Drilling Design Manual STAP P 1 M 6100 Rev1

S P E O IDENTIFICATION CODE PAG 2 OF 232
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INDEX
1. INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................. 10
1.1 PURPOSE AND OBJECTIVES............................................................................. 10
1.2 IMPLEMENTATION .............................................................................................. 10
1.3 UPDATING, AMENDMENT, CONTROL& DEROGATION.................................... 10
2. FORECAST ON PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE GRADIENTS ................................. 11

2.1 FORECAST ON PRESSURE GRADIENTS .......................................................... 11
2.1.1 SEISMIC DATA ANALYSIS .................................................................. 11
2.1.2 DRILLING DATA ANALYSIS................................................................ 12
2.1.2.1 REAL TIME INDICATORS .................................................. 13
2.1.2.2 INDICATORS DEPENDING ON LAG TIME ........................ 14
2.1.2.3 “D” EXPONENT AND “DC” EXPONENT .............................. 16
2.1.2.4 SIGMALOG INTERPRETATION ......................................... 17
2.1.3 ELECTRIC LOGS ANALYSIS............................................................... 18
2.2 TEMPERATURE PREDICTION ............................................................................ 22
2.2.1 TEMPERATURE GRADIENTS ............................................................. 23
2.2.2 TEMPERATURE LOGGING.................................................................. 23
3. SELECTION OF CASING SEATS.................................................................................... 24

3.1 CONDUCTOR CASING ........................................................................................ 25
3.2 SURFACE CASING .............................................................................................. 26
3.3 INTERMEDIATE CASING..................................................................................... 26
3.4 PRODUCTION CASING........................................................................................ 27
3.5 LINER ................................................................................................................... 27
3.6 KICK TOLLERANCE ............................................................................................ 27
4. CASING DESIGN ............................................................................................................. 29

4.1 INTRODUCTION................................................................................................... 29
4.2 CASING SPECIFICATION AND CLASSIFICATION............................................. 29
4.3 CONNECTIONS.................................................................................................... 30
4.3.1 API CONNECTIONS ............................................................................. 30
4.3.2 NON API CONNECTIONS .................................................................... 30
4.3.3 INTEGRAL FLUSH JOINT .................................................................... 31
4.4 APPROACH TO CASING DESIGN....................................................................... 31
4.4.1 DESIGN FACTOR (DF)......................................................................... 31
4.5 DESIGN CRITERIA............................................................................................... 32
4.5.1 BURST.................................................................................................. 32
4.5.2 COLLAPSE........................................................................................... 36
4.5.3 TENSION .............................................................................................. 39
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4.6 BENDING.............................................................................................................. 40
4.6.1 GENERAL............................................................................................. 40
4.6.2 DETERMINATION OF BENDING EFFECT........................................... 40
4.6.3 COMPANY DESIGN PROCEDURE ...................................................... 40
4.7 BIAXIAL STRESS................................................................................................. 42
4.8 CASING WEAR .................................................................................................... 44
4.8.1 GENERAL............................................................................................. 44
4.8.2 VOLUMETRIC WEAR RATE ................................................................ 44
4.8.3 WEAR FACTORS ................................................................................. 45
4.8.4 WEAR ALLOWANCE IN CASING DESIGN.......................................... 46
4.9 SALT SECTIONS.................................................................................................. 46
4.10 CORROSION ........................................................................................................ 47
4.10.1 CONTRIBUTING FACTORS TO CORROSION .................................... 47
4.10.2 CASING FOR SOUR SERVICE ............................................................ 49
4.10.3 ORDERING SPECIFICATIONS ............................................................ 50
4.11 TEMPERATURE EFFECTS .................................................................................. 53
4.11.1 LOW TEMPERATURE SERVICE.......................................................... 54
4.12 LOAD CONDITIONS............................................................................................. 54
4.12.1 SHOCK LOAD ...................................................................................... 54
4.12.2 SAFE ALLOWABLE PULL ................................................................... 54
4.12.3 CEMENTING CONSIDERATIONS ........................................................ 54
4.12.4 PRESSURE TESTING .......................................................................... 55
4.12.5 HANG-OFF LOAD (LH) ......................................................................... 55
5. MUD CONSIDERATIONS ................................................................................................ 57

5.1 GENERAL............................................................................................................. 57
5.1.1 SUBSURFACE WELL CONTROL ........................................................ 57
5.1.2 FORMATION EVALUATION................................................................. 58
5.1.3 FORMATION PROTECTION................................................................. 58
5.2 MUD COMPOSITION............................................................................................ 58
5.2.1 SALT MUDS ......................................................................................... 58
5.2.2 WATER BASED SYSTEMS .................................................................. 61
5.2.3 GEL SYSTEMS ..................................................................................... 62
5.2.4 POLYMER SYSTEMS........................................................................... 62
5.2.5 OIL BASED MUD.................................................................................. 62
5.3 SOLIDS................................................................................................................. 63
5.4 DENSITY CONTROL MATERIALS....................................................................... 63
5.5 FLUID CALCULATIONS....................................................................................... 64
6. FLUID HYDRAULICS....................................................................................................... 66
6.1 HYDRAULICS PROGRAMME PREPARATION ................................................... 66
6.2 DESIGN OF THE HYDRAULICS PROGRAMME.................................................. 67
6.3 FLOW RATE ......................................................................................................... 68
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6.4 PRESSURE LOSSES ........................................................................................... 69

6.4.1 SURFACE EQUIPMENT ....................................................................... 71
6.4.2 DRILL PIPE........................................................................................... 72
6.4.3 DRILL COLLARS.................................................................................. 72
6.4.4 BIT HYDRAULICS ................................................................................ 72
6.4.5 MUD MOTORS...................................................................................... 73
6.4.6 ANNULUS............................................................................................. 73
7. CASING RUNNING AND CEMENTING ........................................................................... 74

7.1 GENERAL............................................................................................................. 74
7.2 INSTALLATION PATTERNS (FOR MECHANICAL CEMENTING AIDS) ............. 74
7.3 CEMENTING CONSIDERATIONS........................................................................ 78
7.3.1 API SPECIFICATION ............................................................................ 78
7.3.2 SLURRY DENSITY AND WEIGHT........................................................ 81
7.3.3 CEMENT ADDITIVES ........................................................................... 83
7.3.4 SALT CEMENT ..................................................................................... 86
7.3.5 SPACERS AND WASHES .................................................................... 87
7.3.6 SLURRY SELECTION .......................................................................... 88
7.3.7 CEMENT PLACEMENT ........................................................................ 88
7.3.8 WELL CONTROL.................................................................................. 88
7.3.9 JOB DESIGN ........................................................................................ 89
7.3.9.1 THEORETICAL TOP OF CEMENT ..................................... 92
7.3.10 EARLY GAS MIGRATION CONTROL.................................................. 93
7.3.10.1 PHYSICAL PROCESSES LINKED TO GAS MIGRATION... 93
7.3.10.1.1 EVALUATE WELL FOR FLOW
POTENTIAL.................................................. 94
7.3.10.1.2 ENGINEERING DESIGN .............................. 94
7.3.10.1.3 MUD REMOVAL ........................................... 95
7.3.10.2 SLURRY DESIGN AND TESTING ...................................... 97
7.3.10.2.1 LEAD AND TAIL CEMENT ........................... 98
7.3.10.2.2 CONTROLLING DENSITIES ........................ 98
7.3.10.2.3 CONTROLLING FILTRATION ...................... 99
7.3.10.2.4 GEL STRENGTH.......................................... 99
7.3.10.2.5 MECHANICAL STRENGTH.......................... 100
7.3.10.3 HOW THE GAS ENTERS THE ANNULUS.......................... 100
7.3.10.4 FROM THE THEORY TO SOLUTIONS .............................. 101
7.3.10.4.1 PHYSICAL TECHNIQUES............................ 101
7.3.10.4.2 SPECIAL CEMENTING SLURRIES (GAS-
BLOCK) ........................................................ 104
7.3.10.5 TESTS FOR MEASURING GAS MIGRATION .................... 105
7.3.10.6 PREDICTING GAS MIGRATION......................................... 106
7.3.10.6.1 GFP - GAS FLOW POTENTIAL AND SRN
- SLURRY RESPONSE NUMBER ................ 106
7.3.10.7 POST CEMENTING OPERATIONS .................................... 108
7.3.10.7.1 HOLDING PRESSURE INSIDE CASING ..... 108
7.3.10.7.2 W.O.C........................................................... 108
8. WELLHEADS ................................................................................................................... 109

8.1 SUBSEA WELLHEAD .......................................................................................... 109
8.1.1 SELECTION CRITERIA ........................................................................ 109
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8.1.2 SUBSEA WELLHEAD WORKING PRESSURE.................................... 110

8.1.3 MATERIAL SPECIFICATION................................................................ 110
8.2 SURFACE WELLHEADS...................................................................................... 110
8.2.1 SELECTION CRITERIA ........................................................................ 111
8.2.1.1 MULTISTAGE WELLHEAD WORKING PRESSURE .......... 111
8.2.1.2 FLANGED WELL HEAD WORKING PRESSURE ............... 111
8.2.2 MATERIAL SPECIFICATION................................................................ 111
8.2.3 FLANGED WELLHEAD COMPONENTS.............................................. 112
8.2.3.1 FLANGED WELLHEAD SKETCH EXAMPLE ...................... 113
8.2.4 MULTISTAGE WELLHEAD .................................................................. 114
8.2.4.1 MULTISTAGE WELLHEAD SKETCH EXAMPLE ................ 115
8.3 MUDLINE SUSPENSION SYSTEM ...................................................................... 116
9. BOP SELECTION CRITERIA........................................................................................... 119
10. BHA DESIGN AND STABILIZATION............................................................................... 122

10.1 STRAIGHT HOLE DRILLING ............................................................................... 122
10.2 HOLE ANGLE CONTROL .................................................................................... 122
10.2.1 AUTOMATIC VERTICAL DRILLING SYSTEMTM .................................. 122
10.2.2 PACKED HOLE THEORY..................................................................... 123
10.2.3 PENDULUM THEORY .......................................................................... 123
10.3 AUTOMATIC VERTICAL DRILLING SYSTEMTM OPERATING MODE ................ 123
10.3.1 STEERING (SLIDING) MODE............................................................... 124
10.3.2 ROTARY MODE.................................................................................... 124
10.3.3 SPECIFICATIONS ................................................................................ 124
10.4 DESIGNING A PACKED HOLE ASSEMBLY ....................................................... 126
10.4.1 LENGTH OF TOOL ASSEMBLY .......................................................... 126
10.4.2 STIFFNESS........................................................................................... 126
10.4.3 CLEARANCE ........................................................................................ 127
10.4.4 WALL SUPPORT AND LENGTH OF CONTACT TOOL....................... 128
10.4.5 PACKED BOTTOM HOLE ASSEMBLIES ............................................ 128
10.5 PENDULUM BOTTOM HOLE ASSEMBLIES ....................................................... 130
10.5.1 REDUCED BIT WEIGHT....................................................................... 131
10.6 DOG-LEG AND KEY SEAT PROBLEMS ............................................................. 132
10.6.1 DRILL PIPE FATIGUE .......................................................................... 132
10.6.2 STUCK PIPE......................................................................................... 132
10.6.3 LOGGING ............................................................................................. 132
10.6.4 RUNNING CASING ............................................................................... 132
10.6.5 CEMENTING ......................................................................................... 133
10.6.6 CASING WEAR WHILE DRILLING....................................................... 133
10.6.7 PRODUCTION PROBLEMS ................................................................. 133
10.7 DRILL STRING DESIGN....................................................................................... 135
10.8 BOTTOM HOLE ASSEMBLY BUCKLING............................................................ 138
10.9 SUMMARY RECOMMENDATIONS FOR STABILISATION ................................. 140
10.10 OPERATING LIMITS OF DRILL PIPE .................................................................. 142
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11. BIT CLASSIFICATION AND SELECTION ....................................................................... 143

11.1 PLANNING ........................................................................................................... 143
11.2 IADC ROLLER BIT CLASSIFICATION................................................................. 143
11.2.1 MAJOR GROUP CLASSIFICATION..................................................... 144
11.2.2 BIT CONES........................................................................................... 145
11.3 DIAMOND BIT CLASSIFICATION........................................................................ 146
11.3.1 NATURAL DIAMOND BITS .................................................................. 146
11.3.2 PDC BITS.............................................................................................. 146
11.3.3 IADC FIXED CUTTER CLASSIFICATION ............................................ 146
11.4 BIT SELECTION ................................................................................................... 148
11.5 DRILLING OPTIMIZATION (BIT BREAKEVEN CURVE)...................................... 149
11.6 CRITICAL ROTARY SPEEDS .............................................................................. 151
12. DIRECTIONAL DRILLING................................................................................................ 152

12.1 TERMINOLOGY AND CONVENTIONS ................................................................ 152
12.2 CO-ORDINATE SYSTEMS ................................................................................... 154
12.2.1 UNIVERSAL TRANSVERSE MERCATOR (UTM) ................................ 154
12.2.2 GEOGRAPHICAL CO-ORDINATES ..................................................... 156
12.2.3 METRIC/GEOGRAPHIC COORDINATES CONVERSION.................... 157
12.3 RIG/TARGET LOCATIONS AND HORIZONTAL DISPLACEMENT ..................... 157
12.3.1 HORIZONTAL DISPLACEMENT AND TARGET DIRECTION.............. 157
12.3.2 CONVERGENCE .................................................................................. 158
12.4 HIGH SIDE OF THE HOLE AND TOOL FACE ..................................................... 159
12.5 MAGNETIC SURVEYS ......................................................................................... 160
12.5.1 MAGNETIC SINGLE SHOT SURVEYS................................................. 160
12.5.2 MAGNETIC MULTISHOT SURVEYS.................................................... 161
12.5.3 STEERING TOOL (WITH MUD MOTOR).............................................. 161
12.5.4 MEASUREMENT WHILE DRILLING (MWD) ........................................ 162
12.6 GYROSCOPIC SURVEYS .................................................................................... 162
12.6.1 GYRO SINGLE SHOT SURVEYS ......................................................... 162
12.6.2 GYRO MULTISHOT SURVEYS ............................................................ 163
12.6.3 SURFACE READ-OUT GYROSCOPES ............................................... 163
12.6.4 GYROCOMPASS (NORTH SEEKING GYROSCOPE) ......................... 163
12.7 APPROVED SURVEY TOOLS.............................................................................. 164
12.8 SURVEY CALCULATION METHODS .................................................................. 165
12.8.1 AVERAGE ANGLE METHOD ............................................................... 166
12.8.2 RADIUS OF CURVATURE METHOD ................................................... 167
12.8.3 MINIMUM CURVATURE METHOD....................................................... 168
12.9 PLANNING DIRECTIONAL WELLS CONSIDERATIONS .................................... 169
12.10 ROTARY CLOSED LOOP DRILLING SYSTEM (RCLS) ...................................... 170
12.10.1 BIT SELECTION ................................................................................... 171
12.10.2 DRILLING FLUIDS................................................................................ 171
12.10.3 TEMPERATURE ................................................................................... 171
12.10.4 OPTIONAL MEASUREMENT (MDP) .................................................... 171
12.10.5 AUTOMATIC DIRECTIONAL DRILLING SYSTEM™ DOWNHOLE
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TOOL .................................................................................................... 172

12.10.6 AUTOMATIC DIRECTIONAL DRILLING SYSTEM™ SURFACE
SYSTEM................................................................................................ 174
13. DRILLING PROBLEM PREVENTION MEASURES ......................................................... 178

13.1 STUCK PIPE......................................................................................................... 178
13.1.1 DIFFERENTIAL STICKING................................................................... 178
13.1.2 STICKING DUE TO HOLE RESTRICTIONS......................................... 179
13.1.3 STICKING DUE TO CAVING HOLE ..................................................... 180
13.1.4 STICKING DUE TO HOLE IRREGULARITIES AND/OR CHANGE IN
BHA ...................................................................................................... 182
13.2 HYDRATES........................................................................................................... 182
13.3 LOST CIRCULATION ........................................................................................... 185
13.3.1 LOSS PREVENTIVE MEASURES ........................................................ 185
13.3.2 REMEDIAL ACTION (WHILE DRILLING)............................................. 185
13.3.3 USE OF DOB AND DOBC PILLS ......................................................... 186
13.3.4 REMEDIAL ACTION (WHILE TRIPPING)............................................. 186
13.3.5 USE OF LCM PILLS ............................................................................. 187
13.3.6 HIGH FILTRATION PILLS .................................................................... 187
14. WELL ABANDONMENT .................................................................................................. 188

14.1 TEMPORARY ABANDONMENT .......................................................................... 188
14.1.1 DURING DRILLING OPERATIONS ...................................................... 188
14.1.2 DURING PRODUCTION OPERATIONS ............................................... 189
14.1.3 KILL STRING ........................................................................................ 190
14.2 PERMANENT ABANDONMENT........................................................................... 190
14.2.1 PLUGGING ........................................................................................... 190
14.2.2 PLUGGING PROGRAMME................................................................... 190
14.2.2.1 EXPLORATIVE ON/OFF-SHORE WELLS AND IN
GENERAL ........................................................................... 190
14.2.2.2 COMPLETED WELLS ......................................................... 191
14.2.3 PLUGGING PROCEDURE.................................................................... 193
14.3 CASING CUTTING/RETRIEVING ......................................................................... 194
14.3.1 STUB TERMINATION (INSIDE A CASING STRING) ........................... 195
14.3.2 STUB TERMINATION (BELOW A CASING STRING) .......................... 195
14.4 SKETCHES........................................................................................................... 195
15. WELL NAME/DESIGNATION .......................................................................................... 199

15.1 WELLS WITH THE ORIGINAL WELL HEAD CO-ORDINATES AND TARGET ... 199
15.1.1 VERTICAL WELL ................................................................................. 199
15.1.2 SIDE TRACK IN A VERTICAL WELL. .................................................. 199
15.1.3 DIRECTIONAL WELL ........................................................................... 200
15.1.4 SIDE TRACK IN DIRECTIONAL WELL ................................................ 200
15.1.5 HORIZONTAL WELL ............................................................................ 200
15.1.6 SIDE TRACK IN A HORIZONTAL WELL ............................................. 201
15.2 WELLS WITH THE ORIGINAL WELL HEAD CO-ORDINATES AND
DIFFERENT TARGETS ........................................................................................ 201
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15.3 WELLS WITH DIFFERENT WELL HEAD CO-ORDINATES AND SAME

ORIGINAL TARGETS........................................................................................... 204
15.4 FURTHER CODING .............................................................................................. 205
16. GEOLOGICAL DRILLING WELL PROGRAMME ............................................................ 206

16.1 MEASUREMENT UNITS....................................................................................... 206
16.2 PROGRAMME FORMAT ...................................................................................... 206
16.3 IDENTIFICATION.................................................................................................. 207
16.4 CONTENTS OF THE GEOLOGICAL AND DRILLING WELL PROGRAMME ...... 207
16.4.1 GENERAL INFORMATION (SECTION 1) ............................................. 207
16.4.2 GEOLOGICAL PROGRAMME (SECTION 2)........................................ 208
16.4.3 OPERATION GEOLOGY PROGRAMME (SECTION 3)........................ 208
16.4.4 DRILLING PROGRAMME (SECTION 4)............................................... 209
16.5 LEAN PROFILE .................................................................................................... 210
16.5.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................... 210
16.5.2 LEAN PROFILE TECHNIQUE .............................................................. 211
16.5.3 CRITICAL ITEMS FOR LEAN PROFILE............................................... 212
16.5.3.1 HOLE QUALITY .................................................................. 212
16.5.3.2 MUD PROPERTIES ............................................................ 212
16.5.3.3 CASING RUNNING AND CEMENTING .............................. 213
16.5.3.3.1 CASING STRAIGHTNESS ........................... 213
16.5.3.3.2 CASING CONNECTIONS............................. 213
16.5.3.3.3 CENTRALIZERS .......................................... 213
16.5.3.3.4 CASING FLOAT EQUIPMENT ..................... 214
16.5.3.3.5 RUNNING SPEED........................................ 214
16.5.3.3.6 CEMENTING ................................................ 214
17. FINAL WELL REPORT .................................................................................................... 215

17.1 GENERAL............................................................................................................. 215
17.2 FINAL WELL REPORT PREPARATION .............................................................. 216
17.3 FINAL WELL OPERATION REPORT STRUCTURE ............................................ 216
17.3.1 GENERAL REPORT STRUCTURE ...................................................... 216
17.3.2 CLUSTER/PLATFORM FINAL WELL REPORT STRUCTURE ............ 217
17.4 AUTHORISATION................................................................................................. 219
17.5 ATTACHMENTS ................................................................................................... 219
APPENDIX A - REPORT FORMS ............................................................................................. 220

A.1 INITIAL ACTIVITY REPORT (ARPO 01) .............................................................. 220
A.2 DAILY REPORT (ARPO 02) ................................................................................. 221
A.3 CASING RUNNING REPORT (ARPO 03)............................................................. 222
A.5 BIT RECORD (ARPO 05)...................................................................................... 224
A.6 WASTE REPORT (ARPO 6) ................................................................................. 225
A.7 WELL PROBLEM REPORT (ARPO 13) ............................................................... 226
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A.8 MALFUNCTION & FAILURE REPORT (FB-1) ..................................................... 227

A.9 CONTRACTOR EVALUATION (FB-2).................................................................. 228
APPENDIX B – ABBREVIATIONS............................................................................................ 229
APPENDIX C - WELL DEFINITIONS ........................................................................................ 231
APPENDIX D – BIBLIOGRAPHY .............................................................................................. 232

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1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 PURPOSE AND OBJECTIVES

The purpose of the Drilling Design Manual is to guide Company experienced technicians
and engineers involved in the preparation of well drilling design/studies and in the planning
of well drilling operations worldwide, in accordance with the Manuals & Procedures and
the Technical Specifications, which are part of the Company Standards. This
encompasses the forecasting of pressure and temperature gradients through casing
design to the compilation of the Geological Drilling Programme and Final Well Report.
Such Company Standards define the requirements, methodologies and rules that enable
to operate uniformly and in compliance with the Company Principles.
The final aim is to improve performance and efficiency in terms of safety, quality and
costs, while providing all personnel involved in Drilling activities.
The objectives are to provide the engineers with a tool to guide them through the decision
making process and arm them with sufficient information to be able to plan and prepare
well drilling operations and activities in compliance with the Company principles. Planning
and preparation will include the drafting of well specific programmes for approval and
authorization.
1.2 IMPLEMENTATION
The guideline and policies specified herein will be applicable to all Company drilling
engineering activities.
All engineers engaged in Company drilling activities are expected to make themselves
familiar with the contents of this manual and be responsible for compliance to its policies
and procedures.
1.3 UPDATING, AMENDMENT, CONTROL& DEROGATION

This manual is a ‘live’ controlled document and, as such, it will only be amended and
improved by the Company, in accordance with the development of its operational
experience. Accordingly, it will be the responsibility of everyone concerned in the use and
application of this manual to review the policies and related procedures on an ongoing
basis.
Derogations from the manual shall be approved solely in writing by the Manager of the
Company Drilling and Completion Department (D&C Dept.) after the Company Manager
and the Corporate Drilling & Completion Standards Department in Eni E&P Division Head
Office have been advised in writing.
The Corporate Drilling & Completion Standards Department will consider such approved
derogations for future amendments and improvements of the manual, when the updating
of the document will be advisable.
Feedback for manual amendment is also gained from the return of completed ‘Feedback
and Reporting Forms’ from drilling, well testing and workover operations, refer to Appendix
A, page 220.
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2. FORECAST ON PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE GRADIENTS
2.1 FORECAST ON PRESSURE GRADIENTS

A well programme must contain a technical analysis including graphs of pressure
gradients (overburden, pore, fracture) and temperature gradient.
The following information must be included in the analysis:
• Method for calculating the Overburden Gradient, if obtained from electric
logs of reference wells or from seismic analysis.
• Method for defining the Pore Pressure Gradient, if obtained from data
(RFT, DST, BHP gauges, production tests, electric logs, Sigma logs, D
exponent) of reference wells or from seismic analysis.
• Formula used to derive the Fracture Gradient.
• Source used to obtain the Temperature Gradient.
There are three methods of qualitative and quantitative assessment of pore pressure:
1) Seismic Analysis
2) Drilling Data Analysis
3) Electric Log Analysis.
For most details reference to the “Overpressure Evaluation Manual”, STAP-P-1-M -6130.
2.1.1 SEISMIC DATA ANALYSIS

Generally, the starting data that the drilling engineer has at his disposal in order to
determine the pressure gradients are:
• 2T= twice time
• VRMS = velocity route mean square (Average Velocity).
Assuming forever: dmax= 2.75 g/cm3; Vmax= 7000 m/sec; Vmin= 1500 m/sec; A= 0.9; B= 700
the step to follow to calculate the Overburden gradient (Gov) and the Transit Time (∆T)
are:
Calculate the interval velocity (Vi):

2 2
( VRMS 2 * 2T2 ) - ( VRMS1 * 2T1 )
Vi =
2T2 - 2T1
Calculate the depth interval (∆H):

2T2 - 2T1
∆H = * Vi
2
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Calculate the overburden pressure (Pov):
Vi
1-
V max ∆H
Pov = ∑ d max - 2 . 11
Vi
*
10
1+
V min
Calculate the effective pressure (Pc) assuming pore pressure (Pp)=1.03 Kg/cm2*10 m.
Pc = Pov - PP
Calculate the velocity of the propagation of a transverse wave in the shale at normally
compacted (Vs):
Vmax * Pc
Vs = + Vmin
A * Pc + B
Calculate the transit time (∆T):
304800
∆T =
Vi
Calculate the “R” ratio:
Vi
R=
Vs
where:
• R≅1 is for formations with normal pore pressure
• R>1 is for over-compacted formations
• R<1 is for sub-compacted formations or in over-pressure.
2.1.2 DRILLING DATA ANALYSIS

A quite reliable and important method for the determination of overpressure is the one
based on drilling data analysis.
When abnormal pressure occurs because of compaction only, many of the following real
time indicators appears before a serious problem develops.
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2.1.2.1 REAL TIME INDICATORS
While drilling in normal pressured shales of a well, there will

Penetration
be a uniform decrease in the drilling rate due to the increase
Rate
in shale density. When abnormal pressure is encountered,
the density of the shale is decreased with a resultant
increase in porosity. Therefore, the drilling rate will gradually
increase as the bit enters in abnormal pressured shale. The
corrected 'd’ exponent and Eni-E&P Sigmalog eliminate the
effects of drilling parameter variations and give a
representative measure of formation drillability.
The TDC Engineer is responsible for continuous monitoring
and shall immediately report to the Company Drilling and
Completion Supervisor, if any change occurs.
A copy of corrected the ‘d’ exponent or Eni-E&P Sigmalog
shall be sent on daily basis to the Company’s Shore Base
Drilling Office for further checking.
A drilling break is defined as a rapid increase in penetration
Drilling Break
rate after a relatively long interval of slow drilling.
Any time a drilling break is noticed, drilling shall be
suspended and a flow check carried out. If there is any
lingering doubt, the hole will be circulated out until bottoms
up.
Torque sometimes increases when an abnormally
Torque
pressured shale section is penetrated due to the swelling of
plastic clay causing a decrease in hole diameter and/or
accumulation of large cuttings around the bit and the
stabilisers.
Also torque is not easy to interpret in view of many
phenomena which can affect it (hole geometry, deviation,
bottom hole assembly, etc.), it must be thought as the
second-order parameter for diagnosing abnormal pressure.
Tight hole when making connections can indicate that
Tight Hole
abnormal pressured shale is being penetrated with low mud
During
weight. When this occurs, the hole must be reamed several
Connections
times before a connection can be made.
When making up connections, cavings may settle
Hole Fill
preventing the bit returning to bottom.
Wall instability, in an area of abnormal pressure, may cause
sloughing. It should be noted that fill may be due to other
causes, such as wall instability through geomechanical
reasons (fracture zones), inefficient well cleaning by the
drilling mud, rheological properties of mud insufficient to
keep cuttings in suspension, etc.
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In addition to directional drilling data, MWD can provide a

MWD
wide range of bottom hole drilling parameters and formation
evaluation, e.g.: bottomhole weight on bit, torque at bit,
gamma ray, mud and formation resistivity, mud pressure
and mud temperature.
If the true weight and torque at the bit are known, the drilling
rate can be normalised with more accuracy by producing a
more accurate “d exponent” and Eni-E&P Sigmalog.
Formation resistivity is plotted and interpreted for pressure
development. It should also be noted that differential
resistivity between the mud in the drill pipe and in the
annular space may be considered as a kick indicator.
Bottomhole mud temperature can also be an indicator of overpressure as discussed

below.
2.1.2.2 INDICATORS DEPENDING ON LAG TIME
The monitoring and interpretation of gas data are

Mud Gas
fundamental to detecting abnormally pressured zones.
• Background gas is the gas released by the formation
while drilling. It usually is a low but steady level of gas in
the mud which may be interrupted by higher levels
resulting from the drilling of a hydrocarbon bearing zone
or from trips and connections. An increase in the level of
background gas, from that previously found in overlying
normally compacted shales, often occurs when drilling
undercompacted formations.
• Gas shows can occur when porous, permeable
formations containing gas are penetrated. Monitoring the
form and the volume of gas shows will make it easier to
detect a state of negative differential pressure.
• Trip gas may be an indication of well underbalance. The
quantity of gas observed at the surface when circulation is
resumed, however will depend on several factors, e.g.,
differential pressure, formation permeability, drill pipe
pulling speed, swabbing. Failure to fill the hole on trips
may also cause an increase in trip gas.
• Connection gas may be an indication of well imbalance
(see above). The progressive changes, or trend, in
connection gases is an important aid to evaluate
differential pressure. When an undercompacted zone of
uniform shale is drilled without increasing the mud weight,
the amount of connection gas will usually increase.
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Measurement of mud temperature can also be used to

Mud
detect undercompacted zones and, under ideal conditions,
Temperature
or to anticipate their approach.
This is because temperature gradients observed in
undercompacted series are, in general, abnormally high
compared with overlying normally pressured sequences.
Accurate interpretation of these data is very difficult, due to
a number of variables which frequently mask changes in
geothermal gradient:
• Inflow temperature, which is dependent on the amount of
cooling at surface.
• Flow rate, which affects the speed at which the mud, and
the calories it contains, returns up the annulus.
• Thermophysical properties of the mud.
• Heating effects at the bit face.
• Heat exchange in the marine riser between the mud and
the sea.
• Halts in drilling and/or circulation.
• Surface operations such as transfer of mud between pits,
etc.
Cutting • Lithology: the lithological sequence may provide an
Analysis overall indication of the possible existence of abnormal
pressure. The presence of seals, drains or thick clay
sequences is a determining factor in this analysis.
• Shale density: is based on the principle that bulk density
in an undercompacted zone does not follow the trend of
the normally compacted overlying clays and shales. The
validity of the density obtained depends on the clay
composition (the presence of accessory heavy minerals
can greatly change the density), the depth lagging (which
can make cutting selection difficult), the mud type
(reactive muds have an adverse effect on measurement
quality) and clay consolidation (difficult to measure on
wellsite the density of clays not sufficiently consolidated).
• Shale factor: undercompacted clays which have been
unable to dehydrate often have an unusually high
proportion of smectite and an abnormally high shale
factor. However, the initial proportions of the clay minerals
in the deposit can mask changes in shale factor and give
a false alarm.
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• Shape, size and volume of cuttings: the amount of

shale cuttings will usually increase, along with a change in
shape, when an abnormal pressure zone is penetrated.
Cuttings from normal pressured shales are small with
rounded edges and are generally flat, while cuttings from
an abnormal pressure are often long and splintered with
angular edges. As the differential between the pore
pressure and the drilling fluid hydrostatic head is reduced,
the pressured shales will burst into the wellbore rather
than having being drilled. This change in shape, along
with an increase in the amount of cuttings at the surface,
could be an indication that abnormal pressure has been
encountered.
2.1.2.3 “D” EXPONENT AND “DC” EXPONENT

The formation drillability exponent (dexp) was defined by Jorden end Shirley in 1966 as:
3.21 * R
log
60 * N
d exp =
2.64 * W
log
100 * D
where:
R= penetration rate (m/h)
W= Weight on bit (t)
D= bit diameter (ins)
N= Rotary speed (rpm).
It is a dimensionless index and its value increases as the drilling rate decreases.
The drilling rate also depends on the differential pressure between pore pressure and mud
weight.
With the introduction of an empirical correction in 1971, the amount of “dexp” change was
held to within acceptable limits and its new definition (dc-exp) was:
3.21 * R
log
d c −exp = 60 * N * G pN
2.64 * W ECD
log
100 * D
where:
GpN= Normal pore pressure (Kg/cm2*10m)
ECD= Equivalent Circulating Density (Kg/l).

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The ‘dexp’ and ‘dc-exp’ represent a considerable step forward in the determination of
overpressure during drilling; its calculation should begin when the drilling operations begin,
and be carried out, as a rule, every 2 to 3m (5ft). Since the calculation and plotting is
usually done manually, for high drilling rates this can be done every 5 to 10m or at even
greater intervals.
The relationship between pore pressure gradient and “dc-exp” is:
(d c −exp )N
PO =PN
(d c −exp )o
where:
PO = Actual pore pressure at considered depth, psi
PN = Normal pore pressure
(dc− exp )O
= ‘dc-exp’ value at considered depth.
(dc −exp )N
= Extrapolated ‘dc-exp’ value with normal pore pressure gradient at
considered depth.
To overcome the occasional masking of the overpressure zone, it is advisable to reduce

the changes in drilling parameters as much as possible, especially near the expected top.
2.1.2.4 SIGMALOG INTERPRETATION
The concept underlying the Sigma log “ σ O ” is the same as that underlying the ‘dc-exp’: the
obtainment of a “normalized” drilling rate by means of empirical drilling parameter
relationships.
The term normalised refers to the maintenance of a constant relationship value, for a
particular formation, when one or more of the considered parameters (weight on bit, rpm,
drilling rate, well diameter) is changed.
The logic of the method is not strictly analytical, since it derives from empirical
considerations and laws.
The general interpretation criterion is the same as for the ‘dc-exp’. A shift of the σ O , value
curve indicates greater drillability and therefore overpressure.
In normal pore pressure situations, the reference line σr will, therefore, intersect values
of σ O . In the case of overpressure, on the other hand, the reference line will pass to the
right of the σ O values.
The normal trend “ σr ” of sigma log curve “ σ O ” has the slope maintained constant at
0.088.
The amount of overpressure is a function of the departure between the “ σr “ and “ σ O ”.

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The amount of shift is calculated by:
σr
Calling 1
, the reference line value in correspondence of the shift
σ 01
Calling the curve value
σ 02
Calling the curve value after shift
σr
Calling 2
the unknown value.
The following then obtained:

σo2
σr 2 = σr1 x
σ o1
and “b” will be obtained:
H
b2 = σ r2 - 0 . 088
1000
‘b’ is the intercept of the various segments of the broken line σr on the Sigma log
graphic abscissa and it is the data to enter into the computer programme to obtain the
pore gradient.
2.1.3 ELECTRIC LOGS ANALYSIS

The elaboration of the data from electrical logs such as: induction log (IES), sonic log (SL),
formation density log (FDC), neutron log (NL), allows the prediction of abnormal pressure.
The most used methods are:
Is used in sand and shale formations and consists in the
Induction Log
plotting of the shale resistivity values at relative depths on a
(IES) Method:
semilog graphic (depth in decimal scale and resistivity in
logarithmical scale).
In formations, if they are normal compacted, the resistivity of
the shales increases with depth but, in overpressure zones,
it lowers with depth increase (Refer to Figure .2-1).
Also, it is possible to plot the values of the shale
conductibility; in this case the plot will be symmetric to that
described above. The method is acceptable only in shale
salt water bearing formations which have sufficient and a
constant level of salinity.
For the calculation of gradient, refer to the “Overpressure
Evaluation Manual”, STAP-P-1-M-6130 section 5.2.2.
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Resistivity (OHMM)
1 10 100
1500
2000
2500
Depth (m)
3000
Top
Overpresure
3500
4000
4500
5000
Figure .2-1 - Induction Log
This is more sophisticated than the IES method described

Shale
above. It eliminates the inconveniences due to water salinity
Formation
variation. It consists in the plotting of the shale factors on a
Factor (Fsh)
semilog graph (depth in decimal scale and resistivity in
Method:
logarithmical scale) at relative depths. The ‘Fsh’ is
calculated by the following formula:
Rsh
Fsh =
Rw
where:
Rsht= The shale resistivity read on the log in the
points where they are most cleaned.
RW = The formation water resistivity reported in
Schlumberger’s tables on the ‘log interpretation chart’.
The value of Fsh, increases with depth in normal compaction
zones and lowers in overpressure zones (Refer to Figure
2-2).
For the gradients calculation, the “Overpressure Evaluation
Manual’, STAP-P-1-M-6130 section 5.2.2.
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F shale
1 10 100
1500
2000
2500
Depth (m)
3000
Top Overpresure
3500
4000
4500
5000
Figure 2-2 - ‘F’ Shale
Sonic Log (SL) Also termed ‘∆t shale’, is the most widely used as; from
Method: experience, it gives the most reliability. It consists in the
plotting, on a semilog graph (depth in decimal scale and
transit time in logarithmical scale) of the ∆t values (transit
time) at relative depths.
The ∆t value is read on sonic log in the shale points where
they are cleanest; its value lowers with the depth increase in
normal compaction zones and increases with the depth in
overpressure zones (Refer to Figure 2-3).
For the calculation of gradient, refer to the “Overpressure
Evaluation Manual”, STAP-P-1-M-6130 section 5.2.2.
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10 100 1000
0
500
1000
1500
2000 Top
Depth (m)
Overpresure
2500
3000
3500
4000
4500
5000
Figure 2-3 Sonic log
The formulas normally used to calculate the Overburden Gradient are:

PiP × 1000
∆t =
3.28 × ∆H
∆t - 47
D = 2.75 - 2.11
∆t + 200
10 D × ∆h
Gov = ∑
Hi 10
where:
PiP= Numbers of ηsecond (red on sonic log for regularly depth interval, i.e. every
50/100/200m)
∆t = Transit time (second 10-3)
D = Density of the formation
Gov = Overburden gradient
∆H = Formation interval with the same density “D”
Hi = Total depth (Σ ∆H).

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Equations used for fracture gradient calculation (when overburden gradients and pore
pressure gradients have been defined) are listed below:
Terzaghi equation (commonly used):
2ν
Gf = Gp + (Gov − Gp )
1− ν
When the formation is deeply invaded with water:

Gf = Gp + 2ν (Gov − Gp )
When the formation is plastic:

Gf = Gov
where:
Gf = Fracture pressure
Gov = Overburden gradient
Gp = Formation pressure
ν = Poisson’ s modulus.
when Poisson’s modulus may have the following values:

ν= 0.25 for clean sands, sandstone and carbonate rocks down to medium depth
ν= 0.28 for sands with shale, sandstone and carbonate rocks at great depth.
2.2 TEMPERATURE PREDICTION

The temperature at various depths to which a well is drilled must be evaluated as it has a
great influence on the properties of both the reservoir fluids and materials used in drilling
operations.
The higher temperatures encountered at increasing depth usually have adverse effects
upon materials used in drilling wells but may be beneficial in production as it lowers the
viscosity of reservoir fluids allowing freer movement of the fluids through the reservoir
rock.
In drilling operations the treating chemicals materials and clays used in drilling mud
become ineffective or unstable at higher temperatures and cement slurry thickening and
setting times accelerate (also due to increasing pressure).
Another effect of temperature is the lowering of the strength and toughness of materials
used in drilling and casing operations such as drillpipe and casing.
As technology improves and wells can be drilled even deeper, these problems become
more prevalent.
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2.2.1 TEMPERATURE GRADIENTS

The temperature of the rocks at a given point, formation temperature, and relationship
between temperature and depth are termed the thermal gradient. Temperature gradients
around the world can vary from between 1°C in 110ft (35m) to 180ft (56m).
The heat source is radiated through the rock therefore it is obvious that temperature
gradients will differ throughout the various regions where there are different rocks.
Seasonal variations in surface temperatures have little effect on gradients deeper than
100ft (30m) except in permafrost regions.
It is important therefore that the local temperature gradient is determined from previous
drilling reports, offset well data or any other source. In most regions, the temperature
gradient is well known and is only affected when in the vicinity of salt domes. If the
temperature gradient is not known in a new area, it is recommended that a gradient of
3°C/100m be assumed.
The calculation of temperature at depth if the thermal gradient is known, is simply:
T = Surface Ambient Temp + Depth/Gradient (Depth per Degree Temp).
2.2.2 TEMPERATURE LOGGING

During the actual drilling of a well, temperature surveys will be taken at intervals which
may help to confirm the accuracy of the temperature prediction.
Temperature measurement during drilling may be by simple thermometer or possibly by
running thermal logs, however, the circulation of mud or other liquids tends to smooth out
the temperature profile around the well bore and mask the distinction of the individual
strata. Consequently the use of temperature logs during drilling is uncommon.
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3. SELECTION OF CASING SEATS
The selection of casing setting depths is one of the most critical factor affecting well
design. These are covered in detail in the “Casing Design Manual”, STAP-P-1-M-6110.
The following sections are to provide engineers with an outline of the criteria necessary to
enable casing seat selection.
The following parameters must be carefully considered in this selection:
• Total depth of well
• Pore pressures
• Fracture gradients
• Kick Tolerance
• The probability of shallow gas pockets
• Problem zones
• Depth of potential prospects
• Time limits on open hole drilling
• Casing program compatibility with existing wellhead systems
• Casing program compatibility with planned completion programme on
production wells
• Casing availability - size, grade and weight
• Economics - time consumed to drill the hole, run casing and the cost of
equipment.
When planning, all available information should be carefully documented and considered
to obtain knowledge of the various uncertainties.
Information is sourced from:
• Evaluation of the seismic and geological background documentation used
as the decision for drilling the well.
• Drilling data from offset wells in the area. (Company wells or scouting
information).
The key factor to satisfactory picking of casing seats is the assessment of pore pressure
(formation fluid pressures) and fracture pressures throughout the length of the well.
As the pore pressures in a formation being drilled approach the fracture pressure at the
last casing seat then installation of a further string of casing is necessary; Figure 3-1
shows typical examples of casing seat selections.
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Figure 3-1- Example of idealised Casing Seat Selection
Casing is set at depth 1, where pore pressure is P1 and the fracture pressure is F1.
Drilling continues to depth 2, where the pore pressure P2 has risen to nearly the fracture
pressure (F1) at the first casing seat.
Another casing string is therefore set at this depth, with fracture pressure (F2).
Drilling can thus continue to depth 3, where pore pressure P3 is almost equal to the
fracture pressure F2 at the previous casing seat.
This example does not include any safety or trip margins, which would, in practice, be
taken into account.
3.1 CONDUCTOR CASING

The setting depth for conductor casing is usually shallow and selected so that drilling fluid
may be circulated to the mud pits while drilling the surface hole. The casing seat must be
in an impermeable formation with sufficient fracturing resistance to allow fluid circulation to
the surface.
In on shore well, the calculation of the conductor pipe setting depth is not required.
In wells with subsea wellheads, no attempt is made to circulate through the conductor
string to the surface but must be set deep enough to provide, along with 20” casing, the
structural foundation required to support the well head, BOP stack, riser tension and
subsequent string of casing.
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In off shore well with surface well head, the driving depth of the conductor pipe is
established with the following formula:
Hi = [df x (E+H) – 1.03 x H]/[1.03 - df + 0.67 x (GOVhi - 1.03)]

where:
Hi = Minimum driving depth (m) from seabed
E = Elevation (m) distance from bell nipple and sea level
H = Water depth (m)
df = Maximum mud weight (kg/l) to be used
Govhi = integrated density of sediments (kg/dm3/10m).
3.2 SURFACE CASING

The setting depth of surface casing should be in an impermeable section below fresh
water formations. In some instances, where there is near surface gravel or shallow gas, it
may need to be cased off shallower.
The depth should be enough to provide a fracture gradient sufficient to allow drilling to the
next casing setting point and to provide reasonable assurance that broaching to the
surface will not occur in the event of BOP closure to contain a kick.
However, as general practice, the safety margin required is the “Max Allowable Annular
Surface Pressure” and its value should be as minimum 10 Kg/cm2.
3.3 INTERMEDIATE CASING

The most predominant use of intermediate casing is to protect normally pressured
formations from the effects of increased mud weight needed in deeper drilling operations.
An intermediate string may be necessary to case off: lost circulation, salt beds, or
sloughing shales. In cases of pressure reversals with depth, intermediate casing may be
set to allow reduction of mud weight.
When a transition zone is penetrated and mud weight increased, the normal pressure
interval below surface pipe is subjected to two detrimental effects:
• The fracture gradient may be exceeded by the mud gradient, particularly if
it becomes necessary to close-in on a kick; the result is loss of circulation
and the possibility of an underground blow-out occurring.
• The differential between mud column pressure and formation pressure is
increased, increasing the risk of stuck pipe.
However, as general practice, drilling is allowed until the mud weight is within 50gr/l of the
fracture gradient measured by conducting a leak-off test at the previous casing shoe.
Attempts to drill with mud weight higher than this limit are sometimes successful, but many
holes have been lost by attempts to extend the intermediate string setting depth beyond
that indicated by the above rule.
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This can cause either, kicks causing loss of circulation and possibly an underground blow-
out or the pipe becomes differentially stuck. Sloughing of high pressure zones can also
cause stuck pipe.
Significantly in soft rock areas, the fracture gradient increases relatively slowly compared
to the depth of the surface casing string, but the pressure gradients in the transition zones
usually change rapidly.
Emphasis is often placed on setting the surface casing to where there is an acceptable
fracture gradient. Greater control over potential conditions at the surfaces casing seat is
affected by the intermediate casing setting depth decision.
It is often tempting to ‘drill a little deeper’ without setting pipe in exploratory wells. When
pressure gradients are not increasing this can be a reasonably acceptable decision, but,
with increasing gradient, the risk is greater and should be carefully evaluated.
To ensure the integrity of the surface casing seat, leak-off tests should be specified in the
Drilling Programme.
3.4 PRODUCTION CASING

Whether production casing or a liner is installed, the depth is determined by the geological
objective. Depths, hence the casing programme, may have to be altered accordingly if
depths run high or low.
The objective and method of identifying the correct depth should also be stated in the
programme.
3.5 LINER
The setting of a drilling liner is often an economically attractive decision in deep wells as
opposed to setting a full string. If drilling is to be continued below the drilling liner then
burst requirements for the previous intermediate string are further increased. Also, there is
the possibility of continuing wear of the intermediate string that must be evaluated.
If a production liner is planned then either the production liner or the drilling liner should be
tied back to the surface as a production casing.
If the drilling liner is to be tied-backed, the intermediate casing can be designed for a lower
burst requirement, resulting in considerable cost savings. Also, any wear to the
intermediate string is spanned prior to drilling the producing interval.
3.6 KICK TOLLERANCE

Evaluate ‘kick tolerance volume’ at the end of each holes section.
Kick tolerance is the term used to define the maximum kick volume which can be safely
controlled by any well control method with constant BHP without fracturing the formation
below the last casing shoe. The most dangerous situation is when the top of the kick
reaches the casing shoe.
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Kick tolerance volume at total depth: (hypothesis vertical well)
−4 Ca Gfs Hs [ Hs (Gfs − Gm )] + ( H Gm ) − (10 Pp )

Vi, H = 10
Pp Gm − Gg
[ ]
Vi, H = m 3
[ ]
Ca = l
m
annular capacity beneath the shoe
⎡ 2
⎤
Gfs = ⎢kg/cm formation fracture gradient at shoe
⎣ 10m ⎥⎦
Hs = [ m] shoe depth
Pp = ⎡kg 2 ⎤ formation pressure at total depth

⎢⎣ cm ⎥⎦
Gm = ⎡kg ⎤ mud weight
⎢⎣ l ⎥⎦
H = [ m] total depth
Gg = [ S.G. ] influx (gas) gradient
Kick tolerances shall be calculated for all surface and intermediate casings for all wells
and the following minimum kick tolerances shall be maintained:
Hole Sizes (inches) Minimum Kick Tolerance Minimum Kick Tolerance

(bbl) (m3)
23” hole & larger 250 40
Below 23” & to 171/2” 150 24
1 1
Below 17 /2” & to 12 /4” 100 16
Below 121/4” & to 81/2” 50 8
Smaller than 81/2” 25 4
Kick tolerances shall be re-calculated during drilling operations. Should the actual
tolerance fall below the calculated minimum, then either corrective measures shall be
taken (e.g. revised shoe depth), or a dispensation sought.
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4. CASING DESIGN
4.1 INTRODUCTION
This section provides Company technicians, involved in the well planning process
worldwide, with the minimum set of information and guidelines needed to define a casing
design that achieves the following objectives:
1) Guarantee the minimum required level of safety throughout the entire life cycle of the
well (from drilling to productive life and to the final abandonment).
2) Reduce well cost as much as possible, ensuring that safety is not compromised.
3) Take in proper consideration constrains arising from specific local conditions, logistic
and operational issues.
It shall be remarked that most of the rules and practices in casing design are based on
assumptions that are part of Company’s policy.
Indeed, to define the working conditions that a well can face during its life involves an high
level of uncertainties: for this reason and with regard to the purposes of casing design, the
worst possible conditions (i.e. blowouts, major equipment failures, drilling problems etc.)
and the related safety factors required are assumed.
For detailed casing design criteria and guidelines, refer to the “Casing Design Manual”,
STAP-P-1-M-6110 section 8.
4.2 CASING SPECIFICATION AND CLASSIFICATION

The casings available can be classified under two specifications, API and non-API.
Non-API casing manufacturers have produced products to satisfy a demand in the
industry for casing to meet with extreme conditions which the API specifications do not
meet.
All involved with casing design must have immediate access to the latest copy of API
Bulletin 5C2 which lists the performance properties of casing, tubing and drillpipe.
Although these are also published in many contractors' handbooks and tables, which are
convenient for field use, care must be taken to ensure that they are current.
When using non-API pipe, the designer must check the methods by which the strengths
have been calculated. Usually it will be found that the manufacturer will have used the
published API formulae (Bulletin 5C3), backed up by tests to prove the performance of his
product conforms to, or exceeds, these specifications. However in some cases, the
manufacturers have claimed their performance is considerably better than that calculated
by the using API formulae. When this occurs the manufacturers claims must be critically
examined by the designer or his technical advisors, and the performance corrected if
necessary.
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4.3 CONNECTIONS
The selection of a casing connection is dependant upon whether the casing is exposed to
wellbore fluids and pressures.
Company policy is to use API casing connections whenever feasible.
For production casing and liner, whatever the diameter, API connections rely on thread
compound to form the seal and are not recommended for sealing over long periods of time
when exposed to well high pressures and corrosive fluids. In this case, the compound can
be extruded exposing the threads to corrosive fluids, which in turn reduces the strength of
the connection. For this reason, the connections must have metal-to-metal seals therefore,
premium connections (non API) are mandatory. On other side if it is necessary the use of
D.V. collar and liner slave/stem characterized by elastomeric seals, they are allowed only
if their working pressure is greater then casing/liner burst and collapse resistance.
The properties of both API and non-API connections are described below.
4.3.1 API CONNECTIONS

API round threads and buttress threads have no metal to metal seals; for this reason API
connections are normally used on all surface and intermediate casing and drilling liners.
The types of API connections available are:
• Round thread short which is coupled.
• Round thread long which is coupled.
• Buttress thread which is coupled, with both normal and special clearance.
• Extreme line thread which is integral with either normal or special
clearance.
Round thread couplings, short or long, have less strength than the corresponding pipe
body. This in turn requires heavier pipe to meet design requirements, than if the pipe and
coupling had the same strength. Problems like ‘pullouts’ or ‘jump-outs’ can happen with
round thread type coupling on 103/4" casing or when also subjected to bending stresses,
i.e. doglegs, directional drilled holes etc.
Buttress threads have, according to API calculations, higher joint strength than the pipe
body yield strength with a few exceptions. Buttress threads also stab and enter easier than
round threads, therefore, should be used whenever possible, except for 20" and larger
pipe where special connections could be beneficial due to having superior make-up
characteristics.
4.3.2 NON API CONNECTIONS

Some manufacturers produce non-API casings for H2S, deep well service and metal to
metal connection (premium) where API casings do not meet requirements.
Note: sealing on premium connections are provided by at least one metal-to-

metal seal, which prevents this exposure of the threads to corrosive
elements, hence, retains full strength.
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4.3.3 INTEGRAL FLUSH JOINT

The integral flush joint is a connection threaded on plain-end pipe with the OD of the
connection totally flush with the pipe body (The O.D and I.D. is 100% flush).
The I.D. is bored and recess-free for smooth; the O.D. is turned to tight tolerance.
The external shoulder provides a positive torque stop and permits visual confirmation of
power tight make up.
An internal and external seal, work independently of each other to achieve sealing against
annulus and bore pressure. In some type, this multiple seal arrangement ensures gas tight
sealing integrity to 100% of the rated burst and collapse of the pipe body.
This joint, provides tension strength of 65-70% of the pipe body (depends of wall
thickness) but attention will be paid in case of bending loads.
4.4 APPROACH TO CASING DESIGN

Casing design is basically a stress analysis procedure which is fully described in the
“Casing Design Manual”, STAP-P-1-M-6110 section 7.
The design process can only be completed if knowledge of all anticipated forces, and of
the exact material resistance is available. This however, never actually occurs. Some
assumptions are usually necessary and some uncertainties have to be accepted: this
implies that a certain degree of risk has to be accepted as well.
4.4.1 DESIGN FACTOR (DF)

The DF is defined as the ratio between the pipe resistance to a certain load (burst,
collapse or tension) and the corresponding load estimated for the well.
Different Design Factors are specified for the three load cases and for the various steel
grades (high grade steels, require higher DF because they have a smaller margin between
Yield Strength and Tensile Strength).
The following DFs must be used in casing design calculations:
Casing Grade Design Factor

H 40 1.05
J 55 1.05
K 55 1.05
C 75 1.10
Burst L 80 1.10
N 80 1.10
C 90 1.10
C 95 1.10
P 110 1.10
Q 125 1.20
Collapse All Grades 1.10
< C-95 1.70
Tension > C-95 1.80
Note: The tensile DF must be considerably higher than the previous factors to avoid exceeding the elastic limit and,
therefore invalidating the criteria on which burst and collapse resistance are calculated.
Table 4-a– Company design factor

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4.5 DESIGN CRITERIA

Actually, the Company soft-ware adopted to perform the casing load conditions analysis
is: Landmark “Stress Check “.This software is not fully in compliance with the Company
criteria, but it is however accepted only if used as stated in STAP-P-1-N-13568, where
some of the criteria that stress check foresees have been selected and tested in order to
obtain values having the better compliance with the values obtained using Company
criteria.
4.5.1 BURST
Burst loading on the casing is induced when internal pressure exceeds external pressure.
Burst Load for Surface Casing

The wellhead internal pressure limit is arbitrary, and is
Internal
generally set equal to that of the working pressure rating of
Pressure
the wellhead and BOP equipment but with a minimum of
140kg/cm2. See ‘BOP selection criteria’ in section 9.
When an oversize BOP having a capacity greater than that
necessary is selected or in case of a subsea wellhead, the
wellhead internal pressure limit will be 60% of the
calculated pressure obtained as difference between the
fracture pressure at the casing shoe and the hydrostatic
pressure of a gas column to well head. Methane gas (CH4)
with density of 0.3kg/dm3 is normally used for this
calculation. In any case it shall never be considered less
than 2,000psi (140atm).
Using Stress Check, to bring the internal pressure
calculation in line with the Company standard, two options
shall be considered concurrently:
• Select the criterion “Frac @ Shoe w/ 1/3 BHP at
Surface” where, like the Eni-E&P procedures, the
fracturing pressure at the shoe and at casing head is 1/3
the maximum pore pressure expected for the
subsequent phase.
• Select the criterion “Pressure Test” which requires the
user to specify the test pressure value and casing
section subject to this pressure.
The bottomhole internal pressure limit is set equal to the
predicted fracture gradient of the formation below the
casing shoe.
Connect both wellhead and bottom-hole internal pressure
limits with a straight line to obtain the maximum internal
pressure load verses depth.
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In wells with surface wellheads, the external pressure is

External
assumed to be equal to the hydrostatic pressure of a
Pressure
column of drilling mud in which casing was run.
In wells with subsea wellheads:
• At the wellhead: Water Depth x Seawater Density x 0.1
(atm)
• At the shoe: (Shoe Depth - Air Gap) x Seawater Density
x 0.1 (atm).
Using Stress Check, to bring the external pressure
calculation in line with the Company standard, the following
option shall be considered:
• Select the criterion “Fluid Gradients w/Pore Pressure”
without setting the flag that uses open hole pore
pressure, makes it possible adopt in both the annulus,
with open hole and annulus with the previous casing, the
pressure applied by the mud in which casing is run, and
thus reproduce the current Eni-E&P rule exactly.
The resultant burst load, or net pressure, will be obtained by
Net
subtracting, at each depth, the external from the internal
Pressure
pressure.
Burst Load for Intermediate Casing
The wellhead internal pressure limit is taken as 60% of the
Internal
calculated value obtained as difference between the
Pressure
fracture pressure at the casing shoe and the pressure of a
gas column to wellhead.
• select the criterion “Frac @ Shoe w/1/3 BHP at
Surface” for calculating internal pressure; this criterion
assumes the fracture pressure at the shoe as per Eni-
E&P procedures and 1/3 the maximum pore pressure
expected during the subsequent Phase at the head.
The bottom-hole internal pressure limit is equal to that of
the predicted fracture gradient of the formation below the
casing shoe.
Connect both wellhead and bottom-hole internal pressure
limits with a straight line to obtain the maximum internal
pressure load verses depth.
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The external pressure is taken to be equal to that of the

External
formation pressure.
Pressure
With a subsea wellhead, at the wellhead, hydrostatic
seawater pressure should be considered.
• select the criterion “Fluid Gradients w/Pore Pressure”
for calculating external pressure; this assumes the
pressure deriving from the pore gradient, in the annulus
with the open hole, while in the annulus with the previous
casing the pressure deriving from the gradient of the
cementing slurry mixing water up to TOC and above
TOC is considered as the pressure deriving from the
mud gradient in which casing is run.
The resultant burst load, or net pressure, will be obtained
Net Burst
by subtracting, at each depth, the external from the internal
Pressure
pressure.
Burst Load for Production Casing
The ‘worst case’ burst load condition on production casing occurs when a well is
shut-in and there is a leak in the top of the tubing, or in the tubing hanger. In this
case, the following criteria will be applied:
The wellhead internal pressure limit is obtained as
Internal Pressure
the difference between the pore pressure of the
reservoir fluid and the hydrostatic pressure of the
produced fluid which is inside the tubing. In case of
uncertainty on the nature of produced fluid (hence of
its density), a column of gas having density = 0.3
kg/dm3 will be considered.
calculation in line with the Company standard, the
following option shall be considered:
• Select the criterion “Tubing Leak” to exactly
reproduce the Company criterion.
The bottom-hole internal pressure value is obtained
by adding the wellhead internal pressure burst limit to
the annulus hydrostatic pressure exerted by the
completion/ packer fluid.
Connect both wellhead and bottom-hole internal
pressure limits with a straight line to obtain the
maximum internal pressure load verses depth.
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Note: If it is foreseen that stimulation or hydraulic

fracturing operations may be necessary in future,
assume:
at the perforation depth, the fracture pressure at
perforation depth;
at the well head, the fracture pressure at perforation
depth minus the hydrostatic head in the casing plus a
safety margin of 70kg/cm2 (1,000psi).
The external pressure is taken to be equal to that of
External Pressure
the formation pressure.
With a subsea wellhead, at the wellhead, hydrostatic
seawater pressure should be considered.
calculation in line with the Company standard, the
following option shall be considered:
• Select the criterion “Fluid Gradients w/Pore
Pressure” for calculating external pressure; this
assumes a pressure deriving from the pore
gradient in the annulus with the open hole, while in
the annulus with the previous casing, the pressure
deriving from the gradient of the cementing slurry
mixing water up to TOC and above TOC is
considered as the pressure deriving from the mud
gradient in which casing is run. Resulting pressure
- at the casing head and in the open hole section
will be the same as that calculated using the
Company criterion.
The resultant burst load, or net pressure, will be
Net Burst
obtained by subtracting, at each depth, the external
Pressure
from the internal pressure.
Casing with Suspended Liner
If a drilling liner is to be used, the casing above where the liner is suspended must
withstand the burst pressure that may occur while drilling below the liner. The
design of the intermediate casing string is, therefore, altered slightly.
Since the fracture pressure and mud weight may be
greater or lower below the liner shoe, than casing
shoe, these values must be used to design the
intermediate casing string as well as the liner.
When well testing or producing through a liner, the
casing above the liner is part of the production string
and must be designed according to this criterion.
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Tie-Back String
In a high pressure well, the intermediate casing string above a liner may be unable
to withstand a tubing leak at surface pressures according to the production burst
criteria. The solution to this problem is to run and tie-back a string of casing from
the liner top to surface, isolating the intermediate casing.
4.5.2 COLLAPSE
Collapse loading on the casing is induced if the external pressure exceeds the internal
pressure.
The reduced collapse resistance under biaxial stress (tension/collapse) should be
considered.
No allowance is given to increased collapse resistance due to cementing.
Collapse Load for Surface Casing

For wells with a surface wellhead, the casing is assumed to
Internal
be completely empty.
Pressure
In offshore wells with subsea wellheads, assume that the
mud level drops due to a thief zone:
Mld=H-(PPH / MW)
Mld= Mud level drops
H= drilled depth
PPH= Pore Pressure at drilled depth
MW= Mud Weight
Using Stress Check, to bring the internal pressure calculation
in line with the Company standard, the following option shall be
considered:
• Select the criterion “Full/Partial evacuation”.
In wells with a surface wellhead, the external pressure is
External
assumed to be equal to that of the hydrostatic pressure of a
Pressure
column of drilling mud in which casing was run.
In offshore wells with a subsea wellhead, it is calculated:
• At the wellhead: Water Depth x Seawater Density x 0.1
(if atm).
• At the shoe: (Shoe Depth - Air Gap) x Seawater Density
x 0.1 (if atm).
• Select the criterion “Fluid Gradients w/Pore Pressure”,
and without setting the flag which uses open hole pore
pressure, it is possible to adopt the pressure deriving from
the mud gradient in which casing is run, for both the
annulus with the open hole and the annulus with the
previous casing.
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The resultant collapse load, or net pressure, will be

Net Collapse
obtained by subtracting, at each depth, the internal from the
Pressure
external pressure.
Collapse Load for Intermediate Casing
The ‘worst case’ collapse loading occurs when a loss of
Internal
circulation is encountered while drilling the next hole section.
Pressure
Consequently it will be assumed the casing is empty to the
Mud level drops (Mld) calculated as follow:
Mld=H-(PPH / MW)
Mld= Mud level drops
H= drilled depth
PPH= Pore Pressure at drilled depth
MW= Mud Weight
When thief zones can not be confirmed and in case of wells
with surface wellheads or in case of exploration wells, the
casing is assumed to be half empty and the remain part full
of the heaviest mud planned to drill the next section below
the shoe.
• Select the criterion “Full/Partial evacuation”.
The pressure acting on the outside of casing is the pressure
External
of mud in which casing is installed.
Pressure
previous casing.
The resultant collapse load, or net pressure, will be
Net Collapse
obtained by subtracting, at each depth, the internal from the
Pressure
external pressure.
Collapse Load for Production Casing
Assume the casing worst case is being completely empty;
Internal
nevertheless, in particular well situations, the Well
Pressure
Operations Manager may consider that the lowest casing
internal pressure is the level of a column of the lightest
density producible formation fluid.
• Select the criterion “Full/Partial evacuation”
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Assume the hydrostatic pressure exerted by the mud in

External
which casing is installed.
Pressure
previous casing.
In the case of the casing being empty, the resultant
Net Collapse
collapse load, or net pressure is equal to the external
Pressure
pressure at each depth.
In other cases, it will be obtained by subtracting, at each
depth, the internal from the external pressure.
Casing with Suspended Liner
If a drilling liner is to be used, the casing above where the
liner is suspended must withstand the collapse pressure that
may occur while drilling below the liner. The design of the
intermediate casing string is therefore, slightly altered.
When well testing or producing through a liner, the casing
above the liner is part of the production casing/liner and
must be designed according to this criterion.
Tie-Back String
If the intermediate string above the liner is unable to
withstand the collapse pressure calculated according to
production collapse criteria, it will be necessary run and tie-
back a string of casing from the liner top to surface.
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4.5.3 TENSION
Note: The amount of parameters which can affect tensile loading means the
estimates for the tensile forces are more uncertain than the estimates
for both burst and collapse. The DF imposed is therefore much larger.
To evaluate the tensile loading, the company procedure outlined below applies.
All Casing
Calculate the casing string weight in air.
Tension
Calculate the casing string weight in mud
multiplying the previous weight by the buoyancy
factor (BF) in accordance with the mud weight in
use.
Add the additional load due to bumping the cement
plug to the casing string weight in mud.
Note: This pull load is calculated by multiplying the
expected bump-plug pressure by the higher
inside area of the casing.
Note: More than one section of the casing string
may be loaded in compression.
Using Stress Check, it is possible to reproduce the
Company standards, and to perform more accurate
calculations.
The following criteria shall be considered:
• Select the criterion “Precementing static load”
to simulate bottom hole casing with the stress
factors generated by applying the buoyancy1.
• Select the criterion “Running in hole” (with a
rate=0) to simulate the tensile stress sustained by
the casing during its run in (tension and bending)
producing a “Load line” which will have the same
value at the casing head as the casing string
weight in mud, taking into account the borehole
inclination and the fact that shoe tensile stress =
0.
• Select the criterion “Green cement pressure
test” to consider any additional stress due to
Bumping plug pressure.
1 Buoyancy –Stress-Check considers the relative depths of the different exposed surfaces (casing shoe, top liner or section variation
due to mixed casings), and the force generated by the hydrostatic pressure of the fluid which the casing is immersed in applied to
these surfaces.
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4.6 BENDING
4.6.1 GENERAL
Bending is caused by any deviations in the wellbore resulting from side-tracks, build-ups
and drop-offs.
Since bending load increases the total tensile load, it must be deducted from the usable
rated tensile strength of the pipe.
4.6.2 DETERMINATION OF BENDING EFFECT

For determination of the effect of bending, the following formula should be used:
TB = 15.52 × α × D × Af
where:
α = Rate (degrees/30m)
D = Outside diameter of casing (ins)
Af = Cross-section area of casing (cm2)
TB= Additional tension (kg).
4.6.3 COMPANY DESIGN PROCEDURE

Since bending load, in effect, increases tensile load at the point applied, it must be
deducted from the usable strength rating of each section of pipe that passes the point of
bending.
The section which is ultimately set through a bend must have the bending load deducted
from its usable strength up to the top of the bend. From that point up to the top of the
section the full usable strength can be used. See Figure 4-1 for the graphical
representation as example.
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Figure 4-1 - Bending Load Example

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4.7 BIAXIAL STRESS

When the entire casing string has been designed for burst, collapse and tension, and the
weights, grades, section lengths and coupling types are known, reduction in burst and
collapse resistance due to biaxial loading needs to be considered.
The total tensile load, which is tensile loading versus depth, is used to evaluate the effect
of biaxial loading and can be shown graphically.
By noting the magnitude of tension (plus) or compression (minus) loads at the top and
bottom of each section length of casing, the strength reductions can be calculated using
the ‘Holmquist & Nadai’ ellipse, see Figure 4-2.
Note: The effects of axial stress on burst resistance are negligible for the
majority of wells.
Figure 4-2 - Ellipse of Biaxial Yield Stress

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The value for the percentage reduction of rated collapse strength shall be determined for
each relevant casing section as follows:
1) Determine the total tensile load.

2) Calculate the ratio (X) of the actual applied stress to yield strength of the casing.
3) Refer to Figure 4-3 and curve ‘effect of tension on collapse resistance’ and find the
corresponding percentage collapse rating (Y).
4) Multiply the collapse resistance without tensile loads by the percentage (Y), to obtain
the reduced collapse resistance value.
EFFECT OF TENSION ON COLLAPSE RESISTENCE
X= Tensile load
Pipe body yield strength
0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8 0,9 1 1,1
0
0,1
Collapse resistence without tensile load
0,2
Collapsresistence with tensile load
0,3
0,4
0,5
0,6
0,7
0,8
Y=
0,9
1,1
Figure 4-3 – Effect of Tension on Collapse Resistance
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4.8 CASING WEAR

4.8.1 GENERAL
The location and magnitude of volumetric wear in the casing string can be estimated by
calculating the energy imparted from the rotating tool joints to the casing at different
casing points and dividing this by the amount of energy required to wear away a unit
volume of the casing. The percentage casing wear at each point along the casing is then
calculated from the volumetric wear.
Company acceptable casing wear limit is ≤ 7%.

Volumetric wear is proportional to an empirical ‘wear factor’ which is defined as the
coefficient of friction divided by the volume of casing material removed per unit of energy
input.
Note: The chemical action of gases such as H2S, CO2 and O2 tends to reduce
the surface hardness of steel and, thus, contributes significantly to the
rate of wear.
4.8.2 VOLUMETRIC WEAR RATE

The volume of casing worn away by the rotating tool joint equals:
Energy Input Per ft

Wear Volume Per Foot(V) =
Specific Energy
where:
Specific Energy = The amount of energy required to wear away a unit volume of casing
material.
The Wear Volume, V, equals:
60 x π x F x L x D x N x S
v=
P
where:
V = Wear Volume Per Foot (ins3/ft)
F = Wear factor (ins2/lbs)
L = Lateral Load on Drill Pipe Per Foot (lbs/ft)
D = Tool Joint Diameter (ins)
N = Rotary Speed (RPM)
S = Drilling Distance (ft)
P = Penetration Rate (ft/hr)

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4.8.3 WEAR FACTORS
Wear Factor (F)

Drilling Fluid Tool Joint (10-1 psi -l)
Water+Bentonite+Barite Smooth 0.5 -
Water+Bentonite+Lubricant (2%) Smooth 0.5 - 5
Water+Bentonite+Drill Solids Smooth 5 - 10
Water Smooth 10 - 30
Water+Bentonite Smooth 10 - 30
Water+Bentonite+Barite Slightly Rough 20 - 50
Water+Bentonite+Barite Rough 50 - 150
Water+Bentonite+Barite Very Rough 200 - 400
Table 4-b - Typical Casing Wear Factors
Wear Factor
Drilling Fluid Tool Joint (10-1 psi-l)
Water+Bentonite+Barite Rubber Protector 1-2
Water Rubber Protector 4 - 10
Table 4-c - Typical Casing Wear Factors (Shell-Bradley, 1975)
Mud Weight Tool Weighting Wear Factor

Drilling Fluid (lbs/al) Joint Material (10-l0psi-1)
Oil+Bentonite 10 Smooth Barite 0.9 - 1.2
Water+Bentonite 10 Smooth Barite 0.8 - 1.6
Water+Bentonite 10 Smooth Iron Oxide 3-4
Water+Bentonite 10 Smooth Drill Solids 5 - 11
Water+Bentonite 10 Smooth Sand 11 - 13
Water+Bentonite 8.8 Smooth None 22 - 27
Table 4-d - Effect of Weighting Material on Casing Wear Factor (Bol, 1985)
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4.8.4 WEAR ALLOWANCE IN CASING DESIGN

In a vertical well, casing wear is usually in the first few joints below the wellhead or
intervals with a high dogleg severity.
In deviated wells, wear will be over the build-up and drop-off sections. Again the casing
over these depths can be of a higher grade or heavier wall thickness.
The recommended procedure is:
1) Conduct the casing design.
2) At the wear points, calculate the allowable reduction in wall-thickness so that the
burst (or collapse) resistance of the casing just equals the burst (or collapse) load,
including the appropriate Design Factor applied.
3) Estimate the wear rate in terms of loss of wall thickness per operating day.
4) Calculate, from the allowable loss in wall thickness and the rate of wear, the
allowable operating time in the string.
If the allowable operating time is less than the anticipated operating time, use heavier
casing (or increases the grade) 100m above and to 60m below the wear point until the
allowable operating time exceeds the anticipated operating time.
If the allowable operating time is greater than the anticipated operating time (say
estimated 50 days allowable versus estimated 20 days operating) do not include a wear
allowance. If the allowable operating time and the anticipated operating time are about the
same, either:
a) include a wear allowance.
or
b) monitor casing wear during drilling, and commission an intermediate string if

the worn casing strength approaches the design loads.
4.9 SALT SECTIONS

To prevent casing collapse, the designer should plan for non-uniform salt loading,
obtaining the best possible cement job, using casing with higher than normal collapse
ratings and possibly two strings of casing through the salt section.
In some cases, two strings may be more advantageous as experience has demonstrated
that it is not practical to design a casing string to resist collapse. This technique is
probably the most reliable and safest approach for preventing casing collapse but is
probably not necessary in the majority of salt sections.
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In designing casing for any application, the accepted design load is the one for which the
casing is subjected to the greatest conceivable loads.
In the particular case of casing design opposite salt formations, certain guidelines can be
considered:
• For production casing exposed to salt formations, assume the casing will
be always evacuated at some point during the well life.
• The uniform external pressure exerted by salt on the casing (or cement
sheath) due to overburden pressure should be given a value equal to the
true vertical depth to the point in question.
• Proper cement placement opposite a salt section is often difficult due to
washout.
• Any beneficial effects of the cement sheath should be ignored during
design of the casing.
• If the wellbore is deviated, additional axial forces due to hole curvature
should be considered when determining the collapse resistance of the
casing.
4.10 CORROSION
During the drilling phase, if there is any likelihood of a sour corrosive influx occurring,
consideration should be given to setting a sour service casing string before drilling into the
reservoir.
The BOP stack and wellhead components must also be suitable for sour service.
4.10.1 CONTRIBUTING FACTORS TO CORROSION
Oxygen (O2)
Oxygen dissolved in water drastically increases its corrosion action potential. It can cause
severe corrosion at very low concentrations of less than 1.0 PPM.
Carbon dioxide (CO2)

Pressure increases the solubility to lower the pH, temperature decreases the solubility to
raise the pH.
Corrosion primarily caused by dissolved carbon dioxide is commonly called ‘sweet’
corrosion.
The partial pressure of carbon dioxide can be determined by the formula:
Partial Pressure = Total pressure x Mol Fraction of C02 in the gas.

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Example:
In a well with a bottom hole pressure of 3,500psi and a gas containing 2% carbon dioxide:
Partial pressure = 3,500 x 0.02 = 70psi.
Using the partial pressure of carbon dioxide as a yardstick to predict corrosion, the
following relationships have been found:
• Partial pressure > 30 psi usually indicates high corrosion risk.
• Partial pressure 7-30 psi may indicate high corrosion risk.
• Partial pressure < 7 psi generally is considered non corrosive.
Hydrogen Sulphide (H2S)

The S.S.C (Sulphide Stress Cracking) phenomenon is triggered off when, at temperatures
below 80°C and in the presence of tension stress the H2S comes into contact with H2O
(water is an essential element in triggering off S.S.C.), freeing the H+ ion. Temperatures
above 80°C inhibit the S.S.C. phenomenon, so knowing the temperature gradient may be
useful in the selection of the tubular material since different materials can be chosen for
different depths. Evaluation of the problem depends on the type of well.
In gas wells gas saturation with water will produce condensate water and therefore create
the conditions for S.S.C.
In oil wells there are two different cases:
1) in vertical oil wells it is necessary to analyse the water cut profile throughout the
producing life of the well; in general there is corrosion when the water cut is higher
than 15% (threshold commonly defined critical).
2) in highly deviated wells (deviation > 80 degrees), the risk of corrosion by H2S is high
since the water, even though in very small quantities, deposits on the surface of the
tubing and so the problem can be likened to the case of gas wells where the critical
threshold for the water cut drops to 1% (W.C. > 1%).
Below are illustrate the formulae used to calculate the value of pH2S (partial pressure of
H2S) in the cases of gas or condensate gas or oil wells.
Gas or condensate gas well

The partial H2S pressure is calculated:
pH2S = SBHP x Y(H2S)/100
where:
SBHP= Static Bottom Hole Pressure [atm]
Y(H2S)= molar fraction of H2S
pH2S= Partial H2S pressure [atm].
The S.S.C. phenomenon is triggered off when pH2S >0.0035 atm (0.05 psi) and SBHP >
4.5 atm.
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Oil bearing well

The problem of S.S.C. exists when there is wetting water; i.e.:
• Water cut > 15% for vertical wells
• Water cut > 1% for horizontal or highly deviated wells (> 80 degrees)
• GOR > 800 Nm3/m3.
The pH2S calculation is different for undersaturated and oversaturated oil (for details refer
to the “Casing Design Manual”, STAP-P-1-M-6110, Section 9).
4.10.2 CASING FOR SOUR SERVICE
All temperatures (1) 150° F (65°C) (3) or greater 175° F (80°C) or greater
API Specification 5CT Grade API Specification 5CT Grade API Specification 5CT Grade
H40, (2) K55 and J 55 N80 (Q and T) H40, N80
Grade C75 (2) and L80 Grade C 95 Grade P110
Proprietary Grades: Proprietary Grades: Proprietary Grades:
see NACE standard Q and T, with a maximum yield with 110,000psi (758,420kPa)
MR-01-75 strength of 100,000psi minimum to 140,000psi
(689,475kPa) (965,265kPa) max. yield
strength
Q and T = quenched and tempered.
Impact resistance may be required by other standards and codes for low operating
temperatures.
80,000 psi (551,580kPa) maximum yield strength permissible. The latest revision of API
Specification 5CT includes this requirement.
Continuous minimum temperature; for lower temperatures, select from column 1.
Table 4-e - Operation Temperature
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4.10.3 ORDERING SPECIFICATIONS

When ordering tubulars for sour service, the following specifications should be included, in
addition to those given in the above table.
a) Downgraded grade N 80, P 105 or P 110 tubulars are not acceptable for
orders for J 55 or K 55 casing.
b) The couplings must have the same heat treatment as the pipe body.
c) The pipe must be tested to the alternative test pressure (see API Bulletins 5A
and 5 AC).
d) Cold die stamping is prohibited, all markings must be paint-stencilled or hot die
stamped.
e) Three copies of the report providing the ladle analysis of each heat used in the
manufacture of the goods shipped, together with all the check analyses
performed, must be submitted.
f) Three copies of a report showing the physical properties of the goods supplied
and the results of hardness tests (Refer to step 3 above) must be submitted.
g) Shell modified API thread compound must be used.
Note: Recommendations for casing to be used for sour service must be

specified according to the API 5CT for restricted yield strength casings.
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Figure 4-4 - Sumitomo Metals

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Application Domain Material SM’ Notes

Designation
Mild Environment Domain ‘A’ API J55 SM 95G
N80 SM 125G
P110
(Q125)
Sulphide Stress Corrosion Domain ‘B’ Cr or Cr-Mo Steel
Cracking (medium pressure
and temperature) API L80 SM 80S
C90 SM 90S
T95 SM 95S
Sulphide Stress Corrosion Domain ‘C’ 1Cr 0.5Mo Steel SM 85SS Higher yield strength
Cracking (high pressure and Modified AISI 4130 SM 90SS for sour service
temperature) SM C100
SM C110
Wet CO2 Corrosion Domain ‘D’ 9Cr-1Mo Steel SM 9CR 75 Quenched and
SM 9CR 80 tempered
SM 9CR 95
13Cr Steel SM 13CR 75 Quenched and
Modified AISI 420 SM 13CR 80 tempered
SM 13CR 95
Wet CO2 with a little H2S Domain ‘E’ 22Cr 5Ni 3Mo Steel SM 22CR 65* Duplex phase
Corrosion SM 22CR 110** Stainless steels
SM 22CR 125**
25Cr 6Ni 3Mo Steel SM 25CR 75* *Solution Treated
SM 25CR 110**
SM 25CR 125** **Cold drawn
SM 25CR 140**
Wet CO2 with H2S Corrosion Domain ‘F’ 25Cr 35Ni 3Mo Steel SM 2535 110 As cold drawn
SM 2535 125
22C 42Ni 3Mo Steel SM 2242 110
SM 2242 125
20Cr 35Ni 5Mo Steel SM 2035 110
SM 2035125
Most Corrosive Environment Domain ‘G’ 25Cr 50Ni 6Mo Steel SM 2550-110 As cold drawn
SM 2550-125
SM 2550-140
20Cr 58Ni 13Mo Steel SM 2060-110***
SM 2060-125***
SM 2060-140*** ***Environment with
16Cr 54Ni 16Mo Steel SM 2060-155*** free Sulphur
SM C276-110***
SM C276-125***
SM C276-140***
(Refer to Figure 4-4 - Sumitomo Metals)
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4.11 TEMPERATURE EFFECTS

For deep wells, reduction in yield strength must be considered due to the effect on steel by
higher temperatures.
If no information is available on temperature gradients in an area, a gradient of 3°C/100m
should to be assumed (Refer to section 2.2).
Use Figure 4-5 below for reductions in yield strength against temperature.
Figure 4-5 - Temperature Effects

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4.11.1 LOW TEMPERATURE SERVICE

Operations at low temperatures require tubulars made from steel with high ductility at low
temperatures to prevent brittle failures during transport and handling.
4.12 LOAD CONDITIONS

4.12.1 SHOCK LOAD
When running casing, sudden acceleration or deceleration forces cause a stress wave to
be created which will travel through the casing at the speed of sound.
This effect is quantified as follows:
SL = 150 x V x Af
where:
SL = Shock load (lbs x ins/sec2)
V = Peak velocity when running (ins/sec)
Af = Cross-sectional area (ins2)
150 = Speed of sound in steel (lbs / sec x ins2)x104.
4.12.2 SAFE ALLOWABLE PULL

It is normal to incorporate in the casing string design an overpull contingency of
100,000lbs (45t), over the weight of the string in mud.
4.12.3 CEMENTING CONSIDERATIONS

For design calculation, a worst case situation is assumed as follows:
• The mud weight in the annulus is the lowest planned for the section.
• The inside of the casing is full of cement slurry, with mud above.
• The shoe instantaneously plugs-off just as the cement reaches it and the
pressure rises to a value of circa ‘1,000psi’ before the pumps are able to
be shut-down.
The load is calculated as follows:

CCL = [(Cw - Mw) x D + 1000] x Ai
where:
CCL = Cementing contribution load (lbs)
Cw = Cement weight (psi/ft)
Mw = 0utside mud weight (psi/ft)
D = Length over which Cw & Mw act(ft)
Ai = Internal area of casing (ins2)
1,000 = Pressure increment (psi).
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4.12.4 PRESSURE TESTING
Company Guidelines
The leading criteria for pressure testing will be the maximum anticipated wellhead
pressure.
In all cases the test pressure will be no higher than 70% of API minimum internal yield
pressure of the weakest casing in the string or to 70% of the BOP WP.
The test pressure shall remain stable for at least 10- 15 minutes.
4.12.5 HANG-OFF LOAD (LH)

The Hang-off load required for a casing is obtained as per algebraic amount of the
following loads:
LH= Pa + L1 + L2 + L3 + Fc
where:
Pa = weight in air of the not cemented casing
L1 = stress due to variation of internal pressure
L2 = stress due to variation of external pressure
L3 = stress due to variation of average temperature
Fc = critical force (take into account only if it is positive)
ID 2 (γ 2 − γ 1 ) H
L1a = −0.6 × π × × × (for inside casing mud weight variation)
4 2 10
L1= ID ⎛
2
N2 ⎞
L1b = 0.03 × π × × ⎜⎜ 2 × N − ⎟ × γ0 (for inside casing pressure applied)
4 ⎝ H ⎟⎠
ID 2
L1c = −0.6 × π × × Pi (for inside casing mud density variation)
4
OD 2 (γ 2 − γ 1 ) H
L 2 a = 0 .6 × π × × × (for outside casing mud weight variation)
4 2 10
L2=
OD 2 ⎛ M2 ⎞
L1b = 0 .03 × π × × ⎜⎜ 2 × M − ⎟⎟ × γ 0 (for inside casing pressure applied)
4 ⎝ H ⎠
OD 2
L1c = 0 . 6 × π × × Pe (for outside casing mud density variation)
4
∆tm = ∆tm2 - ∆tm1

π
26 × ( OD − ID ) ×
2 2
× ∆t m
L3 = 4 ; with ∆tm1 = tf1 + 0.5 x (ts1-tf1) x H/S
∆tm2 = tf2 + 0.5 x (ts2-tf2) x H/S2
π π
Pi × ID2 × − Pe × OD2 ×
Fc = 4 4
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H = uncemented casing length tf2 = flow line mud temperature when the well
is at “S2”
ID = inside diameter
ts2 = static bottom hole (S2) temperature
M = outside casing mud level drop
N = inside casing mud level drop γ0 = mud density at the time of the inside
casing mud level drop
OD = outside diameter
γ1 = mud density during cementing job
Pi = inside pressure applied at casing head
γ2 = max mud density during the next drilling
Pe = outside pressure applied at casing head phase
S = casing setting depth ∆tm = temperature total variation
S2 = end of the next phase ∆tm1 = variation of temperature at shoe depth
tf1 = flow line mud temperature when the well
∆tm2 = variation of temperature at the end of
is at “S”
the next phase
ts1 = static bottom hole (S) temperature
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5. MUD CONSIDERATIONS
5.1 GENERAL
For detailed drilling fluid information, refer to the “Drilling Fluids Operations Manual”,
STAP-P-1-M-6160.
a) A detailed mud programme shall be prepared as an integral part of the drilling

programme.
b) A Mud Service Contractor may be contracted for the preparation of the mud
programme, which shall be submitted to the Company Drilling and Completion
office for approval
c) The same Contractor may be contracted for Mud Engineering on rig site under
the control of the Company Drilling and Completion Supervisor.
d) No variation from the mud programme is permitted without previous discussion
with and approval of the Company Shore Base Drilling and Completion office.
e) The mud characteristics to be used for specific operations, such as tripping,
casing running, etc., shall be based on specifications described in the relevant
sections of the Drilling Programme.
5.1.1 SUBSURFACE WELL CONTROL

To determine the mud weight required, it is necessary to obtain predicted formation pore
pressures and the fracture gradient (see section 2.1).
It is important that overpressure are predicted and monitored for during drilling.
Once the formation pressures for each drilling phase are known, a safety margin must be
added and then mud weight calculated:
PP +SafetyMargin
MW =
TVD× 0.052
where:
MW = Mud weight, ppg
Pp = pore pressure, psi
TVD = True vertical depth, ft.
It is impossible to establish a value of the Safety Margin; it will be evaluated case by case
taking in consideration the experience on referent wells; as a general rule a safety margin
50÷100 g/l higher than pore gradient will be considered.
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5.1.2 FORMATION EVALUATION

Drilling fluids have been effect greatly by the requirement for quality formation evaluation.
Viscosity may be increase to ensure improved cutting lift, filtration may be reduced to
reduce fluid invasion or special fluids used instead of the mud system for logging and well
testing. The procedures for mud conditioning before logging have become standard today.
The type of mud will also have an effect, e.g. oil based mud make evaluation of potential
producing formations difficult and salt water fluids can mask permeable zones.
Thick filter cake can interfere with side wall coring information and water or oil invasion
affects resistivity logs.
The formation evaluation programme must take all of these considerations into account to
obtain the best results.
5.1.3 FORMATION PROTECTION

To help minimize invasion, reduction in the filtration rate may be employed but reliance on
static surface testing as assurance may be misleading on actual downhole filtration rates.
5.2 MUD COMPOSITION

The base fluid for most muds is fresh water as it is usually readily available and is cheap.
Seawater has become more widely used due to the increase in offshore drilling for
obvious reasons. Oil based mud is very popular when it is desired to reduce the amount of
water in the system. Two types of oil based mud are available, an oil mud that has less
than 5% water by volume and invert emulsion which is between 5% and 50%.
5.2.1 SALT MUDS

Salt added to water will provide a range of weights according to the type and amount of
salt added. The maximum weight ranges for various types of brines are:
KCl up to 9.6ppg (1.150kg/dm3)

NaCl up to 10.0ppg (1.200kg/dm3)
CaCl2 10.0 to 11.6ppg (1.200÷1.390kg/dm3).
The following figures show amount of salt and water required to achieve the range of brine
densities.
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Figure 5-1 - Material Required For Preparation Of Potassium Chloride Solutions (20°)
Figure 5-2 - Material Required For Preparation Of Sodium Chloride Solutions (20°)
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Brine weight is affected by temperature and it is necessary to obtain the average well
temperature in order to determine the density reduction from that when it was prepared at
surface.Figure 5-3 below shows brine densities at various temperatures.
Bottom hole temp + Top hole temp
Average well temperature =
2
Figure 5-3 - Density Vs Temperature For Brine

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For brine densities below 1,050kg/m3, it is recommended to include 1-3% by weight of KCl
in the brine formulation to inhibit interaction between the fluid and water sensitive clays in
the formation.
Potassium is rarely used in concentrations above 0.4ppg as sodium chloride may be used
which is considerably cheaper. Sodium chloride is a cheap brine and has good solubility
which varies little with temperature. Calcium chloride is used in the higher weight range
but should be prepared with seawater as precipitates may form and the sodium chloride
content may crystallise if the weight range is above 1,320kg/m3.
5.2.2 WATER BASED SYSTEMS

High weight mud systems usually contain more solids than low weight systems. Extra
solids in high weight mud originate from the gels, chemicals, weight material and drill
solids from the rock. Good solids control systems and the proper addition of water and
chemicals will eliminate solids build up and problems. Figure 5-4 shows a field developed
guidelines for solids level in water muds.
Figure 5-4- Guidelines for Clay Based Mud Systems

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5.2.3 GEL SYSTEMS

The commercial clays added to the mud system are bentonite and attapulgite. Bentonite is
added to increase viscosity, gel strengths and suspension. Filtration and filter cake
properties are also improved with bentonite. Drilled solids also enter the system during
drilling. If flocculation of bentonite occurs then a dispersant should be added. Attapulgite is
used where bentonite does not react properly.
5.2.4 POLYMER SYSTEMS

Polymers have been used mainly in completion and workover operations requiring
minimum solids content, hence reducing formation damage.
5.2.5 OIL BASED MUD

As pointed out earlier oil based muds are used to reduce torque and/or drag beneficial in
drilling directional wells and where water based muds may cause hole damage such as in
shales. Oil mud is only less damaging if the water phase is dosed with salt to a higher
concentration of that in the formations to prevent the water being pulled out and, hence
causing sloughing. The salt used for this is usually calcium chloride due to its good
solubility properties.
Lime must be added to oil mud to convert sodium salts into calcium soaps and combat
problems associated with carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulphide intrusion.
Changing from water based to oil based mud may cause contamination in long sections of
open hole will have absorbed a considerable amount of water, therefore should be
restricted to cased hole only.
Oil based mud was treated as special purpose mud due mainly to its high cost in
comparison to water based mud, however with today’s restocking arrangements available
with the suppliers it has become much more economic. In general terms, the costs of
drilling with oil based mud is considered to be 30% less than for comparable water based
weight mud thought to be due getting more efficient weight on the bit. The hindrance to the
use of oil based mud is the environmental disposal of coated cuttings.
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5.3 SOLIDS
Solids are divided into two groups, low and high gravity. The low gravity solids are further
subdivided into reactive and non-reactive groups. Reactive and non- reactive refers to
whether they react to changing downhole conditions. Low gravity solids include sand
chert, limestone, dolomite, some shales and mixtures of other minerals.
Non-reactive solids are undesirable and if larger than 15 microns in size, they are erosive
to circulating equipment.
The size of solids in microns and inches with the appropriate screen sizes are given in
Table 5-a below:
Microns Inches Shaker Screen Size

1540 0.0606 12 x 12
1230 0.0483 14 x 14
1020 0.0403 16 x 16
920 0.0362 18 x 18
765 0.0303 20 x 20
Table 5-a - Solids Size Versus Screen Size
Reactive solids are clays which are reactive to water. The most common clays used are
bentonite or gel and attapulgite (salt gel). Bentonite is used to both add thickness and
viscosity to the mud and control fluid loss.
5.4 DENSITY CONTROL MATERIALS

To drill a well successfully, the formation pressure must be controlled by the hydrostatic
weight of the mud. A mud system will normally gain weight due to the addition of drilled
solids if proper mechanical solids control equipment is not used or is inefficient. These
solids are undesirable in high mud weight systems as they cause problems when
weighting materials are added.
Common weighting materials are shown in Table 5-b below:
Material Average SG Max Mud Weight (ppg)

Barite 4.25 20-22
Lead Sulphide 6.6 28-32
Calcium Carbonate 2.7 12
Ilmenite 4.5 21-26
Hematite (Itagrite ore) 5.1 24-26
Table 5-b- Common Weighting Materials
Water based fluids can be weighted up by salts.

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5.5 FLUID CALCULATIONS

The following equations are provided for an engineer to be able to calculate material
requirements, stock levels and mud weights. The symbols listed below are used in the
following equations and examples. These or variations in these may be found in any
drilling fluids handbook.
WO = Weight of original mud, lbs

WA = Weight of material added, lbs
WF = Weight of final mud, lbs
VO = Volume of original mud, gal
VA = Volume of material added, gal
VF = Volume of final mud, gal
DO = Weight of original mud, ppg
DA = Weight of material added, ppg
DF = Weight of final mud, ppg
w = Weight of material added to original mud, lbs/bbl.
Calculation of solids material required to increase mud weight.

Equation:
42(D F −D O )
w=
DF
1−
DA
Example: A mud system contains 750bbl of 10.4ppg mud, how many sacks of barite are
required to increase the density to 12.4 ppg?
42 (12.4 − 10.4 )
w= = 130lb / bbl
12.4
1−
35.4
Total barite required:
750 bbl x 130 lbs / bbs
= = 975
100lbs / sk
Calculation of density resulting from adding liquid to decrease mud weight.

Equation:
VA
DF = D O − (D O − D A )
VF
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Example: A mud system contains 800bbl of 11.3ppg mud, what is the resulting density of
adding 100bbl of 42° API oil?
Calculate SG of oil:
141.5
SG= =0.816SG
42+131.5
Calculate density of oil:
D A = 0.816 x 8.33 = 6.80ppg
Calculate VF:
VF = 800 bbl + 100 bbl = 900 bbl

100
D F = 11.3 (11.3 - 6.80) = 10.8 ppg
900
Calculation of density by adding solids to a mud.
Equation:
w
DO +
DF = 42
w
1+
42 x D A
Example: 10 tons of barite were added to 800bbl of 9.2ppg mud, what was the final
density of the mud?
First calculate w:
10t x 2,000 lbs
w= = 25lbs / bbl
800 bbl
Calculate final density:

25
9 .2 +
42
DF = = 9.63ppg
25
1+
42 x 35.4
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6. FLUID HYDRAULICS
Landmark Well Plan release 2000.0 software programme, which is currently used in the
Corporate for all hydraulic programmes, provides all the necessary information to be input
into the ‘Geological and Drilling Programme’.
There are some company guidelines that are helpful in fulfilling this objective outlined in
the following sub-sections.
More detailed information on drilling fluids can be found in the “Drilling Fluids Operations
Manual”, STAP-P-1-M-6160.
6.1 HYDRAULICS PROGRAMME PREPARATION

Before the design of a hydraulic programme can commence, the following information
about the well and drilling equipment should be ascertained:
a) Drilling contractor
b) Drilling unit
c) Hole sizes
d) Depth intervals
e) Mud weights at the various depths
f) Whether plastic viscosities are expected
g) Pumps:
• Manufacturer, type and model
• Number of pumps
• Horsepower available
• Liner sizes available
• Max pump speed
• Min pump speed
• Max pump pressure
h) Length and ID of standpipe, swivel, kelly hose and kelly (or top drive)
i) Drill string design
j) Priority for the hydraulics programme, i.e. max bit hydraulics, max jet impact
force, constant pump speed or variable pump speed.
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6.2 DESIGN OF THE HYDRAULICS PROGRAMME

The first priority of a hydraulics programme is to maximise bottomhole cleaning. Hydraulic
design methods include:
• Hydraulic Impact
• Bit Hydraulic Horsepower
• Nozzle Velocity
• A combination of these Methods.
Regardless of the design method to be used, the first step is to determine the maximum
surface hydraulic horsepower available. This is calculated by using the following equation:
PQ
Hp =
1714
where:
Hp = Surface horsepower available
P = Maximum permitted surface pressure (psi)
Q = Maximum flow rate (gpm).
The following example illustrates a typical calculation:

Maximum permissible surface pressure: 3,000psi
Maximum flow rate: 600gpm
Available horsepower:
3000 × 600
Hp = = 1,050
1714
If the pump size is 1,500HP then it is capable of delivering the required 1,050HP.
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6.3 FLOW RATE

The flow rate must be maintained high enough to achieve two functions, to provide
enough velocity to remove cavings and cuttings and the jetting requirements of the bit for
each hole section. Upward flow velocities of 100-200ft/min are usually sufficient in normal
conditions.
Obviously this demands much higher circulation volumes when drilling larger hole sizes.
The recommended flow rates for the standard bit size are given in Table 6-a.
Hole Size [ins] Flow Rate [l/min]

171/2” 3,000 -4,000
15” 2,800 -3,500
121/4” 2,200 -2,600
97/8” 1,500 -1,900
81/2” 1,200 -1,600
77/8” 1,200 -1,600
63/4” 800 -1,000
6” 600 - 800
Table 6-a- Rates for the standard hole section
Optimum annular velocity can also be calculated by the following equation:

11,800
Optimum Annular Velocity (ft/min) =
MW × DH
where:
MW = Mud weight, lbs/gal
DH = Diameter of hole, inches.
From a given flowrate, annular velocity can be calculated as follows:

24.51(Q )
Annular Velocity (ft/min) =
DH 2 − DP 2
where:
Q = Flow, gal/min
DH = Diameter of hole, ins
DP = Diameter of pipe, ins.
The flow rate must also maintain good hole condition so that erosion does not occur or
cause invasion of formations that may damage potential producing zones. Rates of
circulating above that necessary simply to maintain good hole conditions can be used to
obtain faster drilling rates. The additional horsepower and pumping equipment required for
this due to increased friction losses must be justified to ensure economy.
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Critical annular velocity is expressed by:
Critical Annular Velocity (ft/min) = 3.28 ⎧⎨ 3.04 ⎡VP + VP 2 + 40.05 × YP(DH − DP )2 MW ⎤ ⎫

( − DP ) × MW ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦ ⎬
⎩ DH ⎭
where:
PV = Plastic velocity (centipoise)
YP = Yield point (g/100 cm2).
6.4 PRESSURE LOSSES

Pressure losses are calculated using Bernoulli’s Theorem. Considering two points in a
circulating system, the following equation may be used:
U12 p1 U 2 p
h1 + − F + W = h2 2 + 2 − F + W
2g ρ1 2g ρ 2
where:
h = Height above a chosen reference elevation, ft
U = Flow velocity, ft/sec
P = Pressure of the fluid, lbs/ft2
ρ = Density of the fluid, lbs/ft3
g = Acceleration of gravity 32ft/sec2
F = Sum of flowing pressure losses
W = Sum of mechanical energy added.
In a mud system, as h1 and h2 are at the same height they cancel each other and the
velocity values are negligible, therefore the equation is reduced to:
W=F
‘W’ represents the hydraulic horsepower that must be applied to the mud with ‘F’
representing the fluid pressure losses in the system and the nozzles of the bit. Bernoulli’s
theorem may be used for the whole circulating system or just part of the system such as
the nozzles of the bit.
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The total friction losses caused by the surface equipment, drill string and annuli can be
summed up as:
Ps = Ps.e + Pd p. + Pd.c + Pb + Pd.c.a + Pd.pa
where:
Ps = Total pressure drop
Ps.e = Pressure drop in the surface equipment
Pd p. = Pressure drop in the drill pipe
Pd.c = Pressure drop in the drill collars
Pb = Pressure drop in the bit
Pd.c.a = Pressure drop in the hole and drill collar annulus
Pd.pa = Pressure drop in the hole and drill pipe annulus.
Each of the pressure drops for a particular section can be obtained by calculation or from
using industry standard tables if the mud properties of rheology and weight are known.
The pressure drops also depend largely on whether the flow regime is laminar or
turbulent.
Any alteration in the mud properties or drill string design or bit nozzle area will in turn alter
the hydraulic programme. Suitable assumptions must be made for contingency in order
that the available pump horsepower is sufficient to cater for most circumstances which
may arise.
Before pressure drops can be calculated, it is necessary to determine whether flow is
laminar or turbulent and the plastic viscosity correction factor.
To determine if flow is laminar or not, it is necessary to find out the Reynolds number by:
15.47 × MW × AV (DH − DP )
Reynolds number (Rn) =
µ
where:
µ = 300 × κρ η −1
σ 300
η
κ = 300
σ 600
3.322 log
η = σ300
1.41 × AV
ρ = DH − DP
σ600 = 2PV + YP
σ300 = PV + YP.
If the Reynolds number is less than 2,000 flow is laminar and over 4,000 is turbulent.
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Laminar flow annulus pressure loss is calculated by:
L × YP L × AV × PV
Laminar annular pressure loss (psi) = +
225 (DH − DP ) 90000 (DH − DP ) 2
(1.4327 × 10 −7 ) MW × L × AV 2
Turbulent annular pressure loss (psi) =
DH − DP
where:
L = Length, ft.
The plastic viscosity correction factor is found from the following Figure 6-1.
Figure 6-1 - Plastic Viscosity Correction Chart
6.4.1 SURFACE EQUIPMENT

The lengths and IDs of the surface lines, manifolds, standpipe, kelly or top drive will cause
a friction drop. Each of these parameters needs to be known.
0.00061 × MW × L × Q 4.86
Pressure drop in pipe bore (psi) = × CF
ID 4.86
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6.4.2 DRILL PIPE

If a parallel or tapered drilling string is used, the length of each section for varying depths
needs to be determined for each individual size of pipe and then the pressure drops in
each combined to obtain the total pressure drop of the string.
The calculation is the same as that given in the previous subsection.
6.4.3 DRILL COLLARS

Similar to the drill pipe above, the various lengths of drill collar IDs need to be known, the
pressure drop for each length calculated and then added.
6.4.4 BIT HYDRAULICS

The jetting action across the bit nozzles must be sufficient enough to clean the cuttings
away from the bit and up into the hole/drill collar annulus. The recommended minimum
nozzle velocity is 100m/sec.
Further to this, the following is the recommended hydraulic horsepower delivery for roller
cone bits in the most common hole sections:
8 ½” = 8-9 HHP/ins2
12 ¼” = 5-6 HHP/ins2
17 ½”(16”) = 3-4 HHP/ins2.
The pressure drop across the nozzles is calculated by:

MW × Q 2
Pressure Drop Across Nozzles =
10858 × TFA 2
where:
TFA= Total flow area, sq ins.
Bit HHP can be calculated by:

∆P × Q
Bit HHP/in2 =
1346.2 × DH 2
Jet impact force is calculated by:
Jet Impact Force (lbs)

= 0.000516 × MW × Q × VJet
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Jet TFA Of TFA Of TFA Of TFA Of TFA Of TFA Of TFA Of TFA Of TFA Of
Size 1 Jet 2 Jet 3 Jet 4 Jet 5 Jet 6 Jet 7 Jet 8 Jet 9 Jet
7
/32” .038 .076 .114 .152 .190 .228 .266 .305 .342
8
/32” .049 .098 .147 .196 .245 .295 .344 .393 .442
9
/32” .062 .124 .186 .249 .311 .373 .435 .497 .559
10
/32” .077 .153 .230 .307 .383 .460 .537 .614 .690
11
/32” .093 .186 .278 .371 .464 .557 .650 .742 .835
12
/32” .110 .221 .331 442 .552 .663 .773 .884 .994
13
/32” .130 .259 .389 .518 .648 .778 .907 1.037 1.167
14
/32” .150 .300 .450 .600 .750 .900 1.050 1.200 1.350
15
/32” .172 .344 .516 .688 .860 1.032 1.204 1.376 1.548
16
/32” .196 .392 .588 .784 .980 1.176 1.372 1.568 1.764
18
/32” .249 .498 .747 .996 1.245 1.494 1.743 1.992 2.241
20
/32” .307 .613 .921 1.228 1.535 1.842 2.148 2.455 2.762
22
/32” .371 .742 1.113 1.484 1.855 2.226 2.597 2.468 3.339
24
/32” .441 .883 1.325 1.767 2.209 2.650 3.092 3.534 3.976
Table 6-b- TFA Comparison (Total Flow Area)
6.4.5 MUD MOTORS

If mud motors are used, the HHP required will be provided by the supplier and must be
added into the total pressure drop of the system.
6.4.6 ANNULUS
Pressure loss calculations for the annulus between the hole/drill collar annulus and the
hole/drill pipe annulus need to be carried out by inputting the collar ODs, drill pipe ODs
and corresponding lengths as follows:
Turbulent Flow Annulus Pressure Loss (psi) =

(1.4327 × 10 ) × MW × L × Av
−7 2
.
DH − DP
The equivalent circulating density is calculated:
Total Annular Pr essure Drop × 19.25

Equivalent Circulating density = MW +
True Vetical Depth
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7. CASING RUNNING AND CEMENTING
7.1 GENERAL
A detailed programme to include the casing design, stress calculations, string
composition, floating equipment, centralisation, special running procedures, cementing
calculations and procedures, etc. shall be compiled and available at least three days
before operations commence; for details see the “Drilling Procedures Manual”, STAP-P-1-
M-6140 section 16.
A non-destructive test (NDT) on the casing shall be carried out at a service contractor’s
workshop or at the Company’s Operating Base.
The cementing unit should be overhauled a few days in advance of requirement to reduce
the risk of mechanical/hydraulic failure during cementing operations.
7.2 INSTALLATION PATTERNS (FOR MECHANICAL CEMENTING AIDS)

The selection of the proper installation pattern for mechanical cementing aids i.e.
centralizes, scratchers, turbolizers, etc., is essential to optimize casing running and
cementing results. Cementing aids and their installation pattern are a function of
operational conditions and cementing objectives because of these variable factors, pattern
philosophy is different from case to case. The Drilling Programme must specify type,
quantity and installation pattern of mechanical cementing pieces, with due consideration to
eventual modifications after caliper log evaluation.
The following cases described below are shown in Figure 7-1 and Figure 7-2.
Case I
The simplest and most practical is the installation of centralisers directly over stop collars.
Installation on the racks is advisable as it saves time. This pattern is not recommended in
close-tolerance conditions, i.e. saves 7" rig casing in an 81/2" hole.
Case II
In close-tolerance conditions, the centralisers should be positioned between two stop
collars. This pattern may be installed on the rack.
Case III
In this alternate close-tolerance pattern, the centralisers are installed between a stop collar
and the casing coupling.
This pattern allows limited centraliser travel and requires only one stop collar per
centraliser, reducing equipment cost. Installation should not be performed on the rack.
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Case IV
Centralisers can be installed over the casing coupling but this reduces annular flow and
the positive stand-off provided by the casing coupling and requires extra rig time.
Weatherford do not recommend this pattern for close-tolerance conditions or where ST-I
and/or SP-I bows are used.
Post Plug Pattern

This pattern (Refer to Figure 7-2) is recommended throughout the entire cement column to
promote improved cement-to-formation bonding in strings where casing can be
reciprocated in 30 to 40ft cycles. The post-plug pattern uses at least one centraliser per
joint and free-to-move scratchers, separated by stop collars installed approximately 10ft
(3m) apart.
The Modified Post-Plug pattern requires two centralisers per joint in conjunction with
multiple scratchers and stop collars placed 5ft (1.5m) apart. Wellbore wipers can replace
the scratchers for particular applications.
The following codes will be used to describe the number of centralisers per casing:
• 1C: one centraliser per joint
• 2C: two centralisers per joint
• 3C: three centralisers per joint.
The following codes will be used to indicate the centralisers spacing:

• C1: one centraliser each joint
• C2: one centraliser every two joints
• C3: one centraliser every three joints.
Example: 2C3 = two centralisers every three joints.

1) The use of spiral centralisers is recommended in each of the patterns where close-
tolerance conditions exist.
2) Alternate left/right handed spiral centralisers are used in special applications e.g.
liners, deviated wells, production strings, improvement of hydraulic displacement,
etc.
3) For open hole intervals, spiral bow type centralisers will be used unless otherwise
specified. Straight type bows will be used for wash-out sections, unconsolidated
formations, etc.
4) Rigid type centralisers (Positive) are never allowed to enter open hole intervals.
5) In deeper wells, where high-rating casing equipment is used, positive type
centralisers OD for free passage through clamp's slips should be considered. If not
applicable, spring bows are recommended and also in casing to casing intervals.
6) Maximise centralisation when special equipment/tools/zone are predicted i.e. stage
tools, liner hanger, ECIP, GOC, WOC, etc.
Special CRC stop collars, (without nails) are essential for CRA (Corrosion Resistant
Alloys) casing.
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CASE I:
Over stop collar
CASE III:
Between coupling
and stop collar
CASE IV:
Over coupling
CASE II:
Between
stop collars
Figure 7-1- Casing Installation Patterns

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2CPP 2CPPM
Post Plug Pattern Modified Post Plug Pattern
Figure 7-2- Casing Installation Patterns (Cont)

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7.3 CEMENTING CONSIDERATIONS

The objective of the primary cementing process, to place cement in the annulus between
the casing and the formations exposed to the wellbore, is to provide zonal isolation. To
achieve this, a hydraulic seal must be obtained between the cement and the casing and
between the cement and the formations at the same time preventing fluid channels in the
cement sheath.
This requirement makes the primary cementing operation the most important performed
on the well. To this end, it is vital, that engineers are provided with sufficient information
and guidelines so that they can plan and conduct successful cementing operations
preventing the need to conduct remedial operations which may be damaging to the well
and costly in terms of lost rig time.
This section provides information, guidelines and the basic calculations necessary to
achieve this.
7.3.1 API SPECIFICATION

Portland cement is the most widely used in cementing operations in the oil industry and an
API specification (10) was established. API 10 consists of eight classes of cement, A
through H, to provide standard to suit a range of well conditions. The API classification
system is shown in Table 7-a below:
API Mixing Water Slurry Weight Well Depth Static BHP Slurry
Class Temperature Volume
gal/sk l/sk lbs/gal kg/l ft m °F °C Ft3/sk l/sk
A 5.2 19.7 15.6 1.87 0-6,000 0-1,830 80-130 27-77 1.18 33
B 5.2 19.7 15.6 1.87 0-6,000 0-1,830 80-130 27-77 1.18 33
C 6.3 23.8 14.8 1.77 0-6,000 0-1,830 80-170 27-77 1.32 37
D 4.3 16.3 16.4 1.97 6,000-12,000 1,8303,660 170-260 77-127 1.06 30
E 4.3 16.3 16.4 1.97 6,000-14,000 1,8304,270 170-290 77-143 1.06 30
F 4.3 16.3 16.4 1.97 10,000-16,000 3,050-4,880 230-320 110-160 1.06 30
G 5.0 18.9 15.8 1.89 0-8,000 0-2,440 80-200 27-93 1.15 33
H 4.3 16.3 16.4 1.97 0-8,000 0-2,440 80-200 27-93 1.06 30
Table 7-a - API Cement Specification

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Class A Is intended for use when no special properties are requires.
Class B Has the same properties as class A except has a moderate to

high sulphate resistance (MSR and HSR).
Class C Is intended for use when conditions require high early strength.
Classes D, E and F are referred to as retarded cements developed for higher

temperature and pressures conditions.
Class D Intended for use in moderately high temperatures and pressures

and is available in both MSR and HSR.
Class E Intended for use in high temperature and pressure conditions and
is available in both MSR and HSR.
Class F Intended for use in extreme high temperature and pressure

conditions and is available in both MSR and HSR.
Classes G and H were developed in response to the improved technology in slurry

acceleration and retardation by chemical means. These are the
most widely used cements today.
Class G, H Intended for use as a basic well cement to cover a wide range of
well depths and temperatures and is available in both MSR and
HSR. Types G and H are essentially identical except that H is
significantly coarser than G, evident from their different water
requirements.
Table 7-b shows the typical compressive strengths and thickening times of API cements.
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Well Cement Class A B C D E F G H

Water % by weight of well cement 46 46 56 38 38 38 44 38
Soundness (autoclave expansion), Maximum % 0,055555556 0,055555556 0,055555556 0,055555556 0,055555556 0,055555556 0,055555556 0,055555556
Fineness *(Specific surface) Minimum m2/kg 150 160 220 - - - - -
Free-Water content, Maximum ml - - - - - - 3.5** 3.5**
Compressive Strength Test 8-hours Curing time
Schedule Curing Temp Curing Pressure Minimum Compressive Strength, psi (MPa)
Number o
f (oC) psi(kPa)
- 100 Atmos 250 200 300 - - - 300 300
-38 Atmos (1.7) (1.4) (2.1) - - - (2.1) (2.1)
- 140 Atmos - - - - - - 1,5 1,5
-60 Atmos - - - - - - (10.3) (10.3)
6S 230 3 - - - 500 - - - -
-110 -20,7 - - - (3.5) - - - -
8S 290 3 - - - - 500 - - -
-143 -20,7 - - - - (3.5) - - -
9S 320 3 - - - - - 500 - -
-160 -20,7 - - - - - (3.5) - -
psi(kPa)
o
Number f (oC)
8S 290 3 - - - - - - - -
-143 -20,7 - - - - - - - -
psi(kPa)
o
Number f (oC)
- 100 Atmos 1,8 1,5 2 - - - - -
-38 Atmos (12.4) (10.3) (13.8) - - - - -
4S 170 3 - - - 1 1 - - -
-77 -20,7 - - - (6.9) (6.9) - - -
6S 230 3 - - - 2 - 1 - -
-110 -20,7 - - - (13.8) - (6.9) - -
8S 290 3 - - - - 2 - - -
-143 -20,7 - - - - (13.8) - - -
9S 320 3 - - - - - 1 - -
-160 -20,7 - - - - - (6.9) - -
10S 350 3 - - - - - - - -
-177 -20,7 - - - - - - - -
Pressure Temperature Thickening Time Test
Specification Test Maximum Consistency 15 to 30 min Straining Minimum Thickening Time (min***)
Schedule Number Period B +
1 30 90 90 90 - - - - -
4 30 90 90 90 90 - - - -
5 30 - - - - - - 90 90
5 30 - - - - - - 120 max ++ 120 max ++
6 30 - - - 100 100 100 - -
8 30 - - - - 154 - - -
9 30 - - - - - 190 - -
* Determined by Wagner turbidmeter apparatus

** Based on 250ml volume percentage equivalent 3.5ml is 1.4%
+ Bearden unit of slurry consistency (Bc)
Bc Bearden units of consistency on a preserved consistometer
ABc Beaden units of consistency on an atmosphere pressure consistometer;
The relationship between Bc and ABc is approximately Bc x 0.69 = ABc This relationship is valid for units of consistency less
than 30Bc
*** Thickening time required are based on 75% values of total cement times observed in the casing survey, plus 25% safety
factor
++ Maximum thickening time required for Schedule 5 is 120 mins
Table 7-b - Physical Requirements for API Portland Cements

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Concentration of Additives
The concentrations of most solid cement additives are expressed as percentage by weight
of cement (BWOC). This method is also used for water. For example, if 30% silica sand is
used in a blend, the amount for each sack of cement is 94lbs x 0.30 = 28.2lbs of silica
sand. This results in 94 + 28.2 = 122.2lbs total mix. The true percentage silica sand in the
mix is 28.2/122.2 = 23.07%.
Salt is an exception and is added by weight of mix water (BWOW). Weighting materials
are often added on a lbs/sk basis for convenience as it eliminates the need to convert from
percentage BWOC to lbs in the bulk plant.
Liquid additive concentrations are most commonly expressed in gal/sk of cement. For
example, according to Table 7-c, liquid sodium silicate has an absolute volume of
0.0859gal/lbs. If a concentration of 0.4lbs/sk is prescribed, the weight of the material is
0.4/0.0859 = 4.66lbs/sk.
Material Absolute Volume SG

(gal/lbs) (m3/t)
Barite 0.0278 0.231 4.33
Bentonite 0.0454 0.377 2.65
Coal (ground) 0.0925 0.769 1.30
Gilsonite 0.1123 0.935 1.06
Hematite 0.0244 0.202 4.95
Limonite 0.0270 0.225 4.44
Silica Sand 0.0454 0.377 2.65
NaCl saturated 0.0556 0.463 2.15
Fresh Water 0.1202 1.000 1.00
Table 7-c - Absolute Values of Common Cementing Materials
7.3.2 SLURRY DENSITY AND WEIGHT

The slurry density is calculated by adding the masses of the components and dividing it by
the total of the absolute volumes occupied, i.e. divide the total weight in lbs/volume in gals.
lbcement + lbwater + lbadditives
Pslurry(lbs / gal) =
galcement + galwater + galadditives
The yield of a cement is the volume occupied by a unit plus all the additives and mix
water. Cement is measured is sacks therefore the yield is expressed in cubic feet per sack
(ft3/sk). This is now used to calculate the number of 94lbs sacks required to achieve the
required annulus volume.
As there are 31.51 cubic feet per cubic metre, divide the cubic feet by 31.51 to obtain the
amount of cement in cubic metres.
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Example calculation:
A slurry is composed of G class cement and 50% water, 94 x 0.50 = 47.0lbs water.
Component Weight (lbs) Absolute Volume Volume (gal)

(gal/lbs)
Cement 94 0.0382 3.59
Water 47.0 0.1202 5.65
Total 141.0 9.24
141 . 0
P slurry ( lbs / gal ) = = 15 . 26 lbs / gal
9 . 24
The yield is:

9.24gal / sk
Slurry Yield = = 1.235 ft 3 / sk
7.48gal / sk
The total volume of mix water required is the gals calculated above, 5.65 multiplied by the
number of sacks of cement to be mixed.
Additives are treated in the same manner as above, however if any have a volume less
than 1% then they are generally ignored.
An example calculation with additives is as follows:
A slurry is composed of class G cement + 35% silica flour + 1% solid cellulose loss
additive + 0.2gal/sk liquid PNS dispersant + 44% water.
Component Weight (lbs) Absolute Volume Volume (gal)

(gal/lbs)
Cement 94 0.0382 3.59
Silica flour 32.9 0.0454 1.49
Cellulose Fluid Loss 0.94 0.0932 0.088
Additive
Liquid PNS Dispersant 1.97 0.1014 0.20
Water 41.36 0.1202 4.97
Total 171.17 10.34
171.17
Pslurry(lbs / gal) = = 16.55lbs / gal
10.34
The yield is:

10.34gal / sk
Slurry Yield = = 1.38ft 3 / sk
7.48gal / sk
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7.3.3 CEMENT ADDITIVES

In well cementing, Portland cement systems are designed for temperatures ranges from
below freezing to 700°F (350°C) in thermal recovery and geothermal wells. They also
encounter pressures ranging from ambient to 30,000psi (200Mpa) in deep wells.
Accommodation of such variations in conditions was only possible through the
development of cement additives. They modify the properties of the cement system
allowing successful placement of the slurry between the casing and the formation, rapid
compressive strength development and adequate zonal isolation for the life of the well.
A mixing tank must be used when chemicals are employed and the quantity of chemicals
mixed in water will be carefully checked.
It is not possible to detail all of the 100 or more additives in use today but the
categorisation of these additives and some of those in use, are described below.
There are eight recognised categories:
• Accelerators
• Retarders
• Extenders
• Weighting Agents
• Dispersants
• Fluid Loss Control Agents
• Loss Circulation Control Agents
• Speciality Additives
• Accelerators.
Added to cements to shorten the setting time and/or accelerate the hardening process.
They are also required to counter the effect of other additives added to the slurry such as
dispersants and fluid loss control agents.
Calcium Chloride is undoubtedly the most efficient and economical accelerator. It is
generally added in concentrations of 2-4% BWOC (Refer to Table 7-d) but over 6% its
performance becomes unpredictable and premature setting may occur.
CaCl2 %BWOC 91°F 103°F 113°F

0 4:00 3:30 2:32
2 1:17 1:11 1:01
4 1:15 1:02 0:59
Table 7-d – Calcium Chloride Thickening Time on Portland Cement
CaCl2% 60°F 80°F 100°F

6hr 12hr 24hr 6hr 12hr 24hr 6hr 12hr 24hr
0 Not Set 60 415 45 370 1,260 370 840 1,780
2 125 480 1,510 410 1,020 2,510 1,110 2,370 3,950
4 125 650 1,570 545 1,245 2,890 1,320 2,560 4,450
Table 7-e– Calcium Chloride Compressive Strength Vs Temperature and Time of Portland
Cement
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NaCl can also be used as an accelerator. Seawater is extensively used offshore as it has
a 25g/l NaCl but the concentration of magnesium of about 1.5g/l must be taken into
account.
Retarders
The retardation process is not completely understood but there are a number of additives
available. The chemical nature of the retarder to be used is dependent on the cement
phase (silicate or aluminate).
Common retarders are lignosulphonates, hydroxycarboxylic acids, saccharide
compounds, cellulose derivatives, organophosphonates and inorganic compounds.
Extenders
Extenders are used for the following uses:
• Reduce slurry density
• Increase slurry yield
• Water extenders
• Low-density aggregates
• Gaseous extenders.
A list with general information on the most common extenders is given in Table 7-f.
Extender Range of Slurry Densities Performance Feature and Other

Obtainable (lbs/gal) Benefits
Bentonite 11.5-15.0 Assists fluid loss control.
Fly Ash 13.0-14.1 Resists corrosive fluids.
Sodium Silicates 11.1-14.5 Only low percentages required. Ideal
for seawater mixing.
Microspheres 8.5- 15.0 Good compressive strength, thermal
stability and insulating properties.
Foamed Cement 6.0-15.0 Excellent strength and low
permeability.
Table 7-f- Summary of Extenders
The most frequently used clay-based extender is bentonite which contains 85% of the clay
mineral smectite (or montmorillonite). It is added in concentrations of up to 20% BWOC.
Concentrations above 6% require the addition of a dispersant to reduce the slurry viscosity
and gel strength. API recommends that 5.3% water BWOW be added for each 1%
bentonite but testing with a particular cement is necessary to determine the optimum water
content. Table 7-g shows the slurry density decreases and the yield increases quickly with
bentonite concentration, however compressive strength correspondingly decreases.
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Bentonite Class G - 44% Water

Concentration %
Water (gal/sk) Slurry Density Yield (ft3/sk)
(lbs/gal)
0 4.97 15.8 1.14
2 6.17 15.0 1.31
4 7.36 14.4 1.48
6 8.56 13.9 1.65
8 9.76 13.5 1.82
10 10.95 13.1 1.99
12 12.15 12.7 2.16
16 14.55 12.3 2.51
20 16.94 11.9 2.85
Table 7-g- Bentonite Effects on Slurry Properties
High concentrations of bentonite tend to improve fluid loss and is also effective at elevated
temperatures.
Weighting Agents
When high pore pressures, unstable well bores, and deformable/plastic formations are
encountered, high weight muds of over 18ppg may be used are correspondingly cement
slurries of equal weight must be used.
One method of achieving high weight slurries is to simply reduce the amount of mix water,
however dispersants would be required to maintain pumpability. When weights higher than
this are required, materials with high SGs are added. The most common weighting agents
and there properties are shown in Table 7-h.
Material Specific Gravity Absolute Colour Additional Water

Volume (gal/lbs) (gal/lbs)
Limonite 4.45 0.027 Black 0.00
Hematite 4.95 0.024 Red 0.0023
Barite 4.33 0.028 White 0.024
Table 7-h- Common Weighting Material Properties
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7.3.4 SALT CEMENT

Salt cements have applications where freshwater cement will not bond properly. This is
usually in wells which have salt formations where water will dissolve the formation or leach
away the salt at the interface producing no bond at all. A good bond can be achieved if
salt slurries are used. Salt slurries found another use to protect shale formations which are
sensitive to fresh water and tend to slough when in contact. This problem causes:
• Excessive washouts and channelling behind the pipe
• Lost circulation into the weakened shale structure
• Annular bridging which may prevent slurry circulation.
The cement used in salt slurries is usually NaCl but there is no reason that KCl cannot be
used. Previously, the benefits of using salt cements was known but was unpopular due to
the inconvenience of premixing salt with water prior to adding cement. Today the
technique of blending dry granulated salt with cement at the bulk plant greatly simplifies its
use.
The mix water requires a minimum 3.1lbs of dry salt for every gallon of water (0.3714kg/l)
or 37.2 BWOW. If the concentration is less then the slurry will not be saturated and may
cause the problems previously outlined. If more salt is added then there is no detrimental
effect except changes in density and pumping ability.
Table 7-i shows the BWOW for various concentrations of salt in water including saturated:
Concentration %BWOW Absolute Volume

(gal/lbs) (m3/t)
2 0.0771 0.310
4 0.0378 0.316
6 0.0384 0.321
8 0.0390 0.326
10 0.0394 0.329
12 0.0399 0.333
14 0.0403 0.336
16 0.0407 0.340
18 0.0412 0.344
20 0.0416 0.347
22 0.0420 0.351
24 0.0424 0.354
26 0.0428 0.357
28 0.0430 0.359
30 0.0433 0.361
32 0.0436 0.363
34 0.0439 0.366
37.2 saturated 0.0442 0.369
Table 7-i - BWOW for Various Concentrations of Salt in Water
An example calculation of a salt slurry using the previous fresh water slurry is as follows:
94lbs cement x 50% = 47lbs
47lbs of water x .372 = 17.48lbs NaCl

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Component Weight Absolute Volume Volume

(lbs) (gal/lbs) (gal)
Cement 94 0.0382 3.59
NaCl 17.48 0.0442 0.77
Water 47.00 0.1202 5.65
Total 158.48 10.01
158.48
Pslurry(lbs / gal) = = 15.26lbs / gal
10.01
The yield is:

10.01gal / sk
Slurry Yield = = 1.338ft 3 / sk
7.48gal / sk
7.3.5 SPACERS AND WASHES

When the fluids are incompatible, to ensure all the mud is displaced, it is common practice
to pump one or more intermediate fluid or preflushes which are compatible with both the
mud and the slurry. This will buffer the two fluids and prepares the casing and formation
walls leaving them receptive to bonding. To accomplish all of the above, the rheological
and chemical properties must be carefully designed.
The rheology and density of washes are close to that of water or oil. They act be thinning
and dispersing the mud and, because of their very low viscosity, they are ideal for use in
turbulent flow. The simplest form of wash is fresh water although surfactants and
dispersants are often added.
Spacers are also used which are preflushes with a much higher solids content. The
particles are thought to scrub the walls and provide a better preparation. The most
common spacer is a scavenger slurry which is a cement slurry with a low density and low
fluid loss rate good for turbulent flow. The best spacer is a spacer that has a density
higher than the mud but less than the cement slurry. This is achieved by adding weighting
agents (usually insoluble minerals with high density) with a viscosifier for efficient
suspension.
There are two classes of viscosifiers:
a) Water soluble polymers
• Polycrylamides
• Guar and guar derivatives
• Cellulose derivatives, CMC, HEC, HMC, HPC
b) Xantham gum and other biopolymers
• Inorganic clays
• Bentonite, attapulgite, kaolinite, sepiolite
It is recommended that, unless an effective mud density is required to control the

formation pressure, a water spacer be used on all cement jobs which shall have sufficient
volume to provide a contact time of three mins.
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7.3.6 SLURRY SELECTION

The selection of a slurry design depends on many factors other than simply pore and
fracture pressures:
• Cements are sometimes mixed at high density to achieve specific
strengths within a short time interval or it may be designed on an
economic basis where high yield per sack is achieved at the expense of
strength.
• Temperature as previously explained has a large impact on the class of
cement that can be used.
• Fluid loss additives are necessary where the cement is in contact with
production zones or in small annular gaps to prevent the loss of the
aqueous phase. As fluid loss additives are viscosifiers they require
dispersants to be added to preserve mixability.
• Dispersants are used for the previous reason but also to reduce viscosity
and reduce pump pressures and improve placement efficiency. Caution
should be taken when using dispersants as they can change thickening
time.
• Additives such as accelerators and retarders are required to hasten or
slow down the setting times.
In the main, the compressive strength of the cement is secondary to the properties of the
liquid slurry as cement systems generally provide strengths which exceed those actually
required in most cases.
7.3.7 CEMENT PLACEMENT

Good mud removal is the essence of obtaining a successful primary cement job and
therefore the use of an effective preflush and/or spacer is pumped between the mud and
the slurry.
Freshwater spacers are normally used when water based mud is in the hole and salt
tolerant spacers for salt saturated muds. Oil based mud is generally removed with spacers
dosed with surfactants and/or organic solvents.
In every case laboratory testing should be carried out beforehand to ensure that no
unforeseen interactions can occur, hence affecting the performance of the spacer.
7.3.8 WELL CONTROL

Every well has a band of pressures in which the engineer must remain to execute a
successful cementing operation. The limiting pressure boundaries are determined by
formation pore and fracture pressures and casing strength limits. Unless a software
package is used, the engineer would find it impractical to calculate the pressures at point
in the well throughout the entire job, therefore, if it is necessary to conduct manual
calculations, the usual approach is to select the worst case scenario analysis technique
where the key points will be identified and examined.
These are normally at the weakest formations which will experience their highest pressure
at the end of the displacement just before the plug bumps and conversely the at high
pressure zones at the time the low density preflush or spacer passes.
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A good rule of thumb under such circumstances, is to select the shallowest active zone
which poses a risk to security and concentrate on the worst cases at this point using
hydrostatic pressure without the friction component.
An important impact on well control is the amount of excess cement calculated which can
cause higher than expected hydrostatic pressure is the hole is close to gauge causing
losses therefore compromising the success of the job and well security.
Similarly, if using low density flushes or spacers, better than expected hole gauge will
raise the column of the fluid to higher than expected height therefore exerting reduced
hydrostatic pressure.
If pressure band over long sections to be cemented is narrow, it may be necessary to vary
the density of the cement slurry and pump two slurries, a lead and tail with different
densities. See example Figure 7-3.
Figure 7-3- Downhole Pressure Density Plot
7.3.9 JOB DESIGN

The selection of a slurry for a job design is dependent upon conducting a problem analysis
into:
• Depth/configuration data
• Wellbore environment
• Temperature data.
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These data will directly affect the basic cement properties and displacement regime. The
annular configuration will determine which flow regime is practical and required rheological
properties. Wellbore conditions will indicate whether special materials are required due to
the presence of gas, salt, etc., need to be incorporated. The mud density indicates the
minimum acceptable cement slurry density. These factors, together with the temperature
data, guide the selection of the additives for the control of the slurry flow properties and
thickening time.
Depth/Configuration data
The hole depth and configuration will make a considerable impact on the temperature and
fluid volume, hydrostatic pressure and friction pressure. This could even lead to the design
of a special system.
In open hole sections the volume of slurry depends upon the shape of the hole which is
rarely ‘gauge’ and some formations are liable to become eroded or washed out. For open
hole sections the volume should have an increment added to cater for such problems. If
there is a reason to have doubts over the size of the hole, a caliper survey should be run
to estimate the hole size. It should be noted that the amount of pads on the caliper will
affect the accuracy of the calculation if the hole is not round.
The increments to be applied in absence of a caliper survey are:
• Surface Casing 100%
• Intermediate Casing 50%
• Production Casing 30%
If a log is available the increment will be the hole volume calculation plus 10%.
The trapped volume between the cement collar and cement shoe must be added to total
volume.
Wellbore Environment
Pore pressure in the formations are important from a security standpoint and, in
conjunction with leak-off test results, to prevent formation damage through fracturing or
leak-off of cement into producing zones. The engineer must not look solely at target zones
but also the risk from other non-producing zones. The presence of gas, salt and other
formations will also affect the job design.
Mud physical and chemical properties must also be considered, with regard to
compatibility with chemical washes, spacers or other fluids. The displacement of oil based
mud from formations may invariable require the use of surfactants to improve
compatibility, remove oil film from the formations and leave the surfaces water wet.
If 100% mud removal is not possible, the slurry properties can be altered to ensure it is not
adversely affected by the mud. Data on compatibility can be obtained by laboratory
testing.
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Temperature data
Circulating bottom hole and static temperatures need to be considered as well as the
temperature differential between the bottom and top of the cement column. The circulating
temperature is the temperature it will be exposed to as it is placed in the well and for which
the thickening time tests for high-temperature and high-pressure is carried out.
Circulating temperatures by calculation in accordance with temperature schedules
published in API 10 Specification. However, actual temperature is often preferred and
these can be obtained by running a temperature measurement device.
One rule of thumb which should apply to the slurry design, is to ensure that the static
temperature at the top of the cement exceeds the circulating bottom hole temperature. If
this is not the case then stage cementing should be employed. This rule of thumb also
provides a means of determining the depth for the location of the cementing stage collar.
Slurry Preparation
Mixing is one of the most important practical cementing problems. The goal of the mixing
process is to obtain the correct proportioning of solids and carrier fluid with the properties
similar to those of the expected from pre-job lab testing. If this is not achieved, the careful
pre-planning calculations to determine the displacement rate, friction pressure, etc., will be
erroneous and thickening time and fluid loss parameters may change dramatically.
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7.3.9.1 THEORETICAL TOP OF CEMENT
Casing Srting Platform Development Wells Wells With Sub-Sea Wellheads

String and Jack-ups
Conductor N/A Seabed
Surface • 100ft inside conductor with Seabed
>150 ft penetration.
• 50ft inside conductor with
<150 ft penetration.
Note : If the TOC has not reached
the conductor shoe, a cement plug
may be set in the conductor shoe,
length dependent on platform
requirements and practicalities,
through recementation hoses.
Intermediate • 500 ft inside the surface Note: For Sub-Sea Completion

casing shoe, or 500 ft inside Wells a section of open hole must
the previous casing shoe. be left between the TOC and
• Below surface casing shoe to previous casing to allow a pressure
facilitate any future sidetrack relief path for the annulus which
operation or cuttings cannot be bled down if pressurised
reinjection. by produced fluids over time.
• 1000 ft AHD minimum above
the top of known Note : A section of open hole
hydrocarbons. should also be left if cuttings
Note : Not having cement inside reinjection is required or if there is
the previous shoe may affect the a possibility of side-tracking.
abandonment design.
Production Gas Wells : Generally, the • 500 ft inside the previous
theoretical TOC will be inside the shoe,
previous casing and in some cases • 3000 ft above the production
may be required to be at 1500 ft shoe, or
TVDBDF. The TOC will always be • 500 ft above the the top
detailed in the drilling programme. hydrocarbon bearing zone in
open hole, whichever is
Oil & Water Wells : The higher.
theoretical TOC should ideally be
3000 ft AH above the production Note: For Sub-Sea Completion
casing shoe and 500 ft above the Wells a section of open hole must
top of known hydrocarbons. be left between the TOC and
previous casing to allow a pressure
Note : Having an uncemented relief path for the annulus which
section and/or reducing the cement cannot be bled down if pressurised
column for possible future by produced fluids over time.
sidetracks is permissible, unless
the cement column above the top
of known hydrocarbons becomes
less than mandatory 1000 ft AHD.
Liner • TOC at the top of the PBR, • TOC at the top of the PBR,
• For a 4 1/2" liner in 6" hole, • For a 4 1/2" liner in 6" hole,
theoretical TOC should be 500 theoretical TOC should be 500
ft above the top of the PBR ft above the top of the PBR
when the drill pipe is removed. when the drill pipe is removed.
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7.3.10 EARLY GAS MIGRATION CONTROL

This section contains operating practices and primary cementing design recommendations
for inhibiting annular fluid flow by barriers including hydrostatic pressure, mechanical
seals, or cement.
The practical consequences of this phenomenon range from problems linked to the onset
of a gas flow from a given formation just a few hours after the job has ended (so-called
“early gas migration”) to annulus pressurization which can only be detected after weeks or
months, or even to actual cases of blow-outs with the well being abandoned .
Remedial jobs are performed fairly frequently to block or decrease the gas flow. However
squeeze jobs are not usually very efficient, mainly because of difficulties in locating the
flow path (at times submillimeter), or because the communication path which has been
created is too small to be filled with cement or very often because the interzonal gas
migration, without surface shows, is difficult to detect.
For these reasons, preventing gas migration is fundamental and far more preferable than
performing costly remedial jobs.
Achieving zonal isolation in the presence of a potential annular flow requires not only the
modification of the cement properties to facilitate control of migrating formation fluids but
also several other actions including:
• A stable wellbore – no losses or gains

• Adequate annular circulating flow clearances
• Proper mud conditioning
• Spacer design
• Casing centralization
• Tripping requirements
• Drilling techniques
• Well monitoring
7.3.10.1 PHYSICAL PROCESSES LINKED TO GAS MIGRATION

Gas migration is a complex phenomenon related to the control of fluid densities, the
removal of mud during displacement, the properties of cementing slurries, the hydration of
the cement, the bond which is created between the cement/casing/formation.
It is difficult to understand and model the migration phenomenon as the material through
which the gas may induce channelling consists of a cement column (with the possible
presence of spacers and mud left in the well), with properties that change over time.
In fact, the cementing slurry’s state changes from liquid, immediately after displacement,
to gel after a short period of time, to a permeable fragile solid, until it becomes an
impermeable solid during the hardening stages. In order to better understand the problem,
it is important to analyze each stage of the entire cementing process.
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7.3.10.1.1 Evaluate Well For Flow Potential

Before drilling a well, one should attempt to identify and analyze potential flow zones. A
variety of techniques are available to do this, three of which are discussed below. The
success of these techniques in identifying and successfully dealing with flow zones is
related to the quality of the available data, a company’s experience in a specific
geographical area, and the quality of personnel.
7.3.10.1.2 Engineering Design

Cementing objectives determine the cement designs to be used, extent of cement
coverage with each, and performance requirements of each. Performance requirements
include gas control, fluid loss, free fluid, thickening time, and compressive strength.
Tensile strength and elasticity may also be considerations.
Zonal coverage determination.

It is important to evaluate which zone(s) have potential for flow in order to plan the cement
job to achieve suitable zonal isolation. Ideally, such zones should be covered with a
cement slurry designed to prevent flow after cementing and the cement placement
mechanics should be designed to maximize mud removal. Zones left uncemented may not
flow in the short term if pore pressure is balanced by mud hydrostatic head. However,
phenomena such as barite sag and mud dehydration may lead to longer-term sustained
casing pressure.
Cement top selection is influenced by the location of the problem zones, regulatory
requirements and pore pressure/fracture gradient considerations. Higher density tail
slurries may be more easily designed to be “gas tight” than lighter weight lead systems.
If the potential problem zone is to be covered by tail cement, the tail slurry should have a
shorter zero gel period than the lead slurry so gel strength development in the lead slurry
does not reduce the hydrostatic head exerted on the zone before the tail slurry goes
through transition.
Pore pressure/frac gradient.

Accurate knowledge of pore pressure and fracture gradient profiles is necessary for a
successful cement job. Pore pressure is one piece of information needed to assess flow
potential. The pore pressure and fracture gradient profiles are two of many input values
used in computer simulation programs used to evaluate static and dynamic well security.
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Temperature (Thermal modeling and/or measurement or offset)

Temperature is the single greatest influence on cement slurry performance. Accurate
estimates of cementing temperatures (both static and circulating) are essential to the
success of the cement job. For many wells, API temperature schedules provide adequate
estimates of circulating temperatures. However, these schedules are based on data
collected in wells in shallow water with little deviation (API Report 10TR3 - Technical
Report on Temperatures for API Cement Operating Thickening Time Tests – 1993 Report
from the API Task Group on Cementing Temperature Schedules). The API schedules
should not be used for wells that vary greatly from these conditions (e.g. deepwater).
Computer-based thermal modeling programs may be used to develop cementing

temperatures. Such programs are not simple and require a relatively large amount of input
information including static temperature, formation and well fluid thermal characteristics
and estimated job volumes and pump rates.
Temperature information may be obtained from measurement-while-drilling (MWD) tools

as the hole is drilled. Temperatures from MWD devices tend to be higher than those
derived from models or sensors used on cleanup trips. Several things account for this
including an elevated mud suction temperature while drilling compared to initial slurry
temperature while cementing. Some bottom hole assemblies and formation types have
been demonstrated to give very elevated MWD readings.
In summary, there are many sources of temperature information. All temperature

information should be considered. Rather than a single, “correct” answer, the engineer
will likely be presented with a range of likely temperature values. The slurry design must
perform acceptably over the anticipated range.
7.3.10.1.3 Mud removal

Gas migration has always been associated to poor mud removal during displacement as
the mud can remain in the casing/borehole annulus, forming channels which are identical
to communication paths. It is also associated to a poor bond at the
casing/cement/formation interfaces due, for example, to dehydration of the mud cake, with
it then shrinking and microcracking.
Although other important causes have also been identified, the efficient removal of mud
from the well is a fundamental requisite for controlling gas migration.
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The following important aspects should be taken into account for successful jobs:
PROCESS ACTION
Pipe centralization • Centralize the pipe using a software
simulator to obtain a minimum 75-80%
standoff
• Centralize at least across the intervals to
be isolated (if there are two or more
intervals avoid to leave pipe without
centralizers between the interest zones)
Pipe Movement • Evaluate swab and surge pressure
• Perform at least a small amount of
movement
Condition the drilling fluid • Modify the flow properties of the drilling
fluid to optimise drilling fluid mobility and
removal of drilling cuttings. Yield Point
(YP) and Gel Strengths should be
maintained as low as possible without
causing settling and barite sag dowhole
• Measure gel strengths at 10 second, 10
minutes, 30 minutes and 4 hours to
examine the gel strength profile of the
drilling fluid and maintain flat behaviour
• In case of oil base mud avoid to increase
oil wetting agent and emulsifiers
Mud circulation guidelines • Determine the minimum flow rate for the
mud to be mobilized all around the pipe
during circulation.
• Never allow the drilling fluids to set for
extended periods, especially at elevated
temperature
Slurry preparation • Prepare slurry as uniform as possible
Flow displacement Design the flow rate to obtain turbulent flow
or effective laminar flow utilizing appropriate
software. General rules for ELF are:
• a minimum relative difference of 20 %
between the mud and the cement density
is recommended
• maintain rheology contrast between the
different fluids; friction pressure drop ratio
between two fluids (spacer and mud,
cement and spacer) should be at least 1.2
• Minimum Pressure Gradient. MPG, should
be established to ensure that the
displaced fluids mud and spacer are
mobile on the narrow side of the annulus
Continue.→
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PROCESS ACTION
Flow displacement • velocity differential criterion; the velocity of
the interface between two fluids should be
not higher on the wide side than on the
narrow side
Spacers and Flushes • Optimize composition in order to obtain
the designed flow properties
• Determine the compatibility of drilling
fluids-spacer-cement interface (rheology,
thickening time and curve behaviour)
• Use surfactant in case of displacement of
oil base mud (determine concentration and
efficiency with appropriate procedure)
• In addition of flush and spacer use
scavenger slurry with density equal to the
spacer (determine volume according flow
rate with at least 5 min of contact time)
Position of the plugs • Use three plugs to separate spacer and
cement from drilling fluids (separate tail
slurry from scavenger)
Rat Hole • When applicable, as weighted, viscous pill
in the rat hole prevents cement from
swapping with ligther weight mud during
the cement job or when displacements
stops.
7.3.10.2 SLURRY DESIGN AND TESTING

Cement must be placed in the wellbore and provide good contact with the casing and
borehole wall, prevent the formation of channels within the cement and prevent the
invasion and propagation of fluid through the cement as it sets. The cement should
maintain its integrity throughout the operation of the well and after.
Cement properties necessary to meet these objectives include:
• rheological properties that aid mud displacement,
• hydrostatic pressure control,
• fluid loss control as appropriate,
• free fluid and sedimentation control,
• control of gel strength development,
• resistance to invasion of gas or fluid,
• rapid set and adequate short term and ultimate strength,
• long-term sealing (bonding/flexibility);
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Test methods for determining the performance of cement are described in API RP 10B
(ISO 10426-2), ISO 10426-3, ISO 10426-4, and ISO 10426-5. These methods should be
modified, as closely as possible, to the conditions to which the cement will be exposed
during placement across the potential flowing zones requiring isolation.
Temperature/pressure schedules should be devised for conditioning and curing the
cement for these tests. The use of thermal wellbore simulators is discussed previously.
7.3.10.2.1 Lead and Tail Cement

Lead and tail cements are routinely placed in the annulus during primary casing
cementing. Lead cements are cement slurries that are designed with lower densities by
extending the cement with low cost components, either water or readily available low-cost
materials. In addition to the cost consideration, low density lead cements are used to lower
the hydrostatic pressures to avoid or minimize losses of the cement to the formations. Tail
cements are cements mixed without extending components and are thus more costly.
The design of the cement, which will cover the potential flowing formations, must be
considered carefully. Lead cements, although not normally “designed” to cover formations,
which might flow, can be designed to control flows. Doing so may require special
formulations. In most cases, potentially productive formations, which have the potential for
flow after cementing are covered by “tail” slurries. Such slurries are frequently designed
with special properties and/or additives to control the flow. Lead slurries, which are placed
across “non-productive” formations having the potential to flow should be designed with
the same criteria as slurries placed across the pay zones.
7.3.10.2.2 Controlling densities

The gas can invade and migrate in the cement annulus only if formation pressure is higher
than the hydrostatic pressure on the formation. So controlling density should be
considered as a priority in order to prevent gas flow during cement jobs.
The main difference between well control during drilling and cementing jobs is the free fall
or U-tubing phenomenon which occurs during the latter. Because of the difference in the
densities of mud, preflushes, spacers and cementing slurries, the hydrostatic pressure
exerted on the gas formation is not constant throughout the cement job. If the hydrostatic
pressure drops below the formation pressure at a given moment, a gas kick could be
generated further decreasing the hydrostatic pressure, thus leading to an irreversible
process of gas invasion. So it is extremely important to design an operation using
calculation tools which simulate the U-tubing phenomenon, thus ensuring that pressure at
the critical zone is maintained between pore pressure and fracturing pressure for all the
time required to complete the job.
Another important factor in controlling density is the cementing slurry mixing operation.
Many jobs which use vast amounts of cementing slurry are carried out with a continuous
mixing method. So the density of the cementing slurry may change greatly compared to
the designed value and this causes the onset of a non-uniform hydrostatic pressure in the
annulus. These conditions can give rise to premature gelling, excess free water or
separation of solids (settling), incorrect rheology and setting times, with negative effects
for gas migration control.
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7.3.10.2.3 Controlling filtration

In static conditions, after pumping in the cementing slurry, the uncontrolled loss of fluid
caused by filtration from the slurry towards permeable formations contributes to reducing
volume. This leads to a drop in the pressure inside the cement column, creating space for
gas to enter.
Before the cement sets, the interstitial water of the slurry is mobile. So if the hydrostatic
pressure exceeds formation pressure, a certain amount of fluid loss can always be
expected. The process slows down, forming cake which becomes increasingly
impermeable on the borehole wall; this process stops completely when equal pressures
are reached. After reaching this equilibrium, every small change in the volume inside the
cement will rapidly decrease the pore pressure of the slurry, when not supported by the
hydrostatic column (for example for gels), leading to a quick onset of gas invasion.
So poor control of cementing slurry filtration, can step up the decrease in pore pressure.
An equally important factor is to keep the free water value of the cementing slurry close to
zero, especially in highly deviated boreholes, in order to prevent the separation of solid
particles in the lower part of the borehole and the formation of a water channel in the
upper part, which could constitute the gas migration path.
7.3.10.2.4 Gel Strength

Gel strength affects the ability of slurries to suspend their solids. It also contributes to
decay of hydrostatic pressure as the gelled fluid interacts with the casing and the borehole
wall. Thus, the gel strength of cement slurries should be designed to be adequate to
support the solids and yet, not be excessive. One method to evaluate gel strength
development is to measure the “critical gel strength period.”
There are two approaches to the control of gel strength for annular flow control; low gel
strength until just before setting and rapid gel strength development to 500 lbf/100 ft2.
The Critical Gel Strength Period is the time between the development of critical static
gel strength (CSGS) and 500 lb/100 ft2.
The CSGS is the gel strength of the cement that results in decay of hydrostatic pressure to
the point that the pressure is balanced (equals pore pressure) across the potential flowing
formation(s).
Gel strength can be controlled by the use of additives. Additives for controlling other
properties of the cement should be selected with control of gel strength in mind.
The CSGS is computed by:

CSGS = (OBP)(300)/(L/Deff), . Eq. 7-1
Where:
OBP = overbalance pressure (psi) 300 = conversion factor (lb/in.)
L = length of the cement column (ft) Deff = effective diameter (in.) =DOH - Dc
Dc = diameter of the casing (in.) DOH = diameter of the open hole (in.)
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Critical Gel Strength Period

The critical gel strength period should be minimized to the extent possible, preferably less
than 35÷45 minutes (measured at the temperature of the potentially flowing zone).
7.3.10.2.5 Mechanical Strength

The development of strength is a primary consideration in continued operations following a
primary cementing job. Early work has shown that 8 psi tensile strength (or about 100 psi
compressive strength; compressive strength is about 8-12 times tensile strength for most
cements) is adequate to support the casing. Waiting on cement (WOC) time is normally
until laboratory testing has shown the cement around the casing shoe to develop 500 psi
compressive strength. The allowable activity after cementing should depend on the
strength development profile of the cement.
7.3.10.3 HOW THE GAS ENTERS THE ANNULUS

Understanding the mechanism of gas migration is complicated by the change in the
physical state of the cement column in the annulus over time.
At the start, the cementing slurry fully transmits the hydrostatic pressure as a dense
suspension of solid particles. This suspension then turns into a two-phase substance
including a network of solid particles and a fluid inside the pores. Lastly, during the final
stage, the setting process turns the slurry into a thoroughly impermeable solid material.
After cement pumping in, the gas may enter by different mechanisms, depending on which
stage the setting cement is at.
When bump plug is made and so when the operation is completed, the cementing slurry
in the annulus fully transmits its own hydrostatic pressure. If formation pressure is not
greater than this pressure, the gas cannot invade nor consequently migrate. However, the
annulus pressure begins to decrease nearly immediately, due to the combined effect of
the development of gels, the loss of filtrate and shrinkage.
The reduction in pressure is described by the evolution of shear stress at the borehole wall
(WSS) which enables a part of the hydrostatic pressure to be withstood, as the gels
develop. Axial or vertical strain must be applied to the cementing slurry at the wall of the
annulus so that the stress can offset the hydrostatic pressure. This strain is generated by
the removal of material during the setting process, mainly due to filtration and chemical
shrinkage. If we assume that the shear stress at the borehole wall (WSS) is equal to the
gel strength (SGS) of the cementing slurry and that there is sufficient axial strain, we can
use a simplified equation which describes the reduction in hydrostatic pressure during the
gelling stage:
4L . Eq. 7-2
∆P = SGS ⋅
dh − dc
where:
∆P = variation in the hydrostatic pressure (Pa) SGS = static gel strength (Pa) at time t
L = length of the cement section (m) dh = borehole diameter (m)
dc = cemented column diameter (m)
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As the cement gradually sets, the value of the gel in static conditions increases continually
at a rate which is related to the type of cementing slurry used and the well conditions.
There will be a particular moment where gas enters the annulus if the transmitted
pressure is lower than formation pore pressure at that point.
7.3.10.4 FROM THE THEORY TO SOLUTIONS

Over the years, many methods have been suggested by the industry for controlling gas
migration and historically speaking these methods reflect the level of know-how acquired
at the time they were proposed. It is worth mentioning again that all the methods
suggested must be combined with good operative practices necessary for total mud
removal from the well as this is still the fundamental requisite for tackling gas migration.
The applied methodologies can be divided into two major categories which complement
each other:
physical techniques, to be adopted together with the correct operative practices; the use of
cementing slurries with particular characteristics.
7.3.10.4.1 Physical techniques

It is a well known fact that a certain number of physical techniques are available and
these, in certain circumstances, are suitable for tackling gas migration.
These techniques include:
• applying surface pressure to the annulus;
• using an ECP (External Casing Packer) in one or more intervals;
• reducing the hydrostatic pressure (reducing the cement top, multistage
cementing, differential setting cementing slurry);
• using pulsation process technique
These techniques cannot always be applied (and are usually not very efficient if adopted
alone), as the well characteristics sometimes involve precise conditions. For example, the
presence of formations with a low fracturing gradient means that the annulus cannot be
pressurized at the surface reaching values high enough to offset the drop in bottom hole
pressure, as this could lead to circulation losses. The use of an ECP requires a suitable
formation in order to create a good degree of insulation; the job is also complicated as the
clearance of the annulus is reduced and very often tools do not work perfectly because of
possible damage during their run in the hole. Above all, the presence of ECPs, by
reducing the hydrostatic pressure transmitted by the fluids above the packer (when the
packer is set) enables gas to invade the well (filtration and shrinkage below the packer can
accentuate the problem in the short term), thus the ECP remains the only existing barrier
to offset the flow of gas to the surface, yet it enables interzonal communication between
the formations located below this tool.
Maintain pressure or full hole

In order to maintain maximum overbalance pressure, some pressure or the fluid level must
be maintained in the annulus. In addition to maintaining the overbalance pressure, a full
hole will give an earlier warning if the well begins flowing and allows for tracking losses.
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Subsurface Mechanical Barriers

Some mechanical barriers can be run downhole to isolate an annulus. The positioning of
these devices depends on both purpose and design. To avoid exposing potential trapped
pressure, the subsurface mechanical barrier should be placed deep enough, for example
below the mudline, so that it remains in place when the well is plugged and abandoned.
The following is an examples of tool that can be used as subsurface mechanical barriers.
Inflatable External Casing Packers (ECPs) are packers that have inflatable elements
mounted on mandrels that are equivalent to the liner or casing string. The advantages of
ECPs include the ability to run through reduced IDs and seal in larger ID sections of
casing or irregular open hole. If the ECP is set directly above the problem zone in open
hole then all casings above the zone are protected. Elements can be designed for specific
applications but the minimum OD is generally 1” greater than casing OD. The wellhead
and BOP stack must be selected with a minimum ID sufficient to accommodate the ECP.
The differential pressure capability of a liquid filled ECP is a function of element design
and the ID of the casing or open hole that it is set in. Inflation with fluid that is inside the
casing at the time of the primary cement job is a simple operation that requires only that a
differential pressure be applied to the ECP valve system. If the element is inflated with
cement then the differential pressure capability is limited only by the casing or open-hole
strength. Cement inflation is recommended for many applications. In conventional casing
cementing operations spacer fluids are used to locate cement inside the ECP at the time
of plug bump and pressure is applied to inflate the ECP with cement. In all applications
planning is critical, and analysis of temperature and pressure changes during the life of the
well must be included in the ECP design.
The figure below shows the schematic of valve control collar and inflation fluid flow path
from casing into the inflatable rubber element.
Figure 7-4
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A plastic knockoff rod isolates this valve system from pressure inside the casing during
running. This permits circulation for conditioning mud or washing out bridges with no risk
of premature packer inflation. When the bottom plug is pumped down hole ahead of the
cement, it knocks off the protruding hollow rod, thus exposing the ports to the control
valve.
The adjustable control valve remains closed until differential pressure from casing to
annulus exceeds the rating of the shear pin. After the first top wiper plug is seated,
increasing casing pressure applied from the surface shears the pin to open the control
valve and inflate the packer with cement. Valve operation is confirmed by a surface
pressure drop.
Careful volumetric measurement verifies element inflation.
Desired formation loading can be achieved by calculations considering internal and
external fluid densities, packer depth, formation characteristics, and other data. Radial
load has been applied with the PACWPERF system up to 1.3 psi/foot gradient. When
inflation is complete, casing pressure is released.
Check valves in the control collar retain pressure within the packer element while inflation
cement sets, preventing cement shrinkage.
Multiple packers have been installed using successively greater control valve settings
(stronger shear pins) to control inflation. In these configurations, the deepest packer is
inflated first. This basic valve system has proven effective and reliable in inflatable casing
packer installations offshore and onshore.
The E.C.P. are available in the size as per the following table:
Casing Packer Minimum Maximum

size O.D. running packer
clearanc expansio
e n
4 1/2 5.625 6.250 13.5
5 6.000 6.500 15.0
5 1/2 6.500 7.000 16.5
7 8.125 8.500 21.0
7 5/8 8.813 9.500 23
9 5/8 11.250 12.000 29
Table 7.3-j External Casing Packer Sizes
Cement Pulsation Process and Equipment

Cement pulsation is a novel technology for enhancing zonal isolation by applying low
frequency, hydraulic, pressure pulses to the wellhead immediately after cementing. The
treatment maintains the slurry in a liquid state, which transmits hydrostatic pressure
downhole, and keeps the well overbalanced thus preventing early gas flow after
cementing.
After cement placement, the well annulus is intermittently pressurized-depressurized by
cyclically pumping water from the cement pulsation unit to the wellhead.
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A portable cement pulsation unit consists of an air compressor, water tank, hoses to
connect to the well, instrumentation and a recording system. Pulses are applied to the
annulus by water that is pressurized by the air compressor. After charging the well, the
water is bled back to the tank.
7.3.10.4.2 Special cementing slurries (Gas-Block)

Many additives have been studied and applied with the aim of modifying the behaviour of
cementing slurries; however generally speaking, each additive acts on just some of the
properties responsible for gas migration. Consequently, cementing slurries are divided into
categories according to the fundamental element which characterizes them.
Reduced filtrate cementing slurries

Free water and filtration were previously mentioned as factors causing the onset of gas
migration. Usually an API filtrate below 30 mL/30 min in static well conditions is
considered to be necessary , along with a maximum free water content of 0.25%.
Compressible cementing slurries

These types of cementing slurries were developed in an attempt to maintain the pore
pressure, inside the cement matrix, above formation pressure; there are two main sub-
categories of products: foam cement and in situ gas generators.
The critical aspects of these systems, and especially systems which produce hydrogen, is
their safe use and their possible instability in the event that the gas forms bubbles which
merge by coalescence and start to migrate, thus promoting channelling for the formation
gas.
Cementing slurries with surfactants

Cementing slurries contain surfactants which, in some circumstances, can control gas
invasion. Their mechanism of action is to create a stable foam (with the formation gas),
which can significantly resist the flow.
Expanding cementing slurries

As already mentioned, the creation of microfractures in cementing slurry which is more or
less gelled or set depends on the distribution of the stresses which are generated in the
annulus. The elimination of these stresses eliminates gas migration. It is therefore
necessary to design a cementing slurry with a low shrinkage value, low filtrate and avoid
excessive changes in pressure inside the column. The use of cementing slurries which
can expand while setting is sometimes considered as a further method for offsetting these
stresses.
Even though the cement expands, the values of internal shrinkage and decrease in pore
pressure are the same as those of non expanding cements.
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Thixotropic cementing slurries

During the primary stage, when the cementing slurry is still a liquid suspension, the gas
bubbles can move in the cement column only if the yield stress of the fluid is lower than a
given critical value. By designing the slurry in such a way that gel strength quickly
develops, the gas can be trapped before it rises in the form of bubbles, thus preventing
interzonal communication and the gas reaching the surface.
Thixotropic cementing slurries can provide for quick gelling in two different ways.
The hydrostatic pressure transmitted by the thixotropic systems quickly decreases to the
gradient value transmitted by the interstitial water until cement setting processes begin. At
this point, the transmitted gradient value reaches its lowest values (0.5-0.7 bar/10 atm),
and the gas could permeate through other mechanisms.
Impermeable cementing slurries

Gas migration may be prevented by reducing the permeability of the cementing system
during the critical stage of its transition from a liquid to a solid state. Two approaches can
be adopted to achieve this aim:
• immobilising the interstitial fluid which may flow through the porosity that is
being created;
• closing the actual pores.
The first approach includes the use of polymeric products which are soluble in water as
these increase the viscosity of formation water, thus decreasing mobility and as a result
gas mobility is also attenuated a great deal. The disadvantage of these products is that
they alter the rheological characteristics of cementing slurries to a great extent and their
use is limited with high temperatures, as their viscosity and efficiency decreases at these
temperatures.
The second approach involves reducing the available space in the cement matrix by
preventing the movement of fluids in the pores. This technique has proved to be efficient
even when the yield stress of the cementing slurries is fairly low. To achieve this
immobilisation, the agents used must be extremely small at a colloidal level, in order to
reduce porosity, filtration and permeability during the cement setting stage.
It should be mentioned, at this point, that the systems, which are based on impermeable-
action additives, offer advantages over other techniques as they are quite easy to program
and use in the field, and are the most efficient.
7.3.10.5 TESTS FOR MEASURING GAS MIGRATION

Laboratory tests for determining gas migration have not yet been standardised by API or
ISO or industry, so there are no internationally recognized standards for measuring the
capacity of cementing systems to prevent or reduce gas migration. Published material
does, however, describe a wide variety of experimental prototypes; there are basically two
categories which are used: pilot models on a vast scale (for simulating processes which
occur in the well) and bench models (for modelling the fundamental processes involved).
No equipment exists yet which can quantitatively describe gas migration in a wide range of
conditions.
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7.3.10.6 PREDICTING GAS MIGRATION

The previous paragraphs widely discussed the types of techniques available, however
very few of these can be universally applied, and just some have proved to be efficient in
given circumstances. As a result systematic analysis techniques have been developed to
qualitatively assess the risk of gas migration, so that the most efficient and low cost
remedy can be identified.
The technique for reducing the hydrostatic column in order to prevent major pressure
losses at the gas zone, which is based on calculating the gradient of formation water, is an
extremely simple method and does not consider the many parameters involved. It is
therefore not always reliable, since the hydrostatic pressure decreases to values below
those corresponding to the water gradient when the liquid phase develops into the solid
phase. This technique can produce good results only if applied to depleted formations.
7.3.10.6.1 GFP - Gas Flow Potential and SRN - Slurry Response Number
The most widely known technique is used to calculate the GFP - Gas Flow Potential
(adimensional number which indicates the possibility of the onset of a potential gas flow in
given well conditions). This number is obtained from the following expression:
MPR Eq. 7-3

GFP =
OPB
where:
960 ⋅ L Eq. 7-4

MPR =
(d h − d c)
with:
MPR = maximum reduction in cement pressure (Pa)
OBP = initial hydrostatic pressure - formation pressure (Pa)
L = length of the cemented section (m)
dh = borehole diameter (m)
dc = external diameter of the casing column (m).
The equation Eq. 7-3 is derived from equation . Eq. 7-2, where the value of the gel
(homogeneous for the cemented section considered) is set at 240 Pa (500 lb/100ft2), the
average limit beyond which the gas cannot percolate easily. The GFP value varies from 1
to infinite depending on the gravity of the problem (when the values are below 1, the gas
flow severity is very low and therefore can be neglected while planning a cementing job).
After identifying the potential problem, the most suitable system needs to be chosen from
the various types.
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Each system may be characterized according to its fundamental properties (gel

development rate, filtration), by determining a factor called SRN - Slurry Response
Number, which is defined as the ratio between “the gel development rate/the filtration
rate” and obtained by the following equation:
dCSGS 1 Eq. 7-5
⋅
dt CSGS m
SRN =
dfl A
⋅
dt V
where :
SRN = adimensional number
dCSGS/dt = maximum gel development rate (Pa/min)
CSGSm = gel strength at the maximum gel development rate (Pa)
dfl/dt = filtration rate (m/min)
V = volume of the annular space (m3) /unit length of the cemented section (m)
A = surface area of the formation (m2) /unit length of the cemented section (m)
The greater this factor is, the greater the gel strength development will be, or the lower the
loss of volume will be due to filtration, and thus the performance of the examined system
each risk class.will be better. Table 1 shows a rating which indicates the types of cement
suggested for each risk class.
GFP Gas Suggested system Slurry Response

Flow Number
Severity
• low filtrate slurry
• densified slurry
• delayed gel slurry
1-3 low
• thixotropic
20 ÷ 100
• surfactants
• gas block (carbon black,
latex, microsilica)
• controlled gel
3-6 moderate • surfactants 100 ÷ 200
• compressible
• gas block (carbon black,
latex, microsilica)
6-9 high • gas block (carbon black, 200 ÷ 300
latex, microsilica)
9-∞ very high • gas block (carbon black, > 300
latex, microsilica)
Table 7.3-k types of cement suggested for each risk class.

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7.3.10.7 POST CEMENTING OPERATIONS
7.3.10.7.1 Holding Pressure Inside Casing

The casing floats should be tested after the displacement is complete. Once it has been
determined that the floats are holding properly, ensure that no pressure is trapped inside
the casing due to closed valves on the cement head. The valves on the cement head must
remain open as the fluid inside the casing will expand due to heating and thermal
expansion of the displacement fluid. If the valves on the cement head are closed, the
casing will expand with the fluid inside. This can create a microannulus, which could result
in poor zonal isolation and sustained casing head pressure. The only time it is permissible
to trap pressure inside the cemented casing is in the event that the floats have
malfunctioned and are not holding pressure.
7.3.10.7.2 W.O.C.
The WOC defines minimum waiting times prior to beginning Nipple down operations of the
BOP or Diverter system. In ALL cases, the operator and contractor must have a plan to
minimize the time from the start of ND the BOP to securing the exposed annulus with slip
and seals. No other activities should take precedence over securing this annulus. Waiting
time can be reduced or avoided if the operator has a “mechanical barrier” in place and
tested prior to ND the BOP. A mechanical barrier is defined here as “A verifiable seal
between 2 casing strings or a casing string and the annulus that isolates all hydrocarbon
bearing zones”. This seal must be installed, energized, tested and / or verified prior to
BOP or diverter removal or BOP impairment.
Operations on the well following cementing must be done in such a way that they will not
disturb the cement and damage the seal or the set cement.
Any pipe movement to complete hanging the casing and activating seals should be
finished before significant gel strength has developed. If done after the cement has
developed significant gel strength, the movement could cause a microannulus. There is
also danger of initiating flow if the pipe is moved in such as way as to swab the well.
If hanging the casing must be performed after cement strength is developed, as when
intentionally increasing or decreasing the landed tension in the casing, this should be
performed after the compressive strength at the top of the cement is at least 100 psi
(under in situ conditions). The only practical method of testing on-site is the use of an
ultrasonic cement analyzer. Since this device uses a correlation to compute compressive
strength, care must be taken that proper correlations are available and used.
Likewise, pressure testing casing should be done preferably before significant gel strength
has developed. Pressure testing can be done after the cement has set but this can result
in microannulus formation or damage to the cement sheath. The pressure should be held
on the casing for the shortest length of time required to accomplish the test. The effect of
pressure testing will depend on the properties of the cement, the pressure at which the
casing is tested (and consequently the amount of enlargement of the casing) and the
properties of the formation around the cement. Mechanical stress modeling can assist in
determining the best time to conduct the pressure tests.
Normally, a minimum compressive strength of 500 psi (under in situ conditions), is
recommended before drilling out the shoe of the cemented casing.
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8. WELLHEADS
8.1 SUBSEA WELLHEAD

The subsea wellhead system offers in standard and anhanced deep-water a very high
versability. Subsea wellhead is for applications from 10,000 to 15,000 psi. This range shall
satisfy the vast majority of all subsea requirements, including corrosive environments
associated with deep-water exploratory, production or injection wells.
The subsea wellhead system is suitable for use with single wells, large multi-well
templates ot Tension Leg Platform operations and offers both five- and six- casing string
configurations to accomodate any driling programme.
The operations will start to set the 30” casing, which is a critical part of the well
programme. The 30” casing, along with the 20”, will provide the structural foundation
required to support the wellhead, BOP stack, riser tension and the subsequent strings of
casing.
Drilling 36” hole and running 30” casing is the most common way for setting 30” casing.
Three basic procedures can be used:
• With Temporary Guide Base system
• Without Temporary Guide Base system
• Guideliness system.
For additional details refer to “Drilling Procedures Manual”, STAP-P-1-M-6140, section 6.
8.1.1 SELECTION CRITERIA

The selection of the subsea wellhead is based on the following criteria:
1) Pressure rating:
• CLASS A: working pressure up to 10.000psi
• CLASS B: working pressure up to 15.000psi.
2) Casing profile:
• The 30” Conductor housing: the minimum ID of the conductor and
extension shall be enough to allow to pass a 26” bit.
• The minimum ID of Wellhead housing and extension shall allow the free
passage of a 171/2” bit.
• The 183/4” x 133/8” * casing hanger
• The 183/4” x 95/8” * casing hanger
• The 183/4” x 7” * casing hanger.
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3) Annulus Seal Assemblies:

• For CLASS “A” packoff, resilient metal reinforced seals are accepted but
in any case metal to metal seal with elastomers backup are preferred.
• For CLASS “B” packoff, seal assemblies shall only be metal to metal seal
type.
For more details refer to the most recent issue of the following documents:
API 17 D Specification for Subsea Wellhead and Christmas Tree Equipment
API 6 A Specification for Wellhead and Christmas Tree Equipment
NACE Standard MR-01-75
STAP M-1-SS-5727 “Standard Specification for Sub-sea Wellhead and Tie

Back System”.
8.1.2 SUBSEA WELLHEAD WORKING PRESSURE

The Subsea Wellhead Working Pressure is based upon the max anticipated wellhead
pressure calculated for each type of casing as descibed in the “Well Control Policy
Manual”, STAP-P-1-M-6150, section 6 or in section 4.5.1 herein.
8.1.3 MATERIAL SPECIFICATION

The material selection is for either “General Service” or “Sour Service” conditions.
General Service conditions are defined as: Operating Temperature Range – 35°F to 250°F
(2°C to 120°C), as per API 17 D.
Sour Service conditions are when the CO2 or H2S concentrations exceed 7psia and
0.05psia respectively. In this case the material will be selected in accordance with an
inhibition programme, which will allow the decision between chrome or carbon steel.
However in the event of H2S being present above the limit, a steel with a hardness less
than 22Rc will be selected to comply with NACE MR-0175-99 specification.
Refer to section 4.10 in this manual or to the “Casing Design Manual”, STAP-P-1-M-6110,
section 9 “Corrosion”.
8.2 SURFACE WELLHEADS

There are two types of surface wellhead:
• The classic composite type (Flanged wellhead)
• The new type multistage wellhead (Multibowl, compact, unitizze, ecc.).
The Standard for both Exploration and Development wells is “Multistage Wellhead”.
However, the “Flanged Wellhead” could be an option only for Exploration wells when
particular well difficulties are anticipated or when a tie back or mud-line suspension
system will be used.
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The advantages of the traditional composite type wellhead with its modular construction
are its ability to be altered during drilling operations (due to enforced changes in the
casing programme), and low cost.
The multistage wellhead, also sometimes referred to as multi-bowl, fast or multistage
head, comes in various configurations but usually consists of a body that is mounted onto
the surface casing and into which each subsequent casing hanger is run and landed. The
sealing of these hangers is via a seal assembly run above each hanger with metal-to-
metal seals. The main advantages of the multistage wellhead is the reduced height,
saving of rig time due to being able to run the hangers without removing the BOPs and
enhanced safety for the same reason.
8.2.1 SELECTION CRITERIA

Company divides wellhead equipment into two classifications:
Class A Equipment designed to operate up to 5,000psi WP
Class B Equipment designed to operate up to 10,000psi WP
8.2.1.1 MULTISTAGE WELLHEAD WORKING PRESSURE

The Multibowl Wellhead Working Pressure is based upon the max anticipated wellhead
pressure as stated in the “Well Control Policy Manual”, STAP-P-1-M-6150, Section 6.
8.2.1.2 FLANGED WELL HEAD WORKING PRESSURE

The Flanged Well Head Working Pressure is based upon the max anticipated wellhead
pressure as stated in the “Well Control Policy Manual”, STAP-P-1-M-6150, Secotin 6.
8.2.2 MATERIAL SPECIFICATION

The material selection will meet with either ‘General Service’ or ‘Sour Service’ conditions.
General service conditions are defined as:
Operating Temperature Range: -29°C to 82°C as per API 6A
The steels which meet with this criteria are material standard (no sour service), class DD
as per API 6A as defined by NACE MR-0175-99.
Sour service conditions are when the CO2 or H2S concentrations exceed 7psia and
0.05psia respectively. In this case the material will be selected in accordance whether an
inhibition programme is implemented which may decide if chrome or carbon steel is
applicable. However if the event of any H2S being present above the limit, a steel with a
hardness less than 22Rc will be selected to comply with NACE MR-0175-99 specification.
Refer to section 4.10 in this manual or to the “Casing Design Manual”, STAP-P-1-M-6110,
Section 9 “Corrosion”.
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In offshore environments, the wellhead equipment should be protected against the

corrosive effects of salt spray by application of an appropriate coating.
Modern multistage wellhead, described below, may offer enhanced safety due to the
increased fire resistance by the use of all metal-to-metal seals.
8.2.3 FLANGED WELLHEAD COMPONENTS

Figure 8-1 shows a typical example of flanged wellhead. STAP M-1-SS-5725, defines
functional, dimensional and requirements for flanged wellheads equipment to be used by
Eni E&P division and Affiliated companies.
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8.2.3.1 FLANGED WELLHEAD SKETCH EXAMPLE

Figure 8-1 shows the indicative dimensions of the most common type of flanged
wellheads.
20"
13 3/8"
9 5/8"
7"
WP (psi) 3K (A) 3K (B) 5K (A) 5K (B) 10K (A) 10K (B) 15K (A) 15K (B)
Section 1 470 470 470 470 470 510 510 -
Section 2 620 620 625 690 690 850 850 510
Section 3 472 472 472 670 660 700 700 850
Section 4 - - - 581 700 700 750 700
Section 5 - - - - - -- 750
Figure 8-1- Wellhead Dimensions (mm)
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8.2.4 MULTISTAGE WELLHEAD

Modern drilling has uncovered a need for specially designed wellheads requiring less
space with shorter installation times, thus offering a greater degree of safety. The solution
to this need was met by the introduction of the multistage wellhead which incorporates a
casing flange, casing spools and possibly a tubing spool in a single composite wellhead
body.
The concept is quite different from that already described in section 8.2.3 and similar to
subsea wellhead systems from which the multistage wellhead was developed.
Each manufacturer has its own particular product which differs from other manufacturers.
Considering the number of different varieties available, it is not possible to provide a
unique assembling procedure for all the existing multistage wellhead types in this manual.
Figure 8-2 shows a typical example of multistage wellhead systems. STAP M-1-SS-5725,
defines functional, dimensional and requirements for multistage wellheads equipment to
be used by Eni E&P division and Affiliated companies. For specific running procedures
reference should always be made to the well specific Drilling Programme and
manufacturer's instructions.
Technical advantages of the multistage wellhead are:
• Elimination of the rig time lost in nippling-up or down the BOPs, which is
normally associated with conventional wellhead spools.
• Once the pack-off is set, the BOP can be tested.
• No crossover adapters are required.
• The stack-up height is greatly reduced by the elimination of the casing
and tubing spools.
• The Well is under BOP control from the time the 13 3/8” BOP stack is
installed on the multistage wellhead to the time the Xmas tree is installed.
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8.2.4.1 MULTISTAGE WELLHEAD SKETCH EXAMPLE
Figure 8-2- Multistage Wellhead ‘

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8.3 MUDLINE SUSPENSION SYSTEM

The Mudline Suspension system is a method for supporting the weight of casing at the
seabed (mudline) while drilling from a jack-up (Refer to Figure 8-3 and Figure 8-4).
It offers a method of disconnection for all casing strings, allowing the temporary
abandonment of the well in the minimum of time and without having to cut the casings.
The casing strings extend from the mudline back to the drilling unit. Conventional land
type wellhead and BOPs are installed for well control during drilling operations.
The system utilises simple fluted landing rings or expanding collets in which the hangers
are landed. Each casing string is supported at the mudline by a mudline casing hanger.
The running tools or the tieback tools connect the mudline casing hangers with the casing
string above (landing string).
Running tools used in the mudline system, include a square bottom thread, to install it into
the hangers and seal, to maintain the pressure integrity of the running tool mudline
hangers. The connection of the running tools is the casing thread as per the user’s
requirement.
Washout ports, located in the mudline hanger or in the running tool, ensure thorough
flushing of the annulus. The washout ports are exposed by a partial rotation of the running
tool. When the washout ports are closed the pressure integrity of the casing is provided by
the seals of the running tool.
When temporarily abandoning a well, the casing landing string is retrieved by
disconnecting the running tools. Corrosion caps used in temporary well abandonment may
be installed at this time.
Any, or all, of the casing strings can be re-installed back to a conventional land type
production tree, installed on a production platform wellhead deck, by means of tie-back
tools.
Metal to metal seals between the tieback tool 133/8” or smaller mudline casing hangers
provide a permanent pressure seal for the producing life of the well.
By using ‘mudline completion system’ it is possible to drill the well by means of Jack-up
drilling equipment and afterwards to complete it with subsea production system.
Each mudline suspension manufacturer produces its own product different from those of
competitors. Considering the great number of different features, it is not possible to
describe all the existing mudline suspension system in this manual. For the installation
procedure, refer to the well specific ‘Drilling Programme’ and the manufacturer’s
“operating procedures”.
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Figure 8-3- MLL Mudline Casing Suspension System

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Figure 8-4 - The MLC Mudline Suspension System

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9. BOP SELECTION CRITERIA
Blow-out preventer assembly shall consist of an annular preventer and the specified
number of ram type preventers.
The prime considerations, when selecting and procuring pressure control equipment, are
the safety of the personnel, rig and the wellbore.
The selection of the B.O.P system pressure rating will be based upon the max anticipated
wellhead pressure.
The pressure rating of any blow-out preventer shall exceed the maximum anticipated
wellhead pressure to which it may be subjected, except that the pressure rating of the
annular preventer. For details refer to “Well Control Policy Manual”, STAP-P-1-M-6150,
Section 6.1
The graph illustrated in the attached Figure 9-1 has been prepared to enable the first
approximation of the BOP rating necessary for use in drilling an exploration well. To use
the graph, the setting depths of the various casings and the relative pore pressure
gradients must be found or determined during the design phase.
The co-ordinates in the graph are ‘depth’ and ‘pressure’ and comprises of two groups of
lines respectively, are representing the BOP’s to be used while drilling, and the other the
BOPs to be used during well testing.
Each group outlines the different solutions available to the various pore pressure
gradients.
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Example:
The casing program assumes that a well test will be carried out at the shoe of 7” casing.
From the diagram shown in Figure 9-1 the maximum test, drilling pressure values and the
size of BOP to be used should be obtained which is given in Table 9-a.
Casing Shoe Overburden Pore Press. Fracture BOP Size

(ins) Depth Gradient Gradient Gradient Drilling Production
(m) (kg/cm2/10m) (kg/cm2/10m (kg/cm2/10m (psi) Test (psi)
) )
20 750 2.23 1.03 1.83 2,000 -
13 3/8 2.620 2.36 1.30 2.01 5,000 -
9 5/8 4.000 2.42 1.70 2.18 10,000 -
7 4.630 2.43 2.00 2.29 - 15,000
Table 9-a - BOP Selection Example Data
The maximum theoretical stress possible at the casing head (Pmax) occurs when the well
is full of gas and the fracture pressure has been reached at the shoe of the last casing run.
This pressure is:
H
Pmax = (GF - Dg) (Kg/cm 2 )
10
where:
H = Casing shoe depth (m)
Gf = Fracture gradient of the casing shoe (kg/cm2/10m)
Dg = Gas density, assumed = 0.3 (kg/dm3).
In the case of a well test, this pressure roughly corresponds to the limit value required for
pumping gas into the formation and is thus actually attainable in practice.
This hypothesis however is completely unrealistic in the drilling design, for which 60% of
the pressure Pmax will be used as limit value.
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Figure 9-1 - BOP Selection Example

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10. BHA DESIGN AND STABILIZATION
10.1 STRAIGHT HOLE DRILLING

In general, drilling in soft formations makes the problem of drilling a straight or nearly
vertical hole much easier than in very hard formations. In particular the effects of the drill
string bending and encountering dips may be much less when drilling soft formations while
in hard formations which have high dip angles require high bit weight which are the factors
against drilling a straight or vertical hole.
It has been confirmed that the drilling bit will attempt to up dip in laminar formations with
dips up to 40°.
With no weight on the bit, the only force acting on the bit is the result of the weight of the
string portion between the bit and the tangency point. This force tends to bring the hole
back towards the vertical. When weight is applied, there is another force on the bit which
tends to direct the hole away from vertical. The results of these two forces may be in such
a direction as to increase angle, decrease angle, or to maintain a constant angle. This
theory is based on the assumption that the drill string will lie on the low side of an inclined
hole.
10.2 HOLE ANGLE CONTROL

In order to reduce the possible causes of bit deviation and the problems associated with
crooked holes, there are some possible solutions:
• the Automatic Vertical Drilling SystemTM
• the packed BHA concepts
• the pendulum.
TM
10.2.1 AUTOMATIC VERTICAL DRILLING SYSTEM
Automatic Vertical Drilling SystemTM is the industry’s first automated system for drilling
vertical wells.
It delivers reliable deviation control (inclination measurements of 0.1°) in multiple
applications ranging from salt drilling to faulted zones and highly-fractured formations
without compromising preferred drilling parameters.
The turbine-driven generator and hydraulic pump generate steering pressure to each pad
to maintain verticality through continuous downhole corrections.
The elastomers used in the Automatic Vertical Drilling SystemTM have been tested
extensively to identify potential compatibility problems that may occur over a wide range of
drilling fluid applications. For the power sections the same limits apply as for standard
Navi-Drill or Ultra Series motors (150°C / 302°F for system D elastomer, 160°C / 320°F for
system F elastomer). However, if the prognosis calls for using unusual drilling fluids with
the Automatic Vertical Drilling SystemTM, appropriate tests may be considered.
All electronic and hydraulic components within the Automatic Vertical Drilling SystemTM
unit are designed for a maximum operating temperature of up to 150°C (302°F).
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10.2.2 PACKED HOLE THEORY

A packed hole assembly is used to overcome crooked hole problems and the pendulum is
used only as a corrective measure to reduce angle when the maximum permissible
deviation has been reached. The packed hole assembly is sometimes referred to as the
‘gun barrel’ approach because a series of stabilisers is used in the hole already drilled to
guide the bit straight ahead.
The object is to select a bottom hole assembly to be run above the bit with the necessary
stiffness and wall contact tools to force the bit to drill in the general direction of the hole
already drilled. If the proper selection of drill collars and bottom hole tools is made, only
gradual changes in hole angle can develop. This should create a useful hole with a full-
gauge, smooth bore free from dog-leg, key seats, offsets, spirals and ledges, thereby
making it possible to complete the well.
10.2.3 PENDULUM THEORY

The forces which act upon the bit can be resolved into:
1) The axial load supplied by the weight of the drill collars.
2) The lateral force, the weight of the drill collar between the bit and the first point of
contact with the wall of the hole by the drill collar i.e. Pendulum force. This force is
the tendency of the unsupported length of drill collar to swing over against the low
side of the hole due to gravity. It is the only force that tends to bring the hole back
towards vertical.
3) The reaction of the formation to these loads may be resolved into two forces, one
parallel to the axis of the hole and one perpendicular to the axis of the hole.
10.3 AUTOMATIC VERTICAL DRILLING SYSTEMTM OPERATING MODE

This innovative drilling system enables customers to:
• Drill very accurate vertical trajectories automatically (trajectory
adjustments from the surface are not required) reducing the likelihood for
twist-off
• Minimize BHA and casing wear
• Reduce gross MD and overall drilling costs
• Reduce well stability problems (due to less stress and reduced time to
casing)
• Reduce torque and drag
• Drill with higher gross ROP
• Reduce risk of interference between well bores
• More wellbores can be drilled from the same location
• Reduce hole sizes
• Reduce casing sizes in upper sections
• Reduce the number of casing strings required to reach TD
• Require less cement.
These advantages lead to reduced drilling time and a higher quality wellbore.
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The single integrated Automatic Vertical Drilling System™ unit can operate in both
steering and rotary mode. The operating mode is determined by the flow rate that is
applied immediately after the pumps are on for 1 minute. The alternator voltage depends
on the applied flow rate and is therefore used to switch the tool to the desired mode.
Keeping the voltage below 45 V for one minute will switch the tool to rotary mode, keeping
it above 45 V will switch the tool to steering mode. The corresponding flow rates are
provided in the tool transfer sheet.
After that 1 minute the operating mode is locked as long as the alternator voltage remains
above 32 V. Going below this value will reset the downhole electronics. The actual
operating mode is transmitted by the integrated mud pulser.
10.3.1 STEERING (SLIDING) MODE

The Automatic Vertical Drilling System™ tool is only able to steer when no drill string
rotation is applied. When the tool is set to steering mode the tool automatically steers
against any build tendency or starts to drop the tool down to vertical again. The deviation
from vertical is determined by a set of two inclinometers. Due to absence of azimuth in a
vertical well no azimuth sensors are installed in the MWD of the Automatic Vertical Drilling
System™ tool.
10.3.2 ROTARY MODE

While operating in the rotary mode, all Automatic Vertical Drilling System steering ribs are
retracted and the tool can drift away from vertical. If the well deviates from the required
wellpath (0° inclination), the Automatic Vertical Drilling System™ tool is not able to steer
back to vertical in this mode. In rotary mode no inclination information is available. Typical
downhole operations using this mode are reaming, back-reaming, run in/out hole or drilling
in formation not causing deviation from vertical.
An example of vertical trak system assembly is showed in Figure 10-1 and Figure 10-2.
10.3.3 SPECIFICATIONS
Data given in the Table 10-a show a selection of presently built Automatic Vertical Drilling
System tools. Other sizes upon request.
Hole Size 12 1/4” – 14 16” - 22”

3
/4”
Length 10.4m / 34.1 ft. 10.4m / 34.1 ft.
Weight 3900 Kg / 8600 lbs 4460 Kg / 9834
lbs.
1 1
Motor Type 9 /2” M1X X-treme 9 /2” M1X X-treme
Flow Rate 2000-4000 l/min / 2000-4000 l/min /
530-1160 530-1160 gpm
Bit Speed 80 - 185 rpm 80 - 185 rpm
Operating WOB 27 t / 60675 lbs 34.5 t / 77530 lbs
Operating Torque 22300 Nm / 16450 22300 Nm / 16450
ftlbs ftlbs
Diff. Pressure Oper. 80 bar / 1160 psi 80 bar / 1160 psi
Power Output Oper. 430 KW / 575 HP 430 KW / 575 HP
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Table 10-a - (General Tool Specifications)
Figure 10-1 - (Automatic Vertical Drilling SystemTM main sections)
Figure 10-2 - (Type of Automatic Vertical Drilling System™ Tool Assembly)

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In addition, the Automatic Vertical Drilling System™ sensor package includes:

• temperature measurements
• tool status readings (steering, rotary)
• alternator voltage output.
A full LWD suite can be incorporated within the bottom hole assembly to provide
comprehensive, real-time formation evaluation.
To avoid interference between the mud pulser integrated into the Automatic Vertical
Drilling System™, and the pulser in the FE MWD, the mud pulser of the Automatic Vertical
Drilling System™ unit needs to be deactivated: it can be easily done in the workshop.
Automatic Vertical Drilling System™ will remain fully functional, except for not being able
to transmit inclination or status information to the surface anymore. This information is, of
course, pulsed instead from the FE MWD in any event.
10.4 DESIGNING A PACKED HOLE ASSEMBLY

The following factors need to be considered when designing a packed hole assembly.
10.4.1 LENGTH OF TOOL ASSEMBLY

It is important that wall contact assemblies provide sufficient length of contact to assure
alignment with the hole already drilled. Experience confirms that a single stabiliser just
above the bit generally acts as fulcrum or pivot point and will build angle because the
lateral force of the unstabilised collars above will cause the bit to push to one side as
weight is applied. Another stabilising point, for example, at 30ft (10m) above the bit will
nullify some of the fulcrum effect. With these two points, this assembly will stabilise the bit
and remove some of the hole angle-building tendency, but it would still not be considered
a good packed hole assembly.
As shown in Figure 10-3, two points will contact and follow a curved line, but the addition
of one more point makes it impossible to follow a curve. Therefore, three or more
stabilising points are needed to form a packed hole assembly.
10.4.2 STIFFNESS
Stiffness is probably the most misunderstood of all the issues to be considered about drill
collars. Realisation of diameter and its proportion to stiffness is an important factor. If a bar
diameter is doubled its stiffness is increased 16 fold.
Table 10-b shows moments of inertia (I), which is proportional to stiffness which is given
for the most popular drill collars in various diameters.
Large diameter drill collars are the ultimate in stiffness, so it is important to select the
maximum diameter collars that can be safely run.
Three or more stabilising points make a packed bottom hole assembly.
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2
2
1 1
Figure 10-3 - Packed Hole Assembly Stabilising Points
OD (ins) ID (ins) I (ins4)

5" 21/4" 29
6 1/4" 21/4" 74
6 1/2" 21/4" 86
6 3/4" 21/4" 100
7" 213/16" 115
8" 213/16" 198
9" 213/16" 318
10" 3" 486
11" 3" 713
Table 10-b - Drill Collar Stiffness
10.4.3 CLEARANCE
The closer the stabiliser is to the bit, the more exacting the clearance requirements are. If,
for example, a 1/16" undergauge from hole diameter is satisfactory just above the bit, then
60ft above the bit, 1/8" clearance can be critical factor for a packed hole assembly.
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10.4.4 WALL SUPPORT AND LENGTH OF CONTACT TOOL

Bottom assembly must adequately contact the wall of the hole to stabilise the bit and
centralise the drill collars. The length of contact needed between the tool and the wall of
the hole will be determined by the formation. The surface area in contact must be
sufficient to prevent the stabilising tool from digging into the wall of the hole. If this should
happen, stabilisation would be lost and the hole would drift. If the formation is strong, hard
and uniform, a short narrow contact surface is adequate and will insure proper
stabilisation.
On the other hand, if the formation is soft and unconsolidated, a long blade stabiliser may
be required. Hole enlargement in formations that erode quickly tends to reduce affective
alignment of the bottom hole assembly.
This problem can be reduced by controlling the annular velocity and mud properties.
10.4.5 PACKED BOTTOM HOLE ASSEMBLIES

Proper design of a packed bottom hole assembly requires a knowledge of crooked hole
tendencies and the degree of drillability of the formations to be drilled in each particular
area.
For basic design practices the following are considered pertinent parameters and are
defined:
Crooked Hole Drilling Tendencies

• Mild crooked hole
• Medium crooked hole
• Severe crooked hole.
Formation Firmness
• Hard to medium hard formations
• Abrasive
• Non abrasive
• Medium hard to soft formations.
Figure 10-4 shows three basic assemblies required to provide the necessary stiffness and
stabilisation for a packed hole assembly. A short drill collar is used between Zone 1 and
Zone 2 to reduce the amount of deflection that might be caused by the drill collar weight.
As a general rule of thumb, the short drill collar length in feet is approximately equal to the
hole size in inches, plus or minus two feet. For example a short drill collar length of 6 to
10ft (2-3m) would be satisfactory in an 8 “ hole.
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* The short drill collar length is determined by the hole size

Hole size (inches) = Short DC (ft) +/- 2ft
Figure 10-4 - Basic Packed BHAs
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10.5 PENDULUM BOTTOM HOLE ASSEMBLIES

The rate of hole angle change may be kept to a minimum but occasionally conditions will
arise where the total hole deviation must be reduced.
When this condition occurs the pendulum technique can be employed.
The pendulum assembly is based on the principle that the only force available to
straighten a deviated hole is the weight of the drill collars between the point of tangency
(stabiliser) and the bit.
In the packed pendulum technique, the pendulum length of collars are slung below the
regular packed hole assembly. When hole deviation has been dropped to an acceptable
limit, the pendulum collars are removed and the packed hole assembly again is run above
the bit. It is only necessary to ream the length of the pendulum collars prior to resuming
normal drilling.
If a vibration dampening device is used in the packed pendulum assembly, it should
remain in its original pick-up position during the pendulum operations. (Refer to Figure
10-5).
Figure 10-5 - Pendulum BHA

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10.5.1 REDUCED BIT WEIGHT

By reducing the weight on the bit, the bending tendency of the drill string is changed and
the hole will be straighter.
One of the earliest techniques for straightening the hole was to reduce the weight on the
bit and speed up the rotary table/top drive. In recent years it has been found that this is not
always the best procedure because reducing the bit weight sacrifices considerable
penetration rate.
Worse than this, it frequently causes dog-legs as illustrated in. Therefore as a point of
caution, the straightening of a hole by reducing bit weight should be done very gradually
so that the hole will tend to return to vertical without sharp bends and be much safer for
future drilling. A reduction of bit weight is usually required when changing from a packed
hole assembly to a pendulum or packed pendulum drilling operation.
Figure 10-6 - Reduced Bit Weight

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10.6 DOG-LEG AND KEY SEAT PROBLEMS

10.6.1 DRILL PIPE FATIGUE
If a programme is designed in such a way that drill pipe damage is avoided while drilling
the hole, then the hole will be acceptable for conventional casing, designs, tubing and
production string as far as dog-leg severity is concerned. A classical example of the
severe dog-leg condition which produces fatigue failures in drill pipe can be seen in Figure
10-7. The stress at point B is greater than the stress at point A; but as the pipe is rotated,
point A moves from the inside of the bend to the outside and back to the inside again, so
that every fibre of the pipe under goes both minimum tension and maximum tension every
rotation. Cyclic stress reversals of this nature cause fatigue failures in drill pipe, usually
within the first two feet (0.6m) of the body adjacent to the tool joint due to the abrupt
change of section.
To avoid rapid fatigue failure of pipe, the rate of change of the hole angle must be
controlled. Suggested limits are given in Figure 11-2. This graph is a plot of the tension in
the pipe versus change in hole angle in degrees per 100ft. This curve is designed for a
41/2" 16.60lbs/ft Grade ‘E’ drill pipe and represents the stress endurance limits of the drill
pipe under various tensile loads and in various rates of change in hole angle. If conditions
fall to the left of this curve, fatigue damage is avoided, but to the right, fatigue damage will
build up rapidly and failure of the pipe is likely.
It can be seen from this plot that with a high dog-leg in the hole with high tension in the
pipe, only a small change in angle can be tolerated. Conversely, if the dog-leg is close to
total depth, tension in the pipe will be low and a larger change in angle can be tolerated.
Note: Refer to Figure 10-9 for the maximum safe dog-leg limits when using
Grade ‘E’ drill pipe. If the stress endurance limit of the drill pipe is
exceeded, an expensive fishing job or a junked hole could occur.
10.6.2 STUCK PIPE

Sticking can occur by sloughing, heaving of the hole or also by extra large OD drill collars
contacting a key seat while tripping the drill string out of the hole.
10.6.3 LOGGING
Logging tools and wire line can become stuck in key seats. The wall of the hole can also
be damaged, causing future hole problems.
10.6.4 RUNNING CASING

Running casing through a dog-leg can cause serious problems. If the casing becomes
stuck in the dog-leg, it will not extend through the productive zone. This would make it
necessary to drill out the shoe and set a smaller size casing through the productive
interval. Even if running the casing to bottom through the dog-leg is successful, the casing
could be severely damaged, thereby preventing the running of production equipment
inside the casing.
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10.6.5 CEMENTING
Dog-legs will force casing tightly against the wall of the hole, preventing a good cement
bond as no cement can circulate between the wall of the hole and the casing at this point.
10.6.6 CASING WEAR WHILE DRILLING

The lateral force of the drill pipe rotating against the casing in the dog-leg or dragging
through it while tripping, can cause substantial wear to the casing. This could cause
drilling problems and/or a possible serious blow-out.
10.6.7 PRODUCTION PROBLEMS

In rod pump completions rod wear and tubing leaks associated with dog-legs can cause
expensive remedial costs. It may be difficult to run packers and tools in and out of the well
without getting stuck because of distorted or collapsed casing.
It is obviously preferred to produce through straight tubing to avoid friction losses and
prevent turbulence.
Figure 10-7 - Dog Leg and Key Seating

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Figure 10-8 - Endurance Limit For 16.60# Grade E Drill Pipe
Figure 10-9 -Maximum Safe Dog leg Limits

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10.7 DRILL STRING DESIGN

The normal drill string design practice aim is to avoid abrupt changes in component cross
sectional areas.
Abrupt changes can lead to concentrations in bending stresses which in turn can lead to a
twist off (Refer to Figure 10-10).
The ratio I/C between the moment of inertia (I) and radius (C) of the pipe is directly related
to the resistance to bending. The following are used to determine the section modulus I/C:
I = Moment of inertia = π/64 x (OD4- ID4)
C = Radius of the tube = OD/2.
At a crossover from one tubular size to another size, the ratio (I/C large pipe)/(I/C small
pipe) should be:
• less than 5.5 for soft formations
• less than 3.5 for hard formations.
Table 10-c shows the ratio (I/C) for the most common sizes of drill pipes, HW drill pipes
and drill collars.
Table 10-d illustrates some possible drill strings and their acceptability.
Figure 10-10 - Bending Moment

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Drill Collar Drill Pipe

OD (ins) ID (ins) I/C OD (ins) ID (ins) WT I/C
31/2 11/2 4.1 23/8 2 4.85 0.7
1
4 /8 2 6.6 23/8 1.815 6.65 0.9
3
4 /4 21/4 9.8 27/8 2.441 6.85 1.1
3
5 /4 21/4 18.3 27/8 2.151 10.40 1.6
3
5 /4 213/16 17.6 31/2 3 9.50 2.0
6 21/4 20.8 31/2 2.764 13.30 2.6
6 23/16 20.2 31/2 2.602 15.50 2.9
1
6 /4 21/4 23.3 4 3.476 11.85 2.7
61/4 23/16 22.7 4 3.340 14.00 3.2
1
6 /2 21/4 26.7 41/2 3.958 13.75 3.6
1
6 /2 23/16 26.2 41/2 3.826 16.60 4.3
63/4 21/4 30.1 41/2 3.640 20.00 5.1
3
6 /4 23/16 29.6 5 4.408 16.25 4.9
7 23/16 32.7 5 4.276 19.50 5.7
71/4 23/16 37.5 5 4.000 25.60 7.3
3
7 /4 23/16 44.6 51/2 4.892 19.20 6.1
3
7 /4 3 44.4 51/2 4.778 21.90 7.1
8 23/16 49.5 51/2 4.670 24.70 7.8
8 3 49.3 65/8 5.965 25.20 9.8
1 3
8 /4 2 /16 55.9
81/4 3 54.2
81/2 3 59.2
9 3 71.0
91/2 3 83.8
10 3 97.2
111/4 3 138.8
12 3 154.5
“Hevi – Wate” Drill Pipe
OD (ins) ID (ins) WT I/C
41/2 213/16 32.0 7.7
5 3 42.6 10.7
l =(Moment of Inertia) = (1/64) x (OD4 – ID4) x 3.142
C = Radius of the Tube in inches
I / C Drill Collars
Ratio =
I / C Drill Pipes
Table 10-c - I/C Ratios for standard Tubulars

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Hole Size Drill Collar/Drill Pipe I/C I/C Ratio Remarks

(ins) (ins)
DC 91/2 x 3 83.8 1.5
DC 81/4 x 213/16 55.9 9.8
DP 5 x 19.5lbs/ft 5.7 - Not
DC 91/2 x 3 83.8 1.5 Recommended
DC 81/4 x 213/16 55.9 7.1
1
DP 5 /2 x 19.5lbs/ft 7.8 1.4
DP 5x 19.5lbs/ft 5.7 -
171/2” DC 91/2 x 3 83.8 1.5 OK for
DC 81/4” x 213/16 55.9 5.2 SOFT
HWDP 5” x 42.6lbs/ft 10.7 1.9 Formations
DP 5” x 19.5lbs/ft 5.7 -
DC 91/2 x 3 83.8 1.5
DC 81/4 213/16” 55.9 2.5 OK For HARD
1 13
DC 6 /4 x 2 /16” 22.7 1.9 Formations
DP 5” x 19.5lbs/ft 5.7 -
Note: For every hard formations, add HWDP
DC 91/2” x 3” 83.8 1.5
121/4” DC 81/4 x 213/16” 55.9 2.5 OK For HARD
DC 61/4 x 213/16 22.7 3.9 Formations
DP 5” x 19.5lbs/ft 5.7 -
Note: For every hard formations, add HWDP
DC 91/2” x 3” 83.8 1.5
1 1 13
12 /4” DC 8 4 / x 2 / 16” 55.9 5.2 OK For SOFT
HWDP 5” x 42.6lbs/ft 10.7 1.9 Formations
DP 5” x 19.5 lbs/ft 5.7 -
1 13
DC 6 /4 x 2 /16” 22.7 Not
DP 5” x 19.5lbs/ft 5.7 3.9 Recommended
85/8” DC 61/4 x 213/16” 22.7
HWDP 5” x 42.6lbs/ft 10.7 Recommended
DP 5” x 19.5lbs/ft 5.7
Table 10-d - Drill String Acceptability
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10.8 BOTTOM HOLE ASSEMBLY BUCKLING

Without weight on the bit, a drill string is straight if the hole is straight; as the weight is
increased, and a critical value of weight is reached, the drill string will buckle and contact
the wall of the hole; this is designated as ‘buckling of the first order’.
If the weight on the bit is further increased, a new critical value is reached at which the drill
string buckles a second time; this is designated as ‘buckling of the second order’.
When a buckled string is rotated, stresses in the outside fibres of tubular are developed.
These stresses increase with the diameter of the hole and results in fatigue failure of the
string. As soon as a drill string buckles in a straight hole, the bit is no longer vertical and a
perfectly vertical hole can not be maintained. Therefore, in the design of BHAs, it is
important to determine the critical values of weight on bit at which buckling occurs.
The critical weight on bit of the first order (W cr1) and second order (W cr2) are given by the
following equations:
Wcr1 = 1.94 x m x p
Wcr2 = 3.75 x m x p
where:
m = Length of one dimensionless unit, in meters
p = Weight in mud per unit of length of the pipe, in kg/m.
The dimensionless unit ‘m’ is a function of Young's modulus for steel, moment of inertia of
the pipe cross section and weight in mud per unit of length of the pipe. The values of ‘m’
for various sizes of drill collar are plotted in Figure 10-11.
Under normal conditions, some buckling of the drill string is inevitable, therefore stiffer
collars and stabiliser should be used for control of the hole angle.
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Dimensionless Unit (m) for Various Sizes of DC

m
28 11" *
9 1/2" *
8 1/4" *
26
8 1/4" * 2
8" *
24 8" * 2
7 1/2" * 2
22
20
18
1,0 1,2 1,4 1,6 1,8 2,0 2,2
Mud Weight
m
21 6 3/4" * 2
6 3/4" * 2
20 6 1/2" * 2
6 1/2" * 2
19
6" * 2
6" * 2
18
4 3/4" * 2
17
16
15
14
1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 2, 2,
Mud Weight
Figure 10-11 - Dimensionless Unit (m) for Various Sizes of DC

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10.9 SUMMARY RECOMMENDATIONS FOR STABILISATION

1) Packed hole assemblies shall generally be used unless otherwise dictated by hole
conditions.
2) Standard packed hole assembly should be:
Bit + Near Bit Stab + Short DC (7ft =2.5m) + String Stab + K Monel DC + String Stab
+ 2 DC + String Stab.
3) A stabilised string can be used to drill out shoe-tracks after casing setting unless
there is so much cement left inside the casing to discourage such a procedure
4) For the vertical section of the hole the purpose of stabilisation, more than any other
factor, is to maintain the drift angle as low as possible to zero and, if applicable, to
prevent wall sticking. To achieve this, the use of “Automatic Vertical Drilling
SystemTM” is recommended.
5) For deviated holes, the stabiliser positions in the BHA depend entirely on directional
drilling requirements and as a rule determined by the Directional Engineer.
6) All stabilisers shall be the ‘integral type’ and machined from a single block of
material or the ‘integral sleeve type’ fitted by head or hydraulic pressure (not
threaded).
7) The spiral profile of blades, for both string and near bit type stabiliser, shall be the
‘right hand type’.
8) All stabilisers for hole size up to 121/4” must be the tight type in order to assure a
complete (360°) contact with the borehole. All stabilisers for hole size over 121/4"
must be open type but not less than 210°.
9) All stabilisers should have a fishing neck with the same OD as the drill collars and a
length not shorter than 20” for stabilisers up to 6” hole size and 26” for larger hole
size stabilisers.
10) All stabilisers smaller than 15" OD shall have three blades. Stabilisers larger than
15" shall have four blades as standard.
11) Stabilisers (and subs, etc.) should be demagnetised after a magnetic particle
inspection.
12) Even new, stabilisers OD shall be verified with a three point calliper.
13) The maximum allowable reduction value on outside diameter of stabilisers should be
according to the attached tables.
14) Tungsten carbide smooth surface solid body integral blade stabilisers are preferred.
Integral sleeve stabilisers may also be used in large hole sizes above 121/4", mainly
as the near bit stabiliser, in order to position the stabilisation point right on top of the
bit.
15) The maximum allowable wear of the stabiliser blades should be in accordance with
the previous point. If such a limit is reached at any point, the stabiliser has to be
replaced.
16) If the bottom hole assembly is different from the one previously used, run in the hole
with maximum care, monitoring the weight indicator closely. Any indication of string
dragging must be promptly detected. Tight zones must be reamed free before
proceeding with the trip.
17) Any change in the stabilisation from that specified in the drilling programme must be
authorised by the Company Drilling Office.
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Blade Blade Length

Length Length Min
Hole Body Rotary OD OD of
of Pin of Box Width of
Size OD Conns String Near Bit Fishing
End Bit Blades
Type Type Neck
53/4 421/32 NC 38 519/32 519/32 20 12 10 2
57/8 421/32 NC 38 23
5 /32 523/32 20 12 10 2
6 421/32 NC 38 23
5 /32 27
5 /32 20 12 10 2
83/8 63/8 NC 46 83/16 813/64 26 12 10 21/2
81/2 63/8 NC 46 85/16 821/64 26 12 10 21/2
121/4 77/8 5
6 /8 R 12 3
12 /64 26 12 10 3
121/4 93/8 7 5/8 R 12 123/64 26 12 10 3
16 93/8 5
7 /8 R 3
15 /4 3
15 /4 26 12 10 4
16 107/8 8 5/8 R 153/4 153/4 26 12 10 4
171/2 93/8 7 5/8 R 173/4 171/4 26 12 10 4
171/2 107/8 5
8 /8 R 3
17 /16 1
17 /4 26 12 10 4
23 93/8 7 5/8 R 2211/16 223/4 26 12 10 4
23 107/8 8 5/8 R 2211/16 223/4 26 12 10 4
26 93/8 5
7 /8 R 11
25 /16 3
25 /4 26 12 10 4
26 107/8 8 5/8 R 2511/16 253/4 26 12 10 4
28 107/8 8 5/8 R 2711/16 273/4 26 12 10 4
Main dimensions of string and near bit type stabilisers in ins.
Table 10-e - Acceptable Dimensions For Used String And Near Bit Stabilisers
The maximum overall length, for string type stabilisers only, must be as follows:
• 75" for 53/4" to 6" hole size stabilisers

• 85" for 83/8" to 121/4" hole size stabilisers
• 100" for 16" to 28" hole size stabilisers.
Hole Size Body OD Rotary Blade OD Length of Length Minimum

Conn. String Type Fishing Neck Pin End Width of
Blades
6 421/32 NC 38 527/32 20 12 2
81/2 63/8 NC 46 85/16 26 12 21/2
121/4 77/8 6 5/8 R 12 26 12 3
121/4 3
9 /8 5
7 /8 R 12 26 12 3
16 93/8 7 5/8 R 153/4 26 12 4
171/2 93/8 7 5/8 R 173/16 26 12 4
Main dimensions of string and near bit type stabilisers in ins.
Table 10-f - Acceptable Dimensions for Used non magnetic String type Stabilisers
The maximum overall length must be as follows:

• 75" for 6" hole size stabilisers
• 85" for 81/2" to 121/4" hole size stabilisers
• 100" for 16" to 171/2" hole size stabilisers.
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10.10 OPERATING LIMITS OF DRILL PIPE

The design of the drill string for static tensile loads requires sufficient strength in drill pipe
to support the submerged weight of drill pipe and drill collar below. The submerged load
(P) hanging below any section of drill pipe can be calculated as follow:
⎡
( )
⎤
P = ⎢⎛⎜ Ldp x Wdp ⎞⎟ + Lc x Wc ⎥ x K b
⎣⎢⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎦
where:
Ldp = Length of drill pipe in feet
Lc = Length of drill collar in feet
Wdp = Weight per foot of drill pipe in air
Wc = Weight per foot of drill collar in air
Kb = Buoyancy factor.
The difference between the maximum allowable tension and the calculated load
represents the Margin of Over Pull (MOP):
MOP = (Pt x 0.9) - P
where:
Pt = Theoretical tension load from table
0.9 = Design factor.
The minimum recommended value of MOP is 60,000lbs (27t) and it shall be calculated for
the topmost joint of each size, weight, grade and classification of drill pipe. The anticipated
total depth with next string run and expected mud weight should be considered when
calculating the MOP.
The overall drilling conditions (directional well, hole drag, likelihood of becoming stuck,
etc.) may require higher values of MOP. When the depth has been reached where the
MOP approaches the minimum recommended value, stronger drill pipe shall be added to
the string.
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11. BIT CLASSIFICATION AND SELECTION
This section is a guide to engineers in the selection of bits and bit optimization.
11.1 PLANNING
Selection of the proper bits for a well programme is an important decision that has a big
impact on well costs. Many factors need to considered and evaluated:
• Bit cost.
• Method of drilling (turbine, downhole motor, rotary, air).
• Formation type and properties.
• Mud system.
• Rig cost.
With emerging improvements in technology on bit design, it is necessary to optimise

drilling operations by evaluating all of the above parameters.
Drilling optimisation can be considered to having three phases:
a) Selection of the proper bit for drilling conditions.
b) Monitoring the drilling performance and conditions on the prospect well so that
the performance is equal to or above the average in the area.
c) Implementing a bit weight rotary speed and hydraulic programme based on
theoretical calculations that will improve the performance above the existing
best performances in the area.
The last phase is difficult to implement in a one or two well drilling programme but is
valuable in development drilling. However, often the first two phases are not given the
importance they deserve.
11.2 IADC ROLLER BIT CLASSIFICATION

The array of bit names and nomenclature in earlier years gave rise for the need of a
standard classification system. In 1972 the IADC adopted a three digit classification
system for roller bit nomenclature. Most bit manufacturers adopted the system followed by
the API and the system now appears as API Recommended Practice 7G.
The original system uses a three digit code (A, B, C) for classification constructed where:
A: Is a number from 1-8, which is the major class
B: Is a number from 1-4, which is the subgroup
C: Is a number from 1-9, which is the speciality feature

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11.2.1 MAJOR GROUP CLASSIFICATION

The major classification number denotes the formation types in which the rollers bit should
be used as per Table 11-a below:
Group Number Formations

Mill Tooth Bits
1 Soft formations of low compressive strength and high drillability
2 Medium to medium-hard formations with high compressive
strength
3 Hard semi-abrasive or abrasive formations
Insert Bits
4 Very soft formations
5 Soft to medium formations with low compressive strength
6 Medium-hard formations with high compressive strength
7 Hard semi-abrasive or abrasive formations
8 Extremely hard and abrasive formations
Table 11-a – Roller Bit Major Group Classification
Sub-Group Classification
The subgroup classification is simply four progressive steps of compressive strength from
1 being low up to 4 for the highest within that major group.
For example a 1-2 bit is a mill tooth bit designed to drill formations of a slightly greater
compressive strength than required for a 1-1 bit, etc.
Speciality Feature
The code numbers and relative speciality features are shown in Table 11-b below:
Code Number Feature

1 Standard
2 Air
3 Gauge insert
4 Roller seal bearing
5 Seal bearing and gauge protection
6 Friction seal bearing
7 Friction bearing and gauge protection
8 Directional
9 Other
Table 11-b– Special Feature Codes
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11.2.2 BIT CONES

The range of bits listed in the major classification primarily has two types of cone. The
original cutter bits had cone teeth machined out of the cone material by a mill, hence they
were termed ‘Mill Tooth’ bits. These bits, however, were found to wear quickly when hard
abrasive rocks were encountered. This resulted in the introduction of cones which had
teeth, inserted into the cone made of more wear resistant materials such as tungsten
carbide. The inserts are of varying shapes to suit the best penetration in a particular rock.
The mill tooth bit cone teeth can be heat treated to provide better wear resistance but only
are good up to classification 3. Insert bits are used for range 4 through 8, see Table 11-c
below.
Cone offset also has a significant effect on the penetration rate due to the shear
mechanism which best suits the formation types.
Type Class Formation Type Tooth Description Offset

1-1, 1-2, Very soft Hard-faced tip 3-4o
Mill 1-3, 1-4 Soft Hard-faced side 2-3 o
Tooth 2-1, 2-2 Medium Hard-faced side 1-2o
Bits 2-3 Medium hard Case hardened 1-2o
3 Hard Case hardened 0o
4 Very soft
5-2 Soft Long blunt chisel 2-3o
5-3 Medium-soft Long sharp chisel 2-3o
Insert Bits 6-1 Medium shales Medium chisel 1-2o
6-2 Medium limes Medium projectile 1-2o
7-1 Medium hard Short chisel 0
7-2 Medium Short projectile 0
8 Hard chert Conical or hemispherical 0
Table 11-c– Roller Bit Type and Classification
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11.3 DIAMOND BIT CLASSIFICATION

Two types of diamond bits are used for special applications where their cutting action is
most efficient. These are natural diamond and the PDC (Poly-crystalline Compact).
11.3.1 NATURAL DIAMOND BITS

Natural diamond bits are constructed with diamonds embedded into a matrix and are used
in conventional rotary, turbine, and coring operations. Diamond bits can provide improved
drilling rates over roller bits in some particular formations and all the diamond bit suppliers
provide comparison tables between roller bit and diamond bit performance to aid users in
bit selection based on economic evaluation.
Some of the most important benefits of diamond bits over roller bits are:
• Bit failure potential is reduced due to there being no moving parts.
• Less drilling effort is required by the shearing cutting action compared to
the cracking and grinding action of the roller bit.
• Bit weight is reduced, therefore deviation control is improved.
• The low weight and lack of moving parts make them well suited for turbine
drilling.
11.3.2 PDC BITS

PDC or Stratapax bits were introduced in the 1970s and features the greater abrasion
resistance of the diamond complimented by the strength and impact resistance of
cemented tungsten carbide.
The advancement in technology in PDC design and performance in recent years has been
significant and there are now many manufacturers with wide ranges of bits now available.
Due to the diversity of bits and bit features available, there is no IADC classification
system similar to roller bits but simply a code to provide a means of characterising the
general physical of fixed cutter drill bits.
11.3.3 IADC FIXED CUTTER CLASSIFICATION

To cater for the wide range of fixed cutter bits including natural diamond and PDC, IADC
introduced the following classification system.
The classification system consists of a four character code:
Code 1 - Cutter Type and Body Material (D, M, T, S, O)

Code 2 - Bit Profile (1-9)
Code 3 - Hydraulic Design (1-9)
Code 4 - Cutter Size and Density (1-9).
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Code 1 Code 2 Code 3 Code 4

Cutter Type & Body Bit Profile Hydraulic Design Cutter Size and
Material Density
Table 11-d - IADC Fixed Cutter Classification Code
Code 1
The subgroup classification is simply a five letter designation categorising the type of
cutter and body material.
Group Letter Cutter Type and Body Material

D Natural Diamond Matrix Body
M PDC Matrix Body
T TSP Matrix Body
S PDC Steel Body
O Other
Table 11-e – Code 1 Cutter Type and Body Material
Code 2
The code numbers (1-9) categorise the bit profile by shape.
Code 2 Bit Profile

1 Long Taper Deep Cone
2 Long Taper Medium Cone
3 Long Taper Shallow Cone
(parabolic)
4 Medium Taper Deep Cone
5 Medium Taper Medium Cone
6 Medium Taper Shallow Cone
(rounded)
7 Short Taper Deep Cone (inverted)
8 Short Taper Medium Cone
9 Short Taper Shallow Cone (flat face)
Table 11-f– Code 2 Bit Profile
Code 3
The code numbers (1-9) describe the hydraulic features.
Changeable Sets Fixed Ports Open Throat

Bladed 1 2 3
Ribbed 4 5 6
Open Faced 7 8 9
Table 11-g - Code 3 Hydraulic Design
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Code 4
The code numbers (1-9) categorise the cutter size and cutter material.
Light Medium Heavy

Large 1 2 3
Medium 4 5 6
Small 7 8 9
Table 11-h - Code 4 Cutter Size and Density
An example bit code would then be M442 equates to a PDC bit with matrix body, medium
taper-deep cone, changeable jets-ribbed design with large size cutter of medium density.
11.4 BIT SELECTION

The bit selection process is much more complicated; however there are still simple
guidelines that can be used to increase drill rates and, hence reduce drilling costs.
Below, are listed some indications about bit selection.
Formation Hardness/Abrasiveness
• In hard and abrasive formations roller bits in IADC code range 6-1-7 or
higher are usually more successful.
• Numerous results test reports confirm that in soft to medium-soft rocks,
PDC bits drill faster than mill tooth or diamond bits unless they are sticky.
Mud Types
• Oil based muds often reduce the drilling rates with roller cone bits.
• Oil based mud is actually believed to enhance the performance of PDC
bits since they inhibit clay hydration and stickiness.
• Air drilling almost certainly requires the use of roller cone bits as air cannot
provide sufficient cooling as liquids do, therefore causing bit failure.
Directional Control
• Rotary drilling operations are inclined to right-hand walk. This tendency is
increased when using roller bits are used as cone offset from the bit
centre increases. The advantage of increased drilling rate when using
cones with higher offsets must be balanced with the difficulty in
maintaining directional control.
• Turbine drilling may have a tendency to left-hand walk. This is controlled
by the turbine used, bit gauge length, and BHA stabilisation.
• High bit weights tend to increase directional control problems and, vice
versa, low bit weights help maintain straight hole at a penalty in reduced
drilling rate. Due to this PDC bits with their relatively lower bit weights and
no cones, hence cone offset problems are favoured.
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Drilling Method
• Due to turbine drilling efficiency, bits with long life expectancies should be
used such as PDC, diamond and journal bearing insert bits.
• In deep wells, PDC bits are preferred when using surface rotary systems
as reduced weight on bit reduces torque due to bit and wall friction which
can be significant.
11.5 DRILLING OPTIMIZATION (BIT BREAKEVEN CURVE)

Nowadays, the primary criteria is economic resulting in optimisation based on the correct
selection of bit weight, rotary drilling speed and bit types which produce the lowest cost
per foot or metre, i.e. minimum cost drilling or MCD.
The cost of the depth drilled during a single bit run is the sum of three costs: bit cost, trip
costs and rig operating costs for the time required for the depth drilled.
Dividing the bit run cost by the footage drilled, results in the cost per foot. The trip costs
and rig operating costs are variable whereas the bit cost is fixed and generally less
significant (Refer to Figure 11-1).
With MCD it should be noted that selection of proper bit weights and drilling speeds does
not always yield the maximum ROP or the longest bit runs.
To evaluate economically the bit performance, it is essential to prepare a bit data
collection table which shall contain the following information of all reference bits:
• bit diameter (in)
• bit trade-mark
• bit type
• bit run (m)
• rotation time (h)
• trip time (h)
• bit cost ($)
• bit run depth (m).
After the following data shall be obtained and named:
A= Rig hourly rate ($/h)

B= Average cost of the reference bits ($)
C= Average bit run depth of reference bits (m)
D= Average trip time of reference bits (h)
E= Bit cost “bit in analysis” ($)
F= Average rotation time of the reference bits (h)
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and the following indexes will be calculated:
A * (F + D) + B
K1= ($/m)
C
A
K2= (m/h)
K1
(F * A ) + E
K3= (m)
K1
Now, establishing regular increments of rotating time (r), it is possible to drown the
“breakeven Curve” where its coordinates will be:
X = (r * K 2 ) + K 3
X
Y=
r
Figure 11-1- Drilling Cost Per foot

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11.6 CRITICAL ROTARY SPEEDS

It might be thought that drilling rate should be proportional to rotary speed since the drilling
occurs due to contact of between the bit teeth and the rock formations and that these are
proportional to rotary speed. However this only holds true if the contact was equally
effective at both slow and high rotational speeds. This linear assumption is not
substantiated by any data and in fact penetration rates are less than linear. The following
Figure 11-2 shows example drilling rates versus rotary speeds with differing bit weights
and it is seen that the penetration rates are not linear to rotational speed.
In practice the rotary speed should start slowly and increased until an optimum penetration
rate is achieved without vibration. In general, if weight on a bit is increased, the RPM
should be decreased and vice versa.
Note: The recommended weight on bit is 2 ton/inch of the hole diameter.
Critical rotary speed can be calculated by:
Critical Rotary speed =

(
4760000 DP 2 + ID 2 ) 1
/2
LP 2
where:
DP = Diameter of drill pipe, ins
ID = Internal diameter, ins
LP = Length of pipe joint, ins.
Figure 11-2 - Rotary Speed Effect on Drilling Rate

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12. DIRECTIONAL DRILLING
Controlled Directional Drilling can be defined as the technique of intentionally deviating a

well bore so that, the bottom hole location or any intermediate portion of the hole, is
positioned in a predetermined target(s) area, that is located at a given horizontal and
vertical distance from the surface location of the well.
12.1 TERMINOLOGY AND CONVENTIONS
The direction from any point on the earth surface to the

True North also
geographic north pole which is fixed.
termed
Geographic
North:
The direction from any point on the earth surface to the
Magnetic
magnetic north pole.
North:
The angle between True North and the direction shown by
Magnetic
the north pointer of a compass needle at the location being
Declination:
considered, measured from True North. Magnetic
declination for a given location changes gradually as time
goes on; an annual rate of change is applied to give the
present declination. The magnetic declination and rates of
change are obtained from detailed charts or computer
program. To obtain the geographic direction, the direction
obtained from magnetic surveys shall be corrected simply
by adding or subtracting the appropriate declination.
Directions can be measured and given in three ways:
Direction:
• Azimuth, where the angle is measured from north in a
clockwise direction from 0 to 360° (for example: 252° AZ).
• Quadrant Format (called ‘Field Co-ordinate’ or ‘Oil Field
Format’), the direction is expressed as an angle E or W of
N or S (the 252 AZ becomes S72° W).
• Bearing Angle, the angle is measured from 0 to 180°
East (positive) or West (negative) of North (108° W or –
108°).
The correction due to magnetic declination is the same for
any of the three formats.
The angle the centre line of the well bore makes with a
Inclination (Inc)
vertical axis below the well. By definition, straight holes have
also termed
zero angle of inclination. All inclination angles are positive.
Drift:
A predetermined area of interest whose position is defined
Target:
by its horizontal and vertical distance from the surface
location of the well.
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The path of the bore hole drilled by the bit.

Well Path:
The path expected of the bit to follow beyond the end of the
Projected Well
well bore.
Path:
A survey data point. A station length is the measured depth
Station:
between stations. The well path is described by all of the
data points therefore a well path survey is all the data points
surveyed.
The inclination angle, the direction of the well bore is
Survey Data
pointing and the measured depth of the surveying
instrument.
The build-up should be kept as close as possible to the
Build Up Rate
designated well trajectory ensuring that the rate of build-up
(BUR):
neither lags behind nor exceed the projected well path.
Large rates of build-up result in increased torque and wear
on drill pipe and casing and in the problems associated with
accidentally side tracking or formation of key seats.
Insufficient build-up rate will result in an increased final
angle required to achieve the objective; generally build-up
rates of 1.5 to 3.0°/100ft are normally used.
The rate of change of the combination of both inclination
Dog Leg
and direction of a well path between data points. It is usually
Severity (DLS):
expressed in degrees per 100ft or 30m interval drilled.
The section of the well starting from the end of build up and
Tangent
where direction and inclination are maintained constant.
Section:
The distance projected onto a horizontal plane from the
Horizontal
origin to the point under consideration.
Displacement
(or Horizontal
Departure):
The projection of the horizontal displacement onto a vertical
Vertical
plane usually along the target direction.
Section:
When drilling with rotary drilling assemblies there is a
Lead Angle:
tendency for the hole to ‘walk to the right’. Turbine drilling
assemblies have the opposite tendency that is ‘walk to the
left’. The lead is the angle to be applied to the project
direction at kick-off to correct the walking tendency of the
drilling assemblies.
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12.2 CO-ORDINATE SYSTEMS

12.2.1 UNIVERSAL TRANSVERSE MERCATOR (UTM)
The Universal Transverse Mercator projection is the Eni standard reference system to
determinate all well metric coordinates.
In the Transverse Mercator Projection the surface of the spheroid chosen to represent the
Earth is wrapped in a cylinder which touches the spheroid along a chosen meridian.
From the centre of the globe (Refer to Figure 12-1), shapes on the surface of the spheroid
are transferred to the surface of the cylinder (A becomes A1 and B becomes B1). The
cylinder is then unwrapped giving a correct scale representation along the central meridian
and an increased scale away from it.
CIRCLE OF CONTACT
NORTH POLE
(AXIS)
A1 B1
A B
Figure 12-1 - Universal Transfer Mercator
As a Mercator projection becomes increasingly inaccurate as one moves away from the
chosen meridian, a series of reference meridians is used so that it is always possible to
use a map with the reference meridian close to the place of work.
The reference meridians used are 6 degrees apart providing 60 maps, called zones, to
cover the whole world. The zones are numbered 0 to 60 (from west to east) with zone 31
having the 0o meridian (Greenwich) on the left and 6o E on the right.
Each zone is further sub-divided into grid sectors each one covering 8o latitude starting
from the equator. Grid sectors are identified by the zone number and by a letter ranging
from C to X (excluding I and O) from 80o South to 80o North. Identification of the sector is
simply the number and letter of the relevant area, i.e. 31U being the Southern North Sea
(Refer to Figure 12-2).
The co-ordinates for each UTM grid sector are given in meters with the origins (i.e. the
zero value) at a line 500,000m West of the centre meridian to avoid negative values and at
the equator. The co-ordinates are given as Eastings and Northings.
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° N
80 80
N °
0 60
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55
S °
80
° 80
S
THE METHOD OF ZONE NUMBERING ACCORDING TO THE UTM SYSTEM ESCH ZONE IS 6°
LONGITUDE IN WIDTH AND EXTENDS FROM 80° NORTH TO 80° SOUTH
27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42
64
V
56
U 31 U
48
T
40
S
32
R
24
Q
16
P
8
N
-8
DEGREE -24 -18 -12 -6 0 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 72
Figure 12-2- Grid Sectors

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Example:
UTM co-ordinates of the rig:
410,261.0 E
6,833,184.2 N
The rig is 500,000 - 410,261m west of the central meridian and 6,833,184.2m north of the
equator.
The bearing between any two points in the same grid sector is referenced to Grid North
which is the direction of a straight line running from top to bottom of the map.
The convergence is the angle ‘a’ (Refer to Figure 12-3) between the True North
(Geographic North) and the Grid North for the location being considered measured from
Geographic North. In the northern hemisphere the convergence is positive for locations
east of central meridian and negative for locations west of central meridian. The opposite
applies for the southern hemisphere.
NORD (CENTRALMERIDIAN)
G G G N G G G
True North
- +
a
EST
WEST EQUATOR LINE
+ -
CENTRAL MERIDIAN SOUTH
Figure 12-3 - Convergence Angle
12.2.2 GEOGRAPHICAL CO-ORDINATES

Generally rig and target co-ordinates are given in either UTM and/or geographical co-
ordinates.
Geographical co-ordinates are expressed in degrees, minutes and seconds for Latitude
and Longitude. Each degree is subdivided into 60 minutes and each minute further
subdivided into 60 seconds.
Example:
Rig location:
3° 36' 01.0" E Longitude
40° 43' 06.5" N Latitude
For the purpose of calculations degrees, minutes and seconds are often converted into
decimal degrees. This is done by dividing the minutes by 60 and the seconds by 3,600 so
that 3° 36' 01" becomes: 3 + 36/60 + 1/3600 = 3,600.278°.
ENI S.p.A.
REVISION
E&P Division
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12.2.3 METRIC/GEOGRAPHIC COORDINATES CONVERSION

To convert the Metric coordinates into Geographic coordinates and vice versa, the
following Topographic References shall be specified:
• Reference meridian
• Type of projection (Geodetic System)
• Reference Ellipsoid
• Semi-major axis
• Semi-minor axis
• Squared eccentricity (1/F)
• Central meridian
• False East
• False North
• Scale Factor
12.3 RIG/TARGET LOCATIONS AND HORIZONTAL DISPLACEMENT

The first step in planning a well, starts with the data defining the rig and target locations,
generally in UTM or geographical co-ordinates. With these data the horizontal
displacement and direction to the target can be calculated.
If the data supplied for the rig and target location are in geographical co-ordinates these
must first be converted to UTM data.
12.3.1 HORIZONTAL DISPLACEMENT AND TARGET DIRECTION

Using UTM co-ordinates, displacement and direction can be determined with trigonometry
as shown in the following example.
UTM co-ordinates of rig: 410,261.0 E 6,833,184.2 N

UTM co-ordinates of target: 412,165.0 E 6,834,846.0 N
Absolute difference in Eastings: 1,904 m
Absolute difference in Northings: 1,661.8 m
The horizontal displacement (HD) to

1904,0 m TARGET
the target is thus:
HD = 1661.8 2 + 1904 2 = 2527.21 m
The bearing to the target is:

48,9°
1661,8 m
H D 2527,21 m φ = tan-1 (1,904.0 / 1,661.8) = 48.90°
or N 48.90° E
RIG
Figure 12-4 - Example Calculation Of Horizontal Displacement

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REVISION
E&P Division
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12.3.2 CONVERGENCE
The target co-ordinates and bearing, as calculated above, are relative to the Grid North.
Since survey data make reference to the Geographic North (also called True North), the
convergence must be applied to the target co-ordinates and bearing to present them
relative to the Geographic North.
GRID NORTH
True North
NEW TARGET
Target
Grid North
RIG
-1,45° Est
Grid EST
Convergence
Fig. (a) Fig. (b)
Figure 12-5 - Example Grid Convergence
Taking convergence as being 1.45° in this example, it is necessary to rotate the target
location about the origin of the well by -1.45° to place it in its relative position to True
North.
In the previous example the bearing of the target with respect to Grid North was 48,90° or
N 48.90° E. Then the target bearing relative to the True North is:
48.90 - 1.45 = 47.45° or N 47.45° E
The horizontal displacement remains the same but its co-ordinates change. The True
North co-ordinates of the target are calculated with trigonometry as follow:
Eastings = 2,527.21 sin 47.45 = 1,861.76
Northings = 2,527.21 cos 47.45 = 1,708.98

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REVISION
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12.4 HIGH SIDE OF THE HOLE AND TOOL FACE

The high side is the top of the hole viewed along the bore hole axis. Assuming the hole
has an inclination, the low side is as the path, that a small, heavy ball would follow if it
were rolled slowly down the well (Refer to Figure 12-6).
HIGH SIDE a
HIGH SIDE
ROLLING BALL
LEFT RIGHT
ROLLING BALL
LOW SIDE VERTICAL

LOW SIDE
Figure 12-6 - Definitions of Inclined Hole
During a kick off or correction run, the measurement of greatest value is tool facing since it
indicates the orientation of the bent sub. When a MWD or steering tool is used to control
the deviation, tool face is referred to the high side of the hole when sufficient inclination
exists (over 5°) or to magnetic North for low inclinations (up to 5°). The gravity tool face
angle (GTF) is the projection onto a plane perpendicular to the hole axis of the angle
between high side of the hole and tool face.
The magnetic tool face angle (MTF) is the projection onto horizontal plane of the angle
between magnetic North and tool face (Refer to Figure 12-7).
MAGNETIC NORTH
45° HIGH SIDE
TOOL FACE
TOOLFACE
LEFT RIGHT
LOW SIDE
Steering the mud motor by means of Steering the mud motor by means of
magnetic toolface Bit and mud motor gravity toolface Bit and mud motor
trying to kick off in the direction of 45° trying to build angle and turn well to
magnetic azimuth. the right.
Figure 12-7 - Magnetic Tool Face
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REVISION
E&P Division
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12.5 MAGNETIC SURVEYS
Length Of Non Magnetic Drill Collar

Magnetic instruments must be run inside a sufficient length of non-magnetic drill collars
(NMDC or Monel Collar) made of special nickel alloy to allow the instrument to respond to
the earth's magnetic field, by isolating it from the magnetic influence of the drill string.
The required length of NMDC is determined by taking into account the following factors:
• The geographical area of operations. Since the earth's horizontal
magnetic intensity varies geographically, a zone selection map is used to
determine which set of empirical data should be used for a given area.
• The proportion of steel drilling tools below the NMDC.
• The direction and inclination of the well.
The Directional Drilling Contractor shall provide updated indication of magnetic intensity
related to the area of operation.
Compass spacing is generally recommended to be at or below the centre of the non-
magnetic collars.
12.5.1 MAGNETIC SINGLE SHOT SURVEYS

Prior to use, the instrument should be thoroughly checked out and tested to ensure it is in
good working condition. After loading, the timer is set and synchronised with a watch on
the surface.
The time required for the instrument to fall is approximately 1,000ft per minute for
inclinations up to 40° and 800ft per minute for inclinations over 40°. A safety margin of 5
mins shall be added to the calculated running time. Mud weight and viscosity are
important factors to be considered, as are drill string restricted internal diameters.
For high inclinations (over 60) sinker bars should be used and the survey barrel may need
to be pumped down. The mud pump rate should be very low, giving just sufficient pressure
to break circulation. The drill string may be rotated slowly (not however, if running the
survey on wireline) and reciprocated to prevent sticking and assist the survey tool in
reaching bottom.
Drill pipe movement and pumping (if used) should be continued until a minute or so before
the timer is due to operate.
If run on wireline, it should be taken into account the time the instrument generally takes
longer to assemble and to run. Sandlines are quicker to run but can cause higher wear on
drill pipe protective linings. Whichever wireline is used, thread protectors should be
installed on the tool joint.
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REVISION
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STAP-P-1-M-6100 0 1
12.5.2 MAGNETIC MULTISHOT SURVEYS

Magnetic multishot surveys are generally run prior to running casing as a check on the
single shot surveys taken while drilling. This survey may be run either as an in run or
running outrun survey, although it is generally run on the outrun wiper trip before casing.
This gives an opportunity for the instrument to be retrieved at the casing shoe and
checked whilst the trip back to bottom is being made. A second opportunity is then
available if necessary.
As the name implies, the magnetic multishot provides a series of single shot surveys. The
camera of the instrument, instead of carrying one single shot disc, contains a length of
photographic film. The film is exposed and advanced continuously, at a set time interval,
from the time the instrument is started until stopped. The interval between exposure is
generally 20secs but it is altered on some instruments.
The survey is normally made by dropping the instrument into the drill string and allowing it
to get to bottom before pumping the slug and commencing the trip out of the hole.
As the drill string becomes stationary in the slips after each stand is broken off, the time
since starting the instrument is recorded together with the number of stands out of hole.
This enables the survey picture to be correlated to instrument depth. With an instrument
set on a twenty second sample rate, good practice is to ensure there are a minimum of
two surveys taken at each depth by remaining stationary.
12.5.3 STEERING TOOL (WITH MUD MOTOR)

Steering tools use a system of magnetometers and accelerometers to measure the Earth's
magnetic field and gravity in order to determine inclination and direction.
The tool is run on a conductor wireline which provides power for the sensors and returns
the signal to the surface computer where it is decoded and relayed to the rig floor read
out.
The tool may be operated on one of two modes displaying tool face with respect to North
(Magnetic Tool Face) or relative to the high side of the hole (Gravity Tool Face). The
magnetic tool face mode is used in vertical or near vertical wells for kick off in the desired
direction. As the inclination is increased above about 5° the tool is switched to gravity tool
face.
The advantages of steering tools over single shot orientation are in the continual read-out
of the tool face whilst drilling and in saving time in situations where orientation problems
may require repeated single shot surveys.
One of the drawbacks of the system is the time required to pull the tool out of hole for
making pipe connections.
The steering tool system is used only in specific situations, i.e. KOP in a high temperature
zone.
When a motor is used for kick off or correction runs (operations not requiring rotation of
the drill string), a side entry sub may be used. This sub prevents the need to pull the tool
to make connections. The wireline passes through the entry sub enabling the drill pipe to
be added to the string in the normal manner.
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REVISION
E&P Division
STAP-P-1-M-6100 0 1
12.5.4 MEASUREMENT WHILE DRILLING (MWD)

Measurement While Drilling is a technique which takes various downhole measurements
and transmitting these data to the surface for decoding and display. The most common
transmission media is mud pulse telemetry in which the flowing column of drilling mud is
modulated periodically by some mechanical means within the downhole assembly. The
intermittent pressure pulses are transmitted from downhole to the surface where they are
detected by a pressure transducer mounted in the standpipe. The transducer converts the
mud pulses into electrical signal that is then transmitted to the surface computer. The
computer decodes and displays this transmitted information.
There are three distinct types of MWD transmission systems currently available, all using
mud column as their transmission medium:
• The positive system uses a plunger type valve that temporarily obstructs
mud flow thus creating a positive, transient pressure pulse.
• The negative pulse system utilises a valve that temporarily vents a
portion of the mud flow to the borehole annulus, resulting in a negative,
transient pressure pulse.
• The continuous wave system utilises a spinning, slotted rotor and
slotted stator that repeatedly obstructs mud flow. This operation generates
a continuous low frequency fluctuation in standpipe pressure of
approximately 50psi.
One of the most common applications for a directional MWD system is to orient downhole
motor/bent sub assemblies when changing the course of the well path. Sensors located
immediately above the bent sub, taking measurements while the bit is drilling on bottom,
provide immediate data (inclination, azimuth and tool face) to the Directional Driller.
As already discussed in the description of steering tool systems, tool face may be referred
to magnetic North or high side of the hole, depending on hole inclination.
12.6 GYROSCOPIC SURVEYS

Gyro instruments are used when the proximity of casings or other magnetic interference
precludes the use of magnetic tools.
12.6.1 GYRO SINGLE SHOT SURVEYS

Gyro single shot surveys are run on wireline. Since gyroscopes are delicate instruments,
running speeds should be within that recommended and the tool stopped and started off
gently.
The gyro instrument has the same mule shoe feature as the magnetic single shot used for
orientation and, although it uses a different system, the data obtained is the same, (i.e.
hole direction, inclination and tool face).
The maximum depth to which they can be effectively run is approx. 1,300ft about 400m.
This is a limitation imposed by the time taken between orienting the gyro on surface,
running into hole, taking the survey, pulling out of hole and checking the orientation.
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REVISION
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The difference in azimuth between the initial orientation and final check on return to
surface is the amount the gyro has drifted or wandered off its true north orientation. The
drift is assumed to be constant for the time interval between initial and final orientation.
The correction is calculated by simply determining the proportion of drift occurring in the
time from the initial orientation to the survey picture being taken. Gyro drift is approx. 4°
per hour in static conditions and 8° per hour in dynamic conditions.
12.6.2 GYRO MULTISHOT SURVEYS

The gyroscopic multishot is the survey tool for surveying extended intervals inside casing
or drill pipe without a non-magnetic drill collar. The tool comes in two sizes. The smaller
one can be run in completed wells or through drill pipe. The larger one is a more rugged
tool and is used to run surveys inside casing. Depending on the length of survey run, it will
be a number of hours before the calculated survey data are available.
Gyro multishot drifts are the same as that of the single shot gyro.
12.6.3 SURFACE READ-OUT GYROSCOPES

Surface read-out gyroscopes are used for the same purposes in single shot and multishot
data collection. The instrumentation is more sophisticated and requires a conducting
wireline to power the tool and transmit the information back to the surface for decoding by
computer. With a surface read-out multishot gyro, the drift can be constantly monitored to
ensure the tool is performing well and the calculated survey is produced shortly after
completing the log run.
12.6.4 GYROCOMPASS (NORTH SEEKING GYROSCOPE)

These instruments use the principle of earth rate gyro compassing to define true azimuth
and inclination in near vertical parts of the borehole. Then, as the hole builds angle to
above 15° it switches to a continuous integrating mode. This dual mode makes the tool
accurate in both vertical and deviated borehole where it eliminates the inaccuracies that
gyrocompass based instruments have at high latitude, high inclination or in the East/West
axis. The rugged construction makes these tools capable of steering and surveying while
drilling (Gyro While Drilling).
APPROVED SURVEY TOOLS CHARACTERISTICS
12.7
TOO Magn Survey Tool Horizontal Survey Tool Vertical SURVEY APPLICATION FOR DIRECTIONAL DRILLING SURVEY APPLICATION FOR WELL PROFILE VERIFICATION SURVEY
L (M) Uncertainty Factor Uncertainty Factor CONTROL CENTRE APPLICATION
TYP Gyro FOR
E (G) ORIENTATION
INCLINATI ERROR INCLINATI ERROR Applicaz Limitation Application Use
ON (m/1000 ON (m/1000 ion
RANGE m) RANGE m)
GSS G 0°/10° 4 0°/10° 2.2 Single- •Requires interpretation of film upon developing. MWD •GSS can verify toolface position in area with Whipstock
10°/20° 7 10°/20° 2.7 shot •Requres gyro drift check. toolface magnetic interference. Packer
ENI S.p.A.
20°/30° 11 20°/30° 3.5 Multi- •Requires a reference to determine direction. Well profile •Checking of the well path after casing is set. (GMS Templates
30°/45° 18 30°/45° 5.7 shot •Time limited by amount of film available with used through casing after well is drilled using MSS).
45°/60° 30 45°/60° 7.8 (GMS).
E&P Division
SRG G 0°/10° 4 0°/10° 2.2 Single- •Requires conducting wireline for surface readuot. MWD •Verify toolface position in area with magnetic Whipstock
10°/20° 7 10°/20° 2.7 shot •Requres gyro drift check. toolface interference. Packer
20°/30° 11 20°/30° 3.5 Multi- •Requires a reference to determine direction. Well profile •Checking of the well path after casing is set. (SRG Templates
S P E O
30°/45° 18 30°/45° 5.7 shot used through casing after well is drilled using MSS). Perforating gun
45°/60° 30 45°/60° 7.8
GMS G 0°/10° 4 0°/10° 2.2 Single- •Requires interpretation of film upon developing. MWD •GMS can verify toolface position in area with Whipstock
10°/20° 7 10°/20° 2.7 shot •Requres gyro drift check. toolface magnetic interference. Packer
20°/30° 11 20°/30° 3.5 Multi- •Requires a reference to determine direction. Well profile •Checking of the well path after casing is set. (GMS Templates
30°/45° 18 30°/45° 5.7 shot •Time limited by amount of film available with used through casing after well is drilled using MSS).
45°/60° 30 45°/60° 7.8 (GMS).
NSG G 0°/20° 2 0°/10° 2.2 Single- •Requires conducting wireline . Well profile •Confirming of MSS/MMS or MWD after casing isset. Whipstock
20°/30° 3.5 10°/20° 2.7 shot •Requires on-site calibratin and final instrument Multi shot •Confirming well path or orientation when high Packer
30°/45° 7.5 20°/30° 3.5 Multi- check. survey horizontal accurancy is required Templates
APPROVED SURVEY TOOLS
40°/60° 15.6 30°/45° 5.7 shot Redundant •Completing survey on in-run and out-run for Perforating gun
40°/60° 7.8 survey confirmation of accurancy.
GCT G 0°/20° 2 0°/10° 2.2 Single- •Requires conducting wireline .
20°/30° 3.5 10°/20° 2.7 shot •Requires on-site calibratin and final instrument
30°/45° 7.5 20°/30° 3.5 Multi- check.
40°/60° 15.6 30°/45° 5.7 shot
45°/60° 7.8
FIND G 0°/90° 0.5 0°/90° 0.5 Surface •Providing a baseline for comparison of all
S survey subsequent surveys.
•10 5/8” OD tool limits use to large size casing only.
•Limited to 3 ½ hours memory only.
STAP-P-1-M-6100
MSS M 0°/10° 9 0°/10° 2.5 Single- •Temperature limitation. MWD •Verify inclination end direction of MWD. Bent subs
10°/20° 13 10°/20° 3.7 shot •Requires interpretation of film upon developing. verification •Checking inclination of surface hole before setting Jetting device
20°/30° 20 20°/30° 5.5 Multi- •Time limited by amount of film available with Inclination casing .
IDENTIFICATION CODE
30°/45° 45 30°/45° 10 shot (MMS). only •Establishing check for MWD or ST readings.
45°/60° 55 45°/60° 15.3 Toolface •Defining wellbore path at a given depth
60°/80° 60 60°/80° 17.3 Well profile
MMS M 0°/10° 9 0°/10° 2.5 Single- •Temperature limitation. MWD •Verify inclination end direction of MWD. Bent subs
10°/20° 13 10°/20° 3.7 shot •Requires interpretation of film upon developing. verification •Checking inclination of surface hole before setting Jetting device
0
20°/30° 20 20°/30° 5.5 Multi- •Time limited by amount of film available with Inclination casing . Orienting Coring
30°/45° 45 30°/45° 10 shot (MMS). only •Establishing check for MWD or ST readings.
45°/60° 55 45°/60° 15.3 Toolface •Defining wellbore path at a given depth
60°/80° 60 60°/80° 17.3 Well profile
1
Table 12-a - Approved Survey Characteristics

ST M 0°/10° 2.5 Kick-off •Requires conducting wireline . Bent subs
10°/20° 3.7 in high Jetting device
20°/30° 5.5 temperat
PAG
30°/45° 10 rure
45°/60° 15.3 zone
60°/80° 17.3
EMS M 0°/10° 2 0°/10° 2.5 Single- •Temperature limitation. Well profile •Confirming of MSS/MMS or MWD Steering Tool. Bent subs
164
10°/20° 2.2 10°/20° 3.7 shot Orienting Coring

20°/30° 2.6 20°/30° 5.5 Multi-
30°/45° 3.5 30°/45° 10 shot
OF
45°/60° 4.4 45°/60° 15.3

60°/90° 5.2 60°/80° 17.3
REVISION
MWD M 0°/10° 2.6 Survey •Temperature limitation.

10°/20° 3.3 while
232
20°/30° 4.3 drilling

30°/45° 6.3
45°/60° 8.5
60°/90° 10.5
MSS= Magnetic Single Shot (film) – MMS=Magnetic Multi Shot – EMS= Electronic Magnetic Multi Shot – MWD= Measurement While Drilling – GSS= Gyro Single Shot (film) – GMS= Gyro Multi Shot – SRG= Surfacve Reading Gyro
NSG= North Seeking Gyro (finder) – GCT= Guidance Continous Tool – FINDER= Ferranti International Navigation System – ST= Steering Tool
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REVISION
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12.8 SURVEY CALCULATION METHODS

When drilling on a cluster, the co-ordinates of the centre of the 30" conductor shall be
used on the rig for computations of each individual well.
The centre of the cluster may be used by the Company Drilling Office for mapping,
planning and reporting.
There are a number of methods of calculating the wellbore trajectory from the survey data.
The most common are:
• Average angle method: It assumes the borehole is parallel to the simple
average of both the drift and bearing angles between two survey stations.
It is fairly accurate and calculation is simple enough for field use with a
non programmable scientific calculator.
• Radius of curvature: Using sets of angles measured at the upper and
lower ends of sections along the surveyed course length, it generates a
space curve representing the wellbore path. For each survey interval, it
assumes that the vertical and horizontal projections of the curve have
constant curvature.
• Minimum curvature method: shall be used on the rig, in Company
Drilling office and Directional Drilling Contractor office for survey
computations. It assumes the borehole is a spherical arc with minimum
curvature (maximum radius of curvature) between survey stations. It is the
most accurate for most boreholes, however it requires very complex
calculations using a programmable calculator or computer.
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REVISION
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12.8.1 AVERAGE ANGLE METHOD
A1
∆MD
∆ VERTICAL A2
I1
N
I2
W E ∆ NORD
∆ EST
S
∆ North = ∆ MD x sin (l 1 + I2 )/ 2 x cos (A 1 + A 2

)/ 2
∆ East = ∆ MD x sin (l1 + l 2 ) / 2 x sin (A 1 + A 2
)/ 2
∆ Vertical = ∆ MD x cos (l1 + l 2 ) / 2
100
D.L.S = * ar cos [(sin I1 sin I 2 ) * (sin A 1 sin A 2 + cos A 1 cos A 2 ) + cos I1 − cos I 2 ]
∆CL i
where:
∆Vertical
∆CLi= 2
cos I1 + cos I2
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REVISION
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12.8.2 RADIUS OF CURVATURE METHOD
A1
I1 ∆MD
∆ VERTICAL
A2
N I2
W E ∆ NORD
S ∆ EST
∆ MD x (cos l1 − cos l 2 ) x (sin A 2 − sin A 1 )

∆ North =
(l2 − l1 ) x (A 2 − A 1 )
∆ MD x (cos l1 - cos l 2 ) x (cos A 1 - cos A 2 )
∆ East =
(l2 - l1 ) x (A 2 - A 1 )
∆MD * [SinI 2 − SinI1 ]
∆Vert =
(I 2 − I1 )
D.L.S. = 100 (A d.a.r .i ) (sin I )

2
i
4
+ (ID. A .R.i )
2
where:
A D.A.R.I= (Ai-Ai-1)/∆CDi
ID.A.R.I= (I2-I1)
∆Vertical
∆CLi= 2
cos I1 + cos I2
∆CL i
∆CDi= x(senI1 + senI 2 )
2
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REVISION
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12.8.3 MINIMUM CURVATURE METHOD
D
L2 DL
2
A1
I1
∆MD
∆ VERTICAL DL
A2
N I2
W E ∆ NORD
S ∆ EST
( )
∆ North = (∆MD) / 2 x sin l1 x cos A1 + sin l2 x cos A 2 x RF
∆ East = (∆MD ) / 2 x (sin l1 x sin A 1 + sin l2 x sin A 2 ) x RF
∆ Vertical = (∆ MD ) / 2 x (cos l1 + cos l 2 ) x RF
RF = 2 / DL x tan (DL / 2)
cos (DL )= cos (l 2 - l 1 ) - sin l 1 x sin I 2 x [1 - cos (A 2 - A 1 )]

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REVISION
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12.9 PLANNING DIRECTIONAL WELLS CONSIDERATIONS

The planning of directional wells should include a ‘Dog-leg control programme’.
The critical dog-leg is dependent upon the dimension (size) and metallurgy of the drill pipe
and drill pipe tension (pull) in the dog-leg; critical dog leg limits should also be considered
for drill collars.
Dog-leg limits are established to prevent drill pipe fatigue, but when those limits are
maintained, there is also a reduction in associated hole problems. Excessive dog-legs
cause key seats, casing wear, rotating torque, trip drag, etc. Overall drilling rate can be
greatly improved by a carefully planned and executed dog-leg control programme (Refer
to section 10.6).
Below are listed same critical items:
1) If extreme torque is encountered during drilling deviated holes, consider the
following (in order of priority):
• Improve hole cleaning verifying the flow velocity in the drill pipe/open hole
annulus and adjusting mud properties (high instantaneous gels, low
viscosity and, conditions permitting, high mud weight).
• Add a non-polluting torque reducer additive or, if possible, diesel oil (to a
maximum of 10% diesel) to the mud.
• On the subsequent trip leave out some drill collars and stabilisers.
Replace with HWDP. Replace the near bit stabiliser with a near bit roller
reamer (if available).
2) Set casing through the build up section to 200-300ft (60-90m) in the tangent section,
if possible.
3) The use of hard-banded drill pipe is not allowed inside casing.
4) Check the DP tool joints every trip with a fixed caliper.
• It is recommended to have a magnet placed in the flow line to collect
metal cuttings coming out of the hole. Excessive metal cuttings may
indicate casing wear or collision with another well (on a cluster). In case of
indications that the drill pipe and casing are eroding , the following actions
are suggested:
• Check alignment of derrick over the centre of the well.
• Check the wear bushing on the first trip.
• Use lowest practical rpm and consider the use of downhole motor.
• Use the minimum practical weight of bottom hole assembly.
• Do not rotate with the bit off bottom.
• Install protectors at less than 3ft (1m) above worn tool joints and, if so
required, also 3ft (1m) below tool joints in any section of the top hole
where the hole curvature makes it necessary. Minimum OD of the
protectors is 7”.
5) Inspect the DP after a certain amount of thousand feet is drilled, or rotating hours,
specified by the Company Drilling Office. This operation shall be carried out by a
recognised inspection company. Drill collars, stabilisers, subs, etc. shall be checked
at the end of each well.
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REVISION
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6) Read the single shot survey film discs or MWD data to ensure the correct path is
being followed.
7) Check survey calculations for correctness.
8) Keep well plot updated every time a new survey is taken.
9) The baffle plate for the survey instrument should be located at the bottom of the
bottom non-magnetic drill collar.
12.10 ROTARY CLOSED LOOP DRILLING SYSTEM (RCLS)

Rotary Closed Loop Drilling System (also named Automatic Directional Drilling System™)
is an integrated Drilling and MWD system that provides precise directional control with
continuous drill string rotation; it includes: Multiple Propagation Resistivity (MPR), Gamma
Ray, directional and near bit inclination measurements.
It can steer in any desired direction as the drill string rotates; this increases rates of
penetration, reduces torque and drag, and improves well bore quality.
Unlike conventional steerable motor systems, the Automatic Directional Drilling System™
tool has no bent housing so it requires no time-consuming surface alignments. The tool is
immediately ready to run in hole.
The tool can be operated in: HOLD, STEER and RIBS OFF mode.
• HOLD mode means, that the tool adjusts steering vectors automatically to
reach a I° target inclination and maintains this inclination with high
precision. Full directional surveys are obtained during the pumps off time
at each connection then transmitted when drilling resumes so no drilling
time is wasted at survey points. Simultaneously the well path can be
turned to the desired direction.
• In STEER mode the tool steers with given toolface and given force.
• The RIBS OFF mode allows to obtain zero force on ribs for open hole
sidetracks, or to easily enter the new hole from a rat hole.
All modes can be adjusted before running into hole or whenever required, through a
downlink command given from the surface.
The Automatic Directional Drilling System™ combines the benefits of a new steerable
Rotary Closed Loop drilling System (RCLS) with recent advances MWD technology.
The Automatic Directional Drilling System™ is available in two sizes, a 6 3/4” OD for 8 1/2”
hole and 8 1/4” OD tool for 12 1/4” hole; their characteristics are showed in Table 12-b and
Table 12-c.
In its standard configuration, the Automatic Directional Drilling System™ tool is set up to
deliver a dogleg severity of up to 6.5°/30m (100 ft) in 81/2” hole and 6°/30m (100 ft) in 12
1
/4” hole. Real time directional and formation evaluation data (resisitivity and gamma ray)
measurements are provided. An optional NaviDrill mud motor may also be used if
increased horsepower at the bit is required or when drill string and casing wear are critical
factors.
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12.10.1 BIT SELECTION

In general Automatic Directional Drilling System™ can use more aggressive fixed cutter
bits (selected for optimum drilling performance) instead of roller cone bits (selected for
efficient orientation of conventional steerable motors).
Though designed for high ROP, aggressive PDC bits can create torque that makes it
difficult to control the toolface of conventional steerable systems while “slide” drilling for
course changes. Automatic Directional Drilling System continuous rotary drilling
completely eliminates slide drilling operations, so PDC bits can be selected for high
performance in the formation, significantly improving both on bottom and gross ROP.
Actual bit selection normally is made with regard to offset data. However, many PDC bits
are designed for straight hole drilling and have a reduced dogleg capability.
With a highly aggressive bit selection, it may be advantageous to drive the Automatic
Directional Drilling System on a downhole motor. This will deliver torque directly to the
system, isolating it from the torsional spring effects of the drillstring, resulting in more
constant drilling parameters downhole.
12.10.2 DRILLING FLUIDS

The elastomers used in the Automatic Directional Drilling System™ have been extensively
tested to identify potential compatibility problems with a wide range of drilling fluids (oil,
pseudo oil, and water based) without incident. However, if an unusual drilling fluid is used
with the Automatic Directional Drilling System™, an appropriate tests may be considered.
12.10.3 TEMPERATURE
All components within the Automatic Directional Drilling System™ downhole tool are
designed to withstand temperatures of up to 150°C.
12.10.4 OPTIONAL MEASUREMENT (MDP)

The Modular Dynamics & Pressure (MDP) sub which monitors downhole drilling
dynamics conditions in real time. Vibration measurements identify adverse downhole
dynamics which could damage the bottomhole assembly. With this information, the driller
can modify drilling parameters to avoid trouble. True weight on bit and torque
measurements also alert the driller to stabiliser hang up, bit gauge wear and other
problems. Pressure sensors both in the bore and annular side of the sub allow accurate
monitoring of downhole mud weight changes, true ECD, and hole cleaning efficiency as
well as swab / surge effects during reaming and back reaming.
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12.10.5 AUTOMATIC DIRECTIONAL DRILLING SYSTEM™ DOWNHOLE TOOL

The Automatic Directional Drilling System™ downhole tool consists of three main
elements:
The steering unit

It controls the direction with a non-rotating sleeve (see Figure 12-8). The sleeve contains
three hydraulically operated ribs, the near bit inclinometer and control electronics. The
system (see Figure 12-9) applies a different, controlled hydraulic force to each steering rib.
The resulting force vector directs the tool along the desired trajectory at a programmed
dogleg severity. This force vector is adjusted by a combination of downhole electronic
control and commands pulsed hydraulically from the surface. The bit drive shaft, rotates
within the non rotating steerable stabiliser sleeve which, is decoupled from the drillstring
rotation. The stabiliser sleeve, contains the near-bit inclinometer, the steering control
electronics, and the control valves which hydraulically operate the stabiliser ribs.
Pistons, operated by high pressure hydraulic fluid, exert controlled forces separately to
each of the three steering ribs so, the resulting force vector, directs the assembly along
the desired trajectory.
Automatic Directional Drilling System internal micro-processing system, calculates how
much pressure has to be applied to each piston to obtain the desired toolface. In
determining the magnitude of the force applied to the steering ribs, the system also takes
into account the dogleg limits for the current hole section.
To compensate the possible sleeve rotation (approximately one revolution every 1/2 hour
depending on both the formation type and ROP), the system continuously monitors the
relative position of the sleeve and using this data, Automatic Directional Drilling System™
automatically adjusts the force on each steering rib to provide a steady side force at the bit
in the desired direction.
The electronics probe

It controls the interface between all tool components and manages the exchange of data
to and from the surface. This section also contains the directional and tool vibration
sensors. Azimuth measurements from the tri-axial magnetometer are used to monitor and
control the steering unit in conjunction with the near bit inclinometer which gives early
readings of changes in tool inclination. The vibration sensor helps ensure that Automatic
Directional Drilling System™ is operated within specifications and at maximum efficiency.
The Reservoir Navigation Tool (RNT) sub

It has Multiple Propagation Resistivity (MPR) and Gamma Ray (GR) sensors, enables real
time geosteering within the reservoir.
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Figure 12-8 Automatic Directional Drilling System™ Non Rotating Steerable Stabiliser
Figure 12-9 Applied a Different, Controlled Hydraulic Force

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12.10.6 AUTOMATIC DIRECTIONAL DRILLING SYSTEM™ SURFACE SYSTEM

The Automatic Directional Drilling System™ surface system (see Figure 12-10) includes a
computer controlled mud flow by-pass valve for downlinking, and a MWD decoding
system.
The mud flow by-pass valve is called the By-Pass Actuator Unit “BPA” (see Figure 12-11).
This valve transmits commands to the downhole tool through negative mud pulse
telemetry.
The downhole system is programmed by using negative pulse telemetry created in the
surface By-Pass Actuator.
The by-pass actuator is connected into the standpipe and can divert up to 20% of the mud
flow. Typically 13% - 15% of the flow is diverted to create a series of negative pulses in
the drill pipe. The tool senses these pulses to receive its downlink instructions. The
downlink pulse length can be varied between 8, 12 and 16 seconds according to depth
and mud properties. A complete downlink command can take between 2 and 8.5 minutes
depending on the complexity of the downlink and the pulse length chosen to conform with
the operating conditions.
Transmission of information from the down whole tool is via positive mud pulse telemetry.
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Figure 12-10 - Surface System
Figure 12-11 - mud flow by-pass valve

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Sensor Specification
General Tool specification Propagation Resistively
Borehole size: 12 ¼” as standard Distance From Bit 16.7 ft (5.1m)
12 1/8” 14 ¾” on order
Build Rate: 0° – 6° /100ft (30 m) 2 MHz Resistively
Tool OD: 8 ¼” Phase Difference Range: 0.1 – 3000 ohm-m
Steer able Stabiliser 10 11/16” Accuracy:
± 1% (0.1 – 50ohm-m)
± 0.5 memo/m (> 50 ohm-m)
Length: 41.7 ft (12.7) Attenuation Range: 0.1 - 500 ohm-m
Accuracy:
± 2% (0.1 - 25 ohm-m)
± 1.0 memo/m (> 25 ohm-m)
Weight: 6600lb (3000 Kg) Vertical Resolution 8” (20 cm) for 90% response in
conductive beds
Connections: 6 5/8” API Reg. Box Up 400 KHz Resistively
6 5/8” API Rag box Down
Phase Difference Range: 0.1 - 1000 ohm-m
Accuracy:
± 1% (0.1 - 25ohm-m)
± 1.0 memo/m (> 25 ohm-m)
Attenuation Range: 0.1 - 200 ohm-m
Accuracy:
± 5% (0.1 - 10ohm-m)
Operating Specification and Limits ± 5.0 memo/m (> 10 ohm-m)
Flow Rate: 530 – 1100 GPM Vertical Resolution 12” (30 cm) for 90% response in
2000 – 4200 l/min conductive beds
Flow Rate For Full Downlink 600 – 1100 GPM
Operation: 2300 – 4200 l/min
Maximum WOB: 88000 lbs
400 KN Gamma Ray
Maximum Tool Rotation 250 rpm Distance from Bit 15.4 ft (4.7 m)
Maximum Bit Torque: 32500 ft-lb Sensor Type Scintillation (x2)
45 Kim
Maximum Torque to Failure: 90000 ft-lb Measurement API GR
124 Kim
Maximum Over pull 211000 lbs Range 0 – 250 API
(Continued Operation): 936 KN
Maximum Over pull to Failure: 1514000 lbs Accuracy ± 3% of full scale
6700 KN
Max temperature: Operating Survival* 300 °F (150 °C) Statistical Repeatability ± 3 API @ 100 API and ROP = 60 ft/hr
311 °F (155 °C) (18.3 m/hr)
Maximum Hydrostatic 20000 phi Vertical Resolution 6” (15.3 cm)
Pressure: 1380 bar
Maximum Bit Pressure Drop: 2000 phi
138 bar Near Bit inclination
Maximum DLS For Tool Passage 10 deg/100ft Distance from Bit 2.4 ft (0.7 m)
Sensor Type Tri-axial Accelerometer
Surface Unit – Bypass Actuator Unit

Directional
Weight: 900 lbs Distance from Bit 33.6 ft (10.2 m)
400 Kg
Dimension: 1.6 m x 0.6 m x 0.9 m Sensor Type Tri-axial Accelerometer
Tri-axial Flux Gate
Maximum Stand Pipe Pressure: 7100 phi
500 bar Vibration
Required Air Supply: 90 – 130 phi @ 630 Distance from Bit 20.1 ft (6.3 m)
l/m
Hammer Union Connections at Unit: HP Mud Line In: 2” Sensor Type Tri-axial Accelerometer
Box
LP Mud Line Out: 2”
Pin
* Tool must not be exposed to either static or circulating temperatures

which exceed 160 °C due to limits on lithium battery component in the
system
Table 12-b (8 ¼” Automatic Directional Drilling System™ RCLS)

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Sensor Specification
General Tool specification Propagation Resistively
Borehole size: 8 1/2” 8 3/8” Distance From Bit 17.7 ft (5.4m)
Other sizes available on request
Build Rate: 0° – 6.5° /100ft (30 m) 2 MHz Resistively
Tool OD: 6 3/4” Phase Difference Range: 0.1 – 3000 ohm-m
Steer able Stabiliser. 7 3/4” Accuracy:
± 1% (0.1 – 50ohm-m)
± 0.5 memo/m (> 50 ohm-m)
Length: 37 ft (11.2) Attenuation Range: 0.1- 500 ohm-m
Accuracy:
± 2% (0.1- 25 ohm-m)
± 1.0 memo/m (> 25 ohm-m)
Weight: 3400lb (1550 Kg) Vertical Resolution 8” (20 cm) for 90% response in
conductive beds
Connections: NC 50 Box Up 400 KHz Resistively
4 1/2” API Rag box Down
Phase Difference Range: 0.1 - 1000 ohm-m
Accuracy:
± 1% (0.1 -25ohm-m)
± 1.0 memo/m (> 25 ohm-m)
Attenuation Range: 0.1 - 200 ohm-m
Accuracy:
± 5% (0.1 - 10ohm-m)
Operating Specification and Limits ± 5.0 memo/m (> 10 ohm-m)
Flow Rate: 370 - 630 GPM Vertical Resolution 12” (30 cm) for 90% response in
1400 - 2380 l/min conductive beds
Flow Rate For Full Downlink 490 - 630 GPM
Operation: 1850 - 2300 l/min
Maximum WOB: 55000 lbs
250 KN Gamma Ray
Maximum Tool Rotation 250 rpm Distance from Bit 16.4 ft (5 m)
Maximum Bit Torque: 14500 ft-lb Sensor Type Scintillation (x2)
20 Kim
Maximum Torque to Failure: 22000 ft-lb Measurement API GR
30 Kim
Maximum Over pull 109000 lbs Range 0 – 250 API
(Continued Operation): 487 KN
Maximum Over pull to Failure: 578000 lbs Accuracy ± 3% of full scale
2620 KN
Max temperature: Operating Survival* 300 °F (150 °C) Statistical Repeatability ± 3 API @ 100 API and ROP = 60 ft/hr
311 °F (155 °C) (18.3 m/hr)
Maximum Hydrostatic 20000 phi Vertical Resolution 6” (15.3 cm)
Pressure: 1380 bar
Maximum Bit Pressure Drop: 2000 phi
138 bar Near Bit inclination
Maximum DLS For Tool Passage With rotation: 9° /100ft Distance from Bit 3.0 ft (0.9 m)
Without rotation:
11° /100ft (standard)
12° /100ft (flex)
Sensor Type Tri-axial Accelerometer
Surface Unit – Bypass Actuator Unit Directional

Weight: 900 lbs Distance from Bit 31.5 ft (9.6 m)
400 Kg
Dimension: 1.6 m x 0.6 m x 0.9 m Sensor Type Tri-axial Accelerometer
Tri-axial Flux Gate
Maximum Stand Pipe Pressure: 7100 phi
500 bar Vibration
Required Air Supply: 90 - 130 phi @ 630 Distance from Bit 21.7 ft (6.6 m)
l/m
Hammer Union Connections at Unit: HP Mud Line In: 2” Sensor Type Tri-axial Accelerometer
Box
LP Mud Line Out: 2”
Pin
* Tool must not be exposed to either static or circulating temperatures
which exceed 160 °C due to limits on lithium battery component in the
system
Table 12-c (6 ¾” Automatic Directional Drilling System™ RCLS)

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13. DRILLING PROBLEM PREVENTION MEASURES
It is necessary for drilling engineers to anticipate potential drilling problems which may
occur during a well programme in order that he can make suitable arrangements in the
planning and preparation stage of a project. Anticipation of problems may result in having
suitable equipment and stocks of materials available on site or in the warehouse,
ultimately leading to a saving in rig time and cost. Descriptions of some of the problems
are given below with possible causes, preventative measures or solutions.
13.1 STUCK PIPE

The following is a list of the different types of pipe sticking which can occur due to:
• Differential sticking.
• Whole restriction.
• Caved in hole.
• Hole irregularities and/or change in BHA.
It is impossible to lay down hard rules which will successfully cover all the case, however,
for each situation, indications about the possible causes of the problem, preventive
measures and remedial actions are listed in the following subsections.
Detailed procedures should be based on each particular case, evaluating every aspect of
the problem and applying any past experience gained in the area concerned.
13.1.1 DIFFERENTIAL STICKING
Causes
This phenomenon can occur, where there is case of high differential pressure between the
mud hydrostatic pressure and the formation pore pressure. Some indications of pipe
becoming differentially stuck may be:
• The string becomes stuck in front of a porous formation.
• Pipe has not been moved for a period of time before being stuck i.e.
during a pipe connection.
• Circulation is free with no pressure variation.
• A normal amount of cuttings is observed at the shaker.
Preventive Measures
When conditions for a potential differential sticking are encountered, the risk can be
minimised by applying the following procedure:
a) Reduce the mud weight as much as possible, maintaining the minimum
differential pressure necessary for a safe trip margin.
b) Reduce the contact surface by using spiral type drill collars also called NWS
(No Wall Stick) and using properly a stabilised bottom whole assembly. A
shorter BHA with a greater number of Whips could be considered.
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c) Use mud with minimum solids content and low filtrate in order to obtain a
thinner wall cake.
d) Reduce the friction factor by adding lubricants to the mud.
e) Keep the pipe moving and in rotate as much as possible.
f) Consider the use of a drilling jar/bumper.
Methods of Freeing Pipe

1) Work the pipe applying cyclic slack-off and overpull combined with torque Always
check the reduction in the pipe yield stress due to the application of the torque.
2) Spot oil-base mud or oil containing a surfactant around the drill collars. The pill
volume shall be at least 20% over the volume of BHA-Open hole annulus plus a
volume so that at the end of the displacement the pill height is the same inside and
outside the string.
3) Reduce the mud weight, if possible.
4) Use a drilling jar/bumper.
5) Conduct a DST procedure.
Note: Quick reactions are fundamental in freeing the wall of stuck drill pipe,
since the problem becomes worse through time.
13.1.2 STICKING DUE TO HOLE RESTRICTIONS
Causes
The most common causes of hole restriction:
• Too thick a wall cake due to the use of high solids/high filtrate mud across
porous and permeable formations.
• Swelling of formations containing clay.
• Extrusion of gumbo shale into the wellbore in underbalance situations.
Preventive Measures
Problems are usually suspected by incurring increase drag during connections. Once the
cause is recognised to be any of the three causes previously listed above, the following
actions should be undertaken:
a) Reduce mud filtrate, cake and solids content.

b) Use inhibited mud.
c) Increase mud weight if possible.
d) Increase mud clearing capacity.
e) Increase flow rate.
In all situations, frequent wiper trips can reduce the problem and provide information on
the severity.
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1) Work the pipe applying cyclic slack-off and overpull combined with torque. Always
check the reduction in the pipe yield stress due to the application of the torque.
2) Spot a cushion to break and remove the mud cake around the drill collars.
3) Increase the mud weight, if possible.
13.1.3 STICKING DUE TO CAVING HOLE
Causes
This problem is mainly experienced in shale sections. The most common causes are:
• Hydration and swelling of clay minerals when in contact with fresh mud
filtrate.
• Insufficient supporting action of the mud hydrostatic column.
• Mechanical action of the drill string.
Preventive Measures
Depending on the various causes, there are different prevention possibilities, to reduce the
severity of the problem and to avoid the consequences of sticking the string.
Possible mud changes are:

a) Reduce water losses.
b) Lower pH value to 8.5 to 9 (if needed).
c) Use inhibited mud.
d) Add mud stabilising compounds (mainly sodium asphalt sulphonate).
e) Start and stop mud pumps gradually
f) Increase the mud weight.
g) Increase the YP/PV ratio to create laminar flow on the wall after pipe.
h) Spot high viscosity pills from time to time.
i) Increase the gel value to obtain a good cutting suspension when circulation is
stopped.
j) If circulating pressure increases suddenly, decrease pump strokes
Note: It is not always drilling with underbalance which results in a caving

hole.
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Possible BHA changes are:

• Use bits without nozzles, particularly when reaming, to avoid scouring the
well.
• Use the minimum acceptable number of stabilisers.
Possible changes in parameters are:

• Reduce rotary speed, if possible, to 80rpm or less.
• Reduce the mud flow rate to obtain laminar flow in the annulus between
hole and drill collars.
• Avoid long circulation times across unstable sections.
• Do not rotate pipe when tripping. Use a spinner or chain out.
• Trip out with care to avoid swabbing. If any swabbing occurs, pull out with
the kelly on.

1) If circulation is possible, keep circulating trying to expel the caving.
2) If the string becomes stuck across a carbonate formation, spot an acid pill.
3) If circulation is blocked, try to regain it by applying pressure shocks and working the
pipe at the same time. Special care is required to avoid breaking the formation i.e.
overcoming fracture gradient below the stuck point.
Note: The problem of pipe sticking due to cuttings dropping out is not
necessarily related to a caving hole. The origin of such problems can
also be an excessive rate of penetration in large holes and inadequate
carrying capacity of the mud. In this case, change the mud properties
and flow rate and, if necessary, limit the rate of penetration.
It is good practice to spot high viscosity pills from time to time to keep the hole clean.
The methods of getting pipe free in this situation are the same as listed above.
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13.1.4 STICKING DUE TO HOLE IRREGULARITIES AND/OR CHANGE IN BHA
Causes
The causes for sticking, related to, hole conditions and change in BHA, are:
• Dog legs.
• Key seats.
• New bit is run following a dulled bit which was undersize.
• New stabilisers run to replace previous worn stabilisers.
• String is stiffer than the previous one.
• Rock bit run after a diamond or a core bit.
Preventive Measures
a) Trip out with care and note the depths at which overpull occurs.
b) The formation of dog legs can be prevented by the use of packed bottom hole
assemblies.
c) Dog legs can be eliminated by using very stiff BHAs and reamers.
d) A key seat can be eliminated by reaming it with a key seat wiper or an
undergauge stabiliser installed on the top of the drill collars.
e) Always ream a whole interval drilled with the previous bit.
f) Foresee use of three or six point roller reamer.
g) Ream always the cored section, even if a full gauge core bit was used.

1) Work the pipe applying slack-off if dog leg or key seat (the string becomes stuck
pulling out) and overpull if running a new BHA (the string becomes stuck while
running in the hole).
2) Spot on oil-based mud or oil containing a surfactant around the stuck point.
3) If the stuck point is in a calcareous section, spot an acid pill.
13.2 HYDRATES
The hydrates are a deep water typical aspect; they are formed at temperatures above the
normal freezing point of water at certain conditions of temperature and pressure. Natural
gas hydrates consist of chemical compounds of light hydrocarbons and liquid water.
Various nomographs exist to aid in determining the risk of hydrate formation, which are
included in Figure 13-1.
If, at any time, it is suspected that hydrate formation is a possibility then it is important that
there is an adequate contingency to deal with them. The usual method is by injection of
methanol using high-pressure chemical injection pumps.
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Potential problems gas hydrate formation may cause are:

Plugging of subsea choke and kill lines, preventing the opening and closing of subsea
BOPS, sealing off wellbore annuli and immobilising the drill string.
Plugging of surface lines at and down stream of the choke or restriction. This is particularly
hazardous when high gas flow rates are experienced through low pressure equipment
such as the poorboy degasser, and the gas vent line. Formation of hydrate plugs in these
conditions can quickly overpressure low pressure well control equipment.
Procedures to overcome hydrates:

Inject an antifreeze agent (e.g. methanol) into the gas flow. The most appropriate point to
inject methanol is upstream of the choke.
Heat the gas above the temperature at which hydrates will form. This is common practice
in well testing operations.
Reduce the line pressure in order to allow the hydrates to melt. This is only a temporary
measure, and may induce a further influx.
Natural Gas Expansion - Temperature reduction Curve
Based on 7 SP GR Gas
(From NATCO)
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160 00 160
7,0
0
S P E O
150 6 ,50 150

0 0
6,0
140 140
00 op
sure Dr
130 5,5 Pres 130
00 Due To
5,0 re Drop
120 eratu 120
00 Temp
4,5
110 00 110
4,0
0
100 3 ,50 100
0
3 ,00
Rise
90 90
0 0 o
100oF 80oF 25oF

y F
Initial Temperature
80 2,5 Hydrate Expectanc 80
Gas Temperature - Degrees

00
2,0
STAP-P-1-M-6100
70 70
0 Base Line
IDENTIFICATION CODE
60 1 ,50 60
00
1,0
50 0 50
50
0
0
40 rve 40
Figure 13-1 - Risk of Hydrate Formation

Cu
30 a lpy3 Gas Example 30
1
nth ft
t E 00 Required: Reduce gas pressure from
20 n s tan / 1,0
2,400psi @ 80oF to 1,500psi determine 20
PAG
Co BTU initial temperature rise necessary so that

10 after expansion to 1,500psi the final 10
temperature will be 70oF
184
0 0
0 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000
2
OF
Pressure - lbs/ins
REVISION
232
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13.3 LOST CIRCULATION

When lost circulation is encountered, some specific information regarding the situation is
required prior to initiating corrective procedures.
First, it is necessary to determine the magnitude of the losses. These may vary from minor
seepage losses to partial and complete loss of returns.
Second, the condition at the time of losses may proved an indication of the reasons for the
lost of circulation. Losses during tripping are usually due to running pipe too quickly.
During drilling, a change in drilling rate or change in Ethnology from cuttings indicates
either a weaker, porous formation or a fault had been encountered. Mud weight and
viscosity have also have increased.
Third, it is necessary to locate the zone where the losses are occurring. If the losses are
not on the bottom, at the casing shoe or at the last previous zone (if any), a temperature
survey or gamma ray log may be run to accurately locate the zone.
13.3.1 LOSS PREVENTIVE MEASURES

The depths where losses can be expected for each particular well, are usually predicted in
the Drilling Programme, if enough information is available.
If thief zones are likely to be encountered, the following procedure should be adopted:
1) Keep the mud weight as low as possible but still providing an adequate overbalance.
2) Control the ROP to prevent overloading the annulus with cuttings which could result
in increased mud densities and/or constrict the annulus.
3) Maintain a low yield point and gel strength of mud.
4) Avoid excessive circulation rates.
5) Run the pipe slowly to minimise pressure surges.
6) Break circulation by first rotating away and reciprocating the pipe, then starting the
pump slowly.
7) Avoid pump surge.
8) Do not use diamond bits.
9) Use bit nozzles larger than 14/32" ID.
10) Have an adequate stock of LCM on the rig.
13.3.2 REMEDIAL ACTION (WHILE DRILLING)

As soon as any irregularity is observed in the mud returns, the following procedure should
be conducted:
1) Check the surface equipment for leaks.
2) In sub sea wellhead, run a subsea TV or ROV checking for leaks down the length of
the marine riser, flex joint and BOP stack on both sides. When there is doubt or
visibility is poor, close the BOP rams and check if the level still drops when the hole
is isolated from the riser system.
3) If still losing mud, stop pumping and observe the well.
4) If the level remains static, the mud weight or viscosity may need to be reduced
slightly and/or slight treatment with lost circulation material if required.
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5) If the level drops, the well must be kept full with mud or water, depending on the
severity of the losses. An estimate can be made of the maximum weight the
formation can withstand, measuring the volume of water required and calculating the
new mud gradient. Circulation may be restarted by any or combination of the
following means:
• Reduce flow rate (if possible).

• Reduce mud weight (if possible).
• Add LCM to the mud (the shale shaker must be by-passed).
• Wait for the formation to "heal".
• Spot a plug of thick mud and LCM at the thief zone.
• Spot a plug of dehydratable material containing LCM into the mud losses
zone.
• Squeeze diesel oil bentonite (DOB) or diesel oil bentonite cement (DOBC)
pills.
• Plug the thief zone with a gelled slurry.
The choice of the various possibilities listed above shall be submitted for evaluation of the
well conditions on a case by case situation.
13.3.3 USE OF DOB AND DOBC PILLS

1) If the tripping is considered safe (i.e. the hole stands full of mud), run open ended
drill pipe to 10 to 30m above the thief zone.
2) Pump the pill and displace it with mud to the bottom of the string.
3) Close the BOP and squeeze pump down the annulus and the pipe at the same time.
The flow rate shall be the same in both the annulus and in the drill pipe if DOB pills
are being used. In case of DOBC pills, the flow rate in the annulus shall be half the
flow rate in the drill pipe being used
4) Beware of fracturing the formation, do not exceed 500psi (35 kg/cm2).
5) Open the BOP and pull out of hole. Do not reverse out.
Note: During this operation, reciprocate the string from time to time. If drag
occurs, pull out the string is free before proceeding with a squeeze.
Flush the mixing tank, cementing unit and lines with diesel oil in order
to remove the presence of any water before mixing and pumping DOB
or DOBC pills.
13.3.4 REMEDIAL ACTION (WHILE TRIPPING)

As soon as any irregularity is noticed in filling the hole, the following general procedure
should be carried out:
1) Check the trip tank system for leakage.
2) With subsea wellhead run a subsea TV or ROV down the length of the marine riser,
flex joint and BOP stack on both sides. When there is doubt or visibility is poor, close
the BOP rams and check if the level still drops when the hole is isolated from the
riser system.
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3) If there is still mud losses, the cause of the lost circulation may be pressure surges
due to running in the pipe too fast or the bit/stabilisers have balled up. Stop tripping
and circulate the well.
4) If full returns are observed, trip to bottom.
5) If full returns are not established, the well must be kept full with mud or water,
depending on the severity of the losses. Circulation may be restarted by one of the
methods listed previously.
13.3.5 USE OF LCM PILLS

1) If tripping is considered safe (i.e. the hole stands full of mud), run open ended drill
pipe to immediately above the thief zone.
2) Pump the LCM pill and displace half of it in the hole (minimum pill volume: 10m3 for
a 81/2" hole; 20m3 for a 121/4" hole) and pull the pipe above the pill.
3) Continue pumping the rest of the pill using the ‘Hesitation’ Technique and visually
check the fluid level all the time.
4) Repeat the procedure, if the previous was unsuccessful, change the type of LCM, if
necessary.
13.3.6 HIGH FILTRATION PILLS

When using a high filtration pill, the following aspects shall be considered:
• Once pumped, the high filtration pill must be squeezed in formation to
increase filtration effect.
• When running in hole after a high filtration pill extreme caution must be
adopted to avoid stuck pipe.
• Use open end drill pipes to pump high filtration pill.
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REVISION
E&P Division
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14. WELL ABANDONMENT
As general guidelines, on the basis of information available during the planning phase, set
out a program for well abandoning (temporary or permanent).
The Purposes in well abandoning operations are:
• to ensure full and permanent isolation of formation fluids and different
pressure regimes;
• to free, in offshore operations, the seabed from any obstructions.
The operations to perform for the abandonment (temporary or permanent) of the well,
including the following minimum information:
• Open hole abandonment procedures
• Tested intervals perforations squeeze-off procedures
• Temporary abandonment of opened producing intervals
• Setting of bridge plugs - cement retainers
• Sequence and height of cement plugs and their eventual testing
• In-hole fluids characteristics
• Eventual temporary completion/killing string composition
• Eventual casing cutting and recovery specifications
• Well head/mud line temporary abandonment/recovery
• Surface restoration, if any.
14.1 TEMPORARY ABANDONMENT

Pressure monitoring at wellhead shall be possible during the temporary abandonment
period and before re-entering.
The off-shore wells, will be abandoned at the mudline, with the M.L.S. or Sub Sea
Wellhead in place and proper corrosion caps/location identification devices in place.
Pressure monitoring shall be provided by the corrosion cap assembly when wells are
ready to be re-entered.
14.1.1 DURING DRILLING OPERATIONS

Any well drilled which is to be temporarily abandoned shall be cemented with drilling/kill
weight mud below.
All hydrocarbon zones shall be individually isolated by means of a mechanical plug. In the
open hole below the deepest string of casing a cement plug shall be placed in such
manner that extends at least 50m above and below the casing shoe.
The top of the cement plug shall be located and verified by mechanical loading.
If the condition of the formation makes cementing difficult, a bridge plug may be positioned
in the lower part of the casing, but not more than 50m above the shoe and a cement plug
at least 20m long shall be placed on top of the mechanical plug.
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Then, a cement plug shall be set at least 50 - 100m in length into the casing, depending
on casing diameter, between 20 - 50m below ground level or the seabed. The top of the
cement plug shall be located and verified by mechanical loading.
If a liner is present at the hanging point of the liner, a cement plug shall be set so that the
top and bottom of the plug is at least 50m above and below the hanging point.
14.1.2 DURING PRODUCTION OPERATIONS

1) Plugging programme before a production well test:
Open Hole
In the part of borehole where casing has not been installed and where permeable zones
containing liquid or gas have been found, cement plugs shall be placed in such a way as
to prevent liquid or gas from cross flowing into other zones. For each individual zone the
cement plug shall be positioned such that its upper and lower ends are located at least
50m above and below the zone respectively.
Deepest Casing Shoe

Where there is an open hole below the deepest string of casing, a cement plug shall be
placed in such a manner that it extends at least 50m above and below the casing shoe.
If the condition of the formation makes cementing difficult, a mechanical plug may be
positioned in the lower part of the casing, but not more than 50m above the shoe and a
cement plug at least 20m long shall be placed on top of the mechanical plug.
These plugs shall be verified by mechanical loading and pressure tested for sufficient time
and with enough differential pressure to detect a possible leak.
Liner
For wells to be recovered, a cement plug shall be set above the topmost liner equipment
(either the liner hanger, packer, PBR, tie-back receptacle, etc.), ensuring that the liner
equipment head is not damaged. A sand/carbonate plug, spotted before the cement plug
is performed, may help in avoiding cement setting in the top liner equipment.
2) Plugging programme after a production test:
For open hole, deepest casing shoe and liner the considerations as per previous point 1
are applicable. In particular the following are specified:
Uninteresting perforated zones

These intervals shall be isolated by means of a mechanical plug and shall be squeeze
cemented. If the condition of the formation makes cementing difficult a cement plug 50m
high will be set on top of the mechanical plug.
If this is not possible, a cement plug shall be placed in such a way that the upper and
lower ends of the plug are located at least 50m above and below the perforated zone
respectively, or down to the nearest plug if the distance is less than 50m. All the plugs
shall be described, as seen in the previous subsection.
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REVISION
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Interesting perforated zones

These intervals shall be isolated by means of a mechanical plug and a cement plug at
least 20 m long shall be set above the bridge plug.
Then, a cement plug shall be set at least 50 - 100m in length into the casing, depending
on casing diameter, between 5 - 50m below the sea bottom in off-shore wells or between
20 - 50m below ground level in on-shore wells. The top of the cement plug shall be located
and verified by mechanical loading.
14.1.3 KILL STRING

In some cases, specially when Suspension or temporary abandonment is requested, it
may be useful for operational and safety reason to run in hole a killing string. Running a
kill string, that is usually made up of tubings, will ensure that when the well is re-entered,
pressure control and circulation is possible down to the defined depth.
To be effective, a kill string should be run as deep as possible, just above the uppermost
plug. It will require that a suitable hanger and/or flange, featuring back-pressure control
valve, is set at the wellhead allowing for re-establishing circulation and, in case,
performing killing operation while re-entering the well.
Use of kill string rather than setting plugs will be dictated by contingent situations and
decided locally by the position in charge. Kill string is usually used when short term
suspension or temporary abandonment are involved. For long term suspension/
abandonment, or in case of difficult wells (e.g. sour gas environment, HP-HT, etc.), setting
plugs is usually preferred.
Schematic of the killing string shall be reported in the final well sketch.
14.2 PERMANENT ABANDONMENT

14.2.1 PLUGGING
A well has to be plugged so as to effectively seal-off all potential hydrocarbon bearing
zones from fresh water bearing formations and to protect any zones which may contain
other minerals.
14.2.2 PLUGGING PROGRAMME
14.2.2.1 EXPLORATIVE ON/OFF-SHORE WELLS AND IN GENERAL
Open Hole
All permeable zones shall be plugged individually to avoid any cross flow; a cement plugs
shall be set with top and bottom at least 50 meters above and below each zone and the
top of the cement plugs shall be located and verified by mechanical loading.
Deepest Casing Shoe

Last casing string above open hole shall be sealed with a cement plug, it shall extend at
least 50meters above and below the shoe depth. The plug shall be tested by mechanical
loading.
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REVISION
E&P Division
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Intermediate Casing Shoe

In case any of the intermediate casings is not cemented up to at least 100m inside the
previous casing shoe, the casing shall be cut at least 100m above the shoe of the
previous casing string, the casing recovered, and a cement plug shall be placed so that it
extends at least 50 - 100m above and below the casing cut point.
Surface plug
A surface plug (at least 150m long) shall be set so that the top of the plug be 50m or less
below ground level or seabed.
After setting the surface plug, each surface casing and conductor pipe shall be cut at least
5m below sea bed/ground level, by using mechanical cutters.
Liner
If a liner is present at the hanging point of the liner, a cement plug shall be set so that the
top and bottom of the plug is at least 50m above and below the hanging point; setting
mechanical plug in the liner section may be considered. In case small size liner is
concerned, abandonment may be performed by setting a bridge plug just above the top of
liner, followed by the setting of a cement plug.
14.2.2.2 COMPLETED WELLS

The completed wells are divided in on-shore and off-shore wells with or without pressure
in the annulus casing/ casing.
In completed onshore wells with pressure in the annulus casing/casing, are foreseen two
cases with two phases for case.
The first case is for a well with casings where the top of cement is below the surface.
For such first case, in the first phase, two well zone are analyzed: open hole zone and
perforated casing zone.
For Open hole zone, by pulling unit to retrieve both packer and completion string. After,
by coiled tubing, to seal the last casing string above open hole with a cement plug: it shall
extend at least 50 meters above and below the shoe depth.
If it is impossible to retrieve the packer, a cement squeeze will be performed in the
formation below the packer after, proceed with cutting and retrieving of the completion
string above the packer.
If the squeeze is not allowed: in HPHT wells, a bridge plug will be set in the completion
string below the packer, the completion string above the packer will be retrieved and a
cement plug on the packer will be performed. In the other wells, to retrieve the completion
string above the packer and to perform a cement plug on the packer.
For perforated casing zone each zone tested through casing perforations shall be
squeeze-cemented as soon as the test is finished, should the well be abandoned.
By pulling unit to retrieve both packer and completion string.
If it is impossible to retrieve the packer, to follow the same considerations for Open hole
zone.
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REVISION
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Before to setting either cement or mechanical plugs, clear the internal of the casing using
taper mill. After, a cement retainer will be set 10-15m above the perforated zone (avoid
setting it on a casing collar) and an injection test shall be performed using fresh water and
recording the pressure/flow rate ratios. The cement slurry volume will be calculated in
order to have the cement from bottom perforation to the cement retainer and a minimum of
100 ltrs slurry per metre of perforated zone into the formation. At the end of the squeeze, a
50m cement plug shall be set above the cement retainer. The length of this plug may be
reduced to avoid any interference with any upper perforated intervals to be tested or
produced. If use of mechanical plug is not possible, a cement plug shall be placed with
upper and lower ends located at least 50 m above and below the perforated zone. This
solution must be considered as a contingency.
For both cases open hole zone and perforated casing zone, the second phase foresees
that 20/30 day later, return on the well with a workover rig and verify the hydraulic seal of
the plugging previously performed.
The workover rig will be selected with particular attention to the well site dimensions.
The well site will guarantee as safety distance that the derrick downfall radius is free from
houses, electrical lines, roads and any logistic structures (engine area, office bunk houses,
etc.). If it is impossible to respect the safety distance, the Responsible for the Operations
has faculty of derogation.
All casing will be retrieved as much as possible and the cut shall be at least 100 m above
the shoe of the previous casing string, subsequently a cement plug shall be placed in such
a way to cover the casing at least 50 m above and below the casing cut point.
The second case is for a well with casings where the top of cement is at the surface.
For such second case, the phase one is as per case I° phase one.
The phase two, for such second case, foresees that if the annulus casing/casing is
cemented, in order to insulate the pressures, windows will be made in zones suitable to
allow the positioning of inflatable packer. Subsequently a 50 m long cement plug shall be
placed above the inflatable bridge plug.
In completed onshore wells without pressure in the annulus casing/casing, when the
cement top is above the shoe of the previous casing, the utilisation of drilling rig unit can
be avoided and the well abandoning operations will be carried out utilizing the best
technique available considering both economic and operative constraints.
If the top of cement is under the shoe of the previous casing, it will be mandatory to carry
out a cement plug 100 m long in the annulus casing/casing by circulating through the
casing perforations.
The cement plug test will be performed by pressurising the top of the plug with a 1500 psi
differential pressure.
Several levels with the same hydraulic regime (homogeneous formations, pressure and
production fluid) can be plugged by means of two cement plugs, provided the lower
extends at least 50 m below the bottom of the deeper level and the upper extends at least
50 m above the top of the higher level.
Between such two plugs it will be placed a fluid with the same characteristics of that one
used during the running of the production casing.
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REVISION
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If SBHP is lower than hydrostatic pressure of the production fluid, all annuli will be
cemented to surface and the completion string will be totally abandoned in the well.
In the other situations, the completion string will be recovered up to 50 m under the shoe
of the surface casing or in any cases not deeper than 250 m from surface.
Offshore Wells specification

The use of workover rig is mandatory.
Both for explorative and completed offshore wells the well abandonment will be carried out
following the procedure (above specified) for onshore well, making distinction between the
two cases (pressure or not in the annulus), but performing the operation in one unique
phase.
14.2.3 PLUGGING PROCEDURE

1) Cement plugs should be set in place using an appropriate tail of pipes:
• Hole sizes < than 12 1/4”: a length of tail pipe exceeding the planned
height of cement plug made up of 27/8” tubing should be used.
• Hole sizes > than 12 1/4”: tail pipe made up of used drill pipes up to 5” may
be used as an alternative for tubing.
• Deep – high temperature plugs: It is suggested that the tail pipe is made
up of fiberglass tubing (27/8” – 31/2”, depending on availability and hole
size); length of tail pipe should exceed the plug height.
2) Cement plugs height should be no less than 100 m and not more than 200 m; plugs
height less than 100 m may be justified when set in combination with mechanical
plugs or when in large diameter holes.
3) In some conditions and depending on requirements and programs, the use of
materials other than cement (e.g. resins or compounds, gravel, sand, carbonate,
etc.) may be considered.
4) Cement plugs, set when abandoning wells, should be formed from neat slurries
whenever possible. If static bottom hole temperature exceeds 110°C use special non
degradable cements (i.e. Geotherm).
5) Fluids featuring the same maximum density requested while drilling shall be left in
hole performing the abandonment operations.
6) If formations are characterised by different pressure gradient regime, cement plugs
should be set in order to limit the differential pressure gradient for contiguous
formations to 0.2 kg/cm2/10 m or less.
7) Spacers should be pumped ahead and behind slurry. Special consideration should
be given to the composition and volume of the spacers when the mud is oil based,
calcium chloride or lignosulphonate treated. The hydrostatic head reduction due to
the spacer volume and density should be calculated. The spacers should have a
volume corresponding to a length of at least 328ft (100m).
8) The slurry volume should be calculated using a calliper log, if available. When a
calliper log is not available, use a slurry volume excess based on local experience.
Plugs exceeding 200m in length should not be set in one stage.
9) If the hole is badly washed out or when potential losses are expected; it is preferable
to set two short plugs instead of one long one.
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REVISION
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10) As a rule of thumb, spacing between plugs in excess of 1000 m should be avoided in
cased holes.
11) All cement plugs shall be placed using a tubing stinger.
12) Displacement should be calculated in order to spot a balanced cement plug
(hydrostatic heads inside the string and outside in the annulus shall be the same).
13) An under displacement of 1 or 2bbl is suggested to help draining the slurry off the
pipe when pulling out of hole.
14) As soon as the plug is set, pull out slowly 30 - 50m above the theoretical top of the
plug and direct circulate (reverse circulation can also be considered if conditions
allow it).
15) Monitor and record spacer and slurry returns.
16) Never stab the stinger back into the plug to avoid plugging of the stinger.
17) Using drilling or workover rig, the position and efficiency of all cement plugs shall be
verified by locating the top of the plug and by applying bit weight on the plug after
cement setting, usually 20,000-40,000lbs, but dependent on hole size).
18) Record shall be kept of all plugs set and the results of tests shall be available for
inspection.
14.3 CASING CUTTING/RETRIEVING

It is to be considered that, most likely, these operations will be performed with a work-over
rig will, so attention must be paid to issues related to work-over rig capabilities and safety
issue.
Consideration can be given, if deemed economically profitable, to cut and retrieve sections
of uncemented 7" and 95/8" casing.
Mechanical cutters are used for this operation.
Annulus pressure is to be checked prior to carry out casing cutting operations. Attention is
to be paid in order to equalise fluid weight inside and outside the casing prior to carry out
casing cutting operations.
Annulus pressure shall be bleed off and subsequent pressure build up monitored;
depending upon build up behaviour, the following options may apply:
Fast pressure build up: it is suggested that holes are punched in the casing some 100 m
above the recorded T.O.C. Heavy mud weight, capable to withstand the annulus pressure
may be circulated through holes to control annulus pressure. As an alternative, cement
could be circulated/squeezed (depending upon actual conditions) through holes for the
same scope.
Slow or no pressure build up: Casing can be carefully cut some 100-200 m above the
recorded T.O.C. Plugging operations shall be in accordance with criteria stated in section
14.2.1.
After cutting the casing, a complete circulation shall be made to reduce friction and
balance the mud.
If the casing is cut and recovered leaving a stub, one of the following methods shall be
used to plug the casing stub.
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REVISION
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14.3.1 STUB TERMINATION (INSIDE A CASING STRING)

A stub inside a casing string shall be plugged by:
• A cement plug is set so as to extend 50m above and 50m below the stub,
• A permanent bridge plug set 10-15m above the stub and capped with at
least 20m of cement.
14.3.2 STUB TERMINATION (BELOW A CASING STRING)

If the stub is below the next larger string, plugging shall be accomplished in accordance
with the previous section.
The plug shall be mechanically tested.
After setting a surface plug, each surface casing and conductor pipe shall be cut at least
5m below sea bed/ground level using mechanical cutters.
14.4 SKETCHES
The following sketches have the sole scope of illustrating concepts and criteria expressed
in this procedure.
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REVISION
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Mud Mud Mud Mud
Pore Gradient Pore Gradient

1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.1 1.3 1.5 1.7
Mud Mud Mud Mud
Mud
Mud Mud
Mud
Mud
Mud Mud
Mud
Open Hole abandonment: alternative options
Mud Mud
Mud Mud
Mud
Squeezed Squeezed
Perfs. Persf.
Pliocene
Mud
Squeezed
Perfs.
Mud Mud
Eocene
Mud
Squeezed
Persf.
Miocene
Mud
Open Hole abandonment: alternative options Cased Hole permanent abandonment:

alternative options
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REVISION
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Mud Mud Mud Mud
Sand/carb. Sand/carb.
Plug Plug
Mud
Mud
Mud
Mud
Sand/carb.
Plug
Squeezed
Brine Perfs.
Brine
Mud
Sand/carb.
Mud
Mud
Plug
0
Brine
Brine
Squeezed
Perfs.
Brine
Mud
Cased Hole temporary abandonment: Permanent abandonment - casing

alternative options cutting: alternative options
XX XX XX
0
Mud Mud Mud Mud Mud
Mud
Mud
XX XX
Mud
Mud
Mud
Mud
Mud
Mud
1 2 1 2 3 4
Permanent abandonment: Permanent abandonment:
Un-cemented annulus pressure cemented annulus pressure
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Welded Plate
Mud
Mud
Mud
Mud
Permanent abandonment at Temporary abandonment at

surface (land) mudline (off-shore)
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REVISION
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15. WELL NAME/DESIGNATION
The original name will be set by the geology or exploration department. There are three
categories of well which need to be coded:
1) Wells With The Same Well Head And The Same Target
2) Wells With The Same Well Head Different Targets
3) Wells With Different Well Heads And The Same Target
15.1 WELLS WITH THE ORIGINAL WELL HEAD CO-

ORDINATES AND TARGET
15.1.1 VERTICAL WELL
Is defined as having the same well head and target co-
ordinates as defined in the well programme.
The well code will be:
Prospect/Field name: Amelia
Well Number: 1
1
Therefore the name/number is:
Illustration Line 1) Amelia 1
15.1.2 SIDE TRACK IN A VERTICAL WELL.

The term Side Track will only be used when there is a
mechanical Side Track due to operational problems. If a
new hole is drilled due to a operational problem maintaining
the same target co-ordinates, this does not alter the well
name. To permit the identification of the various side-tracks
each is given a number. 1 is the original hole, 2 is the first
side-track, 3 the second, etc. This is shown in the figure and
in the following example:
1
Illustration Line 1) Field name: Amelia 1
Illustration Line 2) 1st Side Track: Amelia 1 (hole No. 2) 2
3
Illustration Line 3) 2nd Side Track: Amelia 1 (hole No. 3)
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15.1.3 DIRECTIONAL WELL

Is defined directional as a well where the target co-
ordinates are different from the well head co-ordinates. (see
Figure). The well code will be
Field name: Amelia
Well number : 1
Code: DIR
So1the final well code will be:
Illustration Line 1) Amelia 1 DIR 1
15.1.4 SIDE TRACK IN DIRECTIONAL WELL

This is considered the same condition as for a vertical well:
Illustration Line 1) Original Well name/number: Amelia 1
DIR
Line 2) Side Track: Amelia 1 DIR (hole n. 2)
15.1.5 HORIZONTAL WELL

Is defined as a well that has a final hole path with a
inclination of 90°.
The name will be:
Field name: Amelia
Well number: 1 1
Extension: HOR
Therefore the final well code will be:
Illustration Line 1) Amelia 1 HOR
Note: The pilot hole into the reservoir will also be deemed part of the
horizontal well.
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REVISION
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15.1.6 SIDE TRACK IN A HORIZONTAL WELL

This is considered the same condition as for a vertical well:
Original well name/number Amelia 1 HOR
Illustration Line 2) Side Track: Amelia 1 HOR (hole n.2)
1
2
15.2 WELLS WITH THE ORIGINAL WELL HEAD CO-ORDINATES AND

DIFFERENT TARGETS
In this category are wells with:
The original well head co-ordinates with more than one hole and different target co-
ordinates.
Each new hole will be given a new code as will the operations necessary to prepare for
the side-track (cement plug, casing window operation, etc.).
The name of the first hole will have the original code (AMELIA 1), the following holes will
be added to the original code with one of the following two additions.
The first one indicates the well type:
• DIR, directional well
• HOR, horizontal well
• DEEP, deepened well
• The second one indicates the targets new co-ordinates:
• A, second target
• B, third target
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REVISION
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Example #1
Illustration Line 1) Original well (vertical) Amelia 1
Illustration Line 2) Directional hole: Amelia 1 DIR (A)
Illustration Line 3) Horizontal hole: Amelia 1 HOR (B) 3
2
1
Example #2
Illustration Line 1) Original Directional Well: Amelia DIR
Illustration Line 2) Directional Well with the second target:
Amelia 1 DIR (A) 1
Example #3
Illustration Line 1) Original Directional Well: Amelia 1 DIR
Illustration Line 2) Vertical well with a second target:
Amelia 1 (A) 1
2
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REVISION
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Example #4
Illustration Line 1) Original Vertical Well: Amelia 1
Illustration Line 2) Horizontal hole with a second target: 3
Amelia 1 HOR (A)
Illustration Line 3) Horizontal hole with a third target: 2
Amelia 1 HOR (B)
1
Example #5
Illustration Line 1) Original Directional Well: Amelia 1 DIR
Illustration Line 2) Directional hole with a second new
target: Amelia 1 DIR (A) 1
Illustration Line 3) Horizontal well with a third target:
3
Amelia 1 HOR (B)
2
Example #6
Illustration Line 1) Original Vertical Well: Amelia 1
Illustration Line 2) Directional hole with a second target: 1
Amelia 1 DIR (A)
Illustration Line 3) Deepened well with a third target: 2
Amelia 1 DEEP (B)
Illustration Line 4) Deepened well with a fourth new target: 3
Amelia 1 DIR DEEP (C)
4
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REVISION
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15.3 WELLS WITH DIFFERENT WELL HEAD CO-ORDINATES AND SAME

ORIGINAL TARGETS
In this category are the wells where the target co-ordinates remain the same while the
wellhead location has been moved. This condition can only occur where there has been a
drilling problem in the well.
There are two different cases:
Case 1
When there is one or more strings of casing set, it can be considered that every hole is a
single well, so the name of the wells after the first will be the original well plus the code to
define the well type (DIR HOR) with the added code BIS for the second well, TRIS for the
third well, etc.
Example #1
Illustration Line 1) Original vertical well: Amelia 1
Illustration Line 2) Second well: Amelia 1 BIS
Illustration Line 3) Third well: Amelia 1 TRIS
2
1
Case 2 (no casing set)

When no casing string has been set, it can be considered that every hole is part of a
single well. The code for the following holes is the original well plus (1) for the first hole, (2)
for the second hole, etc.
Example #2:
Illustration Line 1) Original well: Amelia 1
Illustration Line 2) Second hole: Amelia 1 (2°)
Illustration Line 3) Third hole: Amelia 1 (3°)
Illustration Line 4) Fourth hole: Amelia 1 (4°) 3
Illustration Line 5) Fifth hole: Amelia 1 (5°) 1 4
2
Illustration Line 6) Sixth hole: Amelia 1 (6°)
5
6
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15.4 FURTHER CODING

Further codes may be added to give additional information about a well with regard to its
location in a field or if it is a marine well, i.e.
Location Code Example Field Description

Marine, Mare M Belaym 113 M 35 Belaym 113 Mare 35
North, Nord N Beniboye N 5-2 Beniboye North 5-2
South, Sud S Imbondeiro S 1 Imbondeiro South 1
East, Est E Samabri E 1 Samabri East 1
West, Ovest W Belaym M N W 2 Belaym Mare North West 2
When the well code/name is written out in full the full code name must be placed in front of
the field name.
Example :
• North Darag 1
• Est Makerouga 2
• South pass 75-2
• West Butte 9-34-13-20
In Appendix C (page 231) are listed the definitions and the parameters to identify other
well characteristics.
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16. GEOLOGICAL DRILLING WELL PROGRAMME
The Geological and Drilling Well Programme (Refer to STAP-P-2-N-6001E) is a

‘controlled’ live document (i.e. univocally identifying and fulfilling the requirements of
Corporate Quality Management System) according to a standard format providing
information on a specific well and avoiding duplication of data.
16.1 MEASUREMENT UNITS

A list of the units of measurement for the main parameters used in the Geological
Operation and Drilling sections are reported below:
Depth: m
Pressures: kg/cm²
Pressure gradients: kg/cm²/10m or atm/10m
Specific gravity: kg/l or kg/dm³
Lengths: m
Weights: t
Oil volumes Sm3
Volumes: m³
Bit and casing diameters: ns
Tubular goods weight: lbs/ft
Working pressure: psi
Gas volume: Sm3
Salinity: ppm of NaCl
16.2 PROGRAMME FORMAT

The Geological and Drilling Well Programme, from now on defined as ‘‘G&DWP’’,
comprises four sections:
Section 1 - General Information

Section 2 - Geological Programme
Section 3- Operation Geology Programme
Section 4 - Drilling Programme.
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The ‘G&DWP’ will also be standardised with regard to the following:

• Print model
• Type and size of character
• Page numbering
• Identification
• Distribution list
• Graphic representations
• Structure of the sections.
16.3 IDENTIFICATION
All main sections in the ‘G&DWP’, must be identified by the Name/Designation of the
Well.
The name of the well must be shown on all the pages of the document along with the
acronym of the Project Unit and the Company.
16.4 CONTENTS OF THE GEOLOGICAL AND DRILLING WELL PROGRAMME

The structure of the ‘G&DWP’ and its relevant competencies are detailed in the following
sub-sections.
The list of contents for each section and the section numbering must be strictly followed.
If some subjects are not applicable, the term ‘not envisaged’ will be placed against these
relevant sections or subsections.
Additional subsections to provide clarity or further explanation of a formal content subject
are permitted.
16.4.1 GENERAL INFORMATION (SECTION 1)

This section contains the main data of the well project and a synthesis of the main
subjects which are explained in detail.
This section must be proposed in conjunction with the Drilling & Completion and Geology
Departments of the particular District/Affiliates.
All depths of the well, both for offshore and onshore wells, must be referenced to the
Rotary Table (RT).
Section 1 comprises the sub-sections numbered and titled as follows:

1.1 GENERAL WELL DATA
1.2 WELL TARGET
1.3 GENERAL RECOMMENDATIONS
1.4 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE RIG, BOP STACK AND SAFETY
EQUIPMENT
1.5 LIST OF THE MAIN CONTRACTORS
1.6 CONTACTS IN CASE OF EMERGENCY
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1.7 REFERENCE MANUALS

1.8 MEASUREMENT UNITS
Authorization
The names and signatures of the technicians and managers involved in the preparation
and control of the section will always be specified.
16.4.2 GEOLOGICAL PROGRAMME (SECTION 2)

The Geological Programme will be written by the Department in charge of the project in
co-operation with the Company Sub-surface Geology Department.
All the reference depths will be from:
• Ground level for ONSHORE wells
• Sea level for OFFSHORE wells
Section 2 comprises the sub-section headings listed below, numbered and titled as
follows:
List of contents
2.1 GEOLOGICAL FRAMEWORK

2.2 SEISMIC INTERPRETATION
2.3 WELL TARGETS
2.4 SOURCE ROCKS
2.5 SEALING ROCKS
2.6 LITHOSTRATIGRAPHIC PROFILE
2.7 REFERENCE WELLS
Annexes and/or figures
Authorisation
and control of the section will be always specified.
16.4.3 OPERATION GEOLOGY PROGRAMME (SECTION 3)

The ‘Operation Geology Programme’ will be prepared by the Company Sub-surface
Geology Department.
Section 3 will comprise the sub-sections numbered and titled as follows:
List of contents
3.1 SURFACE LOGGING

3.2 SAMPLINGS
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3.2.1 Cuttings
3.2.2 Bottom Hole Cores
3.2.3 Side Wall Cores
3.2.4 Fluids Sampling
3.3 LOGGING WHILE DRILLING

3.4 WIRELINE LOGGING
3.5 SEISMIC SURVEY
3.6 WIRELINE TESTING
3.7 TESTING
3.8 STUDIES AND DRAWINGS
3.9 REFERENCE WELLS
Authorization
16.4.4 DRILLING PROGRAMME (SECTION 4)

The ‘Drilling Programme’ will be prepared by the Company Drilling & Completion
Department. The Drilling Programme structure is defined in STAP-P-1-N-6001E.
Particularly, sections 4.2.1 (forecast on pressure and temperature gradients) and 4.2.2
(drilling problems) will be made in co-operation between the Drilling and Completion and
Sub-surface Geology Company Departments.
Section 4 will comprise the sub-sections numbered and titled as follows:
List of contents
4.1 OPERATIONAL SEQUENCE

4.1.1 Preliminaries
4.1.2 Conductor pipe phase
4.1.3 Superficial phase
4.1.4 Intermediate phases
4.1.5 Final phase
4.1.6 Testing
4.1.7 Completion typology
4.1.8 Well abandonment

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4.2 WELL PLANNING

4.2.1 Forecast on pressure and temperature gradients
4.2.2 Drilling problems
4.2.3 Casing setting depths
4.2.4 Casing design
4.2.5 Mud programme
4.2.6 Cementing programme
4.2.7 BOP
4.2.8 Wellhead
4.2.9 Hydraulic programme
4.2.10 BHA and stabilisation
4.2.11 Bits and drilling parameters
4.2.12 Deviation project
Annexes and/or figures
Authorization
16.5 LEAN PROFILE

16.5.1 INTRODUCTION
The Lean Profile is a new technology approach, developed by Eni E&P, to the drilling and
casing selection of a well based on the drastic reduction of the clearance between the
casing and the open hole.
The Lean Profile Technique shall be adopted, as a standard, on all wells with vertical path
longer than 4.000 meters.
For these wells, cost savings due to the Lean Profile technique justify the higher costs of
the necessary tools and services to acquire.
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A comparison between a lean profile and a conventional profile with the same production
casing is shown in Table 16-a below.
Conventional Profile Lean Profile A Lean Profile B

Hole Tube Hole Tube Hole Tube
36” 32” C.P. 28” 24”1/2 C.P. 28” 24”1/2 C.P.
28” 24” 1/2 Csg. 22” 18” 5/8 Csg. 17”1/2 16” CSG
23” 18” 5/8 Csg. 17”1/2 16” Csg. 14”3/4 13”3/8 CSG
17” 1/2 14” Csg. 14”3/4 13”3/8 Csg. 12” 1/4” 9” 5/8 CSG
12” 1/4” 9” 7/8 Csg. 12” 1/4” 9” 7/8 Csg. 8” 1/2 7” Liner
7” Liner 8” 1/2 7” Liner
Table 16-a
The main advantages of the lean approach are:

Reduction of drilling CAPEX – Lean profile leads to a “slimmer” casing profile, which
reduces the drilling CAPEX without jeopardising safety and performance.
Better drilling performance – This is a direct consequence of the smaller volumes of
rock involved in the drilling process. Moreover it was possible to reduce the drilling time by
40%.
Lower cost for less material consumption - A slimmer profile requires less material for
casings, drilling fluids, cement and additives.
Lower environmental impact – Less quantity of fluids used to drill a well means less
drilling waste to be transported and disposed.
Improved Cementing Efficiency – Hole is better calibrated and hole enlargement
problems are less frequent as a consequence of a faster drilling operation.
Improved Safety - Having a lean straight vertical well provides a better chance for well
control operations with a relief well.
Reduced risk of stuck pipe - Drilling a straight vertical hole with a BHA including just one
or two stabilisers, reduces the risk of stuck pipe because of the limited contact between
the drillstring and borehole wall due to the limited number of stabilizers.
Reduced risk of drillstring failures - This is a consequence of no pipe rotation for
steering control.
16.5.2 LEAN PROFILE TECHNIQUE

The Lean Profile technique shall be applied to both vertical and deviated wells.
Vertical Wells
In vertical wells the Lean Profile technique requires the use of automated steering system
which allows the continuous drilling of a straight vertical course and which does not
require the intervention of drilling personnel.
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Some basic requirements of the system are:

• Continuous measurement of deviation from the vertical direction
• Continuous compensation for such small deviation
• Steering operation in continuous sliding mode of drilling BHA
• Down hole automated steering
• Surface monitoring of course direction and down hole tool functionality
• Durability to allow a performance life exceeding the bit one
• To make nudging in case a directional drilling will be carried out
Deviated Wells
In deviated wells the Lean Profile technique requires the use of an integrated drilling and
MWD system that provides precise directional control with continuous drilling rotation.
These tools will allow specific drilling techniques to be adopted during operations which
would not have been possible otherwise.
For more details, see the “Drilling Procedures Manual”, STAP-P-1-M-6140, Section 7.
16.5.3 CRITICAL ITEMS FOR LEAN PROFILE

The critical items to be taken into consideration are:
• Hole quality
• Mud properties
• Casing running and Cementing
16.5.3.1 HOLE QUALITY

An accurate hole execution is strategic to carry out the lean profile.
Doglegs elimination and reduction in torque and drag in the well result in improved casing
running, even though casing-well bore clearance is smaller.
High degree of accuracy in vertical direction control allows the elimination of time
consuming reaming operations, which are a source of wellbore instability.
Having a straight vertical well is an excellent condition for optimum application of the
weight on the bit (WOB). In fact, in this condition friction effects are minimised and the
weight shown on the martin decker is fully exerted on the bit. As a result, it is possible to
achieve better ROP.
16.5.3.2 MUD PROPERTIES

When adopting the Lean Profile technique, an important function of the drilling mud is to
prevent formation instability. For this reason, the use of shale inhibited drilling muds and
lubricant additives is mandatory.
Particular attention shall be paid to the value of equivalent circulating density which will be
optimized taking under control density values and rheological characteristics. As a general
rule, values of plastic viscosity of 19 and 24 cp and yield point values of 15 and 19 Pa
respectively for the 16” and 13 3/8” casing string should be considered.
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These values are particularly suggested while running casing to prevent surge pressure.
In particular circumstances, where a low mud density is required, the use of “microglass
bubbles” is suggested.
In addition, solid control plays an important roll when adopting the Lean Profile technique;
for this reason an adequate solids removal equipment shall be foreseen. For more details,
refer to the “Drilling Fluids Operations Manual”, STAP-P-1-M-6160, Section 5.
16.5.3.3 CASING RUNNING AND CEMENTING
16.5.3.3.1 Casing straightness

Considering the drastic reduction of the clearance between casing and open hole,
specially for casing with size higher than 9 5/8”, the deviation from straight (chord limit)
must be lower than what is stated in ISO specification 11960:2001 (E).
Deviation from straight or chord limits shall not exceed either of the following:
a) 0.2 % of the total length of the pipe measured from one end of the pipe to the
other end for pipes Label 1:4-1/2 and larger;
b) 3.18 mm (1/8 in) maximum drop in the 1.83 m (6.0 ft) length at each end.
Among the casings available at rig site, those with the minimum bending must be selected
to be run in open hole which is the most critical part of the well.
16.5.3.3.2 Casing connections

Taking into account the drastic reduction of the clearance between casing and open hole,
the use of the coupled casing is possible only in the 22” drilling phase (18-5/8” casing).
In the 17-1/2” phase it is possible to utilize flush or near flush casing (16”) whereas, in the
14-3/4” phase, the use of flush casing (13-3/8”) is mandatory.
Particularly attention has to be paid to bending flush connection because this joint
provides tension strength of 65-70% of the pipe body (depending on wall thickness).
16.5.3.3.3 Centralizers
Due to drastic reduction of the clearance between casing and open hole, the common type
of centralizers is not allowed.
There are two types of centralizers that can be utilized:
1) Inner casing centralizer which involves:
• increasing of connecting time (grater number of connections)
• greater casing string rigidity (short length of ICC)
• less flow by pass area (all blade are radial)
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2) Ceramic centralizer (best recommended) which involves:

• the possibility to select the thickness
• the possibility to select the blades length and blades profile
• the possibility to install the blades one by one along casing string
• no increased casing rigidity
• no increased operating times
• limited cost
16.5.3.3.4 Casing Float Equipment
Cementing a casing in a small annulus involves higher pressure drops compared to
standard techniques.
In order to avoid this problem, the better solution is the use of “full open float equipment”
convertible type, plus Tam packer for mud-retrieving by reverse circulating.
16.5.3.3.5 Running Speed

Running speed is another factor to consider in order to avoid surge effects and prevent the
casing from becoming stuck while running. As general rule, the suggested running speeds
are 6 m/min for 16” casing and 12 m/min for 13 3/8”.
16.5.3.3.6 Cementing
As a consequence of a small annulus clearance, the design of multi stage cementing job
is not to be considered. The use of light slurry with long pumpability time, short thickening
time and high compressive strength is suggested.
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17. FINAL WELL REPORT
This section details the procedure to prepare the ‘Final Well Report’.
Properly completed Final Well Reports are essential to enable all personnel involved in
drilling and completion activities access to well information for studies, analysis or to help
prepare future well programmes.
17.1 GENERAL
Whenever possible or applicable, the well final report shall include reports on both Drilling
and Completion activities. In the case of new wells the report will be titled ‘Final Well
Drilling and Completion Report’ or, in case of workover on old wells, as ‘Final Workover
Well Drilling and Completion Report’.
Where only Drilling operations are concerned (e.g. Exploration Wells, Dry Holes,
Temporary Abandonment, etc.), the report will be titled ‘Final Well Drilling Report’.
If completion operations are performed separately after the end of drilling operations are
completed (e.g. Temporary Abandoning or Batch Operations) the report will be titled ‘Final
Well Completion Report’. When separate drilling and completion reports are prepared, the
two reports will be merged.
In the case of a multi-well Development Project where, wells are drilled or completed from
a single location (platform or cluster) the report will be titled (platform name) or (cluster
name) ‘Final Drilling and Completion Report’.
In the following section the structure and competency required in the preparation of the
‘Final Well Report shall be explained. Reporting will be standardised through using the
common format as follows:
• Print Model
• Type and Size of the Character
• Page Numbering
• Identification
• Distribution List
• Graphic Representations
• Chapters Structure
• Signatures
These criteria shall be common for all Well Operations ‘Final Well Reports’ in both
domestic and foreign operations.
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17.2 FINAL WELL REPORT PREPARATION

The Final Well Report is prepared by the ‘Engineering Section’ of the Drilling and
Completion Department’ in co-operation with the ‘Operations Section’.
The numeration and the title of the sections as shown in section 17.3 must be strictly
followed. Extra sub-sections for clarity or further explanation are permitted.
If some subjects are applicable to a particular well, not envisaged will be typed against
the relevant sections.
17.3 FINAL WELL OPERATION REPORT STRUCTURE

17.3.1 GENERAL REPORT STRUCTURE
1 GENERAL INFORMATION
1.1 GENERAL WELL DATA
1.2 GENERAL RIG SPECIFICATION
1.3 BOP SKETCH
1.4 LIST OF MAIN CONTRACTORS
1.5 OPERATIONS ORGANISATION CHART
1.6 LOCATION MAP
2 WELL HISTORY
2.1 FINAL WELL STATUS
2.1.1 Well Sketch

2.1.2 Well Head Sketch
2.1.3 Well Completion Sketch
2.2 DETAILED OPERATIONS HISTORY
2.2.1 Moving
2.2.2 Conductor Pipe Phase
2.2.3 Surface Phase
2.2.4 Intermediate Phases
2.2.5 Final Phase
2.2.6 Well Testing
2.2.7 Completion
2.2.8 Abandoning
2.3 DRILLING PROBLEMS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
2.4 COMPLETION REMARKS

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3 DATA ANALYSIS
3.1 Pressure And Temperature Gradients
3.2 Casing Data
3.3 Cementing Data
3.4 Drilling Fluids
3.5 Bit And Hydraulic Data
3.6 Bottom Hole Assembly
3.7 Directional Drilling
3.8 Well Testing Data
3.9 Completion Details
3.10 Time Analysis
4 ATTACHMENTS
(Service Companies must be requested to supply copies of their own reports as this
enhances the quality of the information contained in the report).
17.3.2 CLUSTER/PLATFORM FINAL WELL REPORT STRUCTURE

1 CLUSTER/PLATFORM INFORMATION
1.1 GENERAL DATA
1.2 GENERAL RIG SPECIFICATION
1.3 BOP SKETCH
1.4 LIST OF MAIN CONTRACTORS
1.5 OPERATIONS ORGANIZATION CHART
1.6 LOCATION MAP
1.7 CLUSTER/PLATFORM WELL BAY LAY-OUT AND ORIENTATION
2 GENERAL DRILLING & COMPLETION ACTIVITY REPORT

2.1 FINAL WELLS STATUS
2.1.1 Well Sketches

2.1.2 Wells Head Sketches And Elevations
2.1.3 Completion Schemes
2.1.4 General Cluster/Platform Time Vs Depth Diagram
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2.2 DETAILED OPERATIONS HISTORY
2.2.1 Moving
2.2.2 Conductor Pipe Phase
2.2.3 Surface Phase
2.2.4 Intermediate Phases
2.2.5 Final Phase
2.2.6 Testing
2.2.7 Completion
2.2.8 Abandoning
2.3 PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE GRADIENTS
2.4 DRILLING PROBLEMS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
2.5 COMPLETION REMARKS
3 DATA ANALYSIS
3.2 CASING DATA
3.3 CEMENTING DATA
3.4 DRILLING FLUIDS
3.5 BIT AND HYDRAULIC DATA
3.6 BOTTOM HOLE ASSEMBLY
3.7 DIRECTIONAL DRILLING
3.8 WELL TESTING DATA
3.9 COMPLETION DETAILS
3.10 TIME ANALYSIS
4 ATTACHMENTS
(Service Companies must be requested to supply copies of their own reports as this
enhances the quality of the information contained in the report).
General Information (Section 1)

In this sub-section the main data relevant to the Well, Rig and Operation Organisation
should be reported.
All depths for both offshore and onshore wells must be referred to from Rotary Table (RT),
the elevation of which above datum shall be clearly stated.
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General Drilling and Completion Activity Report (Section 2)

In this section the history of the well e.g. final well status, detailed operation history,
operation problems register and recommendations for Drilling and Completion activities
etc., will be reported.
Data Analysis (Section 3)

In this part, data relevant to drilling and completion operations will be reported in detail.
17.4 AUTHORISATION
Authorisation for the ‘ Final Well Report’ will be included as follows:
• Prepared by : District Drilling and Completion Expert

• Controlled by: District Engineering and operation sections Manager
of Drilling and Completion department
• Approved by : District Well Operations Manager
17.5 ATTACHMENTS
Included In this section there are all paragraphs required for particular purposes, such as:
• Spider plot
• Cost analysis
• Evaluation of service main contractor
• Weather condition
• etc.
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Appendix A - Report Forms

A.1 Initial Activity Report (ARPO 01)
INITIAL ACTIVITY WELL NAME
FIELD NAME
District/Affiliate Company REPORT
DATE: ARPO 01 Cost center
Permit/Concession N° Well Code
General Data Depth Above S.L . Joint venture

On shore Off shore Ground Level[m] AGIP: % %
Latitude: Water Depth [m] % %
Longitude Rotary Table Elev.[m] % %
Reference First Flange[m] Type of Operation

Rig Name Top housing [m]
Rig Type Reference Rig Program TD (Measured) [m]

Contractor Ref. Rig RKB - 1st Flange Program TD (Vertical) [m]
Rig Heading [°] Cellar Pit Rig Pump

Offset FROM the proposed location Depth [m] Manufacturer
Distance [m] Length [m] Type
Direction [°] Width [m]: Liner avaible [in]
Major Contractors
Type of Service Company Contract N° Type of Service Company Contract N°
Mud Logging
D. & C. Fluids
Cementation
Waste treatment
Operating Time Jack-up leg Penetration Supply Vessel for Positioning

Moving [gg:hh] Leg Air gap Penetration N° Name Horse Bollard pull
Positioning [hh:min] N° [m] [m] Power [t]
Anchorage [hh:min]
Rig-up [hh:min]
Delay [hh:min]
Lost-time Accidents [hh:min]
Rig Anchorage
Anchor Mooring Line Piggy Back Mooring Line Tension Operative Total
Bow Weight Length Weight Chain Cable [Tested] Tension Time
N° Angle Type & Manufacturer [t] Cable Chain N° [t] Length Ø Length Ø [t] [t] [hh:min]
[m] [m] [m] [mm] [m] [mm]
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Note: Supervisor
Superintendent
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A.2 Daily Report (ARPO 02)
WELL NAME
DAILY REPORT
FIELD NAME
Drilling
District/Affiliate Com pany
DATE: ARPO 02 Cost center
Rig Nam e RT Elevation [m] Well Code

Type of Rig Ground Lelel / Water Depth [m] Report N° of
Contractor RT - 1st flange / Top Housing [m] Permit / Concession N°
Well Last casing Next Casing BOP Type Ø w .p. [psi] M.D. (24:00) [m]
Ø nom.[in] Stack T.V.D. (24:00) [m]
Top [m] Diverter Total Drilled [m]
Bottom [m] Annular Rotating Hrs [hh:mm]
Top of Cmt [m] Annular R.O.P. [m / h]
Last Survey [°] at m Upper Rams Progressive Rot. hrs [hh:mm]
LOT - IFT [kg/l] at m Middle Rams Back reaming Hrs [hh:mm]
Reduce Pum p Strockes Pressure Middle Rams Personnel Injured
Pump N° 1 2 3 Middle Rams Agip Agip
Liner [in] Low er Rams Rig Rig
Strokes Last Test Others Other
Press. [psi] Total Total
Lithology
Show s
From (hr) To (hr) Op. Code OPERATION DESCRIPTION
Operation at 07:00
Mud type Bit N° Run N° N° Run N° Bottom Hole Assem bly N° __________ Rot. hours
Density [kg/l] Data Description Ø Part. L Progr.L Partial Progr.
Viscosity [s/l] Manuf.
P.V. [cP] Type
Y.P. [g/100cm2] Serial No.
Gel 10"/10' / IADC
Water Loss [cc/30"] Diam.
HP/HT [cc/30"] Nozzle/TFA
Press. [kg/cm2] From [m]
Temp. [°C] To [m]
Cl- [g/l] Drilled [m]
Salt [g/l] Rot. Hrs.
pH/ES R.P.M.
MBT [kg/m3] W.O.B.[t]
Solid [%] Flow Rate Stock Quantity UM Supply vessel
Oil/w ater Ratio. Pressure
Sand [%] Ann. vel.
pm/pom Jet vel.
pf HHP Bit
mf HSI Total Cost Supervisor:
Daily Losses [m3] I O D L I O D L Daily
Progr. Losses [m3] B G O R B G O R Progr.
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A.3 Casing Running Report (ARPO 03)
RUNNING CASING WELL NAM E
FIELD NAM E
Dis trict/Affiliate Com pany REPORT
DATE: A RPO 03 / B Cost center
Ope ration type Casing type Ø [in] Top [m] Bottom [m]
Joint Le ngth Progre s s . ce ntr. Joint Le ngth Pr ogre s s . ce ntr. Joint Le ngth Progre s s . ce ntr.
N° [m ] [m ] (N°) N° [m ] [m ] (N°) N° [m ] [m ] (N°)
Re m ar k s :
Supervisor Superintendent
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A.4 Cementing Job Report (ARPO 04B)
CEMENTING JOB WELL NAME
FIELD NAME
DATE: ARPO-04 / B Cost center
Operation type Ø [in] Stage / No.:
SQUEEZE / PLUG
Type Ø Length [m] Cap.[ l/m] Bottom [m] Cement retainer Manufacturer Model / Type Ø Depth
Squeeze packer [inch] [m]
Injectivity Test w ith: Pump Rate Testing Pr. Tot. Vol. Final Sqz Pr. Returns Vol
[l/min] [kg/cm2] pumped [l] [kg/cm2] [l]
Test [kg/cm2] [mins]
Stinger Pressure test
Annular pressure
CEMENTATION
Operation (y/n) [kg/cm2] [mins]

Casing Reciprocation Bump Plug Casing testing pressure
Casing Rotation Valve holding Annulus pressurization
Inner string
GENERAL DATA
Slurry Displacement To Surface Losses [m3]

With pumps Density pH Dumped During csg run
Fluid type: [kg/l] [m3] Circulation
Volume [m3] Mud Mix/Pump Slurry
Density: [kg/l] Spacer Displacement
Duration: [mins] Slurry Opening DV
Final pressure: [kg/cm2] Circ. through DV
Total
Circulation / Displacement / Squeeze

Time [mins.] Flow Rate Pressure Total Volume Operation Description Final Press. Returns
Partial Progr. [l/min] [kg/cm2] [l] [kg/cm2] Vol. [l]
Supervisor Superintendent
ENI S.p.A.
REVISION
E&P Division
STAP-P-1-M-6100 0 1
A.5 Bit Record (ARPO 05)
BIT WELL NAM E
Dis tr ict/Affiliate Com pany RECORD FIELD NAM E
DATE: A RPO-05 Cost center
Run n°
Bit n°
Bit s ize [in]
Bit m anufacturer
Bit type
Special features codes
Serial num ber
IADC code
Depth in [m ]
Depth out [m ]
Drilled interval [m ]
Rotation hrs
Trip hrs
R.O.P. [m /h]
Average W.O.B. [t]
Average R.P.M.
D.H.M. R.P.M.
Flow rate [l/m in]
St. pipe pres s ure [kg/cm 2]
D.H.M. Press. drop [kg/cm2 ]
Bit HHP
HSI
A nnulus min vel. [m/min]
1 [1/32 in]
J 2 [1/32 in]
E 3 [1/32 in]
T 4 [1/32 in]
S 5 [1/32 in]
C [1/32 in]
T.F.A. [in2 ]
B Inner rows [I]
I Outher rows [O]
T Dull char. [D]
Location [L]
D Bearing/Seals [B]
U Gauge 1/16 [G]
L Other chars [O]
L Reas on POOH [R]
Mud type
Mud dens ity [kg/l]
Mud vis c.
Mud Y.P.
Survey depth
Survey incl.
Bit Cos t
Li Type %
tho
lo
gy
Stabilizer Distance
B Diameter f rom bit
H [in] [m]
A
Currency Supervisor Superintendent

Pag.: of:
ENI S.p.A.
REVISION
E&P Division
STAP-P-1-M-6100 0 1
A.6 Waste Report (ARPO 6)
WASTE DISPOSAL WELL NAME
Management Report FIELD NAME

District/Affiliate Company
DATE: ARPO-06 Cost center
Report N°
From [m] Depth (m)
Interval Drilled (m) Mud Type
Density (kg/l)
3
To [m] Drilled Volume [m ] Cl- concentration (g/l )
3
Phase size [in] Cumulative volume [m ]
3 3
Water consumption Phase /Period [m ] Cumulative [m ]
Usage Fresh water Recycled Total Fresh water Recycled Total
Mixing Mud
Others
Total
3 3
Readings / Truck Fresh water [m ] Recycled [m ]
3
Mud Volume [m ] Phase Cumulative Service Company Contract N°
Mixed Mud Company
Lost Waste Disposal
Dumped Transportation
Transported IN
Transported OUT
Waste Disposal Period Cumulative Remarks
Water base cuttings [t]
Oil base cuttings [t]
Dried Water base cuttings [t]
Dried oil base cuttings [t]
Water base mud [t]
Oil base mud transported IN [t]
Oil base mud transported OUT [t]
Drill potable water [t]
Dehidrated water base mud [t]
Dehidrated oil base mud [t]
Sewage water [t]
Transported Brine [t]
Remarks
Supervisor
Superintendent
ENI S.p.A.
REVISION
E&P Division
STAP-P-1-M-6100 0 1
A.7 Well Problem Report (ARPO 13)
WELL PROBLEM FIELD NAME
WELL NAME
DATE: ARPO -13 Cost center
Problem Top [m] Start date

Code Bottom [m] End date
Well Ø Measured Depth Vertical Depth KOP [m] Mud in hole

Situation Top [m] Bottom [m] Top [m] Bottom [m] Max inclination [°] Type
Open hole @m Dens.[kg/l]:
Last casing DROP OFF [m]
Well problem Description
Solutions Applied: Results Obtained:
Supervisor Supervisor Supervisor
Remarks at District level:
Superintendent
Lost Time hh:mm Loss value [in currency]
Remarks at HQ level Pag.

Of
ENI S.p.A.
REVISION
E&P Division
STAP-P-1-M-6100 0 1
A.8 Malfunction & Failure Report (FB-1)
Feed Back 01 - Malfunction & Failure Report

District / Subsidiary Report Date:
Report N°:
Well Name Well Code
General Information
Contract No.: Contract Type Main Contractor
Service / Supply
Drilling Com pletion W orkover Start Date Failure End Date Failure Service Com pany
or Supplier
RIG SITE
Description of Failure:
Company Representative:
Adopted or Suggested Solution(s):
Contractor's Comment/Notes:
Contractor Representative
Subsidiary / Affiliate Notes:
Failure Subdivision Operative Situation Failure level

Technical Normal Critical Lost Time …………………………………………..
Managem ent/Organization Extrem e Routine Lost Data ………………………………………..
Quality Assurance Innovative Hourly cost of the well ………………………….
Health & Safety Adverse
Environm ental Hourly cost of the service
or Cost/m eter of the service ……………………
Event Support Documentation
Type of Docum ent Subject Issued by Date
MILAN HEAD OFFICE NOTES: Analysis Code:
Approved by:
ENI S.p.A.
REVISION
E&P Division
STAP-P-1-M-6100 0 1
A.9 Contractor Evaluation (FB-2)
Feed Back 02 Contractor Evaluation

District / Subsidiary
Report Date:
W ell Name W ell Code

Start Date of W ell End Date of W ell Half-Yearly
General Data
Contract No.: Contract Type: Main Contractor:
Service / Supply: Service Company/Supplier:
R1 Technical Requirements
FB_01 REPORT REFERENCES
FB Report No.: Lost Time [Hr.Min]: Lost Data :
Category Evaluation Score (0-9)

Adequacy and Conformity of Equipment and Materials
Adequacy and Conformity of Personnel
Conformance to Operational Programme Requirements
Conformance to Operational Schedule
Equipment Condition/Maintenance
R2 Management & Organizational Requirements


Availability of Equipment and Materials
Technical and Operative Support to Operations
Capabilty and Promptness to Operational Requests
R3 Quality Assurance and HSE Requirements


Availability and Validity of Requested Certificates
Conformity to Contract Quality Assurance Terms
Conformity to Health & Safety Specification and Regulations
Conformity to Environmental Protection Specification and Regulations
Event Support Documentation

Type of Document Subject Issued by Date
Contract m anagem ent suggestions/observations:
Technical/operating notes:
Prepared by: Approved by:

Operative Situation
Normal Extreme (Critic) Adverse Innovative
ENI S.p.A.
REVISION
E&P Division
STAP-P-1-M-6100 0 1
Appendix B – ABBREVIATIONS
API American Petroleum Institute FTHT Flowing Tubing Head
BG Background gas Temperature
BHA Bottom Hole Assembly FTHT Flowing Tubing Head
BHP Bottom Hole Pressure Temperature
BHT Bottom hole temperature GCT Guidance Continuous Tool
BOP Blow Out Preventer GLS Guidelineless Landing Structure
BPD Barrel Per Day GMS Gyro Multi Shot
BPM Barrels Per Minute GOC Gas Oil Contact
BPV Back Pressure Valve GPM Gallon (US) per Minute
BUR Build Up Rate GR Gamma Ray
BWOC By Weight Of Cement GSS Gyro Single Shot
BWOW By Weight Of Water HAZOP Hazard and Operability
CBL Cement Bond Log HDT High Resolution Dipmeter
CCD Centre to Centre Distance HO Hole Opener
CCL Casing Collar Locator HP/HT High Pressure - High
CDP Common Depth Point Temperature
CET Cement Evaluation Tool HW/HWDP Heavy Weight Drill Pipe
CMT Cement IADC International Drilling Contractor
CP Conductor Pipe IBOP Inside Blow Out Preventer
CR Cement Retainer ID Inside Diameter
CRA Corrosion Resistant Alloy KMW Kill mud weight
CW Current Well KOP Kick Off Point
DC Drill Collar LAT Lowest Astronomical Tide
DHM Down Hole Motor LCM Lost Circulation Materials
DIF Drill-In Fluid LOT Leak Off Test
DLS Dog Leg Severity LQC Log Quality Control
DOB Diesel Oil Bentonite LTA Lost Time Accident
DOBC Diesel Oil Bentonite Cement LWD Log While Drilling
DOR Drop Off Rate MAASP Max Allowable Annular Surface
DP Drill Pipe Pressure
DST Drill Stem Test MD Measured Depth
DV DV Collar MD Measured Depth
E/L Electric Line MLH Mudline Hanger
ECD Equivalent Circulation Density MMS Magnetic Multi Shot
ECP External Casing Packer MODU Mobile Offshore Drilling Unit
EMS Electronic Multi Shot MOP Margin of Overpull
EMW Equivalent Mud Weight MSL Mean Sea Level
EOC End Of Curvature MSS Magnetic Single Shot
ESD Electric Shut-Down System MW Mud Weight
FBHP Flowing Bottom Hole Pressure MWD Measurement While Drilling
FBHT Flowing Bottom Hole NACE National Association of
Temperature Corrosion Engineers
FINS Ferranti International Navigation NB Near Bit Stabiliser
System NMDC Non Magnetic Drill Collar
FINS Ferranti International Navigation NSG North Seeking Gyro
System NTU Nephelometric Turbidity Unit
FPI/BO Free Point Indicator / Back Off OBM Oil Base Mud
FPI/BO Free Point Indicator / Back Off OD Outside Diameter
FTHP Flowing Tubing Head Pressure OEDP Open End Drill Pipe
FTHP Flowing Tubing Head Pressure OIM Offshore Installation Manager
OMW Original Mud weight
ENI S.p.A.
REVISION
E&P Division
STAP-P-1-M-6100 0 1
ORP Origin Reference Point SIMOP Simultaneous Operations

OWC Oil Water Contact SPM Stroke per Minute
P&A Plugged & Abandoned SR Separation Ratio
PCG Pipe Connection Gas SRG Surface Readout Gyro
PDC Polycrystalline Diamond Cutter SSC Sulphide Stress Cracking
PDM Positive Displacement Motor ST Steering Tool
PGB Permanent Guide Base STG Short trip gas
PI Productivity Index TCP Tubing Conveyed Perforations
PLT Production Logging Tool TD Total Depth
POB Personnel On Board TFA Total Flow Area
PPB Pounds Per Barrel TG Trip Gas
Ppm Part Per Million TGB Temporary Guide Base
PV Plastic Viscosity TOC Top of Cement
PVT Pressure Volume Temperature TOL Top of Liner
RBP Retrievable Bridge Plug TVD True Vertical Depth
RJ Ring Joint TW Target Well
RKB Rotary Kelly Bushing UAR Uncertainty Area Ratio
ROE Radius of Exposure UGF Universal Guide Frame
ROP Rate Of Penetration UR Under Reamer
ROU Radios Of Uncertainty VBR Variable Bore Rams (BOP)
ROV Remote Operated Vehicle VDL Variable Density Log
RPM Revolutions Per Minute VSP Velocity Seismic Profile
RPSP Reduction Pump Stroke W/L Wire Line
Pressure WBM Water Base Mud
RT Rotary Table WC Water Cut
S (HDT) High Resolution Dipmeter WL Water Loss
S/N Serial Number WOB Weight On Bit
SBHP Static Bottom Hole Pressure WOC Wait On Cement
SBHT Static Bottom Hole Temperature WOM Well Operations Manager
SCC Stress Corrosion Cracking WOW Wait On Weather
SD Separation Distance WP Working Pressure
SDE Senior Drilling Engineer YP Yield Point
SF Safety Factor
SG Specific Gravity
SICP Shut-in Casing Pressure
SIDPP Shut-in Drill Pipe Pressure
ENI S.p.A.
REVISION
Agip Division
STAP-P-1-M-6100 0
Appendix C - WELL DEFINITIONS

Definitions and parameters to describe wells characteristics.
Parameter
Definition Inclination ROC BUR Horizontal Section
From to (m) (°/m) (°/30 m) (m)
Short Radius x° 90° 5.8 - 30.1 9.8 ÷ 1.9 150 - 250
294 ÷ 57
Intermediate Radius x° 90° 43.1 - 1.33 ÷ 4.48 150 - 250
12.79 40 ÷ 70
Minimum Radius x° 90° 86.8 - 0.66 ÷ 0.26 500 - 900
220.4 20 ÷ 8
Long Radius x° 90° 286 - 573 0.2 ÷ 0.1 1000 -1600
3÷6
Parameter
Definition Curve Displacement Roc Bur
Characteristic (M) (M) (°/M) (°/30 M)
Drain Hole Short 150 - 250 5.8 ÷ 30.1 9.8 - 1.9
Radius 294 - 57
Extended Reach Well Long 1000 - 1600 286 ÷ 573 0.2 - 0.1
Radius 3-6
Lateral Well All are Horizontal wells
Multi Lateral Well As shown in section 2 example #5
Re-Entry Well A well re-entered to production, by drilling operations, in a previous
suspended well. See example in section 2
Branch Well A drain hole drilled for extended reach
Parameter
Definition Depth Pore SIWH Temp Water Depth (M)
(M) Press. Press. Res.
Bar/10m (Bar) O/WH
(°C)
Deep Well > 4,600 --- --- --- ---
Ultra Deep Well > 6,000 --- --- --- ---
Deepwater Well --- --- --- --- 460
High Pressure Well --- > 1.81 > 690 --- ---
High Temperature Well --- --- --- > 150°c ---
Word Description
Water Well Producing water well
Water Injection Well Well for water injection
Gas Injection Well Well for gas injection
ENI S.p.A.
REVISION
Agip Division
STAP-P-1-M-6100 0
Appendix D – BIBLIOGRAPHY
Document Document code

Casing Design Manual STAP-P-1-M-6110
Drilling Fluids Operations Manual STAP-P-1-M-6160
Overpressure Evaluation Manual STAP-P-1-M-6130
Operating Procedure for Drawing the
Well Drilling Program STAP-P-1-N-6001E
Operative Procedure for Preparing the
Geological and Drilling Well Program STAP-P-2-N-6001E
Drilling Jar Acceptance And Utilisation Procedures STAP-M-1-M-5003
Well Final Report Procedures (Well Operations) STAP-M-1-M-6002

Drilling Design Manual STAP P 1 M 6100 Rev1

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S P E O IDENTIFICATION CODE PAG 2 OF 232

2. FORECAST ON PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE GRADIENTS ................................. 11

3. SELECTION OF CASING SEATS.................................................................................... 24

4. CASING DESIGN ............................................................................................................. 29

5. MUD CONSIDERATIONS ................................................................................................ 57

6.4 PRESSURE LOSSES ........................................................................................... 69

7. CASING RUNNING AND CEMENTING ........................................................................... 74

8. WELLHEADS ................................................................................................................... 109

8.1.2 SUBSEA WELLHEAD WORKING PRESSURE.................................... 110

9. BOP SELECTION CRITERIA........................................................................................... 119

10. BHA DESIGN AND STABILIZATION............................................................................... 122

11. BIT CLASSIFICATION AND SELECTION ....................................................................... 143

12. DIRECTIONAL DRILLING................................................................................................ 152

TOOL .................................................................................................... 172

13. DRILLING PROBLEM PREVENTION MEASURES ......................................................... 178

14. WELL ABANDONMENT .................................................................................................. 188

15. WELL NAME/DESIGNATION .......................................................................................... 199

15.3 WELLS WITH DIFFERENT WELL HEAD CO-ORDINATES AND SAME

16. GEOLOGICAL DRILLING WELL PROGRAMME ............................................................ 206

17. FINAL WELL REPORT .................................................................................................... 215

APPENDIX A - REPORT FORMS ............................................................................................. 220

A.8 MALFUNCTION & FAILURE REPORT (FB-1) ..................................................... 227

APPENDIX B – ABBREVIATIONS............................................................................................ 229

APPENDIX C - WELL DEFINITIONS ........................................................................................ 231

APPENDIX D – BIBLIOGRAPHY .............................................................................................. 232

1.1 PURPOSE AND OBJECTIVES

1.3 UPDATING, AMENDMENT, CONTROL& DEROGATION

2. FORECAST ON PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE GRADIENTS

2.1 FORECAST ON PRESSURE GRADIENTS

2.1.1 SEISMIC DATA ANALYSIS

Calculate the interval velocity (Vi):

Calculate the depth interval (∆H):

Calculate the overburden pressure (Pov):

Calculate the transit time (∆T):

Calculate the “R” ratio:

2.1.2 DRILLING DATA ANALYSIS

2.1.2.1 REAL TIME INDICATORS

While drilling in normal pressured shales of a well, there will

In addition to directional drilling data, MWD can provide a

Bottomhole mud temperature can also be an indicator of overpressure as discussed

2.1.2.2 INDICATORS DEPENDING ON LAG TIME

The monitoring and interpretation of gas data are

Measurement of mud temperature can also be used to

• Shape, size and volume of cuttings: the amount of

2.1.2.3 “D” EXPONENT AND “DC” EXPONENT

W= Weight on bit (t)

D= bit diameter (ins)

N= Rotary speed (rpm).

ECD= Equivalent Circulating Density (Kg/l).

PN = Normal pore pressure

To overcome the occasional masking of the overpressure zone, it is advisable to reduce

2.1.2.4 SIGMALOG INTERPRETATION

The amount of overpressure is a function of the departure between the “ σr “ and “ σ O ”.

The amount of shift is calculated by:

The following then obtained:

2.1.3 ELECTRIC LOGS ANALYSIS

Figure .2-1 - Induction Log

This is more sophisticated than the IES method described

Figure 2-2 - ‘F’ Shale

Figure 2-3 Sonic log

The formulas normally used to calculate the Overburden Gradient are:

∆t = Transit time (second 10-3)

D = Density of the formation

Gov = Overburden gradient