Journal of Cultural Heritage 12 (2011) 227–235

Case study

What kind of volcanite the rock-hewn churches of the Lalibela UNESCO’s world
heritage site are made of?
Alberto Renzulli a,∗ , Fabrizio Antonelli a , Claudio Margottini b,1 , Patrizia Santi a , Fabio Fratini c
a
Dipartimento di Scienze della Terra, della Vita e dell’Ambiente, Università degli Studi di Urbino “Carlo Bo”, 61029 Urbino, Italy
b
Dipartimento Difesa del Suolo, Istituto Superiore per la Protezione e la Ricerca Ambientale, ISPRA, 00185 Roma, Italy
c
Istituto per la Conservazione e Valorizzazione dei Beni Culturali, ICVBC-CNR, 50019 Sesto Fiorentino, Firenze, Italy

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The extraordinary monumental complex of the 11 rock-hewn churches of Lalibela, included in the
Received 29 June 2010 UNESCO’s world heritage list since 1978, attracted the attention of the conservation science commu-
Accepted 18 November 2010 nity mainly for their severe chemical weathering, physical decay and structural instability. This study,
Available online 11 January 2011
based on classical modal mineralogy and petrography of samples coming from seven churches (Biet
Medhane-Alem, Biet Mariam, Trinity Church, Biet Giyorgis, Biet Amanuel, Biet Abba-Lebanos and Biet Gabriel
Keywords: Rufael), sorts out ambiguous rock-nomenclatures and lithological definitions, which have been found in
Ethiopia
the literature of the last three decades. We can now affirm that the churches were carved in hydrother-
Lalibela
Rock-hewn churches
mally altered and partially lateritized basaltic scorias (nearly aphyric and highly vesicular). The hewn
Continental flood basalt rock, often reported in literature as “weathered basic tuffs”, can be thus classified as a basaltic scoria
Basaltic scoria deposit, partially welded by syn-post magmatic hydrothermal alteration. Its pyroclastic origin may have
Mineralogy strongly enhanced selective weathering. The hewn rock rests on a massive to slightly fractured basalt, still
Petrography present as bedrock of the Lalibela churches and belonging to lava sequences of the Northern Ethiopian
Zeolites Plateau (continental flood basalts). Despite the severe hydrothermal alteration and partial lateritization
Deterioration of the samples, modal mineralogy, petrography and major-trace elements chemistry strongly suggest
that the studied clinopyroxene-olivine transitional basaltic scorias of the churches derive from the same
magma type, which gave rise to the Lalibela high-titanium group 2 (HT2) of the Northern Ethiopian
Plateau lava flows. The late-stage and post-magmatic phases (smectites, zeolites and calcite) scattered
in the groundmass and filling the large subspherical vesicles of the basaltic scorias really represent a
typical hydrothermal facies of continental flood basalts. Most of the secondary hydrothermal minerals
are pointed out first, as well as appropriate modal mineralogy and petrography, providing useful insights
towards unraveling the causes of deterioration of these world heritage monuments. A special emphasis
is devoted to the presence of zeolite minerals, never pointed out before this study in the rock-hewn
churches of Lalibela, and their possible roles on cyclic adsorbing and release of water.
© 2010 Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction offer a huge variety of architectural styles: from Grecian pillars to

The Lalibela rural town is located at an altitude of about 2500 m,
approximately 330 km to the North of Addis Ababa, on the basaltic
lava flows of the Northern Ethiopian Plateau [1–3]. Lalibela is
known throughout the world for its extraordinary complex of 11
monolithic churches, carved, some 800 years ago during the Empire
of King Lalibela (belonging to the Zagwe Dynasty; Fig. 1), in the
volcanic products mainly erupted during the Oligocene. The rock-
hewn churches reflect the blending of architectural tradition of
ancient Aksum and early eastern Mediterranean Christianity and
∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +39 0722304231; fax: +39 0722304245.
E-mail address: alberto.renzulli@uniurb.it (A. Renzulli).
1
UNESCO consultant.
Arabesque windows and Egyptian-like buildings. Nowadays, the
site is still the main center of the Ethiopian Christian Coptic Church.
The churches, having trenches and courtyards, are interconnected
by a maze of tunnels and passages with openings to hermit caves
and catacombs [4]. The walls of the trenches and courtyards con-
tain cavities and chambers sometimes filled with the mummies
of pious monks and pilgrims. There are some true monolithic to
semi-monolithic churches, some rock-hewn cliff hypogeal struc-
tures and some other types of dug architecture [5]. The Lalibela
churches are divided in two main groups, one on each side of the
river Jordan, and one other church (Biet Giyorgis) set apart from
the rest (Fig. 1). As concerning the mode of carving, three group of
churches were identified [4,5]: (i) built-up cave churches, which are
ordinary structures inside a natural cave (e.g. Biet Medhane-Alem);
(ii) rock-hewn cave churches, which are cut inwards from a more

1296-2074/$ – see front matter © 2010 Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.culher.2010.11.003
228 A. Renzulli et al. / Journal of Cultural Heritage 12 (2011) 227–235
Fig. 1. (A) Location of the Lalibela site; (B) distribution of the 11 rock-hewn churches: 1: Biet Medhane-Alem (BA); 2: Biet Maryam (BM); 3: Biet Masqal; 4: Biet Danagel; 5
and 6: Trinity Church (BT, i.e., Biet Dabra-Sina and Biet Mikael-Golgota); 7. Biet Amanuel (BE); 8. Biet Maqorewos; 9. Biet Abba-Lebanos (BL); 10. Biet Gabriel Rufael (BR); 11. Biet
Giyorgis (BG); (C) view of Biet Giyorgis church; (D) view of Biet Abba-Lebanos church.
or less vertical cliff face, locally using and widening an existing nat-
ural cave (e.g. Abba-Lebanos); (iii) rock-hewn monolithic churches,
which imitate built-up structures but are cut in one piece from the
rock and separated from it all round by a trench (e.g. Biet Mariam,
Biet Giyorgis).
The rock-hewn churches of Lalibela are included in the
UNESCO’s world heritage list since 1978. So far, the best effort
to prevent the stone deterioration and damage to archaeological
remains includes some partial reconstruction of collapsed build-
ings, the tentative of rainfall protection and waterproofing of some
roofs, the construction of shelters in selected and heavy dam-
aged churches. Very limited attention was posed in the past to
recover the original and very efficient water run-off system and
to prevent water seepage in the rock walls, in an area where
water falls in large amount (average year rainfall 772 mm) within
a very short time during rainy season [6], which is believed to be
the main direct/indirect cause of stone deterioration [7]. Dissolu-
tion/crystallization of salts, presence of swelling clays, hydrolytic
weathering of minerals, heavy weight of hewn roofs versus a lim-
ited bearing capacity of the walls, also decreasing in time due to
the previous factors, dilatation of the large monolithic structures,
mechanical erosion produced by rain drops, meteo-climatic factors,
and discontinuities in the rock geological formation with direction
and dip capable of generating sliding are among the major causes
supposed to produce the physical and chemical deterioration of the
hewn rocks [7–13]. Lalibela lithotypes are often reported in liter-
ature using the generic term of tuffs and recently, some authors
even considered this rock as an ignimbrite [14,15]. Nevertheless,
detailed minero-petrographic investigations on the Lalibela rock-
hewn churches were never carried out. The aim of this paper is to
fill this gap. A correct petrographic classification of the carved vol-
canic rocks of Lalibela, coupled with a comprehensive investigation
of, both, primary and secondary minerals will certainly contribute
to (i) understanding the weathering and decay of the rock-hewn
churches and (ii) better address their future conservation studies.
2. Geological setting
The area of Lalibela, characterized by a platy morphology deriv-
ing from the presence of a polygenic peneplain [16] is located in the
Northern Ethiopian Plateau mainly consisting of thick sequence of
tholeiitic to transitional continental flood basalts [2,3,17,18]. Con-
tinental flood basalts of the Ethiopian magmatic province were
erupted in a long time interval; mainly Oligocene, between 35
and 20 Myr, with a total covered area estimated as presently
600,000 km2 [17]. Minor felsic (rhyolites and trachytes) lavas and
pyroclastic rocks are also present [19]. The geology of the Northern
Ethiopian Plateau is summarized in three major volcanic forma-
tions [1]. Starting from the oldest to the youngest they are: (i) the
Ashangi Basalts (Oligocene to Miocene), which are represented by
deep weathered basaltic flows and scarse tuffs; (ii) the Amba Aibà
Basalts (Oligocene to Miocene) constituted by thick flood basaltic
 A. Renzulli et al. / Journal of Cultural Heritage 12 (2011) 227–235 229

flows with rare basic tuffs; (iii) the Amba Alaji Rhyolites (Miocene)

Max size (mm) of microphenocrysts

Cpx: clinopyroxene; Pl: plagioclase; Ol: olivine; Opq: opaque minerals; H.: hypocrystalline; M.: microcrystalline; C.: cryptocrystalline. Completely altered minerals (pseudomorphs) are in parentheses. P.I.: porphyritic index.
mainly consisting of an alternation of rhyolitic and trachyte to
rhyolite large ignimbrites and tuffaceous levels. In the Northern
Ethiopian Plateau three distinct basaltic magmas were identified

Cpx: 0.56; Ol: 0.38; Pl: 0.22

Cpx: 0.56; Ol: 0.38; Pl: 0.22

Cpx: 0.50; Ol: 0.21; Pl: 0.42

Cpx: 0.30; Ol: 0.12; Pl: 0.27

[3,17,20]: a low-titanium group (LT) and two high-titanium groups
(HT1 and HT2). The Lalibela area is made up of about 1800 m of

Cpx: 0.14; Ol: 0.12

Cpx: 0.25; Ol: 0.14

Cpx: 0.32; Ol: 0.54

Cpx: 0.38; Ol: 0.40

Cpx: 0.30; Ol: 0.15

basaltic lavas [3] with some minor rhyolitic intercalations (lavas
and pyroclastics) at the top [19]. The most abundant lavas, in this
area, are represented by the HT2 transitional olivine-clinopyroxene

Cpx: 0.15
Cpx: 0.14
Cpx: 0.24
basalts and picrites with relatively low porphyritic index, whereas
the HT1 aphyric to glomeroporphyric plagioclase + clinopyroxene
tholeiitic basalts are very subordinate [3,20]. At Lalibela the basalt

Pl > Opq ± Cpx; M.-intergranular to pilotaxitic

Pl > Opq ± Cpx; M.-intergranular to pilotaxitic
bedrock is covered by a reddish, highly weathered lithology with a

Pl > Opq + Cpx ± Ol; M. to H.-intergranular

Pl > Cpx + Opq ± Ol; M. to H.-intergranular
“tuffaceous” aspect in which the rock-hewn churches were carved

Pl » Cpx > Opq > Ol; H. to C.-intergranular

Pl > Cpx + Opq ± Ol; M. to C.-pilotaxitic
[7,11–13,21]. Boreholes (up to 18.5 m in depth) drilled in the area

Pl + Opq ± Cpx; M. to C.-intergranular

Pl > Opq + Cpx ± Ol; H.-intergranular
close to the rock-hewn churches found that the bulk density of the

Pl > Opq + Cpx ± Ol; M.-pilotaxitic

Pl + Opq ± Cpx; H.-intergranular
basalt bedrock and the reddish “tuffaceous material” ranges from
2.25–2.43 and 2.04–2.16 g/cm3 , respectively [10].

C.-strongly oxidized
C.-strongly oxidized
3. Materials and methods

Groundmass
Samples analyzed in this paper come from small pieces of
already broken internal and/or external walls of seven Lalibela
churches (Biet Medhane-Alem, Biet Mariam, Trinity Church, Biet Giy-
orgis, Biet Amanuel, Biet Abba-Lebanos and Biet Gabriel Rufael) and
not useful for any kind of monument restoration. Only one sam-

Cpx > (Ol) > Opq ± Pl

Cpx » Pl + Opq + (Ol)

Microphenocrysts
ple derives from the ceiling (Table 1). They consist of more or less

(Ol) ± Cpx ± Opq

Cpx > (Ol) ± Opq
Cpx ± (Ol) ± Pl
Cpx ± (Ol) ± Pl
reddish lithified and strongly weathered volcanites always charac-
terized by abundant mm-size vesicles filled by white to transparent

Cpx ± (Ol)

Cpx ± (Ol)

Cpx, Ol
hydrothermal secondary minerals. Sampling was done by one of

Cpx

Cpx
Cpx
the authors (CM) in the framework of initiatives for the preserva-
tion of Lalibela rock-hewn churches, jointly developed by World P.I. (vol.%)
Monuments Fund and UNESCO, under the coordination of Pietro
Laureano.

8–10
1–2
4–5
3–4
1–2
1–2

3–5
2–3
1–2
1–2
1–2
1–2
Thin section petrography was carried out to determine modal
mineralogy and textures of the samples. X-ray diffraction (XRD)
Vesicles (vol.%)

analyses were performed on powdered portions of selected sam-

ples using Philips PW 1050/25-PW 1729 diffractometers (radiation
Cu K␣/Ni with 40 Kv and 20 mA) at ICVBC, CNR (Florence) and
45–55

45–55

50–55
65–70
50–60

45–50
50–60
35–40
50–60

45–50

45–50
45–50
LAMA, IUAV University of Venice. XRD analyses of clay minerals
were performed following the Cipriani’s method [22]. SEM-EDS
Hydrothermally altered and lateritized basaltic scoria
Hydrothermally altered and lateritized basaltic scoria
Hydrothermally altered and lateritized basaltic scoria
Hydrothermally altered and lateritized basaltic scoria
Hydrothermally altered and lateritized basaltic scoria
Hydrothermally altered and lateritized basaltic scoria
Hydrothermally altered and lateritized basaltic scoria
Hydrothermally altered and lateritized basaltic scoria
Hydrothermally altered and lateritized basaltic scoria
Hydrothermally altered and lateritized basaltic scoria
Hydrothermally altered and lateritized basaltic scoria
images and qualitative analyses of minerals were carried out with Hydrothermally altered and lateritized basaltic scoria
a Philips 515 instrument equipped with a PV9900 EDS analytical
system (University of Urbino).
Whole-rock chemical analyses were obtained by ICP-OES
Modal mineralogy and petrography of the Lalibela rock-hewn samples.

(inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectrometry) for

major elements and by ICP-MS (inductively coupled plasma-mass
spectrometry) for trace elements at the ALS Chemex Labora-
tory Group (Vancouver, Canada). Errors are ≤ 1% for major oxides
and ≤ 3% for trace elements.
Quantitative chemical analyses of the anions in the soluble salts
were made with an ion chromatographer (Dionex DX-120; LAMA,
IUAV University of Venice) according to the normal recommenda-
tion [23].
Rock type

4. Results
Biet Medhane-Alem (BA1)

Biet Abba- Lebanos (BL2)

Biet Gabriel Rufael (BR1)

Biet Abba-Lebanos (BL1)

Thin section study, X-ray diffractometry (XRD) and SEM-EDS

mineral composition of samples from seven rock-hewn churches
Trinity Church (BT1)
Biet Amanuel (BE1)
Biet Amanuel (BE2)
Biet Amanuel (BE3)
Biet Amanuel (BE4)

Biet Mariam (BM1)

Biet Giyorgis (BG1)
Biet Giyorgis (BG2)

(Biet Medhane-Alem, Biet Mariam, Trinity Church, Biet Giyorgis, Biet

Amanuel, Biet Abba-Lebanos and Biet Gabriel Rufael) were carried out
(Tables 1 and 2; Figs. 2 and 3). Modal mineralogy and petrography
Sample

are summarized in Table 1. Detailed minero-petrographic studies

Table 1

emphasize that all the investigated rocks consist of hydrothermally

altered, highly vesicular basaltic scorias (vesicles are 35–70 vol.%)
230 A. Renzulli et al. / Journal of Cultural Heritage 12 (2011) 227–235

Table 2
Semi-quantitative powder XRD mineralogy of both the whole-rock samples and the filling vesicle phases of the basaltic scorias.

Sample Analcite Heulandite Hematite Natrolite Pyroxene Plagioclase Smectite Calcite

Whole-rock samples BE1 ++ + + ± ± +

BE2 ++ + ± +
BE3 ++ + + + +
BE4 + +++ ++ ± + + +
BG1 + + + ++ ++ +
BG2 ++ + + ± + + +
BT1 +++ + + ±
BM1 +++ + + ± + +
BA1a ++ ++ + ± + +++
BA1b + + + + + +++
BL1 ++ + ± ± + ++
BL2 ++ + ± + + +
BR1◦ + + ++ ++ ++
BR2◦ + + + ± ++
BR3◦ ++ ++ + ± ++

Filling vesicles BE1Va +++ + ±

BE1Vb +++ + +
BG2Va +++ + +
BG2Vba +++ + +
BA1Va + +++
BA1Vb + +++
BA1Vc +++
BT1V +++ ± +

±: trace; +: present; ++: average abundance; +++: very abundant. BE: Biet Amanuel; BG: Biet Giyorgis; BT: Trinity Church; BM: Biet Maryam; BA: Biet Medhane-Alem; BL: Biet
Abba-Lebanos; BR: Biet Gabriel Rufael.
a
Traces of thomsonite were also detected; ◦ literature data [15].

having a low porphyritic index, in the range of 1–10 vol.%. but
mainly < 5 vol.% (Table 1; Fig. 2a and b).
Microphenocrysts (maximum grain size < 1 mm) chiefly con-
sist of (i) dominant euhedral-subhedral colorless or very pale
green clinopyroxene (Fig. 2b) frequently developing glomero-
crysts or associated with Fe-Ti oxides to form glomerophyres, (ii)
minor amounts of euhedral to subhedral skeletal olivine (Fig. 2c),
always very oxidized or completely replaced by pseudomorphic
iddingsite ± hydrothermal mineral assemblages such as bowlingite
and chlorophaeite, and (iii) very rare skeletal swallow-tail plagio-
clase laths (Fig. 2d). The fine-grained micro-cryptocrystalline to
hypocrystalline groundmass generally shows an intergranular tex-
ture (Fig. 2e), locally pilotaxitic to hyalopilitic (Fig. 2f), and consists
of opaque to brownish-reddish glass (hematite-rich) and microlites
of plagioclase > clinopyroxene ≥ opaque minerals ± olivine pseu-
domorphs. Such mineralogy is very similar to that of the less
porphyritic clinopyroxene-olivine transitional HT2 basalts of the
Lalibela area [3,20]. Unfortunately, the considerable hydrothermal-
hydrolytic alteration and incipient lateritization of the rocks,
leading to oxidation, strongly limited the microscopic observa-
tion of the groundmass in which secondary clay minerals are
also widespread. The presence of smectite group minerals in the
whole rocks has been confirmed by XRD analyses, which also
identified hematite, zeolites and calcite as the main secondary min-
erals (both in the filled vesicles and the matrix groundmass) and
pyroxene and plagioclase as primary volcanic phases (Table 2).
Concerning the large subspherical vesicles, microscopic obser-
vations (Fig. 3a and b), XRD (Table 2) and SEM-EDS analyses
(Fig. 3c-d-e) showed that most of them are filled by late-stage
and post-magmatic hydrothermal zeolites such as analcite, heulan-
dite, natrolite ± thomsonite and calcite. According to deuteric and
hydrothermal mineral zonation of basaltic rocks [24,25], these sec-
ondary minerals clearly point out an extensive syn-post magmatic
cooling history of the 35-20 Ma-old rocks, at temperatures ≤ 150 ◦ C,
in the montmorillonite-zeolite-calcite alteration zone. Whole-rock,
major and trace element analyses (ICP-OES-MS) of three samples
were carried out (Biet Mariam, Biet Giyorgis and Biet Gabriel Rufael),
selecting (as much as possible) the least altered and vesicle-poor
samples. The SiO2 contents (45.8-49.0 wt.%) confirm the basaltic
origin of these rocks, whose hydrothermal alteration and incipient
lateritization gave rise to a depletion of most of the major elements
(e.g. MgO, CaO and TiO2 ) and an increase of Al2 O3 and Na2 O, which
is also due to the presence of secondary zeolites (Table 3; Fig. 4).
Major elements composition strongly resembles that of samples
from the borehole outside the churches in the same carved lithol-
ogy [10]. A HT2 fresh basalt with the same modal mineralogy of the
rock-hewn churches and other HT2 basalts of the Lalibela area [3]
show similar Th, U and Zr contents, considered relatively immobile
trace elements during hydrothermal alteration, whereas Ni, Co and
Cr are dramatically depleted due to the post-magmatic alteration
of olivine and clinopyroxene (Table 3). Comparing the composition
of the least altered borehole sample (ca. 16 m of depth) with that of
the fresh transitional basalts of the Lalibela area, a high-Ti affinity
for the altered samples, whose Ti contents are, of course, depleted
by alteration, can also be deduced (Fig. 4).
Apparent density (␥d ) and open porosity (at water saturation)
of 14 samples show a wide range of values, comprised between
1.49–2.13 g/cm3 and 45.2–17.5 vol.%, respectively (Table 4). Water
absorption tests show a significant increase in the “saturated bulk
density” shifting from 1.49–2.13 g/cm3 (␥d ) to 1.91–2.25 g/cm3
(␥sat ) after 48 hours. The highest values of water-saturated porosity
are, of course, closely matched with the lowest apparent densities
in the most weathered samples (Table 4). As a matter of fact, den-
sity and porosity data of the hewn rocks are strongly indicative of
hydrothermal alteration and selective weathering processes of the
basaltic scorias with respect the massive basalt at the base of the
Lalibela churches.
In order to quantify the potential role of dissolu-
tion/crystallization of salts in inducing stresses and microcracking,
11 samples coming from six different churches have
been investigated through high performance liquid chro-
matographic (HPLC) analyses. Soluble salts are present in
very limited amounts, with an average total content (sul-
phates + nitrates + phosphates + fluorides + chlorides) always lower
than 0.6 vol.%, and generally lower than 0.3 vol.% (Table 5). Such
results rule out the possibility that salt crystallization could play
a significant role within the general weathering processes of the
Lalibela rock-hewn churches. Obviously, our data do not exclude
 A. Renzulli et al. / Journal of Cultural Heritage 12 (2011) 227–235 231

Table 3 Table 4
Major elements analyses of the least hydrothermally altered and vesicle-poor Apparent density (␥d g/cm3 ) and open porosity (P%) at water saturation of the
basaltic scorias (BM1: Biet Maryam; BG1: Biet Giyorgis; BR1: Biet Gabriel Rufael) Lalibela samples.
and a fresh basalt (LAL54; courtesy of L. Beccaluva) of the area of Lalibela having
comparable modal mineralogy with respect to the carved rocks. ␥d P%

BG 1 2.09 21.6
Sample BM1 BG1 BR1 LAL54
BG 2-1 1.83 26.7
SiO2 44.70 45.80 49.00 45.10 BG 2-2 1.81 28.3
TiO2 3.37 3.85 3.64 5.23 BA 1-1 1.92 22.9
Al2 O3 15.50 13.05 12.85 10.70 BL 1-1 1.59 40.0
Fe2 O3 12.70 13.75 13.60 14.10 BL 1-2 1.60 39.9
MnO 0.14 0.17 0.12 0.23 BL 2 1.76 33.9
MgO 2.94 3.82 2.79 7.68 BE 1 1.73 34.9
CaO 3.66 5.62 5.26 10.70 BE 2 1.49 45.2
Na2 O 7.62 4.14 3.46 2.26 BE 3 1.51 42.7
K2 O 0.60 1.62 2.60 1.10 BE 4-1 1.70 33.9
P2 O5 0.76 0.83 1.05 0.65 BE 4-2 1.79 29.8
LOI 7.09 5.59 4.87 1.90 BM 1-1 2.10 17.5
Total 99.08 98.24 99.24 99.65 BM 1-2 2.13 19.0

V 205 394 321 401 BG: Biet Giyorgis; BA: Biet Medhane-Alem; BL: Biet Abba-Lebanos; BE: Biet Amanuel;
Cr < 10 < 10 < 10 390 BM: Biet Maryam.
Co 26.1 28.3 29.1 56
Ni <5 8 7 139
Rb 10.9 37.2 47.9 21.7
are hydrated aluminosilicates whose framework contains open
Sr 240 766 1380 682
Y 45.6 48 50 36.1 cavities in the form of channels and cages usually occupied by
Zr 510 538 532 451 H2 O molecules and extra-framework cations that are commonly
Nb 52.7 54.9 59.4 53.6 exchangeable. These channels are large enough to allow passage of
Ba 228 566 490 279
guest species [26]. Analcite (Na16 [Al16 Si32 O96 ] 16H2 O), heulandite
La 53.7 52 55.1 45.3
Ce 116.5 125 122 108.5
(Na, (K)Ca4 [Al9 Si27 O72 ] 24H2 O) and natrolite (Na16 [Al16 Si24 O80 ]
Pr 17.0 17.5 18.5 15.2 16H2 O), abundantly found in the Lalibela rocks, are therefore
Nd 75.8 80.1 81.3 67.1 characterized by the ability to hydrate/dehydrate reversibly and
Sm 16.8 17.8 18.1 14.7 to exchange some of their extra-framework cations with aqueous
Eu 4.82 5.15 5.45 4.30
solutions, both without a major change in structure [27]. These
Gd 14.6 15.8 16.4 12.5
Tb 2.08 2.24 2.44 1.82 minerals have a great ability to reversibly adsorb and desorb
Dy 10.20 10.95 11.80 8.66 water molecules as a function of temperature and/or humidity
Ho 1.80 1.87 2.10 1.50 [28]. The use of zeolitic tuffs in the building industry is, in fact,
Er 4.70 4.85 5.58 3.66
known since the antiquity as these rocks are excellent natural
Tm 0.54 0.52 0.61 0.43
Yb 3.30 3.76 3.71 2.65
materials regulating temperature and humidity [29]. Nevertheless,
Lu 0.48 0.54 0.57 0.38 as water is believed to be the main factor for deterioration of the
Hf 12.5 12.9 13.6 10.6 rock-hewn churches, the potential role of the zeolites in the decay
Ta 3.40 3.50 3.60 3.50 processes of the Lalibela architectural complex should be taken
Pb 9 8 <5 5
into account and considered as one of the main stone intrinsic
Th 4.72 5.21 4.83 4.58
U 0.47 1.44 1.33 1.25 causes.

5. Discussion

this physical process as playing an important local co-factor in
the decay, particularly where the Portland concrete has been
used during the last decades for integrations and restorations.
In addition, it also cannot be excluded that the lattice swelling
features of the smectites group minerals (e.g. montmorillonite)
could induce physical decay [7,12,13]. Nevertheless, we would like,
for the first time, to bring attention to the presence of abundant
zeolites, never identified by previous investigations. Zeolites
This study sorts out ambiguous rock-nomenclatures and litho-
logical definitions of the rock-hewn churches of Lalibela (since
1978 in the UNESCO’s world heritage list) characterized by severe
chemical weathering and physical decay. These new data are of
paramount importance to better understand the causes of the
chemical weathering and physical decay in planning conservation
actions. We can finally assert that the carved “weathered basic
tuffs” of Lalibela, covering the fresh massive to slightly fractured

Table 5
HPLC quantitative analysis of soluble salts of the Lalibela samples.

Sample Fluorides (wt %) Chlorides (wt %) Nitrates (wt %) Phosphates (wt %) Sulphates (wt %)

BE1 nd 0.002 0.001 nd 0.001

BE2 nd 0.004 0.005 nd 0.044
BE3 nd 0.007 0.270 nd 0.008
BE4 nd 0.032 0.071 nd 0.006
BL1 nd 0.112 0.462 nd 0.020
BL2 0.014 0.006 0.009 0.004 0.002
BT1 nd 0.020 0.060 nd 0.178
BM1 nd 0.002 0.012 nd 0.001
BA1 nd 0.015 0.228 nd 0.007
BG1 nd 0.001 nd nd nd
BG2 nd 0.002 0.001 nd 0.001

Nd: not detected; BE: Biet Amanuel; BL: Biet Abba-Lebanos; BT: Trinity Church; BM: Biet Maryam; BA: Biet Medhane-Alem; BG: Biet Giyorgis.
232 A. Renzulli et al. / Journal of Cultural Heritage 12 (2011) 227–235

Fig. 2. Representative thin section petrography and texture of some studied samples of the Lalibela churches: (a) a highly vesicular fine-grained basaltic scoria with a suba-
phyric texture (BE1); (b) dominant subhedral colorless clinopyroxene microphenocrysts and glomerocrysts (BG2); (c) a euhedral skeletal olivine microphenocryst, completely
replaced by pseudomorphic minerals (BM1); (d) skeletal swallow-tail plagioclase laths (BG1); (e) typical fine-grained microcrystalline-intergranular groundmass (BT1); (f)
pilotaxitic to hyalopilitic texture of the groundmass, mainly composed of brownish-reddish glass, opaque minerals and microlites of plagioclase > clinopyroxene ± olivine
(BG1). Plane polarized light; Cpx: clinopyroxene; Pl: plagioclase; Ol: olivine; Ves: vesicle; Gdm: groundmass.

basaltic lava still present at the base of the rock-hewn churches,
consist of partly lateritized and hydrothermally altered vesicu-
lar basaltic scorias, possibly from a local spatter cone pyroclastic
activity (along eruptive fissures). On the basis of modal miner-
alogy, petrography and major-trace elements chemistry we can
now affirm that the churches of Lalibela were not carved on a
felsic ignimbrite or intermediate to high-silica pyroclastic levels
such as trachytes or rhyolites. The hewn rock results from low-
viscosity basaltic magmas erupted as scorias, successively affected
by strong hydrothermal alteration, leading to secondary partial
welding of the deposit. In this way the Lalibela basaltic scorias
may have also underwent a selective lateritization and weathering
(also pointed out by satellite images) with respect to the flat-lying
basaltic sequence of the surrounding stratified lavas of the North-
ern Ethiopian Plateau or the non-weathered massive basalt at the
base of the churches themselves.
The carved basaltic scorias really do have a mineralogical and
chemical affinity with the Lalibela HT2 clinopyroxene-olivine tran-
sitional basaltic lava flows [3]. These scoriaceous pyroclastic levels,
however, underwent a strong hydrothermal alteration and most
likely secondary welding as the result of abundant syn-post mag-
matic fluids circulation. It cannot be excluded that such a scoria
deposit from local eruptive fissures (spatter cones?) may have
covered still hot thick lava flows and therefore the hydrother-
mal alteration of the hewn rock could have been driven by
the underlying flood basalts. In fact, the Lalibela hydrothermal
minerals, both in the groundmass and the filling vesicles, com-
prising smectites, analcite, heulandite, natrolite, thomsonite and
calcite, represent one of the most typical hydrothermal facies of
continental flood basalts throughout the world [30]. The above
geological reconstruction agrees well with the presence of the
lower, fresh, basalt forming an impermeable membrane through
which water cannot penetrate deeply [8]. In this way, the architec-
tural complex of Lalibela, made of the strongly altered scoriaceous
unit/s, would adsorb the water collecting directly on top of basalt
as well as from direct rainfall. The ancient people who carved
the churches clearly knew the difference between the soft and
easily workable scoria top units and the hard massive basalt.
This can be seen very well at Biet Medhane-Alem, where the
workers stopped digging after they hit the hard basalt floor
[31].
6. Final remarks
In spite of the severe hydrothermal alteration and deterioration
affecting the investigated rocks, we managed to correctly classify
 A. Renzulli et al. / Journal of Cultural Heritage 12 (2011) 227–235 233

Fig. 3. Representative thin section petrography (A and B) and SEM photomicrographs with related EDS spectra (C–E) of some of the most common late-stage and post-
magmatic hydrothermal phases, which are present within the abundant vesicles of the rock-hewn churches (basaltic scorias). Hul: heulandite; Ntr: natrolite; Anl: analcite;
Cal: calcite. EDS peaks without labels correspond to the Au-coating of the samples.

the Lalibela hewn rock on petrographic (i.e., basalt) and lithological
(i.e., scoria) basis. A magmatic affinity of the basaltic scorias with
the HT2 clinopyroxene-olivine transitional basaltic lava flows of
the Northern Ethiopian Plateau was also recognized.
These new geological and petrological information, coupled
with the comprehensive hydrothermal mineralogy of the basaltic
scorias (mostly zeolites filling the abundant vesicles) will be of
paramount importance to better understand the causes of their
chemical weathering and physical decay and to plan conserva-
tion actions. The presence of swelling clay minerals (due to both
hydrothermal alteration and hydrolytic weathering of silicates),
minor dissolution-crystallization processes of soluble salts and the
whole inexorable lateritization processes, typical of regions with
dry and rainy seasons, are all consistent with the deterioration
of the rocks. Additionally, this study emphasizes how the high
microporosity of the abundant zeolites, could trigger off cyclic
adsorbing and release of water and relative increase/decrease of
volume and density. These processes coupled with the wide range
of apparent density and open porosity shown by analyzed rocks,
should now be considered and further investigated in the frame-
work of future conservation studies of the Lalibela rock-hewn
churches.
234 A. Renzulli et al. / Journal of Cultural Heritage 12 (2011) 227–235

Fresh HT2
TiO2 % Lalibela deep transitional Al2O3 % Lalibela
shallow
borehole basalts of
Lalibela borehole
sample (- 16 m) Lalibela
7 16 rock-hewn samples

Lalibela 15 churches Lalibela

6
rock-hewn 14 deep
Fresh HT2
Lalibela shallow
5 churches 13 borehole
transitional
borehole sample
12 basalts of
4 samples (- 16 m)
11 Lalibela
3 10
2 9
8
1
7
0 6

Fresh HT2
Na 2O % MgO % transitional
basalts of
Lalibela
9 Lalibela 14 Lalibela
8 rock-hewn Lalibela deep
12 Lalibela
churches shallow borehole
7 shallow
borehole Fresh HT2 10 borehole sample
6 Lalibela transitional (- 16 m)
samples Lalibela samples
5 deep basalts of 8
borehole rock-hewn
4 Lalibela 6 churches
sample
3 (- 16 m) 4
2
1 2
0 0

Zr ppm Lalibela Fresh HT2 Th ppm

rock-hewn transitional
churches basalts of Lalibela
600 8 Lalibela
Fresh HT2
rock-hewn
7 transitional basalts of
500 churches
Lalibela
6
400 5
300 4
3
200
2
100 1
0 0

Fig. 4. Comparison of some major and trace elements among the Lalibela rock-hewn churches (this work) shallow and deep (least altered) borehole samples [10] and the
fresh HT2 transitional basalts outcropping in the Lalibela area [3].

Acknowledgments
The present project is part of the initiatives for the preservation
of Lalibela churches, jointly developed by World Monuments Fund
and UNESCO, under the coordination of Pietro Laureano (Ipogea,
Florence, Italy; www.ipogea.org). The article benefited from useful
suggestions and comments of two anonymous reviewers.
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