ETHIOPIAN MEDIEVAL

ARCHITECTURE—THE PRESENT
STATE OF STUDIES
D. R . B U X T O N

like some othex countries far from Europe, whose interiors still
remain difficult of access, Ethiopia has for years been a happy
hunting ground for amateur scholar-adventurers. This fact has
coloured the whole history of Ethiopian studies in Europe.
Even the philologists and palaeographers, who could deal with
literary materials in the peace and quiet of their own homes, have

Downloaded from http://jss.oxfordjournals.org/ at University of Ulster on May 22, 2015

suffered from serious deficiencies, especially of early manuscripts,
since so many of those available were the spoils of military and
other non-cultural expeditions unfitted to select the more
important material.
Medieval churches, not being portable objects, can only be
studied on the spot and I believe it is a fact that these monu-
ments, hidden away as they are among the Ethiopian mountains,
have never yet been investigated by a competent scholar. Only
the pre- and early Christian remains in the far north of the country
could be dealt with by the German Aksum Expedition of 1906.1
Their report remains a solid foundation for all other work on the
architecture of this early period, our knowledge of which has
however been greatly enriched by the recent labours of Leclant
and de Contenson.2
The cave- and rock-churches of the medieval period have been
left largely to dilettanti like Monti della Corte and his party, Frau
Irmgard Bidder, and myself, s I wish to defend these non-profes-
sionals, including Monti della Corte, upon whom I once cast
some very uncharitable aspersions. We have not only added some
thrills to our private stock of experience but have made contribu-
tions to these studies which the professional art-historians had
omitted to make. And I need only mention the important finds of
my compatriots Stephen Wright, Beatrice Playne, and (more
1
Daitsebe Akutm-Expt&tum, voL n by Kiencker (Berlin, 1913).
1
Aanaltf d'BtUepti, m, 25 and 43; rv, 3, 15 and 39.
' Monti della Corte, Lajibtla (Rome, 1940); Irmgard Bidder, LaBbtla
(Cologne, 1959); iJ. R. Buxton, "The Christian Antiquities of Northern
Ethiopia", Artbetologa, voL xen (1947).
239
 ETHIOPIAN MEDIEVAL ARCHITECTURE

recently) of Thomas Pakenham,1 to show that there may still be

scope for amateur work in those little visited' but fascinating
regions.
Naturally, we have mostly been guilty of lapses. I myself was
most severely reprimanded by the late Conti Rossini,2 reviewing
my Arcbaeologa paper, for ignoring much Italian work in this
field. This was of course not a conscious omission but the usual
railing of an amateur not familiar with the literature—of one,
moreover, who found himself in Ethiopia quite unexpectedly,
and who had not set foot in Europe for years. But I know what
Conti Rossini felt like: has not Frau Bidder done precisely the
same thing again and unknowingly ignored all the previous work,
reducing us in turn to exasperation? Both she and I were armed,
when writing up our respective impressions, only with Monti
della Corte's picture book, itself an amateur work which could

Downloaded from http://jss.oxfordjournals.org/ at University of Ulster on May 22, 2015

not help much towards a comprehension of the problems which
the rock- and cave-churches of Lasta present.
The non-professional approach also resulted in the growth of
speculation as to the origins and development of these churches
long before an adequate foundation of descriptive and historical
material existed. I myself was guilty of this rashness, which the
best scholars, accustomed to scientific caution, certainly depre-
cated. At the same time my points have not for the most part
been challenged and some were I think so obvious that they have,
even if not previously stated, gained tacit acceptance. I propose
therefore to review the tentative conclusions expressed in
Arcbaeologa seventeen years ago and see how they look now.
(i) The characteristic Ethiopian or "Aksumite" methods of
constructing walls, window and door frames and "friezes" were
seen as remaining virtually unchanged from pre-Christian until
medieval times. However, the earliest known examples (Aksum
stelae) were clearly modified copies of such buildings in solid
stone, as also were the "monolithic" or excavated churches of
later centuries.
All this, I think, goes undisputed today: anybody can see that
the style is the same throughout, and peculiar to Ethiopia. But
1
S. Wright, "Notes on some Cave Churches in the Province of Wallo",
Awulu d'Etbiopii, voL n (1957); B. Playne, Saint Gtorgfor Ethiopia (London,
1954); "In Search of Early nirintian Painting* in Ethiopia", GtcgraphkaJ
Magazine (February 1950); T. Pakenham, Tbt Mountains o/Rasstias (London
and New York, 1959); "Bethlehem in Ethiopia", lUustrattd "London Niwt
9
* C Conti Rossini in Kassegna di Stvdi Etiopiei, voL vi (1947), pp. 203-8.
240
 ETHIOPIAN MEDIEVAL ARCHITECTURE
there may not be unanimity as to whence it derived. My own
improved assumption was that it belonged to the South Arabian
cultural heritage which played so large a part in Ethiopian
history. Creswell's contention1 that Ethiopian buildings in-
fluenced the construction of the Ka'ba in Mecca at the beginning
of the seventh century is to me unconvincing, because I think
they must already have built in that fashion locally—at least in the
Yemen where timber was available.
At this point I must recall the valuable contribution of Derek
Matthews, who took the opportunity to record every detail of the
traditional constructive forms when he restored die church at
Debra Damo in 1948.2 Another aid to the eventual reconstruc-
tion of early Aksumite buildings will be such finds as the
miniature altar and the fragments of terracotta house-models
described in recent years from Aksum.'

Downloaded from http://jss.oxfordjournals.org/ at University of Ulster on May 22, 2015

light has also been thrown on the question how long these
ancient techniques survived.4 It appears that after at least a
thousand years of use, the characteristic wall structure went out
of fashion before the end of the fourteenth century: see, for
instance, Mordini's account of the church at Gunda Gunde.
Bethlehem, described by Pakenham, is something of a puzzle.
The rich timber work is typically Ethiopian, though some
features are degenerate, suggesting a rather late date. But the
. walls, being of fine masonry without any timber, are non-typical
and point to a still later date of construction, or possibly of
reconstruction. There is even masonry infilling between the
wooden ribs of the domes—^-as incorrect a procedure as brick
infilling between the beams of an English half-timbered house.
(2) Various lines of argument, combined with the evidence of
tradition, convinced me that Debra Damo had survived from as
early as the tenth or eleventh century; that Tmrahanna Kristos,
protected from the elements in its huge cave, could well be of the
twelfth, and have served as one of the prototypes for Lalibela;
further that the tradition attributing the principal rock-hewn
churches to King Lalibela's reign (thirteenth century) was to be
respected.
1
K. A. C Creawell, "The Ka'ba in A.D. 608 ", Arebatoloffa, voL xenr.
1
D. H. Matthews and A. Mordini, "The Monastery of Debra Damo,
Ethiopia", Artbaiologa, voL xcvn (1959). • •.
» H. de Contenson, "Les Fouilles a Axoum en 1957", Amults tP£fbiopu,
m, 25; J. Lec.lanr, "Haoolti-Melaw) (195 j—19J6)", Amulesi'£tbiopu, m, 43.
• A. Mordini, "H convent© di Gunde Gundie",'Rasstgiadi Studi Etiopiei,
xn-(19j3); T. Pakenham, op. fit.
16 241 «»ixi
 ETHIOPIAN MEDIEVAL ARCHITECTURE
My confidence in these conclusions weakened later and they
have been questioned, as far as the role of Imraha is concerned,
by Miquel.1 But it was Mordini who pointed out, in an important
paper mainly devoted to the vanished Eritrean church at Aramo,2
that not a single monument of the old Ethiopian style could be
regarded as firmly dated, even to a particular century, the dates
hitherto attributed to them being based on purely subjective
impressions. According to him, even the church at DebraDamo,
in spite of its antique features, may in its present form be no
earlier than the thirteenth century, or could even be a reconstruc-
tion of the second half of the sixteenth! Clearly these questions
need to be completely reviewed and full use made both of
literary sources as yet untapped and of modem techniques such as
that of radio-carbon dating.
(3) While assuming that the traditional building technique was

Downloaded from http://jss.oxfordjournals.org/ at University of Ulster on May 22, 2015

of South Arabian derivation I accepted the theory, propounded
among others by Monneret de Villard, that an entirely new set of
influences was superimposed upon Ethiopian architecture after
the introduction of Christianity in the fourth century. For the
early churches were more or less basilican in plan, and possessed a
"holy of holies" flanked by closed spaces and surmounted (at
least in the case of the medieval derivatives) by a dome. Such
influences could have come from the early Christian architectures
either of Syria or of Coptic Egypt
De Contenson,3 who excavated another interesting early
church (attributed by him to the sixth century) near Aksum, dis-
cusses this subject afresh. His conclusion is that Syrian plans first
influenced early Coptic churches in the Nile valley through
which they were in turn transmitted to Ethiopia. But the last
word has certainly not been written on this subject.
It is a commonplace that different elements of any art may
derive from widely separated sources. But the fact that Ethiopia
was so long cut off from the main artistic (as well as historic)
currents of the outer world notably increased her tendency to
absorb heterogeneous influences. This has been demonstrated in
the field of painting by the work of Monneret de Villard, of
1
A. Miquel, "Reconnaissance dans le Lam (Dec 1955)", AnaaUs
d'JiLtbiopie, m , 131.
* A. Mordini, "La Chiesa di A Tamo", Rasngta tH StrnH Etiopui, voL xv
(»959)-
' H. de Contenson, "Les Fouilles k Haoulti-Melazo en 1958", Antuks
d'Iztbiopit, rv, 39.
242
 ETHIOPIAN MEDIEVAL ARCHITECTURE
Cerulli and, more recently, of Leroy, who have shown that even a
single picture or illustrated manuscript reaching Ethiopia from
abroad could inspire a succession of modified Ethiopian versions.
So in architecture too it may be found (as Mordini has suggested)
that certain churches, while primarily descended from native
prototypes, are to some extent inspired by remoter models—seen
perhaps by a returned traveller or an immigrant artisan.
The same thing is certainly true of architectural decoration. Some
rock-church motifs seem to be importations. As to the built-up
churches in the caves of Lasta, Frau Bidder's astonishing photo-
graphs, of ceiling and dome decorations which some of us never
even saw in the prevailing gloom, will surely lead to further dis-
cussion on origins and influences and possibly help in assigning
dates to the monuments themselves.
(4) Now for more speculative matter. I argued that the eleven

Downloaded from http://jss.oxfordjournals.org/ at University of Ulster on May 22, 2015

churches at Lalibela probably represented a deliberate attempt to
reproduce, in solid stone, the principal varieties of earlier built-
up churches then still standing so that, in effect, a museum of
church types was created. If so, I thought that one could attempt,
by a close study of the Lalibela group, a reconstruction of the
now almost extinct built-up style in its various manifestations.1
Emboldened by this conclusion I suggested that the most
ambitious of the Lalibela churches—the five-aisled Medhane
Alem—could be interpreted as a copy of the great church of
Aksum, which, as the most famous of all earlier Ethiopian build-
ings, could not have been ignored by the rock-excavators at
Lalibela. Hence an accurate reconstruction of the old Aksum
cathedral could be arrived at by working back from the rock-
hewn derivative.
I remember that when this idea came to me I was lying in a
state of semi-delirium suffering from a malarial relapse. But was
it altogether fanciful? Sauter2 described this hypothesis as "aussi
plausible que s&luisante" and extended it to Yekka Mikael,
which was the subject of his paper. There is a further reference in
the same author's great compilation on the "6glises rupestres" in
general, which is shortly to be published.' I have come across no
1
It now seems to me, however, that Lalibela Ghioighu is nothing mote nor
less than a glorified portable altar (matibar).
* R. Sauter, "L'figlisemonolithe de Yekka-Mikael", Ajtnaks d'£tbiopie, n,
15-
1
R. Sauter, "Oil en est notre connaissance des Iglises rupestres d'fithio-
pie?", Aitnalts d'iUbiopie, voL v (1963).
16-3
 ETHIOPIAN MEDIEVAL ARCHITECTURE
other comments; but it would give me pleasure to see this train of
thought followed up by some scholar bitten, as I was, by the
fascination of the subject.
Viewing the scene in retrospect, my comment is that any
progress made in the study of Ethiopian medieval architecture
has been slow and spasmodic, as well as unprofessional. Roger
Sautefs summary of the present state of knowledge is invaluable,
but only goes to show that the subject still lacks even a basic
framework of certain knowledge. I agree with those who insist
that more systematic and more extensive studies are urgently
needed.
The urgncy of the situation is brought home to us by the
disastrous losses of Ethiopian medieval churches, through decay
or even deliberate destruction, which have occurred in recent
years. I take a certain pride in the fact that Debra Damo, though

Downloaded from http://jss.oxfordjournals.org/ at University of Ulster on May 22, 2015

provisionally shored up by the Italians, wasfinallysaved through
the initiative of my own organization—probably the only occa-
sion on which the British Council has intervened in such a cause.'
But what about all those that have perished? What about the
historic church of Debra Iibanos near Ham, uniquely perched
half-way down a cliff, a rare and almost perfect survival of the
early Aksumite style? If very recent reports are true it has been
swept away before even a full study of the structure was under-
taken—an act of horrifying (but no doubt unconscious) vandal-
ism. Clearly much work must be done elsewhere before it is too
late.
I conclude with my best thanks to Professor Ullendorff for
inviting me to speak on a subject to which, for so long, I have
made no contribution, but in which I cannot help taking a sort
of proprietary interest. May a new generation reap where the
pioneers have sown.
1
D. Matthews, op. at.

244