
this is a h ) m of
~ assessment. The key to untangling this lexical h o t is to distinguish
Ibetween the informal and formal assessment referred to in Chapter 21. Informal
assessment is involved in all incidental, unplanned evaluative coaching and feedback
on tasks designed to elicit performance, but not for the purpose of recording results
and making tixed judgments about a student's competence.
Most informal assessment is what testing experts call formative evaluation:
assessing students in the process of "forming"their competencies and skills in order
to help them continue that growth process. Formative assessment often implies the
observation of the process of learning, as opposed to the product. Our success as
teachers is greatly dependent on constant informal assessment, for it gives learners
intormation about how they are progressing toward goals and what the next step in
the learning process might be.
On the other hancl, formal assessments are exercises or experiences specifi-
callv designed to tap into a storehouse of skills and knowledge, usually within a ~ 1 -
atively short time limit. They are systematic, planned sampling techniques
constructed to give teacher and student an appraisal of student achievement. Such
assessments arc sometimes, but not always, summative as they occur at the end of
a lesson, unit, or course and therefore attempt to meLsure, or summarize, what a
CHAPTER 22 Langi~ageAssessment I/: P ~ J C ~ IClassroom
CJ~ Applicariom 403
student has grasped. By naturr, such assessments tend to focus on products of
learning: objec tively observable performance that may be evaluated somewhat inde-
pendent of the process that a student has t~lversedto reach the end product. It
should be added that most formal assessments are what we ordinarily call tests. To
extend the te:inis analogy, formal assessments are the tournament games, or the
"recitals,"that periodically occur in the learning process.
Pedagogic.ally, these three pairs of constructs are important guidelines for
assessment.
Assessment Constructs
Infornlal Formal
Formi~tive Summative
Process Product
What is the plitce of formal assessment instruments (tests) in a communicative cur-
riculum? Must such tests contain decontextualized linguistic stimuli, removed from
authentic, natl ral use of language? Recent hopeful indications in our educational
testing mentalsty are broader views on the measurement of ability, and with the
development c f more ;~uthentictesting rubrics.
1. New view: o n intelligence
Intelligent e was once viewed strictly as the ability to perform (a) linguistic and
(b) logical-matilematicalproblerr~solving. This "IQ"concept of intelligence perme-
ated the Western world and its way of testing for almost :I century. Since "smart-
ness" in genenl is measured by timed, discrete-point tests consisting of many little
items, then why shouldn't every fielcl of study be so measured? Today we live in a
world of standxrdized, norm-referenced tests that are timed, multiple-choice, tricky,
long, and artific,ial.
Research intelligence by psychologists like Howard Gardner and Robert
Sternberg turn1.d the psychometric world upside down. Gardner (1983) extended
the traditionz~lc,onceptualizations of intelligence on which standardized 1Q tests are
based (items 1 and 2 below) to five other "frames of mind'. to round out his theory
of intelligence:
1. linguistic i itelligence
2. logical-mathematical intelligence
3. spatial intelligence (the ability to find your way around an environment, to
form ment 11 images of reality)
4. musical intelligence (the ability to perceive and create pitch and rhythmic
patterns)
5. bodily-kinesthetic intelligence (fine motor movement, athletic prowess)

404 22 Langudge Assessment 11: Practical Cldssruom Applications
6. interpersonal intelligence (the ability to understand othe.-s,how they feel, and
to interact effectively with them)
7. intnpersonal intelligence (the ability to understand ones.:lf and to develop a
sense of self-identity)
For a summary of Gardner's theory of htelligence, see PLLT, (:hapter 4 .
Robert Sternberg (19%) also charted new territory in intelligence research in
recognizing people's creative thinking and manipulative stratc.gies as part of intelli-
gence. All "smart" people aren't necessarily adept at fast, re.ictive thinking. They
may be very innovative in being able to think beyond the normal limits imposed by
existing tests, and may need a good deal of processing time to enact this creativity.
And other forms of smartness are found in those who know how to manipulate their
environment, especially other people. Debaters,politicians, successful salespersons.
"smooth" talkers, and con artists are all smart in their own ma~~ipulative my.
These new conceptualizations of intelligence infused tht decade of the 1990s
with a sense of both freedom and responsibility in our testing agenda. We were
freed From exclusive reliance on timed, discrete-point, analytid tests in measuring
language. We were liberated from the tyranny of "objectivity" lnd its accompanying
impersonalness. But we also assumed the responsibility for tapping into whole lan-
guage skills, learning processes, and the ability to negotiate meaning. Our challenge
was to test interpersonal, creative, con~n~unicative, interactive ;kills, and in doing so,
to place some trust in our subjectivity, our intuition.
2. Performance-based testing
In educational settings around thc world, test-makers are ~ i o wtackling this new
and more responsible agenda. Instead of just offering paper-and-pencil single-
answer tests of possil~lyhundreds of discrtte items, performance-based testi~lgof
typical school subjects involves
open-ended problems bbs
hands-on projects essay writing
student portfolios group projects
experiments
To be sure, such testing is time-consuming and therefove expensive, but the
losses in practicality are made up for in higher validity. Students are tested as they
actually perform the behavior itself. In technical terms, higher content validity is
achieved as learners are measured in the process of per6)rming the criterion
behavior.
,?
CHAPTER 22 Language Assessment 11: Practical Cl.~ssroomApplicatioris 405
[n the ESL context, performance-based testing means that you may ha\e a diffi-
cult time distinguishing between formal and informal testing. If you do a little less
setting aside of formally structured techniques labeled ;IS "tests"and a little more for-
mative evaluation during students' performance of various txsks, you will be taking
some steps toward meeting some of the goals of performance-based testinq
3. Interactive language tests
The language version of performance-based testing comes in the form of var-
ious interactive language tests. Such tests arc constructed in the spirit of Ctardner's
and Sternberg's theories of intelligence as students are assessed in the process of
creatively interacting with others. This means that tests have to involve peoplt in
actually performing the behavior that we want to measure. Elper-and-pe~~cil niul-
tiplechoice tests certainly do not involve test-takers in speaking, requesting,
responding, interacting, or in combining listening and speaking, or read~ngand
writing. Interactive testing involves them in all of the above rather than relying on
the assumption that a good paper-and-pencil test-taker is a good ovemll I tnguage
performer.
What you are being asked to do is toNtakethe audacious step of making testing
tndy intemctive: . . . a lively exchange of stimulating ideas, opinions, imprcssiolls,
reactions, positions or attitudes. Students can be actively involved and inrerested
participants when their task is not restricted to providing the one and only corrrct
answer" (Mueller 1987: 124).
In the previous chapter of this book, Merrill Swain's (1900) test battcry was
described. In addition to a paper-and-pencil multiple-choice component, oral corn-
munication skills and written proficiency were included. This was a step tow;~rcl
adding interaction to what might othelwise be a decontextualized set of items to
respond to. For many years the Oral Proficiency Interview (OPI-see previous
chapter) has been a widely used interactive oral proficiency test. Itti current scoring
process involves a complex holistic evaluation. A previous version of its \coring
nlbric, however, can serve as a practical guideline for classrc~omteacher5 whcn
devising an oral test (seeTable 22.1). By identifying which of five score levc.ls your
interviewee is in for each of the six major categories, a total rating c;rn be I-oughly
calculated.
4. Traditional and "alternative"assessment
Implied in some of the above description of innovation in classroom langu;~ge
testing is a trend away from highly decontextualized (but practical) test designs and
toward alternatives that are more authentic in their elicitation of meaningft~lcorn-
munication. Table 22.2 highlights differences between the two ;~ppn)aches
Tat,lc! 22.1. Oral proficiency test scoring categories
Grammar
Errors in grammar are fre-
quent, but speaker can be
understood by a native
speaker used to dealing with
foreigners aaempting to speak
I his language.
I
Can usually handle elemen-
tary constructions quite accu-
ratelv but does not have
thorough or confident control
Conlrol of gr,lnim,ir IS good
Able to speak the language
w ~ t hsuff~c~ent
structural
accur,lcy to partlc~pateeffec-
IU t~vely~nmost fornlal and
inlorrnal conversations on
1 practical, soclsl, and profes-
I slondl topics
Able to use the language
accurately or1 ;rll levels nor-
mally pertinen1 to profes-
sional needs. Errors in
granimar are quite rare.
I
Vocabulary
Speaking vocabulary inade-
quate to express anything but
the most elementary needs.
cutions.
Able to speak the language
with sufficient vocabulary to
participate effectively in most speech.
formal and informal conversa-
tions on practical, social, and
professional topics. Vocabulary
is broad enough that he rarely
has to grope ior a word.
Can understand and partici-
pate in any conversation
within the range of his expe-
rience with a high degree of
precision of vocabulary.
speakers in all its features,
including breadth of vocabu-
lary and idioms, colloqui-
alisms, and pertinent cultural
references
Comprehension
Within the scope of his very
limited language experience,
can understand simple ques-
tions and statements if deliv-
ered with slowed speech,
repetition, or paraphrase.
require no spcxialized knowl-
edge)
Comprehens~onis quite
complete at a normal rate of
Can understand any conver-
sation within the range of his
experience.
Fluency
(No specific fluency descrip-
tion. Refer to other (OUT lan-
guage areas for implied level
of fluency.)
-
Can handle with cor~fidence
but not with facility most
social situations, inciuding
introductions and casual con-
versations about cur-ent
events, as well as work,
family, and autobiographical
information.
Able to use the lang~~age flu-
ently on all levels nr rmally
pertinent to professic nal
needs. Can participa e in any
conversation within he range
.I
of this experience w ~ t h high
degree o i fluency.
native speakers.
Pronunciation
Errors in pronunciation are
frequent, but can be under-
stood by a native speaker
used to dealir~gwith for-
eigners attempting to speak
his language.
Errors In pronunciation are
quite rdrcL.
Task
Can ask and answer questions
on topics very familiar to him.
Able to satisfy routine travel
needs and minimum courtesy
requirements. (Should be able
to order a simple meal, ask
for shelter or lodging, ask and
give simple directions, make
purchases, and tell time.)
Able to satisfy routine social
demands and work require-
ments; needs help in han-
dling any complications or
difficulties.
topics.
Would rarely be taken for a
native speaker, but can
respond appropriately even
in unfamiliar situations. Can
handle iniormal interpreting
from and into language.
native weaker.
408 CHAPTER 22 Language Assessment /I Pract~ctlClassroom Appl~catrons

Table 22.2. Traditional and alternative assessment (adapted from Armstrong 1994 and Bailey
- I CHAPTER 22 Language Assessment 11: Practical Ciassroom Applicati, ,ns

Table 22.3. Before-,during-, and after-test options.

409

1998: 207)

Traditional Assessment Alternative Assessment Before the Test

1 . Give students all the information you can about the test. Exactly wh;~t
1
One-shot, standardized exams Continuous long-term assessment
will the test cover! Which topics will be the most important?What kin, I
Tmed, multiple-choice format Urltimed, free-resporse format of items will be included! How long will it be!
Decontextualized test items Cvntextualized comrwnicative tasks 2 Encourage students to do a systematic review of material. For example
Scores suffice for feedback Formative, interactivt-feedback skim the textbook and other material, outline major points, write d o w ~
examples, etc.
Norm-referenced scores Criterion-referenced ;cores
Focus on the "right" answer Open-ended, creativl. answers 1 3. Give them practice tests or exercises, if available.
4. Facilitate formation of a study group, if possible.
I
Summative Formative
Oriented to process 5. Caution students to get a good night's rest before the test.
Oriented to product
6. Remind st~~dents to get to the classroom early.
Non-interactive performance Interactive performar ce
Fosters extrinsic motivation Fosters intrinsic motitlation I During the Test I
1. As soon as the test is distributed, tell students to quickly look over tht
It should be noted here that traditional assessment offcrs significantly higher whole test in order to get a good grasp of its different pats.
levels of practicality. Considerably more time and higher in ititutional budgets are 2. Remind them to mentally figure out how much time they will need ior
required to administer and evaluate assessments that presulbpose more subjective each part.
evaluation, more individualization,and more interaction in the process of offering 3 . Advise them to concentrate as carefully as possible.
feedback. The payoff for the latter, however, comes with more useful feedback to
4. Alert students a few minutes before the end of the class period sc~that
students, better possibilities for intrinsic motivation, and ulti~natelygreater validity. they can proofread their answers, catch careless errors, and still finish
on time.

PRINCIPLES FOR DESIGNING EFFECTIVE CLASSRO0,M TESTS I After the Test

1 . When you return the test, include feedback on specific things the stu-
For many language learners, the mention 01' the word test evclkes images of walking dent did well, what he or she did not do well, and if possible, the rea-
into a classroom after a sleepless night,of allxiously sitting hunched over a test page sons for such a judgment on your part.
while a clock ticks ominously, and of a mind suddenly gonc empty as they vainly
attempt to "mdtiple guess" their way through the ordeal.
How can you, as a classroom teacher and designer of y'3ur own tests, correct
this image? Consider the following four principles for conberting what might be
I 2. Advise the student to pay careful attention in class to whdtever you say
about the test results.
3. Encourage questions from students.
ordinary,traditional tests into authentic, intrinsically motivati!lg learning opportuni- 4. Advise students to make a plan to pay special attention in the future lo
ties designed for learners' best performance and for optimal feedback. points that they are weak on.

1. Strategies for test-takers

The first principle is to offer your learners appropriat.2, useful strategies for
taking the test. With some preparation in test-taking strategies, learners can allay
some of their fears and put their best foot forward during a test. Through strategies-
based test-taking.they can avoid miscues due to the format c4f the test alone. They
should also be able to demonstrate their competence through an optimal level of
performance, or what Swain (1984) referred to as "bias for best." Consider the
before-,during-, and after-test options (Table 22.3).
2. Face validity
Sometimes students don't know what is being tested when they tackle .I test.
Sometimes they feel, for a variety of possible reasons, that a test isn't testing what it
is "supposed" to test. Face validity, as we saw in Chapter 21, means that in the stu-
dents' perception, the test is valid. You can help to foster that perception w ~ t h
41 0 ~ ~ A I ' I 22
EK Ldngudge As,essment 11: Pr<lcticalClassroomApplic,'fions
a caref~lllyconstructed, well-thought-out format,
;I test thxt is clearly doable within the allotted time limit.
item5 ttnt are clear and uncomplicated,
direct~onst k ~ are
t crystal clear,
tasks that are familiar and relate to their course work, and
a difficulty level that is appropriate for your students.
5. Authenticity
Make sure that the language in your test is as natural and authentic as possible.
Uso, try to give language some context so that items aren't just a string of unrelated
i;~nguagesanlples. 'Thematic organization of items may help in this regard. Or con-
sider ;I storyline that may run through your items.
Also, the tasks themselves need to be tasks in a form that students have pnc-
ticed and feel comfortable with. A classroom test is not the time to introduce
br;uld-new t:~sksbecausc you won't know if student difficulty is a factor of the task
itselk or of the language you are testing.
4. Washback
Washback, mentioned in the previous chapter, is the benefit that tests offer to
le;~rning.When students take a test, they should be able, within a reasonably short
pcriotl of time, to utilize the inform;~tionabout their competence that test feedback
ofl'c~s Formal tests must therefore be learning devices through which students can
receive a diagnosis of areas of strength and weakness. Their incorrect responses
can become windows of insight about further work. Your prompt return of written
tests with vour feedback is therefore very important to intrinsic motivation.
One Bra)-to enhance washback is to provide a generous number of specific
comments 011 test performance. Many teachers, in our overworked (and under-
pilid!) lives, are in the habit of returning tests to students with a letter grade or
number score on them, and considering our job done. In reality, letter gndes and a
score showing the number right or wrong give absolutely no information of
intrinsic interest to the student. Grades and scores reduce a mountain of linguistic
and cognitive performance data to an absurd minimum. At best they give a relative
indici~tionof a formulaic judgment of performance as compared to others in the
class-which fosters competitive, not cooperative, learning.
So, w h e ~ you
~ return a written test, or even a data sheet from an oral produc-
tion test, consider giving more than a number or gnde or phrdse as your feedback.
Even if your evaluation is not a neat little p a n g r ~ p hat
, least you can respond to as
marl; detxils in the test as time permits. Give praise for strengths-the "good
stuff"--as well as constr~~ctivc criticism of weaknesses. Give strategic hints on how
a student might improve certain elements of performance. In other words, take
sonie time to make the test performance an intrinsically motivating experience
through which a student will feel a sense of accomplishment and challenge.
(CHAPTER ;?2 Ldn,quageAssessment 11: Practic,~/C/assroomApplicat~ons 41 1
Finally,washback also implies that students have ready access to you to discuss
the feedback and evaluation you have given. I'm sure you have known teachers
with whom ~ o wouldn't
u dare argue about a g r ~ d e .Such a tynnnical atmosphere
is out of place in an intenctive, cooperative, intrinsically motivating classroom. For
learning to continue, learners need to have a chance to feed back on your feedback,
to seek clarification of any fuzzy issues, and to set new appropriate goals for them-
selves for tht days and weeks ahead.
SOME PRACTICAL STEPS TO TEST CONSTRUCTION
If you haven t already had an occasion to create and administer a classroom test,
your time is coming soon! Now th;it you have read about testing issues in this
chapter and .:onsidered the guidelines for more effective classroom tests, you may
be thinking that you must now go out there and create a wonderfully innovative
instrument tl~atwill gilrner the accolades of your colleagues and the admintion of
your student:. Rut don't worry! First,traditional testing techniques can, with a little
tinkering, he altered to adhere to the spirit of an intenctive, communicative lan-
guage ~ u r r i c ~ ~ l uSecond,
m. entirely new, innovative testing formats take a lot of
effort to deslgn and a long time to refine through the process of trial and error.
Your best tack as a new teacller is to work within the guidelines of accepted,
known, tndition:ll testing techniques to give an intrinsically motivating, intenctive
flavor to your tests. Slowly,with experience. you can get bolder in your attempts.
In that spirit, here are some practical steps to take in constructing classroom
tests.
1. Test toward clear, unambiguous objectives.
You need to know as specifically as possible what it is you want to test.
Sometimes te~cllersgive tests simply because it's Friday or it's the third week of the
course; after hasty glances at the chapter(s) covered during the period, they dash
off some tesl items so the students will have something to do during the class
period. This 1s no way to approach a test. Instead, carefully list everything that you
think your students should "know" or be able to "do:' based on the material the stu-
dents are res1)onsiblefor.
Your "ob~ectives"can, for testing purposes, be as simple :IS the following list of
grammatical :.tructures and cornmunicativr skills in a unit that, let's say, you have
recently taught:
Grammar:
Tag questions
Siml'le past tense in negative statements and information questions
Irregular past tense verbs
 CHAPTER 22 Langu'lge Assessmcnf 11: Practic~~l
Clc~ssroom
App1it:aftons 41 3
41 2 CHAPTER22 Langu~geAssessment 11: Practical tllassrourn Appl~cabons

Who as subject These in€ormal classroo~noriented specifications give you an indication of

Anyone, someone, and no one (a) which of the topics (objectives) you will cover, (b) what the item types will be.
Conjunctions so and because (c) how many items will be in each section, and (d) how much time is allc~catetlfor
each. Notice that a couple of communication skills and one gammatical structure
Communication skills: 1 are not tested-this may be a decision based on the time you devoted to these
Guessing what happened objectives, or only on the finite number of minutes av;lilable to administer the test.
Finding out who did somethh~g Notice, too, that this course quite likely has a good deal of oral production in it, but
Talking about family and friends for reasons of practicality (perhaps oral testing was done sepamtely?), on1 produc-
Talking about famous people and e\ ents tion is also not included on this test.
Giving reasons
Asking for confirmation 3. Draft your test.
A first draft will give you a good idea of what the test will look like, how stu-
2. From your objectives, draw up test specifications. dents will perceive it (face validity), the extent to which authentic langl~ageand
Now, this sounds like you're supposed to be some sort of psychometrician with contexts are present, the length of the listening stimuli, how well a storyline comes
a Ph.I). in statistics. Wrong. Test specifications for classrooin use can be a simple across, how things like the cloze testing format will work, and other praciicalities.
and practical outline of your test.* Let's say you are testing the above unit. Your Your items mdy look like these:
specifications will indicate how you will divide up the 45-minute test period, what Listening, Part 1 (theme: last night's party)
skills you will test, and what the items will look like. Your ":.pecsnmay look some-
thing like this: I. Teacher says: We sure made a mess last night, didn't wc.?
Listening (15 minutes) Student reads: (a) We sure made no mess last night, did we?
(b) We sure made a mess last night, didn'i we'
Pdrt 1: Minimal sentence p;~irs(choose the sentence that you think you
hear) 110 pairs, 2 themes] Listening, Part 2 (theme: still at the party)
Cover: tag questions 2. Teacher says:' A. Mary, who was that gorgeous man I sw you
negative statements with at the party?
guessing what happened R. Oh, Nancy, that was my brother'
finding out who did sonlething Student reads: (a) Mary's brother is George.
t Conversation (choose the correct answer) [i
P ~ r 2:
Cover: information questions
items1 I @)Nancy saw Mary's brother at the part.,
(c) Nancy's brother is gorgeous.
talking about family and friends
Multiple choice (theme: still at the party)
Multiple Choice (10 minutes) [15 items in a storyline (cloze) format]
Student reads: Then we the loudest thunder you lrave
Cover : simple past tense
past irregular verbs ever heard! And of course right away lightning
anyone, someone, and no one -6 right outside thc house!
3. (a) heared (b) did hear (c) he;lrtl
Writing production (1 5 mirlutes) [topic:Why 1 liked/didn't like a
4. (a) struck (b) stricken (c) stracl,
recent movie]
Cover : affirmative and negative statements
conjunctions so and because * Ideally, for the sake of authenticity,you should enlist the aid o f a colleague an11malie
giving reasons a tape in which each of you reads a different part so that students will readily
perceive that two people are speaking. If time, equipment,and colleagues don't
* Note that for standardized, large-scale tests that are intended t ~ be
) widely distributed permit this, make sure that when you read the two parts, you differentiatc clcarly
and therefore widely generalized,test specifications are much more formal and (with voice and also by bodily facing in two different directiclns) between the two
detailed. chancters.
41 4 (H;\PT[R 2? Lmguage Assrssment 11: Pr,~cticalClas$room Applications
can see, these items are quite traditional. In fact, you could justifiably object
AS J O U
to them on the grounds that they ask students to rely on short-term memory and on
spelling conventions. Rut the thematic format of the sections, the authentic lan-
guage, and the contextualization add face validity, interest, and intr~nsicmotivation
to what might otherwise be a mundane test. And the essay section adds some cre-
ative production to help compensate for the lack of an oral production component.
ALTERNATIVE ASSESSMENT OPTIONS
4. Revise your test.
At this stage, you will work through all the items yo11 have devised and ask a
number of important questions:
1. Are the directions to each section absolutely clear?
2. [S there an example item for each section?
3. Does each item measure a specified objective?
4. I s each item stated in clear, simple langwdge?
5. Does each multiple-choice item have appropriate distracters, that is, are the
wrong items clearly wrong and yet sufficiently "alluring" that they aren't
ridiculously easy?
0. Does the difficulty of each item seem to be appropriate for your students?
7 . Do tlie sum of the items and test as a whole adequately reflect the learning
objectives?
5. Final-edit and type the test.
In an ideal situation, you would try out all your tests on some students before
actually administering them. In our daily classroom teaching, the tryout phase is vir-
tually iml,ossihle, and so you must do what you can to bring to your students an
instrument that is, to the best of your ability, practical, reliable, and valid. So, after
careful completion of the drafting phase, a final edit is in order.
In your kina1 editing of the test before typing it for presentation to your class,
imagine that you are one of your students. Go through each set of directions and
all items slowly and deliberately, timing yourself as you do so. Often we underesti-
mate the time students will need to complete a test. If the test needs to be short-
ened or lengthened, make the necessary ;~djustments.Then make sure your test is
neal and uncluttered on the page, reflecting all the care and precision you have put
into its construction. If your test has ;I listening component, make sure your script
is clear ;lnd th;~tthe audio equipment you will use is in working order.
6. Utilize your feedback after administering the test.
After you give the test, you will have some information about how easy or &if-
ticult it was, about tlie time limits, and about your students' affective reaction to it
and their general performance. Take note of these forms of feedback and use them
for making your next test.
1'HAPTER 22 Language Assessment /I: ~ r a c t ~ c ,Classroom
jl Applications 415
7. Work foe washback.
As you :valuate the test and return it to your students, your feedback should
reflect the principles of washback discussed earlier. Use the information from the
test perform Lnce as a springhoard for review and/or for moving on to the next unit.
So far in this chapter, the focus has been on the administration of formal tests in the
classroom. It was noted earlier that '*assessmentnis a broad term covering any con-
scious effort on the part of a teacher or student to draw some conclusions on the
basis of perfc)rniance. Tests are a special subset of the range of possibilities within
assessment; of course they constitute a very salient subset, but not all assessment
consists of tcsts.
In recect years language teachers have stepped up efforts to develop non-test
assessment cptions that are nevertheless carefully designed and that adhere to the
criteria for adequate assessment. Sometimes such innovations are referred to as
alternative msessment, if only to distinguish them from traditional formal tests.
Several alter~rativeassessment options will be briefly discussed here: self- and peer-
assessments, iournals, conferences, portfolios, and cooperative test construction.
1. Self- and peer-assessments
A conve ~tionalview of 1angu:lge pedagogy might consider self- and peer-assess
ment to be all absurd reversal of the teaching-learning process. AFtcr all, how could
learners who are still in the process of acquisition, especially the early processes, be
capable of re idering ; ~ accurate
n assessment of their own performance? But a closer
look at the acquisition of any skill reveals the importance, if not the necessity, of self-
assessmeni and the benefit of peer-assessment. What suiccessful learner has not
developed the :tbility to monitor his or her own performance and to use the data
gathered for s~djilstmentsand corrections? Si~ccessfullearners extend the learning
process well beyond the classroon~ and the presence of a teacher or tutor,
autonomousl.brm;lstering the art of self-assessment. And where peers are available to
render assessnnents,why not take advantage of such additional input?
Researcl. has shown (Brown & Hudson 1998) a number of advantages of self-
and peer-asstssment: speed, direct involvement of students, the encouragement of
autonomy, and increased molivation because of self-involvement in the process of
learning. Of :ourse, the disadvantage of subjectivity looms large, and must be con-
sidered wher-ever you propose to involve students in self- and peer-assessment.
Following ;Ire some ways in which self- and peer-assessment can be imple-
mented in Lar~guageclassrooms
Oral production: student self-checklists;peer checklists; offering and
receiv!ng a holistic rating of an oral presentation; Listening to tape-recorded
oral production to detect pn)nunciation or grammar ernjrs; in natural
 CHAPTER 22 Language Assessment 11: Practical Classroom Applic ti ,ns
417

conversation, asking others for conf~rmationchecks; st tting goals for cre-

ating opportunities to speak
Listening comprehension: listening to TV or radio trroadcasts and
checking comprehension w i t h a partner; in pair or group work, asking
when you don't understand something; listening to an academic lecture
and checking yourself on a "quiz" of the content; setting goals for increasing
opportunities for listening
I Your partner should start to answer immediately. If helshe doesn't start answerir~gaftvr
five seconds, hit the buzzer BBBBEEEEEEEPPPP. Time's up. But give himiher all the time
helshe needs to answer completely.

Write here how many out of ten helshe explained adequately:

gradelscore:
If you went first, it is now your partner's turn to ask vou auestions.
1 _.

Writing: revising written work on your own; revising written work w i t h a r 0

4. When both of you have finished #3:

peer (peer-editing); proofreading; setting goals for incrsasing opportunities
Ask your p~rtnerto describe some object at home without narning the object. tielsh,:
to write
should be able to tell you at least five things about it that allow you to know w h ~ itt is.
Reading: reading textbook passages followetl by self-( heck comprehension
Count the number of things. Give himher a score of one to five, depending ot hoiv
questions; reading and checking comprehension w i t h i partner; vocabulary
many things helshe told you about the object. Then exchange roles.
quizzes; self-assessment of reading hablts; setting goals
gradelscore:
5. The partner with the highest student number should choose one of the follnwlnp to
Tim Murphey (1995) offered an innovative example o f sel:; and peer-assessment
explain:
of on1 production, reprinted i n Figure 22.1. This test utilizes interactive work with
a partner and promotes respect between teacher and learner i i the ~ gdding process.
a) the 4 dimensions of learning
b) steps in learning how to juggle
Figure 22.1. (adapted from Murphey 19951
I
-
1 I c! telling 2 stories that they heard Mr. Murphey tell.
The second person speaking must not choose what the first one chose

I Test 2: Cooperative pair work and self-evaluation

English I I Oral test
Name:
-- -
Give a grade of 1(poor) to 5(excellent).

gradelscore:
6. The partner whose student number is lowest should nanie 5 ways i o improve you- oral
Part A: Filled out by you English outside of class as Mr. Murphey has asked you to do. Write their suggestesllons
grades: A+ A B C F ENGLISH ONLY ALL THE TIME below and give them a score.
1 . Based upon what you think you know tor the test, what grade v,ould you give your- gradelscore
self now, before you take it? The other partner must name 5 songs and one word helshe learncld hrn each song.
gradelscore:
Write these below and give them a score.
2. Based upon how much time and effort vou spl:.nt studying for the test, what grade
would you give yourself now, before you take it? Minus points every time you spoke Japanese.
g radelscore: -

I
Total number of points out of 25 possible:
Now, give your study list of words to your partner, and your p~rtnerwill give you -- -
Now return this paper to the owner.
hislhers. Also exchange this sheet of paper with your partner.

-
Part C: Filled out by the same person as in A
Part 6: Filled out by your partner
After having taken this test, what kind of grade do you think you should get? Do vou
GO outside (if it is pretty) and ask your partner the following (thr, partner who is the
think this test gave a fair picture of what you know? Was it easy, fun, or what? Would
tallest should answer first, and the other should ask, then switch):
you like to take other tests like this? Was it useful? Could it be improved in any m y ?
3. Call out words that hdshe marked on hislher sheet as being diffictllt and ask himlher to Write some feedback below.
explain them andlor use them in an example. Do at least ten words. It your partner marked
more than ten words, just pick the last ten on the list. If your partnc,r marked fewer than Thank you very much.
ten, choose some others that you found diffic:ult. But do only ten.
41 8 C H A I ' T ~ R1 l~ngungcAssessment 11: Prachcal Classroom Applications
2. Journals
Usually one thinks of journ;lls simply as opportunities for learners to write rel-
atively freely without undue concern for grammaticality. Journals can nnge from
langu:~gelearning logs, to grammar discussions, to responses to readings, to attitudes
and feelings ;tboi~toneself. Recently, the assessment qualities of journal writing
have assi~medan important role in the teaching-learning process. Because journal
writing is a dialogue between student and teacher, journals afford a unique oppor-
tunity for ;I teacher to offcr various kinds of feedback to learners.
Ilsing journaIs as assessment instruments requires a carefully specified, system-
atic :~pproach.
Spec* to students what the purpose of the journal is (response to reading,
learning log, grammar commentary, etc.).
Give clear directions to students on how to get started (many students will
never have written a journal before and may be mystified about what to
do). Sometimes ;In abbreviated model journal entry helps.
Give guidelines on length of rach entry and any other format expectations.
Collect journals on pre-announced dates and return them promptly.
Be cle:~ryourself on the principal purpose of the journal and make sure
your feedback speaks to that purpose.
Help students to process your feedback, and show them how to respond to
your responses.
3. Conferences
For a number of years, conferences have been a routine part of language class
rooms, especially courses in writing. Conferencing has become a standard part of
the process appnxlch to teaching writing, as the teacher, in a conversation about a
drafi, bcilit;~testhe improvement of the written work. Such interaction has the
advantage of allowing one-on-one interaction between teacher and student such
that the specific needs of a student can receive direct feedback. Through confer-
ences, a tc;icher can assume the role of a facilitator ilnd guide, rather than a master
controller ;lntl deliverer of final grades. In this intrinsically motivating atmosphere,
students c:~nfeel that the teacher is an ally who is encouraging self-reflection. It is
important not to consider a conference as a moment to be graded. Conferences are
by n:lture fi~rmative,not summative; form;~tiveassessment points students toward
further development, rather than offering a final summation of performance.
4. Portfolios
o n e of the most popular forms of alternative assessment now within a CLT
framework is the construction of portfolios. A portfolio is "a purposeful collection
of students' work that demonstrates to students and others their efforts, progress,
and achievements in given areas" (Genesee Sr Upshur 19%: 99). Portfolios include
essays, compositions, poetry, book reports, art work, video- or audiotape recordings
of a student's oral production, journals, and virtually anything else one wishes to
C ~ ~ A P T E22
R Lar~guageAssessment 11: Practical Classroom Applications 419
spec*. In earlier decades of our history, portfolios were thought to be applicable
only to younger children who assenlbled a portfolio of art work and written work
for presentatit~nto a teacher and/or a parent. But now, learners of all ages and in all
fields of stud) are benefiting f n ~ mthe tangible, h a n d s a nature of portfolio devel-
opment.
Guide1ini.s for using portfolios in a classroom are very much like the guidelines
offered for jollrnal writing:
Specie. to students what the purpose of the portfolio is (to emphasize
accomplishments, to offcr tangible material for feedback from the teacher,
etc.).
Give c ear directions to students on how to get started (many students will
never .lave compiled a portfolio before and m y be mystified about what to
do). S:lowing a sample portfolio from a previous student might help to
stimukcte thoughts on what to include.
Give g:lidelines on acceptable material to include.
Collec: portfolios on pre-announced tlates and return them promptly.
Be cle:tr yourself on the principal purpose of the portfolio and make sure
your ft edback speaks to that purpose.
Help silldents to process your feedback and show them how to respond to
your rt,sponses. This processing might take place in a conference, or
simply through written feedback.
5. Cooperative test construction
The traditional view of what a test is certainly does not include students in the
process of te:t construction! In fact, it may sound a little crazy to suggest that stu-
dents constru,:t their own test items. But one of the most productive of the various
alternative as:?essmentprocedures secs students directly involved in the construc-
tion of a test. Tim Murphey (person;~lcommunication 1993), whose oral produc-
tion test was discussed above, totd how he got another group of students to
cooperate in I he design of thcir own test.
It is 'me of the most satisfying things in the world to me to see my stu-
dents busy learning, interacting intensively with each other, occasion-
ally consulting with me, but taking the responsibility themselves and
being energetically involved.
I wanted to give a test last week over the different vocabulary and
struc tures that we had covered the last few weeks. But I decided to
sharl: the task with the students and see how we might do it interac-
tivelg. 1 asked the students in pairs to brainstorm all the things that
they thought they had learned and that should be in a test. I forbade
then1 to look into their books. It had to be from memory.
Next they had to go into groups of fours and exchange their
papcrs and discuss whether they agreed with what the other pairs
 420 CHAI~TEK22 L~ngu,lgeAs5csssment/I: Practical lrldssfi9om Applicat~ons
suggested be on the test. Some ~deaswere crossed off, some were
added on, and there was a lot of negotiation going on. I collected the
lists, condensed them into one list, and distribute,i copies to each
person at the next class, instructing them to formu1.1te the actual test
questions. They each did so, and then in pairs verified that there
were no mistakes in the questions, occasionally asking me as I circu-
lated around the room.
Then I told them that in the next class a certai~inumber of their
questions would be on the xctual test. In the remaining quarter of an
hour they were permitted to read every other stude~~t's test and to ask
the author the answer if the) didn't know it. Needless to say, it was
an intense fifteen minutes. What is more, I learned they had learned
things that I was unaware of teaching or doing in class, and not
learned things, at least in thcil. conscious m e m o n ti.at I thought I had
taught.
I am convinced that the exercise of listing items to test, making
the questions themselves, and thrn discussing then1 with each other
initiated many more .'opportunities for learning" than would have
occurred if I had simply given them a test. And elf course, if I had
made the test alone I would have tested what 1, cine person alone,
thought was and should have been learned. Together they taught
each other, and me, much more, and the test wa$ ultimately much
more reliable as a mirror of what was actually covered very thor-
oughly in the test preparatio~lphase as the studenti were convinced
that it was a 11sehland testable item.
It would not be terribly outlandish for you to consider :,ome form of coopera-
tive test design. In my own assessment semin;~r,1 have seen cooperatively produced
tests that have engeiendered a good cienl of intrinsic involverclent in the process of
reviewing and selecticlg items for the final form of the test. Many educators agree
that one of the primary purposes in administering tests is to stimulate review and
i numerous highly "intelligent" people fail to learn a foreign language. Ask stu-
1 integration, which is exactly what cooperative test design does, but almost without
awareness on the students' part that they are indeed rcviewir,g the material!
' !
ASSESSMENT AND TEACHING: PARTNERS IN THE
1, LEARNING PROCESS
I!
l1'1
It is quite obvious by now, I hope, that assessment is all integnl part of the
I,,
!
teaching-learning cycle. In an interac.tive communicative c urriculum, assessment
is almost constant. Tests, as a subset of all assessment proce:;ses,do not necessarily
4
need to violate principles of authcnticitv, intrinsic motivation, and studentcen-
teredness. Along with some newer, alternative methods of assessment, tests
1 become indispensable components of a curriculum.
I
CHAPTER22 Language Assessment I/: Practical Classroom Applrcat~jrls 421
As a reminder of the value of assessment in the classroom, remenher that
assessment and teaching are partners in the learning process.
1. Periodic assessments, both formal and informal,can increase motivati~)n as
they serve as milestones of student progress.
2. Assessments can spur learners to set goals for themselves.
3. Assessments encourage retention of information through the feedback the!
give on learners' competence.
4. Assessments can provide a sense of periodic closure to various units a 11dmod-
ules of a curriculum.
5. Assessments can encourage students' self-eval~rationof their progress.
6. Assessments can promote student autonomy as they corlfirm arcas of ~trcngth
and areas needing further work.
7. Assessnlents can aid in evaluating teaching effectivmess.
TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION, ACTION, AND RESEARCH
[Note:(I) Individual work; (G) group or pair work; (C) whole-class discussi~Jn.1
1. (G/C)Teachers are called upon to play dual roles in the classroom. One is
the role of a coach or guide, and the other is the role of a judge who ailminis-
ters tests and assigns grades. Ask pairs to discuss whether these two P )les arc
conflicting. Then ask them to brainstorm some ways that a teacher can
lessen the potential conflict such that one can play both rolcs. Then, 11ave
them share their ideas with the rest of the class.
2. (C) Review with your students the meaning of informal, formal,formative,
and surnmative testing, ancl brainstorm some exaniples of each of the four
categories. As a class, discuss ways that summative tests (finill exams, sun-
dardized tests, etc.) might provide constructive feedback t o the studen1
3. (C) Following traditional views of intelligence, we would have to say th.11
dents how Howard Gardner's and Robert Sternbeg's views on intelligence
shed new light on such an apparent paradox.
4. (G/C) In the list of characteristics of traditional and alterilative testir~g,it'h
fairly easy to identify some specific tests that would be classified as track
tional. Have groups look at the list of characteristics of alternative testing and
brainstorm some examples of tests or test items that belong to the alternative
category. Groups will then share their ideas with the rest of the class.
5. (C)Ask your class to look again at the lists of strategies for test-takers a ~ ~ash
cl
them what strategies they could add to this list.
6. (G/C)This one might take up a full class hour to complete. I>irectsmall
groups to devise an oral test for a specified purpose and an audience t h ~ t
they are familiar with and to address the following questions: What is tlle
422 ( . H A P T ~ K22 Langua~eAssessment 11: f'r~cticalCbssroom ApplrcatIons CtiAt'TER 22 Lai~gctdgeAssessment 1): PraclicaI Cbssroom Applic,~tiuns 423

purpose of the interview? How would one elicit spoken language from a
learner?What kinds of questions would one ask? What other stimuli might
one use (pictures, for example)? How would one make sure that the four
phases of warm-up, level check, probe, and wind-down are adequately repre-
sented?And how would one score the results of the interview? If possible, ask
groups to devise a mock interview, then role-play it for the rest of the class.
7. (C)Tell students to look again at the o n t test devised byTim Murphey (Figure
22.1). What are the strengths and we;~knessesof this test? How practical are
such tests for contexts that you are familiar with?
8. OThink of a classroom language test you know and/or have recently taken.
Describe it. Evaluate it according to principles of designing effective tests
offered in this chapter. Use a scale of 1 to 5 (1 poor, 5 excellent) for each
criterion.
9. (G/C)Ask groups to consider the five different alternative testing options and
to clescribe to each other any examples of any of the five that they have expe-
rienced in ;i previous class. Groups will then share those findings with the
rest of the class.
FOR YOUR FIJRTHER READING
Genesee, Fred and Ilpshur, John A. 1996. Classroo?n-BasedElultlution in Seconcl
1,~rng~r~rge
Ecluccrtior~.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
The rztrthon cfler er conprehc~tzsivetreatment oflangut~geassessnzent byfirst
l.o?lr~ectirrgtr,sstJ.s.srric~rzt
ulith instructio~lalobjectives find eualz~ntion,thetz
fi)i~i.sirrg,in some rlt~tail,on crltcrncrtiz~etesting (observation,po*olir)s, con-
fi.rer~ct<s,j(~llrrltrl.s,r1ue,stionnnires, in ten lieu^.^), ufldfinally on tc.sti~zgas it i . ~
1rtrditio7rrrlly irndentood.
ences ti1'th ~lat-iozrsfornzs oj' .$elf-nsses.stnent, collaboration, portfolios, test
revicri' 1 rctiuilies. and niorr. .I highly practical jjc-us is maitztcli~lcd
throughc,ut
Hughes, Arthur. 1989. Testing for Language Teachers. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Weir, Cyril J. 1990. Cornmltnicatiue Lurzguuge Testing. New York: Prentice-Hall.
Madsen, Har )Id. 1983. Techniques in Testing. New York: Oxford University Press.
AN three qfthesc~books eartbpmc/icalin their attention to clcis.sroowr testing
tech~ziq~iis. Teuchers are gioelz nurnrrous examples of tt.sts coiler-ing
~latying:kills arid profi'cieircy levels. 1tz all thrtle, genercrl gui~lelinesarzcl
principle: are crlso cflered so thclt the teacher isn't simply an itenz-z~n-itirzg
machine ilfadscw$: book i s especially practiccrl, with clear directions arrd
exzznlples /or the teacher who has not hall the ben$t of afornzal cozrn-e in
langzcage testing.
O'Malley, J. Michael and Pierce, Lorraine Valdez. 1996. Authentic Assesstnent for
English Languuge Learrzers: Practical Approcrches f i E~achen.White Plains,
NY: Addison Wesley.
A practicc 11guidejifi,rteachen in elementug! and secondaly schools in the US,
this hook Dn)videb a comprc~her~siue selection of stratcxies for asessirzg onrl
Iarr,yurr~e,rtJarlirzg,zurititzg; and the conttllt arms. fie authors ~rrztlpub-
lishergiuc bkrr~ketpermissic,nto ~ ~ h o t o cmost
o j ~ ~of ~thrir sample assc:s~srrients.

Brown. J.D. ; ~ n dtludson,Thom. 1998. "The alternatives in Ianguage assessment."

TESOI, Qtrcirlerly 32: 653-75.
' f t ~ iarticle
s s ~ ~ t ~ r m u rtrstirl,q
i z t . ~ wlethotls andj)i,l.rnats in use toclay, starting
~uithtrcrrlitionrrl nzclhods ('truefalse, matching, multiple choice, frll-irr, short
trtisurpr).crncl in the ktst hulfcjf the article describing nlternati~~es @erJor-
i?iance, cci~rfrrc~rzces, portfolios, sey- ad peer-a.~sessnrent) that depart/ronl
rraditio~lcrlte.sting nrethods.

7'ESOL Journal 1995. Special Issue, Autumn. Alternative Assessment.

Irr this .~x,cir~I
i.~s~re
there are terr dgerent articles or notes on crlternatives to
trrrditionrrl rmclssmc,rrt. In euch case, tecrchen described their o u n experi-
 CHAPlif: 23 Chntinuil~gYour Te.3cher Etiucation 427
CHAPTFR
without beirlg ovenvhelnled by everything you have to attend to when you teach.
Just as beginning language learners ;Ire in a controlled mode of opmtion, able to
manage only a few bits of WOrmation at a time with capacity-limitedsystems,so it is
with your te~ching.tf you try to focus on everything in the classroom (the manage-
ment issues, techniques, delivery,body language,feedback, individual attention, lesson
goals, and m~d-lesson;llterations,etc:.) all at once, you may end up doing nothing well.
In due course of time, however, the abundance of cognitive/emotional phenomena in
the classroo~nwill be silfficiently automatic that you will indeed manag to opente
on many planes simultaneously.
As you read on here, you will find some ideas that you can immediately put to
work and others that may al,ply to you after you have gained some experience.

One of the most invigorating things about teaching is that you never stop learning.
'The complexity of the dynamic triangular interplay among teachers and learners
PEAK PERFORMERS
:~ndsubject matter continually gives birth to an endless number of questions to
xnswer, problems to solve, issues to ponder. Every time you walk into a classroom
to teach, you face some of those issues, and if yo11 are a growing teacher, you learn
something. You find out how well a technique works, how a student processes k~n-
girage, hoai classroom interaction can be improved, how to assess a student's com-
petence, how emotions enter into learning, or how your teaching style affects
learners. The ciisroveries go on and on-for a lifetime.
As you embark on this journey into the teaching profession, how can you best
continue to grow professionally? How can you most fruitfully meet the challenges
that lie ahead?Are there some practical goals that you can pursue? So far, as you have
worked through the material of this book, you h;~vealready begun to address some
major professional goals (adapted from Pcnnington 1990: 150):
a knowledge of the theoretical foundations of Language learning and lan-
guagc teaching.
the analytical skills necessary for assessing different teaching contexts and
classroom conditions.
;in awareness of alternative teaching techniques and the ability to put these
into practice,
the confidence and skill to alter your teaching techniques as needed.
practical experience with different teaching techniques,
informed knowledge of yourself and your studmts,
interpersonal comnlunication skills, and
attitudes of flexibility ancl openness to change.
These eight different goals can provide continuing career growth for many,
many years as you strive to do a better and better job of teaching. But you must be
patient! Don't expect to become a "master" teacher overnight. Right now, as you
begin your teaching career, set some realistic, practical goals that you can focus on
Are you d o ~ n gthe best you can (Lo? Are you being all that you can be-"self-
actualized,"in Maslow's terms? Or are you satisfied with getting by? In the stressful
world of te;~ching,it's easier lhan you might imagine to slip into ;I pattern of just
keeping a step ahead of your sti~dentsas you struggle through long working hours
and cope ~ i t overly
h large classes. This pattern is the beginning of a downward
spiral that y.)u shodd avoid a1 all costs. How do you do that? In part by practicing
the behaviors of peak performers, people who are reaching their fullest potential
and therefow who, in turn, reap success. Consider the following four rules (among
many) of peak performers that you might apply to yourself, even at this early stage
in your career:
1. Set realistic go&.
Peak pc.rformers, first of ;IN, know their limitations and strengths and their feel-
ings and nrcbds, and then set goals that will be realistic within this framework. ?hey
set their own goals and don't let the world around them (colleagues, supervisors, or
friends) dictdte goals to theni. If you have a sense of overdl purpose in your career as
a mission, then this mission will unfold in the form of daily, weekly, monthly, or annual
goals.
It is a g,ood idca to write down some short-term and long-term goals. Be real-
istic in terms of what you can accon~plish.Be specific in your statements. Here are
some examl,les to get the wheels turning.
React x number of teacher resource books this year
Desiqn my next test to be more authentic, biased for best, with maximum
was1(back.
Obscne five other teachers this semester.
Mon~tormy error treatments in the classroom.
A t t e ~ ~two
d profession,ll cnnferences/workshops this year.