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Mineral deposits of Sulawesi

Conference Paper · November 2011

DOI: 10.13140/2.1.3843.2322

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 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SULAWESI MINERAL RESOURCES 2011 SEMINAR MGEI‐IAGI
28‐29 November 2011, Manado, North Sulawesi, Indonesia

Mineral Deposits of Sulawesi

Theo M. van Leeuwen and Peter E. Pieters

ABSTRACT

Sulawesi can be divided into three geological‐metallogenic provinces: 1) Northern Sulawesi, which consists of
series of Late Cenozoic calc‐alkaline magmatic arcs built on a basement of Early Cenozoic tholeiitic basaltic
volcanics underlain by oceanic crust; it contains numerous mineral deposits and occurrences of predominantly Late
Miocene‐Pliocene age, including porphyry Cu‐Au±Mo, high‐, intermediate‐, and low‐sulphidation epithermal Au‐
Ag, sediment‐hosted Au, intrusion‐related base metal‐Au, skarn, and VMS styles of mineralization; 2) Western
Sulawesi, composed of Late Cenozoic high‐K calc‐alkaline to ultrapotassic igneous suites overlying a series of Early
Cenozoic sedimentary rocks and subordinate calc‐alkaline volcanics deposited on a basement of metamorphic
complexes and Late Cretaceous flysch deposits; mineralization styles include porphyry Mo, porphyry Cu±Au,
intrusion‐related(?) Au, intrusion‐related base metal±Au, and VMS; and 3) Eastern Sulawesi, comprising a western
metamorphic belt and eastern ophiolite belt, which are interthrusted with Mesozoic‐Early Cenozoic sedimentary
rocks and unconformably overlain by Late Cenozoic post‐orogenic sequences; weathering of the ophiolite has
given rise to a number of Ni and Fe laterite deposits, and chromite beach sands; gold mineralization of uncertain
origin is locally hosted by metamorphic and post‐orogenic sedimentary rocks.

Mineral exploration and mining activities have been undertaken in Sulawesi since the turn of the 19th century, but
by world standardslarge parts of the region remain underexplored. Todate only two commodities have been mined
on a significant scale, viz. gold with a total production of about 90 t (excluding artisanal mining), and nickel totaling
about 4.8 Mt. Gold deposits found todate are of small to modest size (< 2 Moz Au) and mostly low grade (<4 g/t),
whereas Ni laterite deposits vary greatly in size (3 Mt to greater than 200 Mt dry weight averaging 1.3% to 2.3%
Ni).Estimates of potentially economic Cu‐Au resources in porphyry deposits in Northern Sulawesi vary from about
300 Mt to 350Mtaveraging 0.6% Cu and between 0.3 and 0.5 g/t Au.

Factors that have led to significant mineral discoveries since 1970 include: 1) exploration of known mineral
districts (Ni, Au); 2) local knowledge (Au); 3) stream sediment sampling (porphyry Cu‐Au & Mo, Au); 4) mineralized
float (Au); and 5) remote sensing interpretation (Ni). Over the past 40 years exploration has evolved from
greenfields to brownfields investigations. This trend reflects in part a significant increase in knowledge and data
pertaining to Sulawesi’s geology and mineral wealth gained over the years.

Keywords: Metallogeny, copper, gold, nickel, exploration history, Sulawesi, Indonesia

1.0 INTRODUCTION standards. Most of the mineral deposits found

Sulawesi (formerly Celebes) is located in the
centre of the Indonesian Archipelago, straddling
the equator. It is a region where three major
plates converge and interact (Figure 1), which has
given rise to a highly complex and diverse
geology, consisting of metamorphic complexes,
ophiolite terranes, volcanic arcs, granitoid belts,
and sedimentary basins. This in turn has resulted
in a diversity of mineral deposit types.
The history of mineral exploration and mining in
Sulawesi goes back more than 150 years, but the
region remains underexplored by today’s
todate are of modest size, with the exception of
several nickel laterite deposits. Exploration
efforts have been targetting shallow
environments with surface geochemistry as the
priciple prospecting tool, or in the case of nickel
laterite, remote sensing methods. Sofar little
attention has been paid to buried or conceptual
targets. Gold, nickel and copper have been the
major target commodities, which has resulted in
the development of a number gold and nickel
mines.
Sulawesi has an average N‐S length of about
800km and is about 400km wide, covering a land

1
Table 1. Main geological and metalogenic characteristics of Northern, Western and Eastern Sulawesi

NORTHERN SULAWESI WESTERN SULAWESI EASTERN SULAWESI

Tectonic setting Island Arc Continental margin Suture
Basement Oceanic (back‐arc) crust Continental fragments; Continental fragments;
accretionary accretionary
rocks/mélange; overlain rocks/mélange;
by Late Cretaceous flysch ophiolites; Mesozoic‐
deposits. Paleogene sedimentary
terranes.
Paleogene Low‐K tholeiitic, bimodal Calc‐alkaline:
magmatism (basaltic‐felsic); intermittent and
submarine; intense, localized.
widespread.
Neogene magmatism Medium‐K calc‐alkaline, Voluminous high‐K calc‐ Minor, localized.
predominantly andesitic; alkaline (mostly
also bimodal during granitoids); and
latest Pliocene‐ shoshonitic to ultra‐
Pleistocene. potassic.
Paleogene Minor; deep sea. Syn‐rift siliciclastics
sedimentation overlain by platform and
deeper marine
carbonates; pelitic
sediments in the north.
Neogene Siliciclastics in isolated Marine sediments and Widespread deposition
sedimentation basins, including Plio‐ volcaniclastics; Plio‐ of “Celebes Molasse”.
Pleistocene “Celebes Pleistocene “Celebes
Molasse”. Molasse”.
Main mineralization Porphyry Cu‐Au; high‐, PorphyryMo; intrusion‐ Lateritic Ni & Fe.
types intermediate‐, and low‐ related Au.
sulphidationepithermal
Au‐Ag; sediment‐hosted
Au.
Other styles VMS; intrusion‐related VMS; intrusion‐related Primary and secondary
base metal – Au; base metal – Au; chromite; alluvial Au;
Fe±Auskarn alluvial Au; Fe±Auskarn; Mn‐ epithermal Au, Sb.
Fe beach sands. ironstones.

2
Figure 1. Regional tectonic setting of Sulawesi (after Wilson and Moss, 1999)

Figure 2. Digital terrain model Sulawesi

3
area of 172,000km2. It is the most mountainous
of the larger islands within the Indonesian
archipelago. With the exception of some narrow
stretches of coastal lowland and intermontane
plains, the terrain consists entirely of mountain
ranges with the highest peaks being in excess of
3000m (Figure 2). Unlike the other larger
islands/island groups in Indonesia, which are
partly bordered by extensive shallow shelf areas,
the sea bottom off the Sulawesi coasts drops in
most places rapidly below 100m, and the 1000m
bathymetric line is located at a distance of only a
few 10s of kilometers or less from the coast.
The island has a peculiar “K” shape, consisting of
four peninsular known as “Arms”, which are
separated by deep gulfs and united in central
Sulawesi (Figure 3A). The narrow north‐trending
part of the North Arm, is commonly referred to as
“the Neck”.
The Sulawesi region can be divided into four
distinct geological and metallogenic provinces,
named here (modified after Sukamto, 1978), the
Northern, Western and Eastern Sulawesi
Provinces and Banggai‐Sula Province (Figure 3B).
As the latter province does not contain any
significant known mineralization, it has not been
included in this review. The main geological and
metallogenic features of the other three
provinces are shown in Table 1.
The present paper consists of four parts. The first
part describes the history of mineral exploration
and mining in Sulawesi. It is followed by an
overview of the regional geology. The main part
of the paper comprises a detailed review of the
various mineral deposit types found in each of
the three provinces together with some
additional exploration history data. In the last
section we discuss how the various deposit
typesare distributed in space and time, when and
how they were discovered, and how they feature
in Sulawesi’s mining industry. It also briefly
addresses past and present exploration trends.
A number of sources of information are available
for the history of exploration and mining in
Sulawesi, and the region’s mineral resources. For
the Dutch colonial era these include the
“Jaarboek van het Mijnwezen” (Mining
Yearbook), ter Braake (1944), van der Ploeg
(1944), and van Bemmelen’s (1949) Economic
Geology of Indonesia. A publication by the
Indonesian Mining Association and Mining and
Metal Agency of Japan (IMA‐MMAJ, 1995), the
anually published Register of Indonesian
Gold/Registrer of Indo‐Pacific Mining, and various
trade journals record mineral exploration
activities post‐1967. Several review papers on
the copper and gold mineralization of Northern (+
Western) Sulawesi have been published (Carlile
et al., 1990; Kavalieris et al., 1992; Soeria‐
Atmadja et al, 1999; Pearson and Caira, 1999).
Papers on individual deposits and prospects can
be found in various proceedings and journals.
Most of these are included in the reference list of
the present paper. More detailed information is
contained in COW company reports, which are an
open file in the library of Pusat Sumber Daya
Geologi (PSDG). Unfortunately a number of
reports are missing, often the more informative
ones, and the quality of the reports is rather
variable (some discuss at great length weather
conditions, topography, etc but give little
geological information). Websites of foreign
junior companies are another source of
information, although they tend to focus on
trench and drill results.
Recently Pusat Sumber Daya Geologil published
two geochemical atlases covering the northern
and southern halfs of Sulawesi, which include
maps for the following elements: As, Co, Cr, Cu,
Fe, K, Li, Mn, Ni, Pb and Zn (PSDG, 2008). They
also compiled a mineral resources atlas for
Sulawesi as part of a series of atlases for the
entire country (PSDG, 2010). It comprises a
series of maps for each Kabupaten
(administrative district), including geology and
mineral locations maps, and a list of metallic and
non‐metallic mineral resources (name of deposit,
coordinates and resource figure). No geological
information or references are given, limiting
somewhat its usefulness for mineral
explorationists.
For this review we have made extensive use of a
GIS data base called Indonesian Mineral Deposit
Database (IMDD), that we have been compiling
4
Figure 3. Sulawesi. (A) Geographic division; (B) Geological‐metallogenic provinces

Figure 4. Simplified geological map of Sulawesi (modified after

Sukamto, 1975b; Hamilton, 1979; Silver et al., 1983; Parkinson, 1991)

5
 Table 2. Highlights history of mineral exploration and mining in Sulawesi

Year Results
1896 – 1908 Small quantities of Au produced at Sumalata.
1896 – 1929 Paleleh mine; 6.2 t Au, 5 t Ag, 550 t Pb.
1900 G. Pani discovered.
1900 – 1921 Totok mine; 3.7 t Au.
1911 Abendanon recognizes Ni‐Fe laterite potential ofE Sulawesi.
1913 – 1931 Three mines in BolaangMongondow district; 5 t Au, 4 t Ag.
1916 – 1919 Several Ni and Fe laterite deposits found, including Pomalaa and Soroako.
1938 Ni laterite mining starts at Pomalaa.
1968 Large 2nd generation COW area awarded to PT Inco.
1969 Sasak porphyry Cu‐Au prospect identified.
1970 Second generation COW awarded to Endeavour Resources; Bahodopi Ni laterite
deposit discovered.
1972 – 1973 Tapadaa and Tombulilato porphyry Cu districts identified.
1974 – 1975 Discovery of the Cabang Kiri, Cabang Kanan and Kayubulan Ridge porphyry
prospects.
1976 Commercial ferronickel production starts at Pomalaa; Malala porphyry Mo
discovered.
1977 3rd generation contract signed by Rio Tinto.
1978 Commencement of nickel matte production at Soroako.
1980 – 1982 Drill testing of Cabang Kiri, Cabang Kanan, Kayubulan Ridge and Sungai Mak;
combined resource of 296 Mt @ 0.57% Cu, 0.47 g/t Au.
1983 – 1984 Motomboto high‐sulphidation system drilled.
1986 – 1987 Twenty two 4th generation COWs signed.
1987 Several discoveries made, including Bulagidun (porphyry Cu‐Au), Binabase (HS),
and Tototopo, Anggrek, Tanoyan (IS).
1988 Mining of chromite beach sands commences in E Sulawesi
1989 Mesel and Awak Mas discovered.
1994 Toka Tindung and Poboya discovered.
1994 – 1997 11 5th‐7th generation COWs signed.
1998 Riska and Masabo found
1999 Palopo district discovered.
2004 Mining starts at Riska; annual production ca 50.000 oz Au.
2008 Gold rush at Bombana involving >20,000 local miners.
2011 First gold poured at Toka Tindung; annual production ca 160,000 oz Au eq.

6
since 2005 (van Leeuwen and Pieters, 2011). It
contains all available relevant descriptive
information about deposits and prospects,
including location details, commodity, deposit
type, host rock, mineralization, alteration,
structure, resource data, exploration history etc.
Most of the data in IMDD are derived from
sources mentioned above and unpublished
company reportts.
The present paper is aimed primarily at geologists
engaged in mineral exploration in Sulawesi and
those who wish to assess its mineral potential.
The focus is on providing descriptions of the
more significant mineralizing districts and
individual deposits.
2.0 History of Mineral Exploration and Mining
in Sulawesi
The documented history of mineral exploration
and mining in Sulawesi spans a period of about
125 years, but traces of iron slag with a Ni
content of 1‐2% found at an archeological site
near Lake Montano suggests there was already
some mining activity more than 1000 years ago
(Bulbecks, 2000, in Rafianto, 2011). The
highlights of the past 125 years are summarized
in Table 2 and discussed below in some more
detail.
Local gold mining activity in Northern Sulawesi
was recorded as early as 1813 and has continued
up to the present day, its intensity depending on
the price of gold and economic conditions.
British maps of Sulawesi published in 1885 show
a gold mine in the Ratatotok district, named Mt.
Tottik. Mining there was done by local people
from the neighbouring province of Bolaang
Mongondow to provide gold for their chief.
In 1848, the government of the Netherlands East
Indies decided to investigate the mineral riches of
the archipelago. It was thought that six mining
engineers would be sufficient to carry out the
task. They were employed by “Het Mijnwezen”
(Bureau of Mines), founded in 1852, that twenty
years later began to publish “Jaarboek van het
Mijwezen” (Mining Yearbook). Initially the focus
was on Java, Sumatra and Borneo. Investigations
in Sulawesi started much later, around the end of
the 19th century.The reason for this was
threefold: i) Sulawesi was highly inaccessible; ii)
the island had not yet been pacified; and iii) very
little was known about its mineral endowment
(Rutten, 1927) .
The first government mining engineer to
investigate some of the gold deposits known at
that time in Northern Sulawesi was van Schelle
(1889). Private enterprise soon followed,
prompted by historical reports of artisan gold
mining in the region. Between 1896 and 1929
four underground mines were operated (Table 2)
and in the Ratatotok district elluvial deposits
were also exploited using hydraulic mining
methods. In addition two unsuccessful attempts
were made to carry out underground mining at
G. Pani between 1900 and 1910. Mining of
nearby alluvials produced only marginally better
results. Also not overly impressive were the
results of alluvial mining at Tapaibekin in the
Doup district. When more than 50 years later
geologists of Endeavour Resources undertook a
mineral survey in the central part of the North
Arm they observed short trial adits in even the
most remote parts of the region, suggesting that
it had been thoroughly covered by the early gold
prospectors (Trail et al., 1974).
Truscott (1901) published a description of gold
mines and prospects in the North Arm known at
the time, presenting highly optimistic
evaluations. He also noted that copper deposits
in the hinterland of Gorontalo were being
developed, but no further records are available.
Attempts to produce copper at Buhu, Molosipat
and Bukal in the early 1900s all failed.Two of the
gold mines in Northern Sulawesi were
investigated in some detail by government
engineers and geologists, namely Sumalata
(Molengraaff, 1902) and Totok (Ratatotok)
(Koperberg, 1900; Hirsh, 1911). The origin of the
gold mineralization at Totok, which is hosted by
limestone, was explained in two ways: i) the gold
was originally derived from rocks located further
inland and transported by the Totok river at a
time that its level was several hundreds of meter
higher than at present. Gold and silica were then
7
dissolved and deposited from descending fluids in
fractures and cavities in the limestone, believed
to be younger than underlying andesite, and ii)
the limestone was intruded by the andesite and
gold deposited from associated hydrothermal
fluids.
During the early part of the 20th century
government geologists discovered several
precious metal, base metal and iron occurrences
in central Western Sulawesi, including at Sasak,
which more recently has been explored for its
porphyry copper potential. A rather curious
copper occurrence was found in the Latimojong
Mountains, where small pockets of native copper
are present in slates, the so‐called Koper‐Leien or
Copper Slates (van Bemmelen, 1949), these days
known as Toradja Formation.
Far more important (from a present‐day
perspective) was the work done in Eastern
Sulawesi. Abendanon (1915‐17), who
investigated the region in 1909/10 was the first
to observe the presence of extensive ultramafic
rocks and their lateritic weathering products. He
was convinced that iron and nickel ores would be
found in this part of the island. Following his
recommendation, a more systematic survey was
initiated in 1915, and in a relatively short period
of time significant iron and nickel laterite
resources had been outlined. One of these, the
Larona Fe laterite deposit was explored in
considerable detail outlining proven reserves of
370 Mt (air dried) averaging 49% Fe (Dieckmann
and Julius, 1925). Extensive studies were
undertaken in the ensuing years on the possibility
of establishing an iron and steel industry in
Sulawesi, but without much success, one of the
reasons being the lack of known coking coal
deposits in Indonesia. The outlook for developing
the more Ni‐rich laterite deposits was equally
discouraging because of the low Ni contents (0.50
– 1.15%), whereas at the time grades of 3.5 –
4.0% were required. Using the rich nickel
deposits of New Caledonia as a model efforts
were subsequently directed towards finding
higher grade garnierite (Ni‐silicate) ore. After an
extensive search this type of ore was discovered
in the hills south of Lake Mantano at Soroako and
near Malili (Pomalaa). In 1934, two private
companies were given the right to further explore
and develop these deposits. By applying a
method of selective mining, which involved
careful stripping of overburden and removing
peridotite boulders, dry ore of 3.5% Ni was
produced at Pomalaa, and shipped to Japan and
Germany, starting in 1937. By 1940, a
government engineer had succeeded in
developing a new process for the treatment of
these Ni‐silicate ores on site, but before it could
be applied Japanese forces invaded Indonesia. By
that time a total of about 150.000 t of ore had
been exported (Darmono, 2009).
Before the outbreak of the Pacific War the
Japanese had obtained nickel ore from Canada
and New Caledonia, but these sources were now
cut off. Sulawesi became an important new
source to supply their war industry. The Dutch
mining operations were taken over by Sumitomo
Metal Mining, which built a smelting plant to
produce Ni matte, but before it was completed it
was destroyed by the allied forces. Between
1942 and 1945 a total of 184.000t of nickel ore
was produced (Darmono, 2009). The Japanese
also carried out limited mining for base metals at
Sangkaropi in central Sulawesi.
After the Dutch returned in 1946 they resumed
nickel mining, but only for three years. Eight
years later NV Perto (Pertambangan Toraja)
shipped nickel ore still remaining in stock piles
from the Japanese occupation to Japan. In 1961,
it became PT Pertambangan Nickel Indonesia, a
state‐owned enterprise, which then merged with
several other state‐owned mining companies to
become PT Aneka Tambang (Antam). This
company has been operating the Pomalaa mine
since 1968. In the central part of Eastern
Sulawesi, including the Soroako area, all
exploration activities were suspended until 1965
because of local insurgency.
Following the promulgation of new foreign
investment and mining laws in 1967, Indonesia
offered for tender several areas with known tin
and nickel laterite potential, including a large
block in Eastern Sulawesi. This concession was
awarded in 1968 to a consortium headed by INCO
(International Nickel Cooperation) of Canada.
8
The consortium company, which includes
Sumitomo Metal Mining as a shareholder, is
usually referred to as PT INCO. In the early years
the company carried out extensive exploration
with the assistance of the Geological Survey of
Indonesia(GSI) and about 40 geology students
from the Institute Teknologi Bandung (ITB).
Initially the exploration focus was on the coastal
areas, but in mid‐1969 it shifted to Soroako,
where four years later mine development began.
Soon afterwards oil prices escalated and the
international nickel market deteriorated. In
order to counter these negative developments PT
INCO built a hydroelectric plant and tripled
annual production capacity to 45,000 tonnes of
nickel matte, but it had to wait until 1988,
following an improvement in the nickel market,
to see its operations become profitable (van
Leeuwen, 1994).
The first company to carry our gold and base
metal exploration in Sulawesi was Newmont,
which between 1967 and 1969 undertook
reconnaissance and limited follow up work in the
North Arm with porphyry‐copper deposits as the
main target. They examined recorded
mineralization and diorite rocks easily accessible
from the north and south coast, and in the
hinterland of Gorontalo and the Bone Valley, and
made more detailed investigations around the
abandoned G. Pani gold mine, and at a few other
localities, including the Buhu copper prospect.
In the early 1970s two other companies initiated
porphyry copper searches, namely Endeavour
Resources, a junior Australian company, and Rio
Tinto. The former obtained a 2nd generation
Contract of Work (COW), known as Block II, which
covered an area of 12,000km2 in the central part
of the North Arm. Their objective was to test the
hypothesis that the Philippines porphyry copper
belt might extend into northern Sulawesi, an
initiative that was rewarded by the discovery of
porphyry Cu style mineralization in the Tapadaa
and Tombuililato districts. Following a literature
study and the second year’s survey work that
revealed that gold mineralization was widespread
in Block II, the scope of the survey was extended
to include alluvial and hard rock gold targets.
The two porphyry districts were investigated in
more detail in joint venture with Kennecott from
1973 to 1976. In 1980, Utah International took
control of Endeavour’s local company and carried
out an intensive exploration campaign in the
Tombuililato district until 1982. Together these
efforts resulted in the discovery of three
porphyry prospects in the Tapadaa district and
five porphyry prospects in the Tombuililato
district, including Cabang Kiri, Kayubulan Ridge
and Sungai Mak with a combined resource of 296
Mt @ 0.57% and 0.47 g/t Au (van Leeuwen,
1994). In addition high sulphidation Au‐Cu
mineralization was found at Motomboto.
Rio Tinto applied for a large COW area, Block III,
located to the west of block II and covering an
area of 17,200km2in 1973, which was granted in
1977. In the intervening years reconnaissance
geochemical sampling identified 18 anomalous
areas, follow up of which led to the discovery of
the Malala (Anomaly B) porphyry molybdenum
deposit in the Toli‐toli district. Drilling between
1978 and 1982, partly in JV with SANTOS of
Australia, outlined a resource of 100 Mt @ 0.14
MoS2, which was not economically viable at
prevailing molybdenum prices.
Further south, GIS carried out reconnaissance
geochemical surveys in the late 1960s–early
1970s, outlining three areas anomalous in base
metals, i.e. Sasak, Seko and Sangkaropi. These
were subsequently investigated together with
Antam, and drilled. Porphyry Cu mineralization
was found in the former two locations, but
appeared to be of low grade (0.3 ‐0.4% Cu) and of
limited extent. In the Sangkaropi area, three
VMS deposits were subjected to detailed
exploration that failed to outline an economic
resource.
In those early years exploration was often carried
out under conditions reminiscent of the Dutch
days, requiring a true pioneering spirit. This is
exemplified by the story of the “Kuda mati
berdiri”(standing dead horses) (Geomin,2010). In
1975, Antam decided to drill test Seko, located
200km to the north of Sangkaropi at an altitude
of 1000m, which could for the most part be
reached only on foot. The party included 30
9
porters and 70 horses. As the track followed
mostly mountain ridges grass and water were
very scarce. After 10 days one of the horses
refused to move even after some of its load had
been decreased. It took a while to realize that
the poor animal was already dead, probably
because of dehydration. A number of other
horses died the same way without falling over.
The location was finally reached after 30 days.
By the mid‐1980s the porphyry search was
virtually over and the focus shifted to gold. In
Northern Sulawesi the gold search was
spearheaded by BHP Minerals (which had taken
over Utah in 1984), soon to be joined by
Newmont, Ashton, Placer Dome, and New Hope
Colliers. A total of thirteen 4th generation
COWswere signed in the late 1986 and 1987.
The gold exploration undertaken during the
second half of the 1980s and early 1990si
Northern Sulawesi was quite successful.
Newmont discovered a sediment‐hosted gold
district in an area of old Dutch workings
(Ratatotok district). It subsequently developed a
mine (Mesel), which between 1996 and 2004
produced 1.9 Moz Au. Another gold district was
identified by Ashton at the northern tip of the
North Arm centred on Toka Tindung. This
company was also involved in the discovery of
high sulphidation gold mineralization in the
Binabase–Bawone area on Sangihe island. BHP
drilled five gold prospects, including Motomboto.
In addition, a high resolution aeromagnetic
survey identified several targets, only some of
which were followed up. A reevaluation of the
Tombuililato district resulted in a geological
resource estimate of up to 356 Mt @ 0.6% Cu,
0.37 g/t Au, including a mining reserve of
between 67 Mt @ 1.08% Cu, 0.43 g/t Au and 118
Mt @ 0.94% Cu, 0.40 g/t Au at a strip ratio of
~2.75:1 (BHP Minerals Sulawesi, 1997). Finally,
New Hope Colliers geochemical sampling
identified a number of gold anomalies which
were subsequently followed up by Newcrest,
resulting in the discovery of gold mineralization
at Tototopo and Petulis.
Concurrently with the signing of the 13 COWs in
Northern Sulawesi, nine 4th generation COW
agreements were entered into for areas in
Western Sulawesi, but serious exploration was
carried out only by Aberfoyle Resources, which
held a block containing Sasak and Sangkaropi
(relinquished in 1994), and new Hope Colliers,
which discovered the Awak Mas deposit in the
Latimojong Mountains.
In Eastern Sulawesi PT Palmabim commenced
exploration for chromite beach sands in the
Bungku area where it outlined 700,000 tonnes of
recoverable chromite. The deposit was put into
operation in 1988. It has since been closed down
(year not known).
The 1990s witnessed the signing of one 5th
generation Cow by Newcrest covering most of
the old Endeavour Block II, and two 6th
generation COWs, also located in Northern
Sulawesi (Newmont in the Bolaang Mongondow
district, and Aurora Gold, which had acquired
Ashton’s areas in 1993,in an area adjacent to
their Toka Tindung COW), and eight 7th
generation COWs, all but one located in Western
Sulawesi, including two blocks held by Rio Tinto
and one by North Ltd). The latter company had
selected a large block in central Western
Sulawesi, which based on the widespread
occurrence of potassic alkaline volcanic and
intrusive rocks combined with the presence of
known porphyry mineralization (Sasak) was
believed to have good potential for finding
Parkes‐type porphyry copper deposits. (The
Parkes mine in Australia was operated by North
at the time). Arguably the most comprehensive
investigations were carried out by Newcrest,
which between 1993 and 1998 covered their
entire COW area in Northern Sulawesi with
drainage reconnaissance sampling, resulting in a
large number of anomalies. Many of these were
investigated in 1996/97. A total of 168 prospects
were identified (including previously known
ones), twelve of which were drill tested, in most
cases downgrading their economic potential.
The highlights of the 1990s include Newmont’s
discovery of the Northern Lanut trend, which
contains several styles of mineralization,
including high‐sulphidation epithermal gold
mineralization. Work by Aurora outlined a
10
mineral district around Toka Tindung, containing
seven epithermal gold systems. In Western
Sulawesi, Rio Tinto discovered the Masabo
porphyry copper and the Poboya gold deposits.
Rather surprisingly the latter deposit was
previously not known despite being located only
7km from the provincial capital Palu and next
door to Poboya village, forming a distinct outcrop
with high gold grades. Rio Tinto also discovered
towards the end of the decade the La Sampala
laterite deposit in Eastern Sulawesi, believed to
be one of the largest undeveloped nickel laterite
resources in the world. Around the same time
Antam found several new gold prospects near
Palopo Sulawesi. The company also initiated an
intensive exploration programme in Eastern
Sulawesi with the objective to find additional
nickel laterite resources to supply their
ferronickel plant at Pomalaa. Several prospective
areas were outlined.
As elsewhere in Indonesia, the combined effect
of the Busang scandal (the largest fraud in the
history of mining, which was committed in East
Kalimantan), the Asian economic crisis, and
domestic political instability that took place
towards the end of the 20th century had a severe
impact on the mineral exploration activities in
Sulawesi (and elsewhere in Indonesia). Most
foreign companies, both big and small, withdrew
from the region or curtailed their activities.
The first decade of the 21st century saw some
important new developments: 1) regional
autonomy gave the local government of
Kabupaten (Districts, sub‐divisions of Provinces) a
significant direct say in mining and related
matters ; 2) a new mining law was promulgated
in 2009, which among other initiatives
introduced a tender system for new areas,
abolished the COW system, which up to then had
been the cornerstone of Indonesia’s modern
mining industry, and promoted processing of ore
to at least a semi‐finished state within Indonesia;
3) commodity prices started to rise around 2004,
which spurred an increase in domestic
involvement in exploration and mining,
particularly of nickel laterites; and 4) the
exploration focus was on known, more advanced
prospects.
Some of the highlights of the decade include
commencement of gold production at Riska and
Toka Tindung, and revisiting of some old “tired
prospects”. At Riska, which was discovered by
Newmont in 1988, Avocet Mining started
production in 2006 with an annual production of
about 50,000 ounces. Toka Tindung was bought
by Archipelago Resources in 2002; after long
delays the first gold was poured in 2011 with a
forecasted annual production of 160,000 ounces.
Gunung Pani (looked at by 7 companies since
1967) and Awak Mas (investigated by 5
companies since 1988) are presently under
detailed investigations by One Asia Resources
Ltd. The Tombulilato porphyry Cu and Malala
porphyry Mo deposits, discovered in the mid‐
1970s, are being reinvestigated by Bumi
Resources and Victory Moly West respectively.
The former company also acquired the Poboya
gold deposit, but up till now has been prevented
from carrying out exploration because of illegal
mining activities.The latter company has
expanded its activities into nickel laterite and
base metal explorations in central Sulawesi.
Antam started exploration at Esang, which had
been discovered during North Ltd regional
exploration programme in central Western
Sulawesi a decade earlier. A new arrival on the
scene is Golden Peaks Resources which recently
acquired the Palopo gold property in Western
Sulawesi and the Tanoyan and Anggrek gold
prospects in Northern Sulawesi. And finally, in
2008 seven domestic companies started nickel
laterite production, all being relatively small
operations.
The only important new discovery that has been
reported since 2000 is the rich alluvial gold
deposit at Bombana in SE Sulawesi found by local
villagers in 2008. It is the first indication of the
presence of potentially significant gold
mineralization in Eastern Sulawesi.
In summary, the documented history of mineral
exploration and mining in Sulawesi can be divided
into six stages:
1) 1813 – 1888. Local gold mining activities in
various parts of Northern Sulawesi, which
11
 have continued intermittently until the
present day.
2) 1889 ‐1941. Exploration by the Netherlands
East Indies government and private enterprise
that resulted in the development of several
gold and nickel laterite mines.
3) 1942‐1967. Relatively small scale nickel
laterite mining by Japanese, Dutch and
Indonesian State companies.
4) 1968 ‐1984. Exploration with the main focus
on nickel laterite and porphyry copper
deposits; initially reconnaissance surveys of
large tracts of land, followed by more detailed
investigations of selected areas; mine
development at Soroako.
5) 1985 – 1999. Focus shifts to gold; 23 COWs
signed; exploration mix of regional surveys
and prospect evaluation; several significant
gold discoveries made, one of which (Mesel)
was developed into a mine (now closed).
6) 2000 – present. Activities that began to
decrease sharply in the late 1990s pick up
again around 2004/5 with increased
involvement of domestic companies, mainly in
nickel laterite exploration and mining; focus
on known gold and nickel laterite
deposits/districts; two gold mines developed
(Riska and Toka Tindung).
3.0 Geology
In this chapter we briefly describe the geology of
the Northern, Western and Eastern Provinces.
The former two provinces are often treated as a
single tectonostratigraphic unit, referred to as
the West Sulawesi Pluton Volcanic Arc (WSPVA),
whereas the Eastern Sulawesi Province is
commonly divided into a western Central
Sulawesi Metamorphic Belt and an Eastern
Ophiolite Sulawesi Belt.
Separating the WSPVA into two different entities,
as first proposed by Taylor and van Leeuwen
(1980), is based on the recognition of significant
differences in tectonic setting, age and character
of rock units (Table 1). The tectonic relationship
between the two domains is not clear. They
probably formed a more or less continuous belt
throughout the Cenozoic, but were definitely
connected not later than the Early Miocene (van
Leeuwen and Muhardjo, 2005). A simplified
geological map of Sulawesi is shown in Figure 4.
3.1 Northern Sulawesi Province
The Northern Sulawesi Province occupies a large
part of the North Arm and the row of islands
extending to the north as far as Sangihe Island
(Figure 3B). The E‐W part of the North Arm,
referred to as the Gorontalo section (van
Bemmelen, 1949), is made up of Cenozoic arc
volcanics and associated sedimentary rocks.
Towards the east the North Arm bends sharply to
a NE trend and this region, the Minahasa section,
is largely covered by Pliocene to Recent volcanics.
The young volcanic arc continues northwards
through the Sangihe Island group and is often
referred to as the Sangihe Arc. Like the rest of
Sulawesi, Northern Sulawesi consists of
mountainous terrain, although rarely reaching
altitudes higher than 2000m. The landscape of
the northern part of the province is dominated by
the presence of (partly eroded) volcanic cones,
some of which are still active, like Lokon Volcano,
which erupted as recently as October 2011.
Several graben‐like depressions occupy the
central part of the Gorontalo section.
The rock sequences that make up Northern
Sulawesi can be divided broadly into three groups
that are separated by regional unconformities. In
this paper they are informally referred to as the
Early, Mid‐ and Late Cenozoic groups.
The oldest group consists of a thick pile of Middle
Eocene–Late Miocene submarine oceanic arc
volcanics, named Papayato Volcanics (Trail et al.,
1974; van Leeuwen and Muhardjo, 2005), which
are widely exposed in the southwestern part of
the Gorontalo section forming a 275km long belt,
and are found further east as smaller exposures.
This unit consists of a thick series of basaltic
volcanics that occur in bimodal association with
much less voluminous felsic rocks. It contains
12
subordinate intercalations of red calcareous
mudstone, red limestone, greywacke, and
radiolarian chert, and is intruded by basaltic
dykes, locally occurring as dyke swarms, and
stocks of gabbro and diorite. The basaltic
volcanics include massive, autobrecciated or
pillowed lava flows, and volcanic breccia. The
bulk of the mafic and felsic rocks have
geochemical compositions that are typical of low‐
K tholeiitic island arc (IAT) volcanics, but some,
thought to have been produced late in the
evolution of the volcanic arc, show a high‐K calc‐
alkaline affinity (Elburg et al., 2003; van Leeuwen
and Muhardjo, 2005), and contain small
volcanogenic massive sulphide deposits.
Near Labanuki on the north coast of the
Gorontalo section, the Papayato Volcanics are
underlain by basalts, which show geochemical
similarities with basalts that form the basement
of the Celebes Sea and are interpreted to
represent back‐arc basalts (Priadi et al., 1997).
Both basalt sequences are overlain by green and
black mudstone. These similarities suggest that
the Labanuki basalts formed as part of the
Celebes Sea crust (Rangin et al., 1997). A number
of authors have suggested that most of the North
Arm is underlain by similar crust (e.g. Taylor and
van Leeuwen, 1980; Kavalieris et al., 1992; Rangin
et al., 1997).
The Early Cenozoic rocks commonly display steep
dips, and in places are highly deformed
(Koperberg, 1929; Trail et al., 1974; Kavalieris et
al., 1992). This, together with the presence of a
regional unconformity separating the unit from
the Mid‐Cenozoic group (Koperberg, 1929;
Ratman, 1976; Carlile et al., 1990; Pearson and
Caira, 1999) indicate that a significant tectonic
eventtook place in the Early Miocene (van
Leeuwen and Muhardjo, 2005). The cause of this
event is not certain. It has been suggested that it
may be related to the collision between the
North Arm and either a small continental
fragment or the Sula Spur (van Leeuwen and
Muhardjo, 2005; Spakman and Hall, 2010). In the
latter scenario the Sula Spur was subsequently
fragmented during extension caused by
subduction rollback in de Banda region.
The Mid‐Cenozoic group occupies a large part of
the Gorontalo section, and is locally exposed in
the southern part of the Minahasa section. It
consists of a predominantly volcanic unit
(Bilungala Volcanics), a mixed sedimentary‐
volcanic unit (Dolokopa Formation), and several
sedimentary units, including the Ratatotok
Limestone, which hosts Mesel and associated
gold deposits. The volcanic rocks consist
predominantly of andesitic lava flows and
pyroclastics, debris flows, and related
volcaniclastics, marking multiple periods of uplift
and erosion during the development of the mid‐
Cenozoic volcanic arc (Pearson and Caira, 1999).
Felsic rocks are commonly present in some areas,
including the Tombulilato district (Perello, 1994).
The base of the Mid‐Cenozoic group has been
observed only in a few localities, where it consists
of chaotic masses of Papayato Volcanics
fragments or poorly sorted conglomerates (Trail
et al., 1974; van Leeuwen and Muhardjo, 2005).
The sequence is intruded by co‐magmatic bodies,
varying in size from dykes and stocks to
batholiths of diorite, quartz‐diorite and
granodiorite (e.g. Trail et al., 1974; Pearson and
Caira, 1999). Limited radiometric age dating
results (Lowder and Dow, 1978; Polvé et al.,
1997; Pearson and Caira, 1999) suggest that
batholith‐sized bodies were emplaced during the
Early‐Middle Miocene (16‐12 Ma), irregular stock
and dyke‐like intrusions of diorite and
monzodiorite composition during Middle‐Late
Miocene times, and small stocks and plugs of
quartz diorite composition during the latest
Miocene (8‐5 Ma). According to Pearson and
Caira (1999) the batholiths were probably
exposed by one or more periods of intra‐Miocene
erosion. Published geochemical data for the
volcanic and plutonic suites suggest that the Mid‐
Cenozoic was dominated by medium‐K calc‐
alkaline magmatism (Polvé et al, 1997). Porphyry
Cu‐Au‐Mo and intrusion‐related base metal‐ Au
mineralization is commonly associated with the
Middle‐Late Miocene suites. However, most
deposits are small and/or of low metal tenor.
The structure of the Mid‐Cenozoic rocks has been
studied in most detail in the Tombulilato district,
where several periods of low‐angle thrusting
13
were followed by development of high‐angle
northerly trending faults, which was succeeded
by several stages of east‐trending block faulting
(Perello, 1994). A regional unconformity
between the Mid‐ and Late Cenozoic sequences
marks a major tectonic event that is generally
believed to be related to the collision of the
Banggai‐Sula continental fragment with Sulawesi
(e.g. Perello, 1994; Pearson and Caira, 1999).
The Late Cenozoic, which was the most
productivemineralizing period, witnessed
widespread and intensive volcanism. The Early
Pliocene Wobudu Breccia, exposed along the
north coast of the Gorontalo section, is
composed almost entirely of basaltic to andesitic
agglomerates, breccias, pyroclastics, and lava
flows (Trail et al., 1974). Along the south coast, a
series of dominantly dacitic volcanics and co‐
magmatic high‐level intrusions are exposed,
named Pani Volcanics (Trail et al., 1974). They
form major caldera complexes that have
developed within the SW corners of large arc‐
parallel and arc‐normal fault rhombs, and host
significant gold mineralization (Pearson and
Caira, 1999). Similar rocks are found in the
Tombulilato district, where they have been
named Motomboto Volcanics by Perello (1994).
K/Ar dating suggests the two units were formed
between 5.3 and 2.0 Ma (Perello, 1994; Polvé et
al., 1997; Pearson and Caira, 1999). Significant
porphyry Cu‐Au and epithermal Au mineralization
is associated with this magmatic event.
The Pinogo Volcanics (Trail et al., 1972) constitute
a volcanic‐sedimentary succession that occurs
over a distance of 170km along the south coast,
from 40km west of Tototopo to more than 60km
east of Tombulilato, where it is up to 300m thick.
Isolated remnants are present within the central
Limboto‐Bone rift valley, and up to 40km to the
north. The unit is thought to have formed in
latest Pliocene‐Pleistocene times, a period
dominated by explosive volcanism (Kavalieris et
al., 1992; Perello, 1994; Pearson and Caira, 1999).
The volcanicsare characterized, at least in part, by
a bimodal association of basaltic andesite and
rhyolite (Kavalieris et al., 1992). Throughout the
Gorontalo section diatreme and irregular
magmatic hydrothermal breccia bodies appear to
post‐date and intrude the Pani Volcanics. They
include post‐mineralization diatreme breccias at
the Cabang Kiri and Sungai Mak porphyry copper
deposits (Carlile and Kirkegaard, 1985).
Volcanic units in the Minahasa section include
the locally named Maen Volcanics and Toka
Tindung Breccia (Wake et al., 1996), which are
contemporaneous with the gold mineralization in
the Toka Tindung district and of Late Pliocene
age, and the Tondano Tuff of Effendi (1976),
which are the result of explosive eruptions from
the Tondano caldera, now occupied by the
Tondano Lake. Quaternary to Recent volcanics
mask most of the older rocks in the Sangihe Arc
(i.e. northern Minahasa section to Sangihe
Island).
The Late Cenozoic units are mostly flat lying to
gently dipping. Significant sub‐recent vertical
movements in the Gorontalo section are
evidenced by the elevation of young coral
limestone up to height of 550‐1000m, and the
formation of broad depressions (Rutten, 1927).
The Gorontalo section is dominated by three
structural elements: i)long ESE trending fault
corridors, which are arc‐parallel structures; ii)
regularly spaced NW‐NNW arc‐normal fault
zones; and iii) short NE‐ENE arc‐normal conjugate
faults (Carlile et al., 1990; Kavalieris et al., 1992;
Pearson and Caira, 1999). Carlile and al. (1990)
and Kavalieris et all. (1992) observe that much of
the most recent faulting along the arc‐parallel
structures comprise normal vertical movements,
resulting in uplifted E‐W trending mountain
chains and graben. In the Minahassa section two
fault sets dominate: i) NE, showing vertical
movement, and ii) NW, which probably comprises
an orthogonal tensional fracture system
comparable to the Gorontalo section (Carlile et
al., 1990).
3.2 Western Sulawesi Province
In terms of geomorphology and geology Western
Sulawesi can be divided into three parts:
Southwest (SW), Central West (CW) and
Northwest (NW) Sulawesi (Figure 3B). SW
Sulawesi is geomorphologically separated from
14
CW Sulawesi by a NW trending depression filled
with Quaternary sediments, which may mask a
major structure. It differs from the rest of the
province in being less tectonically deformed and
less mountainous, lacking large Neogene
granitoid bodies, and having Neogene volcanics
with isotopic and trace element characteristics
that are different from those found in CW‐NW
Sulawesi (e.g. Elburg and Foden, 1999). The main
differences between CW and NW Sulawesi are in
the nature of Late Eocene–Early Miocene
sedimentation (dominantly carbonate and
dominantly siliclastic respectively) and the
relative scarcity of Neogene volcanic deposits in
the latter area. CW Sulawesi has the most rugged
terrain, with many mountain ridges between
2000‐3000m altitudes reaching a maximum
height of 3495m.
Western Sulawesi contains an almost complete
stratigraphic sequence ranging between Late
Cretaceous and Recent, which developed on a
basement of continental fragment and
accretionary/mélange rocks. It represents
several major periods of sedimentation, including
Late Cretaceous flysch, Eocene syn‐rift
siliciclastics, Late Eocene‐Middle Miocene
platform and deeper marine carbonates, Middle
Miocene‐Early Pliocene shallow marine deposits,
and latest Cenozoic syn‐orogenicsedimentary
successions. The sedimentation cycles were
accompanied or interrupted by several magmatic
events that took place during the Paleocene, mid‐
Eocene to mid‐Oligocene, Early Miocene, and
Middle Miocene to Pliocene, locally continuing
into the Quaternary (e.g. van Leeuwen and
Muhardjo, 2005; van Leeuwen et al., 2010).
Pre‐Tertiary accretionary/mélange complexes are
exposed in the Bantimala and Barrublocks in SW
Sulawesi and in the Latimojong Complex in SW
Sulawesi. They consist of imbricated tectonic
slices of both continental and oceanic rocks,
which have been metamorphosed to greenschist‐
amphibolite and blueschist facies (Sukamto,
1986; Wakita et al., 1996; Maulana et al., 2010).
The complexes have been interpreted by
Parkinson et al. (1998) to belong to a
dismembered mid‐Cretaceous accretionary/
subduction zone that extended from central
Eastern Sulawesi through southern Western
Sulawesi and SE Kalimantan to central Java.
Three metamorphic complexes are exposed in
NW Sulawesi, i.e. the Palu, Karossa and Malino
Metamorphic Complexes, which are composed of
continental fragments derived from the
Australian‐New Guinea margin, and in the case of
the former two complexes, also contain slices of
oceanic crust (van Leeuwen and Muhardjo, 2005;
van Leeuwen et al., 2007). The PaluMetamorphic
Complex hosts a gold deposit named Poboya,
which is of uncertain origin. The metamorphic
complexes are believed to form part of asingle
large fragment (or composite fragment) that
underlies most of Western Sulawesi, the
Makassar Straits, Java Sea and East Java, and has
been named the East Java–West Sulawesi Block
by Hall (2009). This author interprets the
fragment(s) to have been separated from NW
Australia in the Jurassic and accreted to the SE
Sundaland margin in the mid‐Cretaceous.
The basement complexes are unconformably
overlain by weakly metamorphosed Late
Cretaceous flysch deposits, which occur
widespread throughout the province and in CW
Sulawesi host significant gold mineralization.No
mineralization, other than minor sediment‐
hosted Cu occurrences, has been found todate in
the unconformably overlying siliciclastics and
carbonate sequences which were deposited in
mid‐Eocene to mid‐Miocene times. Volcanism
that took place during this period appear to have
been intermittent and localized, as a result of
which no major continuous volcanic arc
developed (van Leeuwen and Muhardjo, 2005;
van Leeuwen et al., 2010). The volcanic rocks
arecalc‐alkaline in composition and generally
believed to be related to active subduction (e.g.
Yuwono et al., 1986, 1988; Elburg et al., 2002,
2003). The only mineralization known to be
associated with the Early Tertiary volcanism is
Kuroko‐type VMS near Sangkaropi in CW
Sulawesi.
A major tectonic event took place in the early
Middle Miocene under extensional conditions. It
was characterized by block faulting that resulted
in local unconformities and development of a
15
 Table 3 Selected features of porphyry Cu‐Au±Mo systems in Northern Sulawesi – examples

Prospect Host rocks Alteration Mineralization Vertical Resources Age

Name Type Mineralogy extent Mt Cu% Au
(cm) g/t
Bulagidun hydrothermal collapse (upper) musc‐chl‐orth‐qtz‐ill‐kaol; sulphide cpy‐py‐mgt; Au with 500 37 0.61 0.6 9.4 (HR)
bx associated with (inner) bt‐qtz‐mgt cement cpy and in native 8.15 (A; bt)
diorite &qtz diorite (outer) chl‐epi. filling bx form
stocks
Dunu diorite porphyry & (inner) bt‐qtz‐alb stk&bx filling cpy‐po(py‐mo); Au 12.5 (A; bt)
tourmaline bx (outer) chl‐act‐epi with Cp
Tapadaa qtz diorite; andesite (early) qtz‐chl‐bt‐anh‐alb‐mgt stk&dissem py‐cpy‐bo; chalc‐ 100 43 0.54 0.08 5 & 2.5 (A;
volcanics (late) ser+qtz±diasp±and±pyroph. blanket up to 40m bt)
thick
Cabang Kiri qtz diorite stock; 1. (top) kaol‐diasp‐al stk&dissem cpy‐py‐bo‐mgt, 400 105 0.42 0.43 5.25 (HR;
(andesite volcanics) 2. clay‐ser‐chl‐mgt chalc‐cov‐py hbl)
3. chl‐mgt 2.93 (A; bt)
4. (bottom) qtz‐ser‐alb‐chl‐mgt‐
bt
Kayubulan pipe‐like breccia qtz‐mgt‐bt overprinted by ser‐ill‐ Stk&dissem cpy‐py‐bo 150 32 0.60 0.33 2.36 (A; bt)
Ridge complex chl 92
Sungai Mak diorite porphyry, sill‐ qtz‐mgt‐bt overprinted by ser‐ill‐ Stk & dissem chalc blanket, up to 200 82 0.74 0.29
like chlvuggysi‐al‐kaol 176m; +py‐cp 159 0.69 0.27

Source: van Leeuwen and Pieters (2011)

Abbreviations (Tables 3‐5): A = alteration; act = actinolite; al = alunite; alb = albite; ad = adularia; and = andalusite; anh = anhydrite; aspy = arsenopyrite; Au = gold;
ba = barite; bo = bornite; bt = biotite; bx = breccias; carb = carbonate; chalc = chalcocite; chald = chalcedony; chl = chlorite; cov = covellite; cpy = chalcopyrite; diasp
= diaspore; dissem = disseminations; en = enargite; epi = epidote; ga = galena; HR = host rock; ill = illite; kaol = kaolinite; luz = luzonite; mgt = magnetite; mo =
molybdenite; musc = muscovite; orth = orthoclase; py = pyrite; pyroph = pyrophyllite; po = pyrrhotite; qtz = quartz; ser = sericite; si = silica; sph = sphalerite; stib =
stibnite; stk = stock work;
16
major strike‐slip fault in SW Sulawesi (Walanae
Fault Zone), along which an oceanic fragment was
emplaced (van Leeuwen et al., 2010). Another
oceanic fragment exposed further north, the
Lamasi Ophiolite Complex, may have accreted to
the Western Sulawesi continental margin around
the same time.
The tectonic event heralded the onset of a period
of widespread shoshonitic to ultrapotassic
magmatism that lasted to the Early Pliocene, and
locally continued into the Quaternary
(Lompobatang Volcano). Over 5000m thick
deposits of volcanic, co‐magmatic intrusive,
volcaniclastics and intercalated sedimentary
rocks cover large parts of SW and CW Sulawesi
(e.g. Sukamto, 1982; Bergman et al., 1996). In
NW Sulawesi, their distribution is more restricted
(Elburg et al., 2003). The potassic‐ultrapotassic
suites have been referred to as HK‐series by Polvé
et al. (1997).In CW and NW Sulawesi, the HK‐
series magmatism was accompanied by a distinct
magmatic event that started around the
beginning of the Late Miocene and produced
large volumes of granitoids and subordinate
amounts of tuffs that were exclusively felsic in
nature and of high‐K calc‐alkaline composition,
the CAK‐series of Polvé et al. (1997). This event
lasted until the Pleistocene, making the granites
one of the youngest in the world.
Most of the mineral deposits and occurrences
found in Western Sulawesi are related to the HK
and CAK magmatism. They include porphyry Mo,
porphyry Cu±Au, intrusion‐related base metal Au,
and probably also the Awak Mas and Poboya
gold deposits, and others found in the same belt,
which in this paper we refer to as intrusion‐
related Au deposits.
Syn‐orogenicsedimentary deposits of Plio‐
Pleistocene age, collectively known as “Celebes
Molasse” (Sarasin and Sarasin, 1901) occur
widespread throughout Western Sulawesi. They
reflect a major tectonic event, involving rapid
uplift, folding and thrusting (? gravity sliding) in
CW and NW Sulawesi. This event has previously
been attributed to collision between the Banggai‐
Sula microcontinent and the East Arm (e.g.
Bergman et al., 1996; Hall and Wilson, 2000).
However, there is increasing evidence to suggest
that the CW‐NW Sulawesi‐North Arm‐Gorontalo
Bay region has been in extension since the Early
Pliocene, which may have been driven by rollback
of the subduction hinge at the North Sulawesi
Trench (Cottam et al., 2011). However, the
extremely rapid rates and large amounts of uplift
and subsidence in the region (ca 3km and >2km
respectively) suggest that significant flow of
lower crust, from beneath basins towards
topographically elevated areas, may also have
been a contributing factor (Hall, 2011).
3.3 Eastern Sulawesi Province
The eastern Sulawesi Province comprises the East
and Southeast Arms, the eastern part of central
Sulawesi, and the island of Buton. The terrain is
in many places very rugged. This, combined with
the highly tectonized nature of the region, means
that its geology is still poorly understood.
As discussed by Hamilton (1979), the province
consists of several quasi‐centric arcuate belts,
which are composed of, from west to east: 1)
sheared metamorphic rocks, 2) highly tectonized
mélange of ophiolitic, metamorphic, and
Mesozoic‐Paleogene rocks; the latter also
occuring as more coherent masses; and 3)
predominantly ophiolitic rocks. A fourth zone of
imbricated Mesozoic and Paleogene rocks that
fringes the southeast margin of the East Arm
belongs to the Banggai‐Sula Province and marks
the collision zone between the Banggai‐Sula
continental fragment and the ophiolite terrane of
the East Arm. The rocks that constitute the four
zones are unconformably overlain by syn‐to post‐
orogenic sedimentary deposits (“Celebes
Molasse”).
Metamorphic rocks form a 460km long, 80km
wide zone, including the Pompangeo
Metamorphic Complex in central Eastern
Sulawesi (Parkinson, 1991; 1998), and the
Mehongga and Teimosi Metamorphic Complexes
in the SE Arm (Rusmana and Sukarna, 1985).
Several smaller masses occur at the south end of
the SE Arm and on Kabaena Island. In central
Sulawesi, the metamrphic belt is bounded on the
west by a profound tectonic dislocation, the
17
Median Line (Brouwer, 1947), against Western
Sulawesi, and to the east it grades into a tectonic
mélange. In the SE Arm, the southwestern
boundary of the metamorphic zone is marked by
a narrow strip of ophiolite, whereas a major
strike‐slip fault (Lawanopo Fault) forms the
northeastern boundary, separating the
metamorphic zone from the ophiolite zone.
The metamorphic rocks include both blueschist
and greenschist–amphibolite facies (e.g.
Parkinson, 1998; Helmers et al., 1989; 1990). In
central Eastern Sulawesi an increase in the
degree of metamorphic crystallization is apparent
from east to west (Brouwer, 1947). This together
with the style of deformation of the Pompangeo
Schists is consistent with successive
underthrusting of slices of downgoing material in
a west‐dipping subduction, which based on
limited K/Ar dating of the schists probably took
place during the mid‐Cretaceous (Parkinson,
1991; 1998). Parkinson (1998) suggests that the
protoliths of the metamorphics consists in part of
Jurassic sedimentary rocks, similar to the ones
exposed in small terranes to the east. Until the
recent discovery of gold in metamorphic rocks
near Bombana in the SE Arm the metamorphic
complexes were considered to have little mineral
potential.
The contact zone between the metamorphic
rocks and the ophiolite is marked by a tectonic
mélange in central Eastern Sulawesi, which is
composed of a highly complex mosaic of
tectonized and metamorphosed ophiolite
fragments, schist fragments and variably
disrupted Mesozoic sedimentary rocks. K/Ar ages
of 28‐32 Ma suggest that the mélange was
formed during the middle to late Oligocene,
possibly as the result of eastward subduction
beneath the ophiolite terrane, that was
subsequently thrusted westward over the
metamorphic basement (Parkinson, 1996).
Large ophiolite masses are distributed over most
of the East Arm and the northwest part of the
Southeast Arm, and on the adjacent islands of
Buton and Kabaena. They cover over 15,000km2
and are known as the East Sulawesi Ophiolite or
ESO (Simandjuntak, 1986). From an economic
point of view this is the most important rock unit
in Eastern Sulawesi, as it has given rise to
extensive Ni laterite deposits and chromite beach
sands deposits.
A complete, but highly imbricated ophiolite
sequence has only been observed in the East
Arm, whereas elsewhere only the lower,
ultramafic portion of the sequence is present.
The age of the ophiolite is poorly constrained. A
wide range of K/Ar ages have been obtained from
ESO rocks, varying from Cretaceous to Miocene
(Mubroto et al., 1994; Monnier et al., 1994;
Simandjuntak, 1986), which are difficult to
interpret. It has been suggested that Cretaceous
deep marine pelagic sedimentary rocks which are
spatially associated in several places with the ESO
may represent the uppermost part of the
sequence (e.g. Kündig, 1956). Various origins and
timing of emplacement have been proposed for
the ESO. It is likely, however, that the ESO is a
composite terrane with more than one origin and
of different ages (Hall and Wilson, 2000).
Mesozoic‐Paleogene sedimentary rocks are
mostly interthrust or in interminable fault contact
with the metamorphic basement and ophiolite
sequences throughout Eastern Sulawesi. Broadly
speaking, they consist of fluvial to shallow marine
siliciclastics and subordinate carbonates of late
Triassic‐Jurassic age that were formed along the
Australian continental margin, and Cretaceous‐
Oligocene deep marine, pelagic sedimentary
rocks, which were laid down on fragments rifted
from the margin and transported westwards to
the Sulawesi region (e.g. Pigram and Panggabean,
1984; Villeneuve et al., 2001; Surono, 2008).
Syn‐to post‐orogenic deposits are widely
distributed throughout Eastern Sulawesi. They
can be divided into clastic and carbonate
sequences with coarse‐grained clastic sediments
dominating (Surono, 2008). Deposition started
earlier in the southern part of the province
(around the Early Miocene) than further north
(Middle‐Late Miocene).
18
4.0 Mineral deposits
In this chapter we present a review of the various
mineralization styles that are known to occur in
the Northern, Western and Eastern Sulawesi
Provinces. Examples of each type are described in
some detail as either individual deposits or
mineral districts, for which a brief summary of
their exploration history is also given. We have
assigned them to 17 categories, which are shown
in Figure 5 together with their map symbols for
Figures 6, 25 and 35. In this paper we have
adopted the most widely used nomenclature.
The reader will be familiar with most of the
terms, but a few need further explanation.
1) High‐, intermediate‐ and low‐sulphidation
epithermal Au‐Ag.This broad group of epithermal
mineral deposits has been subjected to over a
dozen classification schemes since the late 1970s,
which in part reflects the wide range of
characteristic features displayed by orebodies
belonging to this group (Simmons et al., 2005).
The currently most widely used terminology of
high‐, intermediate‐ and low‐sulphidation, terms
introduced by Hedenquist (1987), Hedenquist et
al (2000) and Einaudi et al (2003), is based upon
the sulphidation state (or sulphur fugacity) of
sulphur‐bearing minerals that occur in the
epithermal mineral assemblage. Intermediate‐
sulphidation is a relatively new term, which was
previously included in the low‐sulphidation
category. Sillitoe and Hedenquist (2003)
emphasize the linkage between sulphidation
types and volcanotectonic settings; most high‐
sulphidation deposits are generated in calc‐
alkaline andesitic‐dacitic arcs under neutral stress
state or mild extension conditions, and
commonly show a close connection with
porphyry Cu deposits; intermediate‐sulphidation
deposits occur in a broadly similar environment
but lack such close relationship; and most low‐
sulphidation deposits are associated with
volcanic suites in a broad spectrum of extensional
settings.
Corbett and Leach (1998) divided the low‐
intermediate sulphidation deposits into two
broad groups. The first group dominates in
magmatic arcs and displays an association with
intrusions grading away from the intrusion source
as; quartz‐sulphide‐Au+/‐Cu, carbonate‐base
metal‐Au and epithemal Au‐Ag. The second
group, termed adularia‐sericite epithermal Au‐Ag,
dominates in rift settings. Corbett (2007)
subsequently renamed the latter group “banded
chalcedony‐ginguro epithermal veins”. Where
appropriate we refer to this classification scheme
in the text.
2)Intrusion‐related base metal‐Au. This category
includes vein deposits which usually contain
significant amounts of base metal sulphides and
show, or are inferred to have, a close association
with (porphyry) intrusions. It overlaps with the
quartz‐sulphide‐Au+/‐Cu category of Corbett and
Leach (1998).
3)Intrusion‐related Au. This category has been
assigned to a few deposits in Western Sulawesi,
including Awak Mas, Mangkaluku and Poboya. As
discussed below, the origin and classification of
these deposits is problematic. We describe them
in 4.2.4 under the (more neutral) heading “Gold
in metamorphic terrains”
As for many mineral deposits and occurrences in
Sulawesi there is no detailed information
available, assigning them to a particular category
can be quite subjective. In a few cases where
there was too little togo by, or an occurrence did
not seem to fit any of the categories,we assigned
them to the “not classified” category.
For each of the three provinces we have
prepared a map showing mineral localities and
the names of deposits/prospects or mineral
districts mentioned in the text. The maps were
compiled from the Indonesian Mineral Deposit
Data Base (van Leeuwen and Pieters (2011).
4.1 Northern Sulawesi Province
Northern Sulawesi is relatively well endowed
with mineral deposits and prospects (Figure 6).
As discussed earlier it is a region of both past and
present gold mining activity. A number of mineral
styles have been recognized todate. These are
porphyry Cu‐Au±Mo, high‐, intermediate‐ and
19
 Figure 5. Mineralization types found in Sulawesi and their symbols used in Figures 6, 25 and 35

Figure 6. Northern Sulawesi. Distribution of mineralization types, and location of prospects and
mineralized districts mentioned in the text; for symbols see Figure 5

20
low‐sulphidation epithermal Au‐Ag, sediment‐
hosted Au, breccia‐hosted base metal‐Au
mineralization, intrusion‐related base metal‐Au
veins, Fe±Au skarns, and Cu‐Pb‐Zn volcanogenic
massive sulphides (VMS). The VMS
mineralization is the only styleassociated with the
Paleogene volcanic activity. All the others were
formed during the Miocene and particularly
Pliocene magmatic epochs. Tables 3 and 4 show
selected features of the more significant
Northern Sulawesi’s porphyry copper and
precious metal systems respectively.
4.1.1 Porphyry Cu‐Au Mo mineralization
More than 40 porphyry‐style deposits and
occurrences have been identified, which
commonly occur in clusters. They can be divided
into two groups, Late Miocene and Pliocene.
Their main features have been described by
Pearson and Caira (1990).
The Late Miocene group (e.g. Bahumbang, and
Dunu) are hosted by irregular dykelike bodies of
diorite to quartz diorite compositionintruded into
co‐magmatic basaltic andesite‐ andesite
volcanics. A central quartz‐biotite‐magnetite
zone grades outwards to chlorite‐epidote‐calcite
alteration, and upwards to quartz‐sericite‐
carbonate‐clay assemblages. Albite is present in
some prospects. Advanced argillic lithocaps are
absent. In some deposits sheeted quartz veins
are well developed (e.g. Petulu) but most are
characterized by quartz stockworks. The
porphyry systems are poorly mineralized,
showing the following zonation: central
chalcopyrite+molybdenite  pyrite+chalcopyrite
 pyrite  lead‐zinc. Gold is associated with
chalcopyrite. Molybdenite commonly occurs in
early veins. Rather unusual is Bulagidun (4.1.1.2)
where Cu‐Au mineralization is hosted by a series
of hydrothermal breccias developed peripheral to
a biotite altered, but unmineralized diorite
complex.
The Pliocene systems show both similarities and
differences with the Miocene systems. Examples
include the Tapadaa district (4.1.1.3) and
Tombulilato district (4.1.1.4) and Taware on
Sangihe Island (4.1.1.5). With a few exceptions
(e.g. Taware) the Pliocene systems are better
mineralized. They are centred on multi‐phase
cylindrical stocks and dykes showing fractionation
to more felsic end‐members (quartz diorite to
dacite porphyry) that are associated with co‐
magmatic volcanics of dacite composition.
Diatreme breccias are commonly present.
Alteration zonation consists of a central quartz‐
albite‐magnetite‐biotite±chlorite core, an outer
chlorite‐actinolite‐magnetite zone, and an upper
sericite‐kaolinite‐alunite‐diaspore zone. Quartz‐
sulphide stockworks are well developed. Higher
gold grades show a strong association with
bornite, magnetite and chalcopyrite in the central
zone that grade outwards to a pyrite zone with
supergene chalcocite. Au:Cu ratios are relatively
high.
4.1.1.1 Bahumbung
Bahumbung is the only Miocene porphyry Cu
prospect that has been described in some detail
(Lubis et al., 2011). It consists of several
mineralized centres up to 500x400m in diameter.
The area was identified during Newcrest’s
regional exploration programme in the late 1990s
as a Cu‐Au anomaly. It was investigated in more
detail by Ivanhoe Mines Ltd in the late 2000s,
including groundmagnetics and drilling of 3 deep
holes (1,544m) and 13 shallow holes (561m).
The prospect area is underlain largely by
andesitic lava, tuff and volcanic breccias
belonging to the Bilungala Volcanics. These are
accompanied by minor dacitic volcanics and
intruded by multiple intrusives ranging in
composition from diorite to aplite. Three diorite
units have been recognized, referred to as Old,
Intermediate and Young Diorite.
The Old Diorite (only detected in two drill holes)
is characterized by strong alteration (potassic and
pale green mica), moderate to high density
quartz stockwork, and moderate copper grades
(0.3%–0.4%). The Intermediate Diorite has a
lower density of quartz stockwork (up to 3%) and
lower copper grades (0.1‐0.3%), and is
moderately altered (PMG). The Young Diorite
occurs as late‐mineral dykes with low sulphide
and Cu contents, <1% and <0.1% respectively.
21

Potassic alteration has affected most strongly the
Old Diorite and andesitic wall rocks. Very fine‐
grained secondary biotite and magnetite
completely replace mafic minerals, and are
intergrown with actinolite in veinlets. The
alteration is associated with quartz stockwork
zones, varying in intensity from 3 to 10%, and
<2% sulphides consisting of chalcopyrite, lesser
pyrite and minor bornite.The sulphides fill
fractures and occur as disseminations in quartz
veinlets and altered host rocks. Better Cu grades
(>0.4%) have been obtained from strongly altered
andesitic wall rocks adjacent to the Old Diorite.
Pale green mica alteration is characterized by the
presence of shreddy chlorite and green sericite,
which replace earlier secondary biotite and
primary feldspar. In rocks that are not too
weathered chalcopyrite and pyrite can be
observed.
Sericite‐chlorite‐magnetite alteration is
associated with the Young Diorite. Mafics are
replaced by chlorite and magnetite accompanied
by various amounts of pyrite. Primary feldspars
are partially or totally altered to sericite. This
alteration assemblage is prominent in ore zones
of a number of major Philippine porphyry Cu‐Ag
deposits (Sillitoe and Gappe, 1984), but at
Bahumbung contains only very little
chalcopyrite.Molybdenite appears to be mostly
associated with sericite‐chlorite‐clay alteration
overprinting potassic alteration.
4.1.1.2 Bulagidun district(Figure 7)
This district is located 170km WNW from
Gorontalo and 10km inland from the north coast.
It is the largest known Miocene system in
Northern Sulawesi, covering an area of 50km2,
and encompassing five separate prospects of
porphyry, vein and skarn styles, of which the
largest known is the Bulagidun prospect. The
district is outlined by a 790 ppm Cu – 80# stream
sediment anomaly, while Au anomalism is
centred on Bulagidun, and Pb and Zn anomalies
are related to peripheral vein systems. It is
covered by dense tropical rain forest with steep
relief (500 to 1700m).
The district was identified in 1987 by BHP during
follow‐up of stream sediment and panned
concentrate geochemical anomalies. Systematic
exploration until 1991, including ~8000m of
drilling outlined a geological resource of 14.4 Mt
@ 0.68 g/t Au and 0.61% Cu in three separate
breccia bodies. Further investigations were
carried out by Newcrest and Cyprus in 1996‐97
involving detailed surface work and drilling
(Bulagidun, 2793m; Matinan‐9, 760m; Matinan‐6,
1484m). The results of the two campaigns are
discussed by Lubis et al. (1994), PT Newcrest
Nusa Sulawesi (1999) and Pearson and Caira
(1999).
The geology comprises a deeply eroded Miocene
volcanic centre within a sequence of
volcaniclastics and immature sediments covered
by andesite lava, which in turn is overlain by
andesite pyroclastics and volcanogenic
conglomerates. Two samples of unaltered
andesite lava yielded K‐Ar whole rock ages of 9.4
Ma. The sequence is intruded by a sequential
fractionation intrusive suite consisting of seven
partially superimposed plutons that range in
composition from pyroxene‐biotite diorite to
quartz‐biotite feldspar porphyry and aplite.
Limited whole rock analyses presented by Lubis
et al. (1994) suggest that the igneous rocks in the
Bulagidun area belong to the medium and high‐K
calc‐alkaline series.
A regional scale NNW‐trending arc normal
structure passes through the western part of the
system. A set of NE‐trending faults bracket this
system linking it across to another arc normal
structure, 20km to the east. Intrusive bodies
forming aligned circular features, 2 to 4km in
diameter, are centred on the Bulagidun and
Matinan prospect areas, suggesting a collapsed
magma chamber at depth. Mineralization is
strongly controlled by E‐W structures and
intersections with cross‐cutting N‐S structures.
This pattern is consistent with dextral
transpressuring of the arc normal structures.
Twelve breccia pipes have been mapped in the
system.
The Bulagidun/Matinan alteration system
extends over 7km in an ENE direction with a
22
 Figure 7. Simplified geological map of Bulagidun district and prospect locations (modified after PT
Newcrest Nusa Sulawesi, 1999)

Figure 8. Simplified geological map of Tapadaa district and prospect locations (modified after PT
Newcrest Nusa Sulawesi, 1999)

23
Figure 9. Simplified geological map of Tombulilato district and prospect locations
(modified after Perello, 1994)

Figure 10. Cartoon showing porphyry Cu deposit styles in the Tombulilato district

24
width of 3km. It is concentrically zoned with a
biotite core (2000mx300m) surrounded by an
albite‐magnetite zone that grades outwards into
an albite‐sericite‐pyrite assemblage. Another
shell of epidote‐chlorite‐calcite surrounds these
assemblages. Sericite‐clay‐
chlorite±quartz±carbonate alteration, both
pervasive and structurally controlled, cross cut all
the early assemblages. Whole rock K‐Ar dating of
this assemblage yielded an age of 8.75 Ma. Late
stage clay‐pyrite alteration occurs as narrow
zones along faults and fractures. Disseminated
blebs and fracture fillings of radiating black
tourmaline are found in biotite‐ magnetite and
sericite‐clay‐chlorite altered rocks. It typically
constitutes 1‐2% of the rocks, but locally may
attain values of 10‐20%.
Styles of hypogene Cu‐Au mineralization include
a porphyry‐related collapse‐drawing down
breccia infill in at least 7 breccia pipes (Bulagidun)
and disseminated mineralization controlled by
microlitic cavities in the causative intrusions,
representing ortho‐magmatic mineralization
(Matinan‐9). Drilling of the main breccia pipe has
demonstrated that the mineralization extends to
greater than 500m depth. The dominant
sulphides are chalcopyrite and pyrite (largely in
veinlets and breccia matrix). Molybdenite is
locally abundant, whereas bornite, galena and
sphalerite are rare. Gold is associated with
chalcopyrite and pyrite in solid solution or as
minute intergrowths.
Breccias are fragment supported with angular
fragments ranging in size from cm to 10s of m
with little or no rock flour matrix and no evidence
of hydrothermal streaming or fragmented milling.
The breccia void spaces are filled with coarse
grained, pegmatitic, hydrothermal minerals,
which have a remarkably consistent paragenesis
across the system, from earliest to latest;
magnetite (replaced by specularite in places),
apatite, biotite (partly replaced by chlorite),
molybdenite, quartz, tourmaline, chalcopyrite,
galena, pyrite, ankerite. A characteristic of the
Bulagidun district is the apparent lack of quartz
stockwork development associated with zones of
Cu‐Au mineralization. Preliminary fluid inclusion
studies show a wide range of homogenenization
temperatures (180oC to 700oC) and salinities,
suggesting multiple separate stages of
hydrothermal fluid and mixing between saline
magmatic and dilute meteoric fluids.
Quartz veins, partly sheeted, occur adjacent (up
to 500m lateral distance) to the mineralized
breccias. They are up to 2m thick and contain
minor sphalerite and galena. In excess of 10 g/t
Au was recorded in surface samples, but in drill
holes only 0.5 – 2 g/t Au was obtained. In some
places meter‐wide zones of abundant tourmaline
occur in close proximity.
A large tabular body of magnetite‐epidote‐
garnet‐pyrrhotite skarn (Matinan‐6) is found
within the propylitic zone, 2km to the NNW of
the central Cu‐Au zone at Bulagidun. It contains
patchy gold mineralization in native form.
4.1.1.3 Tapadaa district(Figure 8)
Discovered in 1971 by Endeavour Resources, the
district was investigated in some detail by
Kennecott between 1972 and 1974, including
1,222m of diamond drilling. Four small systems
were outlined (Tapadaa South, Central and
North, and Mogi Wapo), each containing
between 2 and 15 Mt @ 0.2‐0.4% Cu in primary
ore and a total of 20 Mt @ 0.6‐1.0% Cu in
supergene enriched ore (van Leeuwen, 1994). In
1994, Newcrest obtained a large COW area which
included the Tapadaa district. It undertook
regional to prospect scale surface work, which led
to the discovery of a fifth system, Tapadaa West.
The best result obtained was 252m of chip
sampling averaging 0.39% Cu and 0.13 g/t at
Tapadaa South.
Literature on the Tapadaa district inludes papers
by Lowder and Dow (1977; 1978) and a report by
PT Newcrest Nusa Sulawesi (1999).
The district geology consists of Miocene Bilungala
Volcanics, which are primarily andesitic to lithic
tuffs. They have been intruded by a series of
porphyritic diorite stocks and dykes on the
western margin of the Miocene Bone batholith.
These have been subdivided into pre‐mineral
weakly porphyritic diorites, syn‐mineral quartz
25
diorite plugs and quartz‐dacite porphyry dykes,
and post‐mineral andesite porphyry dykes.
Pleistocene Pinogu dacite tuffs (some with
mineralized clasts) unconformably overlie much
of the area, including part of the mineralization at
Tapadaa North and Central.
The Tapadaa prospects lie within a >90m ppm Cu
elliptical halo defined by stream sediment
sampling. Internal to this is a >4 ppm Mo halo,
that only includes Mogi Wapo. Plots of Cu and
Au in rock show small Au bull eyes (>0.1 ppm)
within larger Cu (>500 ppm) zones. At Tapadaa
West the largest Au anomaly measures
460mx400m. Porphyry mineralization appears
almost continuous from Tapadaa South through
to Tapadaa North, except where obscured by
post‐mineral Pinogu Volcanics over an area of
100‐300m by 3000m. Mogi Wapo measures
about 200mx1000m, and Tapadaa West has the
smallest exposure (200x400m). Mapping by
Newcrest has shown that the Tapadaa West
mineralization is hosted by the Bilungala
Volcanics, and not by diorite intrusive as thought
by previous explorers. This introduces the
possibility of a larger concealed intrusive‐hosted
system.
The porphyry prospects occur in a NW‐trending
structurally controlled blocks. Copper
mineralization is associated with early alteration
consisting predominantly of quartz‐chlorite‐
biotite‐anhydrite, and in areas of better grades
(0.2‐0.4%) also green sericite and albite together
with albite‐quartz and magnetite±quartz veinlets.
Two secondary biotite samples yielded K‐Ar ages
of 5 and 2.5 Ma. Sulphide contents (chalcopyrite,
bornite, pyrite) are typically low. Sulphides and
magnetite are present mostly as fracture infill,
and also as disseminations and in quartz veinlets.
There appears to be a positive correlation
between primary Cu grades and magnetite
concentrations.
The early alteration–mineralization assemblages
are overprinted by sericite+quartz or clay, quartz‐
sericite‐diaspore, and/or andalusite±pyrophyllite
assemblages. Corundum and specularite are
associated with high pyrite contents. Supergene
blankets, up to 30m thick, are locally developed
underlying of strongly leached pyritic zones in
advanced argillic rock.
4.1.1.4 Tombulilato district(Figure 9)
The Tombulilato district has been an exploration
teaser for many years. Following its discovery in
1971 by Endeavour Resources, Kennecott carried
out exploration between 1972 and 1975 which
led to the discovery of Cabang Kiri where 1,070m
of drilling outlined a resource of 24 Mt @ 0.7% Cu
and 0.75 g/t Au, Kayubulan Ridge with an
estimated resource potential of 200 Mt @ 0.5%
Cu and 0.35 g/t Au based on surface data only,
and Cabang Kanan. Following Kennecott’s
withdrawal in 1976, Endeavour drilled 6 holes at
Kayubulan Ridge, one of which intersected
significant mineralization. Between 1980 and
1982 Utah International embarked on a major
exploration programme involving 5 drilling rigs
and 2 helicopters. The three known deposits plus
a new discovery, Sungai Mak, were drill tested
(~1600m) outlining a combined resources of 296
Mt @ 0.57% Cu and 0.47 g/t Au. The original
Endeavour COW was terminated in 1986. Two
years later BHP entered into a JV with Antam
which obtained two so‐called super KPs over the
district. In 1991, a national park was declared
over the area and all work ceased. After a 2 year
exploration permit was obtained from the
Minister of Forestry in 1996 BHP embarked on a
heli‐borne magnetic survey, which identified a
number of anomalies, two of which appeared to
be associated with previously unknown porphyry‐
style mineralization, i.e. Gunung Lintah and West
Kayubulan Ridge. Because of uncertainties
pertaining to the national park and other reasons
BHP withdrew in late 1997. Recently the district
was excised from the park and exploration title
was awarded to Bumi Resources.
The Tombulilato district (Lowder and Dow, 1978;
Carlile and Kirkegaard, 1985; Carlile et al., 1990;
Perello, 1994; BHP Minerals Sulawesi, 1997) is
composed of a >3400m thick volcano‐
sedimentary sequence in which three main
stratigraphic units are recognized: i) Bilungala
Volcanics (Upper Miocene– base Pliocene)
divided into a Lower Member (tholeiitic basaltic
and spilitic volcanics), Middle Member
26
(alternating andesitic and felsic volcanics with
minor sedimentary intercalations), and Upper
Member (subaerial andesitic fragmental
volcanics); ii) Motomboto Volcanics (Upper
Pliocene), which consists of subaerial felsic to
intermediate volcanic rocks; iii) Pinogu Volcanics
(Pleistocene), characterized by poorly
consolidated, subaerial bimodal volcanics.The
sequence is intruded by strongly porphyritic
bodies of andesitic to dacitic composition, and
equigranular bodies of granodioritic to dioritic
composition. Field relationships and two whole
rocks K‐Ar ages of 2.35 and 2.05 Ma suggests a
Late Pliocene age for these intrusions. A foliated
granodiorite exposed in the NE part of the district
is probably Middle Miocene (or older).
The structure of the Tombulilato district is
characterized by northerly striking high‐angle
faults, normally a few metres wide and
containing tectonic breccias, high‐to‐moderate
angle normal faults showing an easterly trend
and of post‐mineralization origin, and common
low‐angle thrust faults, typically accommodated
by ductile sedimentary intercalations in the
Bilungala Volcanics and showing a random
orientation. All intrusive bodies postdate folding
and thrusting.
Five mineralized system have been identified
todate, i.e. Cabang Kiri, Sungai Mak, Kayubulan
Ridge, Cabang Kanan, and Gunung Lintah which
show both similarities and differences (Figure
10).
Mineralization at Cabang Kiri East is hosted by a
cylindrical multiple diorite porphyry stock
intruded in the Middle Member of the Bilungala
Volcanics. Syn‐mineralization breccias occur at
the intrusive‐wall rock contact. Post‐
mineralization breccias are also present. The
bulk of the mineralization occurs in intrusive
phases, with some hosted by volcanic wallrocks.
The deposit displays subhorizontal alteration
zonation, from top to bottom, clay‐sericite‐
alunite‐diaspore‐pyrite (30‐150m thick),
montmorillonite‐sericite‐pyrite (40‐60m),
chlorite‐actinolite (0‐60m), sericite‐silica‐
montmorillonite (0‐30m), and silica‐albite‐
sericite‐chlorite‐magnetite (>150m). The
alteration geometry may be the product of the
superimposition of several hypogene events
coupled with the effects of late‐mineralization
intrusions. Remnants of biotite‐bearing K‐silicate
alteration is present, which yielded a K‐Ar age of
2.93 Ma.
Mineralization at Cabang Kiri has been tested
over 400 vertical meters. It is associated with
moderate to strong quartz stockwork zones.
Increasing potassium feldspar and magnetite
alteration with numerous hairline magnetite‐
chalcopyrite‐bornite veinlets typify mineralization
at depth. There is a steady increase in Au values
going downward with a corresponding decrease
in Cu/Au ratios, from >1 at the top to <0.3 at
deeper levels, where gold grades average 2 g/t.
Drilling stopped in the best ore. Minor chalcocite
enrichment occurs at higher levels.The geological
resource at Cabang Kiri is 103mt @ 0.42% Cu and
0.43 g/t Au. A preliminary feasibility study
undertaken in 1982 suggested that the deposit
would be amenable to block‐cave mining.
At Sungai Mak, a sill‐like diorite porphyry body is
intruded in Lower Member Bilungala Volcanics.
Hydrothermal alteration is strongly telescoped
with quartz‐stockworked K‐silicate alteration
(quartz‐magnetite‐biotite) being overprinted by
intermediate argillic assemblages (sericite‐illite‐
chlorite), which in turn are oblitered by advanced
argillic alteration (vuggy silica, alunite, kaolinite,
minor native sulphur). Post‐mineralization
breccias cut the deposit.
At least two styles of mineralization are present:
i) hypogene, with variable supergene enrichment,
associated with the diorite intrusion, and ii)
supergene chalcocite in the upper levels, forming
an irregular blanket up to 176m thick. The
blanket consists of sooty chalcocite with minor
covellite and digenite, but pyrite is also common,
and chalcopyrite and bornite are present in
subordinate amounts. Chalcocite is present on
fractures and as disseminated grains, typically
coating sulphides. Supergene Cu mineralization
is developed best in intensely veined and
argillized intrusives with kaolinite and alunite as
the dominant alteration minerals. In general the
orebody is mushroom‐like shaped with a
27
geological resource of between 82 Mt @ 0.74%
Cu, 0.29 g/t Au and 159 Mt @ 0.69% Cu, 0.27 g/t
Au (depending on the search ratio). It is
amenable to open‐pit mining.
At Kayubulan Ridge, intrusion and host rock
composition are similar to those of Sungai Mak.
Much of the mineralization is associated with a
major pipe‐like breccia complex that surrounds a
weakly mineralized intrusion. Mineralization is
also similar to Sungai Mak in that the highest
copper grades (>1% Cu) are associated with
strongly developed quartz vein stockwork zones
at high levels. As at Cabang Kiri, remnants of
quartz‐magnetite‐biotite alteration are also
present. The geological resource was estimated
to be between 32 Mt @ 0.60% Cu, 0.33 g/t Au
and 92 Mt @ 0.60% Cu, 0.34 g/t Au.
Intrusions at Cabang Kanan occur as feldspar
porphyry dykes. Copper and gold mineralization
is hosted both by the dykes and hornfelsed
stockwork‐bearing wallrocks. Mineralized
intrusions display weak to moderate potassium‐
silicate alteration of the groundmass, numerous
hairline magnetite–K‐feldspar veinlets, and
chloritized hornblende. Only three holes have
been drilled with the best intercept being 138m
@ 0.5% Cu and 0.35 g/t Au.
Gunung Lintah, a relatively new discovery, is a
north eastern extension of Cabang Kanan. It is
characterized by a high magnetic anomaly wich
lies at the intersection of NW and NE trending
lineament. Detailed mapping and grid soil
sampling has identified a 400x400m zone of
quartz‐sericite‐clay‐chlorite alteration coinciding
with copper and gold soil anomalies. Drilling
intersected zones of sericitic alteration with
quartz stockworks and copper mineralization.
A number of gold‐bearing quartz‐veins are
present in the southern part of the Tombulilato
district, including at Kaidundu, Mamungaa,
Mootadaa, and Bilogantunga. These are believed
to represent distal manifestations of the
porphyry Cu‐Au cluster located further to the
north, and are classified as intrusion‐related base
metal‐Au veins (see 4.1.6). The veins are hosted
in regionally chloritized volcanics belonging to the
Upper Member Bilungala Volcanics, and
controlled by N to NE trending steeply dipping
faults. Single veins vary from 5cm to 3m in
thickness.
The best studied prospect is Kaidundu with a
total known length of 350m and an average
thickness of 2.5 to 3m. Quartz from the main
lode is both crystalline and chalcedonic,
displaying comb and cockade textures. A typical
feature is open vugs, up to several decimeters
across lined with coarse‐grained, terminated and
botryoidal quartz. Adularia is conspicuously
absent. Sulphides (<5 vol %) consist of pyrite and
chalcopyrite with subordinate galena, sphalerite,
and tetrahedrite‐tennantite. Au‐Ag tellurides are
also present. Free gold fills fractures in pyrite or
forms intergrowths with tellurides. Ag/Au ratios
are relatively low (0.23‐12.3). Gold values, up to
127 g/t, average around 33 g/t, and silver values,
up to 359 g/t, are erratic. Narrow vein envelopes
with wall rock fragments are dominated by illite
alteration. Primary, liquid‐rich inclusions in vug‐
filling quartz homogenize at temperatures
between 66 and 286 oC with salinities between
0.5‐0.8 wt % NaCl equiv. Primary vapor‐rich
inclusions show similar ranges (172‐324oC) and
average 0.2 wt % NaCl equiv.
4.1.1.5 Taware district
The Taware district is located at the southern end
of Sangihe island. Its geology and mineralization
have been briefly described by Carlile et al.
(1990) and Bautista et al. (1998).
Mineralization was first discovered in pan
concentrates in the Taware drainage in 1986.
The discovery was soon followed by a local gold
rush involving mining of both rich alluvials and
quartz veins. Drilling was undertaken during
1987‐1988 and 1994‐1997 by Muswellbrook
Energy and Minerals and Bre‐x respectively.
The area is underlain by andesitic volcanics,
including lapilli tuffs and lavas with minor
interbedded sediments, which are intruded by a
porphyritic microdiorite stock. The sequence is
of probable Miocene age. NW and NE structures
dominate. Intersection of these structures
28
probably controls the high level emplacement of
the microdiorite porphyry.
Porphyry‐style Cu‐Au mineralization is centred on
the microdiorite stock with peripheral auriferous
gold veins occurring within a radius of 2km. A 2.5
by 1.5km clay altered zone (clay‐silica‐
chlorite±pyrite) with some local structurally‐
controlled phyllic (silica‐clay‐pyrite) zones
characterize the surface alteration. It grades
downwards to biotite‐magnetite alteration. Cu‐
Au mineralization is hosted in diorite porphyry
and andesitic volcanics, occurring as pyrite and
chalcopyrite disseminations and stringer zones,
quartz‐chalcopyrite‐pyrite veinlets, and quartz‐
carbonate veins with pyrite and base metal
sulphides. Highest grade zones (0.47‐1.97 ppm
Au, 0.14%‐0.38% Cu) are largely confined to the
intrusive contact. Available evidence suggests
that the mineralized body is small (ca
200mx200m). Multiple intrusions are absent,
which may explain the low Cu tenor.
The peripheral mineralization appears to be
controlled by the NE‐trending fracture set. It
occurs in silica‐rich phyllic zones (Kupa, Sede and
Mou) and meso‐epithermal quartz veins
enveloped by silica‐clay alteration zones (Taware
Ridge and Kelapa). The latter are characterized
by massive to simple banded (dog‐tooth)
textured quartz, indicating a high temperature of
formation. Gold mineralization is hosted in
sheeted quartz veins and stockworks associated
with minor pyrite, arsenopyrite, galena,
sphalerite and sulphosalts. It appears to be
erratically distributed and is overall of low tenor.
However, in the oxidized zone supergene
enrichment has occurred, resulting in the
common presence of free gold.
4.1.1.6 Comments
The Pliocene porphyry systems are characterized
by strong development of advanced argillic
alteration, which locally may be associated with
ore grade mineralization. Lowder and Dow
(1978) suggest that this is related to the presence
of albite and montmorillonite instead of potash
feldspar, to the dioritic nature of the host rocks,
and to unusually acid ore fluids. Advanced argillic
alteration is absent in the Miocene porphyry
systems, which have similar host rocks and
commonly contain albite. A possible explanation
is that these systems have been eroded to a
deeper level (Lubis et al., 2011), either during or
after the latest Miocene tectonic event.
The Pliocene porphyry systems, especially the
ones in the Tombulilato district, are better
mineralized thanthe Miocene systems. Carlile and
Mitchell (1994) note that at Tombulilatodioritic
stocks intrude older basaltic and andesitic
volcanic rocks of Miocene age to levels just below
or just above an unconformity with overlying
Pliocene dacitic volcanics that are coeval with the
mineralized stocks. They point out that such a
relationship suggests that the generation of
(better mineralized) porphyry copper‐gold
systems may be dependent on the ascent of
magma to a high level, at or near the base of
eroding andesitic‐dacitic volcanoes, as proposed
by Sillitoe (1990).
Lowder and Dow (1978) observe that field
evidence indicates that the Tapadaa district is
more deeply eroded than the Tombulilato
district, which has exposed a shallow plutonic
environment where total sulphide contents and
metal grades are relatively low due to strong
fracture control on mineralization, erratic or
patchy nature of the hydrothermal system, and
dilution by younger intrusions. The intrusive
stocks at Tombulilato are interpreted to form
cupolas above Tapadaa‐type intrusions. This
interpretation is supported by the presence of
higher temperature minerals at Tapadaa with
respect to Tombulilato, i.e. albite instead of
montmorillonite, and andalusite or corundum
instead of pyrophyllite or diaspore. The high‐
level stocks at Tombulilato had a channeling and
concentrating effect on hydrothrmal circulation,
which at this higher structural level provided a
greater opportunity to mix with meteoric fluids
(Lowder and Dow, 1978).
A marked increase in Au/Cu ratios with depth
observed at Cabang Kiri has also been reported
from some other porphyry deposits in Indonesia,
e.g. Grasberg (Van Nort et al., 1991) and Batu
Hijau (Meldrum et al., 1994). More unusual is the
29
common presence of tourmaline at Bulagidun,
which is generally lacking in porphyry deposits in
the southwestern Pacific region, in marked
contrast to Cordilleran porphyry Cu deposits in
the western Americas. Bulagidun possibly
formed from magmas which incorporated more
subducted boron than is usual in the region or
the boron may have been extracted by magma or
fluid interaction with compositionally distinctive
island‐arc crust (Silltoe, 1994). Tourmaline is also
present at Masabo in Western Sulawesi and
Mamut in Sabah (see 4.2.1.3). In all three cases
associated intrusive rocks are relatively potassic
rich, which may suggest a possible connection.
4.1.2 High‐Sulphidation Epithermal Au‐Ag
Mineralization
Four significant high‐sulphidation (HS) epithermal
clusters are present in the Northern Sulawesi
Province, three in the North Arm (Motomboto,
Lanut and Bakan ) and the fourth on Sangihe
Island (Binabase‐Bawone).
4.1.2.1 Motomboto (Figure 11)
Mineralization in this area, which forms part of
the Tombulilato district (Figure 9) is represented
by a high‐sulphidation Lepanto style Cu‐Au
system, located 1.5km west of Sungai Mak,
consisting of three deposits (Motomboto East
and West, and Tulabolo). It was initially
identified by Kennecott in 1977 during follow‐up
stream sediment sampling in the Tombulilato
district, which led to an outcrop of silica‐pyrite
rock anomalous in Cu and Au was. Enargite‐type
mineralization was recognized by Utah geologists
in 1980 and followed up by BHP starting in 1984.
Between then and 1996, 8378m of drilling was
done with the best intersection obtained from
the last hole (51m @ 1.6% Cu, 11.2 g/t Au, 75.6
g/t Ag), which intersected a blind ore zone under
250m of post‐mineralization cover at the
Tulabolo prospect (BHP Minerals Sulawesi, 1997).
The Motomboto Cu‐Au‐Ag system has been
described by Perello (1994). It is located at the
contact between an Upper Pliocene hornblende
dacite porphyry, probably an endogenous dome,
and strongly altered volcanics. Parts of the
mineralized bodies and associated alteration are
buried by post‐mineralization Pinogu Volcanics,
which are up to 250m thick.
Mineralization at Motomboto, which has been
dated at 1.89 Ma (K‐Ar; alunite), is associated
with a multiphase hydrothermal breccia complex,
with a strike length of >4.5km and a width locally
exceeding 250m. A central zone of vuggy silica
with an average width of 150m is surrounded
progressively by zones of quartz‐alunite (0‐
120m), quartz‐kaolinite, and chlorite‐epidote‐
calcite. Several stages of brecciation and
silicification have affected the central zone.
Pyrite, enargite and luzonite are locally major
components (up to 15%), occurring a
disseminations or as vug fillings. Native sulphur is
locally present.
Ore‐grade Cu‐Au‐Ag mineralization is restricted
to the silicified cores, whereas the quartz‐alunite
and quartz‐kaolinite assemblages are
characterized by lower gold values, typically <1
ppm. Two main styles of mineralization have
been recognized: i) multiphase, sulphide‐
cemented breccias with significant Cu, Au, Ag,
and locally Zn, values; and ii) vuggy silica zones
with Au±Ag±Cu. The former style dominates at
Tulabolo. The breccias constitute linear features,
200m to 700m long. Typically, they contain clasts
of residual silica, fine‐grained pyrite‐enargite
intergrowths and earlier‐formed hydrothermal
breccias. These are cemented by several phases
of pyrite (earliest phase), galena, sphalerite,
enargite, luzonite, and marcasite. Covellite is an
important constituent. The second style of gold
mineralization occurs in irregular ledges of
residual silica and pervasively silicified rocks, and
is characterized by enargite, covellite, scorodite,
and limonite assemblages. The latter two
minerals developed by supergene oxidation of
copper sulfosalts and pyrite respectively.
4.1.2.2 Lanut district (I)
The Lanut district comprises a large hydrothermal
system, measuring 7x9km, which straddles a
major NW‐striking arc‐transverse strike‐slip fault
zone, 30km long and 4km wide, which has been
referred to as the Kotamobagu Shear Zone
30
(Surmont et al., 1994) or Inobonto Fault (Flindell,
2003). The district contains several styles of
mineralization (Figure 12) : 1) high‐sulphidation
epithermal Au, including the Riska and Effendi
deposits (discussed below), 2) intermediate
sulphidation epithermal Au, including Tobongan
and Lanut (4.1.3.3.), 3) porphyry Cu; and 4) an
active metal‐rich hot spring system.
Tobongan and Lanut were mined by the Dutch
during the early part of the 20th century. The
latter deposit became a significant local mining
area in the early 1980s. It was investigated by a
Placer Dome‐BHP‐Antam joint venture from 1986
to 1990, including 4560m of diamond drilling. In
1990, following the joint venture’s withdrawal
from the area, Newmont initiated a survey over a
large COW block that included the Lanut district.
A number of anomalous areas were identified.
Detailed investigations were undertaken
between 1998 and 2000, focusingon the Riska
and Effendi prospects, which involved 6332m of
diamond drilling. A total resource of 14.2 Mt @
1.5 g/t Au and 4.5 g/t Ag was outlined, well below
the company’s minimum target, and
consequently the property was divested to
Avocet. In the meantime Oropo (previously
Flinders Gold NL) investigated Lanut under an
agreement with a cooperative of local miners. It
withdrew in 2003 and Lanut became part of
Avocet’s holdings. This company focused its
activities initially on Riska, which was brought
into production in 2004, based on a resource of
about 600,000 oz. The same year a resource of
110,000 oz was outlined at Effendi.
The Kotamobagu Shear Zone cuts through a Late
Miocene sequence of shallow marine platform
limestone and calcareous, volcaniclastic
mudstone, siltstone and sandstone. This is
overlain by a Pliocene sequence of subaerial
pyroclastic rocks that includes andesitic to dacitic
crystal‐lithic tuff, tuff breccia and isolated
fluvially‐reworked volcanic sandstone and
siltstone. This is the dominant unit in the project
area and is informally known as the Lanut
Sequence. A series of diorite and dacite plugs
punctuate the Late Miocene‐Pliocene sequences.
Pleistocene‐Recent dacite ash‐crystal tuffs
blanket the northeastern margin of the fault zone
and cover a significant portion of the Lanut
district. They were erupted from the nearby
dormant Ambang volcano and post‐date
mineralization (Flindell, 2003).
The Riska deposit (Figure 13) has been described
by Nugroho et al. (2005).It is hosted by the Lanut
Sequence and consists of a mineralized body,
450m long 350m wide, that comprises mostly
silica–alunite assemblages. It has an EN – WSW
trend reflecting the initial structure that
controlled early and more widespread advanced
argillic alteration. The body is cross‐cut by
several narrow, 2‐8m wide, 100‐250m long,
vertically dipping, NNE to NS trending structurally
controlled hydrothermal breccias that served as
pathways for magmatic volatiles and the
subsequent main phase of alteration and gold
deposition.Riska is similar to most high
sulphidation deposits in that a core of vuggy,
massive silica and silica‐sulphide assemblages,
occurring along feeder structures, is enveloped
by silica‐alunite‐sulphidedicketepyrophyllite±
diaspore alteration that funnels out near the
surface and forms a broad alteration halo. The
silica‐alunite is in turn surrounded by kaolinite‐
illite to illite‐smectite assemblages.
The following sequence of events has been
recognized: i) early zoned vuggy silica, silica‐
alunite and intermediate argillic alteration along
ENE structures with fine grained pyrite and
enargite‐luzonite plus gold deposited along
feeder structures and favourable lithologies; Au
grades range from 0.5 to 2 g/t Au in the feeder
zones, and 0.1 to 0.5 g/t Au in the silica‐alunite
shell; ii) main event consisting of
hydrobrecciation and fracturing of the silica‐
alunite cap accompanied by alunite and gold
deposition along NNE to N‐S structures; sub‐
microscopic gold was deposited in pore spaces of
tuffs, structural – controlled breccias, and in
broader alunite >> silica altered wall rock with
grades of>10 g/t Au in the breccias, 1.0 to 5.0 g/t
Au in the peripheral hydrofractured zones, and
1.0 to 3.0 g/t Au in the outer, alunite‐rich shells;
and iii) intensive but structurally constrained
supergene oxidation and weathering.
31
Figure 11. Motomboto. (A) Simplified geology map; (B) Map showing
alteration zonation; (C) Cross section of simplified geology and alteration
zonation at Tulabelo and Motomboto East; legend alteration as in Figure 10 B
(modified after Perello, 1994)

32
Figure 12. Simplified geological map of Lanut district showing location of different styles of
mineralization (after Flindell, 2003)

Figure 13. Riska. (A) Alteration map; (B) Cross section (after Nugroho et al., 2005)

33
Petrographic studies indicate a very high
temperature gradient between the lower and
upper sections of Riska during the main events,
possibly due to the capping effect of the silica‐
alunite zone in the upper part of the deposit.
Isotopic characteristics of alunite material
indicate a strong magmatic input. A K‐Ar alunite
age of 2.09  0.08 Ma indicates that the main
event took place during the Late Pliocene.
High gold values in pitch limonite veins in the
oxide zone, the presence of native sulphur at
depth, and a broad increase in Au grades at the
oxide‐sulphide zone interface suggest supergene
leaching and reprecipitation of gold during the
later event.
In conclusion, Riska follows a similar evolutionary
pathway to most high sulphidation deposits, but
possess a unique feature in that the main
mineralization event is characterized by alunite
dominant alteration deposited along structures
that are of a different orientation than those that
controlled the early alteration phase.
4.1.2.3 Bakan district(Figure 14)
The Bakan district was initially identified during a
regional survey carried out by a Placer Dome‐
BHP–Antam team in the late 1980s as a broad
zone of scattered Au‐Ag‐Pb‐Zn‐(Cu) stream
sediment anomalies associated with vuggy silica
alteration. These were followed up by Newmont
in 1995, which led to the discovery of several sub‐
cropping silica ledges. Detailed investigations
(mapping, soil and trench sampling, and various
geophysical surveys) resulted in the identification
of nine mineralized sites. Between 1996 and
1998 five of these were drill tested (17 holes
totaling 2008m). Although several significant
gold mineralization intervals were intersected
Newmont decided to shift its activities to the
Lanut district as Bakan’s perceived potential did
not meet its corporate objectives.
Avocet acquired the tenement in 2002 and
following the commencement of developing the
Riska Mine in North Lanut, began exploration in
the Bakan district targeting a similar style of
mineralization, i.e. oxide high‐sulphidation gold.
The company’s programme consisted of two
phases, target generation and resource
definition. By 2007 a small high grade Au
resource was outlined at the Osela prospect and
a larger resource, but with lower grade, at the
Durian prospect, totaling 16.87 Mt @ 0.96 g/t Au.
A comprehensive discussion of Bakan’s discovery
and exploration history is presented by Harjana
and Sweeney (2011). Their report forms the basis
of the following summary of the district’s geology
and mineralization.
The geology consists of a thick sequence of
Middle to Upper Miocene marine to submarine
sedimentary rocks that is overlain and/or
interfingers with andesitic lava flows. These
rocks are intruded by stocks and dykes of diorite.
Unconformably overlying the Miocene basement
is the informally named Bakan Sequence that
consists of a series of Plio‐Pleistocene subaerial
dacitic pyroclastic rocks and coeval dacitic stocks
or domes. During the waning stage of the felsic
volcanism, diatreme and hydrothermal breccias
were emplaced and the dacitic rocks were
reworked. Renewed volcanism during the
Pleistocene to early Recent times resulted in the
formation of tuffaceous laharic breccias and
debris slide breccias. Continued uplift of the
district in recent times led to the development of
raised alluvial gravels, outwash fans and
extensive slope rubble.
The structure of the district is dominated by a
conjugate set of NW‐SE and NNE‐SSW faults with
sub‐vertical dips. These constituted the main
channelways for the hydrothermal fluids. High
sulphidation alteration assemblages hosted by
structures of different orientation form zones
that coalesce into a large area at Bakan,
measuring 2.5x3.5km. Structurally controlled
vuggy silica cores grade outwards into silica‐
alunite, kaolinite‐alunite, and illite‐smectite
alteration assemblages.
Disseminated gold and silver mineralization is
largely restricted to the silica core zones in the
upper parts of the alteration system, where it is
associated with pyrite, whereas enargite and
covellite are found at depths in some of the
prospects. The NNE‐SSW structures, which
34
control mineralization at Durian and Osela,
appear to host higher grade, especially where
intersected by NW‐SE faults, and at Osela also,
where the structure bends to the northeast at its
northern end, possibly reflecting a dilational
zone. At Osela, gold appears to have been added
by a later phase of chalcedonic veining and
extremely fine‐grained quartz deposition typical
of intermediate‐ and low‐sulphidation epithermal
styles. Gold enrichment has also occurred by
supergene processes, as evidenced by the
presence of gold in vugs and cavities in
association with goethite, limonite and
supergene clays.
4.1.2.4 Bawone‐Binabase district
The Bawone and Binabase deposits are located in
the southern part of Sangihe Island. The first
record of mineral exploration on the island dates
back to 1987 when Muswellbrook undertook
reconnaissance exploration in the southern part.
This resulted in the discovery of Au‐, Ag‐ and Ba‐
bearing rock float on the coast at Binabase.
Results of extensive soil and outcrop sampling
and limited geophysical survey were used to
develop drill targets. A 5000m diamond drilling
programme was completed between 1989 and
1993, which mainly tested targets at Binabase
and Bawone, and to a lesser extent, at Salurang.
This work led to the discovery of gold
mineralization at Binabase and Bawone. Ashton
Mining Ltd, which had taken over the property
from Muswellbrook in 1990, relinquished the
area in 1994. Limited trenching was undertaken
by an Indonesian company in 2006. The
following year East Asia Mineral Corporation
commenced drilling at Bawone and Binabase, in
part testing anomalies identified from an IP
dipole‐dipole survey. The two deposits are
estimated to contain a total inferred resource of
oxide material of 11.3 Mt with a grade of 1.27 g/t
Au and 20.23 g/t Ag. In addition Bawone
contains about 6 Mt of sulphide material grading
1.12 g/t Au and 0.97 g/t Ag, and Binabase 10 Mt
with a grade of 0.49 g/t Au and 13.60 g/t Ag.
Descriptions of the geology and mineralization
Binabase and Bawone have been provided by
Swift and Alwan (1990), Corbett and Leach
(1998), Bautista et al. (1998), Williams‐Jones
(2008), Wisanggono et al (2011), and Sangihe
Gold Corporation (2011).
Sangihe Island is composed of volcanic rocks
erupted from at least four volcanic centres, which
became progressively younger in a N‐NW
direction. These centres include the active Awu
volcano in the north of the island, the Tahuna
caldera immediately to the south of Awu, the
extinct Tamako volcano in the centre of the
island, and the deeply eroded Taware volcanic
centre in the south. The Binabase and Bawone
prospects are located immediately to the east of
Tamako. Prominent east‐trending structures
dissect the area between the volcanoes. Other
major lineaments trend northwest and northeast.
The oldest rocks in the Binabase‐Bawone arc are
andesitic pyroclastics (Binabase Group), which
are the main host to alteration and gold
mineralization. They are intruded by dykes and
high level‐stocks of porphyritic andesite and
dacite domes. Polymitic breccia intruded the
older units and consists of similar material. The
youngest lithological units are unconformably
overlying basaltic andesite flows and
volcaniclastic rocks derived from the Tamako
volcano (Tamako Group) and epiclastic and
marine sedimentary rocks of the
penecontamporaneous Pintareng Formation. The
presence of Stegadon fossils in the Pintareng
formation indicates a Late Pliocene (2 Ma) to Late
Pleistocene age. The young unitscontain
fragments of hyddrothermally altered volcanic
rocks, including silica‐pyrite material.
NNE‐NE trending structures transect southern
Sangihe island and control regional alteration
pattern. In the Bawone‐Binabase area, a NNW
trending structural corridor is defined by
magnetic lineaments. Its subdued topographic
expression suggests it may be a graben‐like
feature. Mineralization is localized where it
intersects the through‐going NE structures.
At Binabase, four ENE to NE striking zones of gold
mineralization have been identified with a
combined overall dimension of 900m x 425m.
Both oxide and sulphide types of gold
35
Figure 14. Map of Bakan district showing alteration zonation, structures and prospect locations (after
Hardjana and Sweeney, 2011)

Figure 15. Schematic cross section through the Binabase deposit (after Sangihe Gold Corporation, 2011)

36
Figure 16. Bawone‐Binabase, structural setting and fluid flow model (after Corbett and Leach, 1998)

Figure 17. Simplified geological map of Gunung Pani district showing prospect locations (after Newcrest
Nusa Sulawesi, 1999)

37
mineralization are present. The oxide zone is up
to 60m thick, with an abrupt transition to
sulphide mineralization. Gold grades commonly
exceed 1 g/t. Supergene enrichment played an
important role in producing economic precious
metal grades. Silver grades increase significantly
toward the base of oxidation. At a deeper level,
the mineralization is closely associated with
pervasive silica‐pyrite‐barite alteration zones and
brecciation. The breccias consist of +10mm
quartz±barite‐rich clasts, pyrite grains and
chalcocite‐bearing patches set in a predominantly
fine‐grained quartz groundmass. Common
cavities, vugs and veinlets locally contain traces
of chalcopyrite. In places appreciable amounts of
Cu, Pb, Zn and Ag are present within, or adjacent
to, the zones of gold mineralization. The main
gold zone is interpreted to occur as a vertical to
sub‐vertical body that flares in the upper levels
where oxidation is most intensely developed
(Figure 15).
At Bawone, the gold mineralization is interpreted
to occur as a vertical to steeply dipping tabular
body which trends in a NW direction over a strike
distance of 300m and has a maximum width of
around 75m. It is hosted within breccia zones in
pyrite‐alunite‐quartz‐barite altered rocks.
Angular to sub‐angular quartz and sulphide‐rich
clasts are embedded in a grey to greenish‐grey
groundmass. Pyrite is the most abundant
alteration mineral followed by quartz, clay, barite
and marcasite. Massive pyrite is cut by thin
barite‐enargite‐pyrite veins. Alunite has been
confirmed by XRD analyses. Significant amounts
of copper are associated with gold‐rich intervals,
and Zn, Pb, As and Ag are moderately anomalous.
Copper minerals include chalcopyrite, covellite
and enargite. Sphalerite is generally Fe poor as
indicated by its light yellowish colour. The main
mineralized body appears to be zoned with
stockworks and breccias surrounded by selvages
of clay±silica±pyrite±barite alteration. Wall rock
alteration around a nearby diorite porphyry stock
consists of a 2.5km x 1.5km zone of clay‐silica‐
chlorite‐pyrite with some local structurally‐
controlled clay‐silica‐pyrite and K‐feldspar‐
quartz‐sericite‐pyrite‐biotite assemblages in
areas of quartz‐ chalcopyrite‐pyrite veining.
Early workers, who noted at Binabase the
common presence of gypsum and barite
(implying a major seawater component to the
hydrothermal fluids), a strong stratabound
control, and the very fine nature of the sulphides
with colloform and framboidal textures(
indicating rapid deposition), tentatively
interpreted the mineralization to have been
deposited from volcanic‐related seafloor
hydrothermal exhalations (Swift and Alwan,
1990; Garwin, 1990). Carlile and Mitchell (1994)
drew a comparison with the VMS deposits on
Wetar Island, noting that both appeared to have
a high‐sulphidation component. Corbett and
Leach (1998) and the geological staff of East Asia
Minerals subsequently proposed a high‐
sulphidation epithermal origin for the
mineralization on the grounds that pyrite is
largely secondary in origin, alunite and kaolinite
are important alteration minerals, and high gold
grades are associated with the occurrence of
enargite.
Detailed core logging at Bawone by Williams‐
Jones (2008)hasshown that in gold‐enriched
zones fine‐grained crystal tuff isreplaced by very
fine‐grained pyrite and minor to subordinate
silica, varying from incipient pyritization along
fractures to complete replacement of the tuff by
pyrite‐quartz assemblages. This alteration was
followed by fracturing and brecciation, partial
infilling of the remaining open spaces by barite‐
pyrite‐enargite assemblages, and the formation
of veins up to 0.5cm thick, containing the same
mineral assemblages. In only partly pyritized
rocks, crystal fragments, and commonly also
groundmass, have been partially replaced by
kaolinite and alunite. The fact that pervasively
pyritized rock devoid of later brassy pyrite and
barite‐enargite‐pyrite generally contains >1 g/t
Au suggests that much of the gold mineralization
was early. However, the coincidence of high gold
grades in intervals with barite‐enargite‐pyrite in
pores and veins impliesthat there was also
significant introduction of gold late in the
evolution of the hydrothermal system. The gold is
either in the structure of the pyrite or as
nanoparticles that are not visible under a high
power electron microscope (Williams‐Jones,
written comm., 2011).
38

Wisanggono et al. (2011) note two phases of
barite fracture filling crosscutting silica‐sulphide
alteration. Barite is typically massive to weakly
crystalline in the early phase and accompanied by
light coloured spalerite, galena and minor
chalcopyrite, whereas the later phase is coarse
crystalline and lacks base metal sulphides.
Decreasing amounts of barite fracture fill with
depth support a seawater source.
The primary sulphide‐gold mineralization and
alteration at Binabase are quite similar to those
observed at Bawone, with the main difference
being that the former deposit contains
considerably more silica. This indicates that both
deposits owe their origin in large part to the
same hydrothermal processes (Williams‐Jones,
2008), an interpretation that is consistent with
the model proposed by Corbett and Leach (1998).
These authors infer a magmatic source for the
high sulphidation system localized on the margin
of a NNW graben by the intersection of through‐
going NNE structures, and dilation of ESE
structures by sinistral rotation on NNW structure
(Figure 16). Fluid up‐flow was centred on
Bawone with hot magmatic fluids having been
derived from the vicinity of a nearby diatreme
breccia. The fluids flowed laterally along dilatant
structures to the northwest (Binabase) and
southeast (Salurang). The model explains the
declining metal grades and alteration intensity
from upflow to outflow. Mineral assemblages
also indicate a distal relationship of Salurang to
Bawone, while Binabase is marginal to the fluid
upflow zone (Bautista et al., 1998). The local
sharp contacts between residual silica, silica‐
alunite and peripheral clay alteration are
indicative of a high level setting/distal
relationship to the inferred magmatic source.
The abundant gypsum and barite suggest that
incursion of seawater could have occurred,
possibly from the NW. A seawater source is
supported by the decrease in the amount of
barite fill with depth (Wisenggoro et al., 2011).
In a recent paper Wisanggono et al. (2011)
suggest that the mineralization is not of high‐
sulphidation origin, but more characteristic of
low/intermediate‐sulphidation epithermal
mineralization for the following two reasons: i)
the alunite is supergene in nature, and ii) the
“vuggy” silica is not a residual primary product,
but rather represents oxidized boxwork remnants
of silica‐pyrite altered breccia. They suggest that
the interaction of seawater with possibly weakly
acid fluids may have had a buffering effect. This
interpretation is not shared by A. Williams‐Jones
(written comm., 2011) who comments: “The
alunite is clearly hypogene and intimately
associated with auriferous pyrite, and our
evaluation of changes in bulk rock chemistry
shows clearly that silica was leached during
hypogene alteration, consistent with the
presence of vuggy silica”.
4.1.2.5 Comments
Corbett and Leach (1998) categorize high‐
sulphidation (HS) systems as:
 Porphyry‐related
 Lithological controlled
 Structurally controlled
The latter two categories are end‐members of a
continuum with many systems displaying a
combination or variation between these two
elements.
A typical example of a porphyry‐related system is
the high sulphidation alteration‐mineralization at
Cabang Kiri. It shows a style of alteration that is
indicative of progressive cooling and decrease in
fluid pH away from the porphyry intrusion. It is
initially dominated by andalusite, than
pyrophyllite+diaspore, and most distally,
alunite+kaolinite. Significant Cu‐Au
mineralization occurs in andalusite‐pyrophyllite
zones, but does not extend out into the alunite‐
bearing assemblages (Lowder and Dow, 1978).
Motomboto can be classified as a structurally
controlled system. Alteration and mineralization
are apparently controlled by rift faults parallel to
the Neogene arc (Kavalieris et al., 1992). Based
on the limited information available the Bakan
deposits are probably also dominantly
structurally controlled. Riska and Binabase‐
Bawone display aspects of both lithological and
39
structural control. Structural control is provided
by dilatent structures and lithological control by
permeable rock units such as pyroclastics.
Hydrothermal breccias appear to be a common
feature, and diatremes have been reported from
Motomboto and Binabase‐Bawone.
A (spatial) association of high‐sulphidation
deposits with porphyry copper systems has been
commonly observed (e.g. Sillitoe, 1983) and in
recent years a genetic connection has been more
firmly established (e.g. Heinrichs et al., 2004). In
the case of the Northern Sulawesi HS systems,
such association is most obvious at Cabang Kiri.
Motomboto displays a clear spatial relationship
to a porphyry copper system, 1.5 km east at
Sungai Mak. Similar ages shared by the two
systems suggest that they may be also genetically
related. Alternatively, a blind porphyry Cu body
may be present at depth. Perello (1994)
proposes a model whereby one or more
hydrothermal systems developed around several
quartz diorite porphyry stocks, about 3 Ma ago,
which was accompanied by porphyry Cu‐Au
mineralization. Following collapse of the
hydrothermal system(s), ca 2.35‐2.00 Ma,
enargite‐bearing Cu‐Au‐Ag formedaround 1.9 Ma
at Motomboto. Weak porphyry Cu
mineralization/alteration has also been observed
in the other three HS epithermal Au districts, but
its relationship to the HS mineralization is
unclear.
Corbett an Leach (1998) note that HS systems in
the southwest Pacific are generally remarkably
low in silver, unlike those in the eastern Pacific.
Motomboto appears to be an exception (Table
4). The authors also note that in most HS
systems copper‐gold mineralization post‐dates
the formation of silica‐alunite‐clay alteration. At
Motomboto, the timing and location of the gold
dposition is known only poorly. At least one
phase of enargite‐luzonite mineralization
posesses a good correlation between Cu and Au,
but EDS scanning failed to detect gold in the
copper minerals, pyrite and marcasite; limited
metallurgical test work suggests it may be free
(Perello, 1994). As we have seen, at Riska the
main gold mineralizing event post‐dates
enargite‐luzonite depsition, and is accompanied
by alunite. For Binabase‐Bawone two scenarios
have been proposed: the main gold mineralizing
event is early (Williams‐Jones, 2008; see above)
or took place during a later phase of silica, pyrite
and minor chalcopyrite deposition (Wisenggoro
et al., 2011).
4.1.3 Intermediate‐Sulphidation Epithermal Au‐
Ag Mineralization
The category of intermediate‐sulphidation (IS)
epithermal Au‐Ag mineralization is well
represented and includes (bonanza‐style) vein
systems (e.g. Bolangitang, Lanut) associated, at
least spatially, with andesiticdacitic volcanics,
and mineralization related to felsic volcanic
dome‐diatreme complexes (G.Pani and
Tototopo). Mineralization styles include
stockwork, disseminated, vein and breccia‐hosted
gold mineralization. Veins and stockworks
consist of commonly colloform banded quartz 
adularia  carbonate. Most vein systems have
very low sulphide and base metal contents (e.g.
Bolangitang and Lanut), whereas a few carry a
higher sulphide and base metal content (e.g.
Doup) (Carlile et al., 1990; van Leeuwen, 1994).
Pearson an Caira (1997) note numerous mineral
occurrences hosted by hydrothermal breccias,
which are commonly associated with rhyodacite‐
dacite intrusions and contain gold and/or base
metals. They occur in six ENE‐trending
mineralized corridors that are defined by Plio‐
Pleistocene regional dilatant zones. The authors
recognize two metal associations: Cu‐Pb‐Zn and
As‐Sb‐Pb‐Zn‐Mo, characterized by chalcopyrite‐
covellite‐galena sphalerite and tetrahedrite‐
tennantite‐molybdenite assemblages
respectively. The breccias commonly occur in the
unconformity zone between Pliocene subaerial
felsic volcanics and Miocene andesite‐diorite
basement. The unconformity has provided a
reservoir for groundwaters, which have been
superheated by high level felsic intrusions and
mixed with magmatic fluids, forming extensive
argillic and advanced argillic alteration zones.The
breccias are common along volatile‐rich
apophyses and margins of larger Pliocene felsic
intrusive bodies (e.g. Buata).
40
 Table 4 Selected features characteristics of Au‐Ag systems in Northern Sulawesi – examples

Deposit Class Deposit Style Host Rocks Ag/Au Metal Signature Age (Ma) Resource Mineralogy Alteration
Name ratio
Bawone ‐ high‐ qtz‐py‐ba andesitic tuff & tuff 1:1 Au, Ag, Cu ? Pliocene 27.3 Mt @ 0.95 py – (cp‐cov‐en‐ al‐kao‐ba‐py
Binabase sulphid. bx; ba‐en vns breccia g/t Au, 13.6 g/t sph); Au in pyrite
Ag lattice
Bolangitang interm‐ qtz‐carb vn subvolcanic andesite 8:1 Au, Ag Pliocene 4 Mt @ 2.72 g/t Au as electrum qtz‐ill‐ad; chl‐
sulphid. Cu, Pb, Zn Au, 21 g/t Ag minor py& BM epi‐py
Doup interm‐ qtz‐carb‐sulphvns; qtz diorite, sed rocks 2:1 Au, Ag, As ≤ M Miocene 17 Mt @ 2.15 g/t py‐ga‐sph‐(cpy) ser‐ill‐carb‐ad
sulphid. replacement Cu, Pb, Zn Au
Gunung Pani interm‐ qtzvns, dissem, rhyodacitevolcanics; <1 Au, As, Sb Pliocene ~3.2 9.9 Mt @ 1.57 g/t Au as electrum & 1) qtz±ad±ser
sulphid. fractures, bx dome‐diatreme complex (HR) Au native form in py 2) chl‐ser
Lanut interm‐ qtzstwk; fracture interbeddedvolcanics&se Au (Ag, Cu, Pb) ≤ M Miocene 19 Mt @ 1.8 g/t Free Au minor py, 1) qtz‐ad‐ill
sulphid. dissm, bx dimentary rocks Au cpy, bo 2) chl‐ill‐py
Mesel sediment‐ replacement; minor limestone, jasperiod <0.5 Au, As, Sb, Hg, ≤ M Miocene 8.8 Mt @ 7.10 g/t py, aspy, marc
hosted qtzvns rocks Tl Au (pre mining)
Motomboto high‐ hydroth, bx, vns andesitic volcanics 25:1 Au, Ag, Cu, As Pliocene 3.5 Mt @ 1.5% py‐en‐luz, native 1) qtz‐al‐py
sulphid. 0.84‐1.89 (al) Cu, 4.0 g/t Au Au 2) kao‐chl
Paleleh intrusion‐ qtzvns&bx zones diorite & andesite 1:1 Au, Ag, Pb, Zn Late Miocene 1 Mt @ 6.2 g/t py‐po‐ga‐(cpy‐ qtz‐ill‐chl
related volcanics Au, 5 g/t Ag (pre sph)
BM – Au mining)
Riska high‐ hydrothermalbx; andesitic pyroclastics 3:1 Au, Ag, Cu Pliocene 1 Mt @ 1.5 g/t Au yy‐en‐luz qtz‐al‐(dick‐
sulphid. fractures, dissem (pre mining) pyroph‐diasp)
Tanoyan interm‐ qtz‐chaldvns andesiticbx/aggl. 1:1 Au, Ag, (Cu) ? Pliocene 2.2 Mt @ 1.3 g/t py – (cpy) qtz‐clay
sulphid. Au
Toka Tindung low‐ qtz‐chald‐ad stk, andesitic volcaniclastics 2:1 Au, As, Sb, Hg, Pliocene 15.5 Mt @ 3.4 g/t Au as electrum & qtz‐ad‐chl‐ill
sulphid. vns Mo 1.7‐2.7 (HR) Au, 8 g/t Ag (all native form; Ag‐
1.8‐2.2 (ad) deposits) Se sulphides, py
Tototopo interm‐ Qtz rhyodacitevolc; dome‐ Au, As, Sb, (Pb) Pliocene 5.4 Mt @ 3 g/t Au Au as electrum & qtz‐ad‐ill‐py
West sulphid. diatreme complex native form; py‐
(aspy‐stib‐sph‐ga)
Source: van Leeuwen and Pieters (2011)
Abbreviations: see Table 3
41
4.1.3.1 Gunung Pani district(Figure 17)
The Pani district, located 120km west of
Gorontalo and 10km inland from the southern
coast of the North arm, covers a 120km2 area and
encompasses 11 separate prospect areas. It is
defined by a >0.19 g/t Au in ‐80# stream
sediment anomaly that follows an E‐W axis
coincident with a major arc parallel structure (PT
Newcrest Nusa Sulawesi, 1999). The centre of
the district is occupied by the Pani Ridge
prospect.
As mentioned earlier the district has a long
history of gold exploration and mining activity
(alluvial and hard rock), starting around the turn
of the 18th century. Sampling of old Dutch
underground workings by Newmont in 1967‐1969
yielded Au values in the 1.2 to 13.4 g/t range.
Between 1973 and 1993 systematic exploration
was undertaken in the district by Endeavour
Resources, Kennecott, Utah and BHP, which
included surface sampling, drilling and the
excavation of 3 adits. BHP calculated a resource
of 6Mt @ 2.3 g/t Au. In 1994, mining rights were
granted to a local cooperation (KUD) over the
central part of the area (Pani Ridge). Two years
later the KUD signed a technical cooperation with
PT Pertiwi Nusa Mega, which in turn entered into
a JV agreement with Paramount Ventures and
Finance, and in 1998 with Azure Resources,
subsequently re‐named Pencari Mining
Corporation. The property was acquired by Pan
Asia Resources (recently renamed One Asia
Resources) in 2009. A forestry permit was
recently obtained and drilling is expected to
commence in late 2011.
In the meantime, the area surrounding the KUD
became part of Newcrest’s COW. Between 1992
and 1999, when it withdrew from Indonesia, the
company carried out an aeromagnetic/
radiometric survey, regional stream sediment
sampling and detailed follow‐up work, which
outlined 15 prospects, 6 of which were drill
tested. The area was subsequently taken over by
Avocet in 2007, but the company did not carry
out any work. (In 2011 Avocet sold its properties
in Northern Sulawesi to JSM).
The geology and mineralization of the Pani
district have been discussed by Kavalieris (1984),
Kavalieris et al. (1984;1990), Newcrest Nusa
Sulawesi (1999), Pearson and Caira (1999),
Walters (1999) and Pooley (2004).
The Pani district is composed of a rhyodacitic
diatreme and flow dome complex of Pliocene
age, measuring 6kmx15km, which represents an
eroded volcanic edifice emplaced on a Miocene
dioritic and granodioritic basement. It is located
in the southeast quadrant of a large caldera
structure. Early dacitic dykes show a strong NE
orientation. Extensive development of intrusive
breccia bodies occurred along with syn‐or post‐
mineral intrusive rhyodacite domes.
The district is bounded by NW‐trending right‐
lateral strike‐slip faults, about 60km long, which
may have resulted from the collision of the
Northern Sulawesi arc with the continental edge
or fragments of the Australian Plate during the
Miocene‐Pliocene. These NW structures control
the distribution of the Pliocene rhyodacitic
volcanics at the southern portion of the district.
However secondary conjugate NNE and WNW
tensional structures appear to effect the
localization of the intrusive‐hosted and vein‐style
mineralization. The Gunung Pani Dome complex
was emplaced at the intersection of these two
fault trends. It is surrounded by three late dome
complexes and associated fragmental volcanics.
The volcanic stratigraphy of the area consists of a
porphyritic rhyodacite lava dome and coeval
interbedded pyroclastic breccias and tuff. Three
main rock units have been recognized: i)
polymict breccias, which represent the oldest
unit, showing textural features that suggest
explosive fragmentation in a central vent
environment; ii) rhyodacitic lapilli tuff, which is
the most widespread unit covering mostly the
flanks of the dome ridges; and iii) porphyritic
rhyodacite, believed to represent apophyses
from a shallow endogenous lava dome.
Three main alteration assemblages have been
mapped at Pani Ridge: i)
silicaadulariasericite/illite (silicification); ii)
42
sericite/illitesilicasenderite (argillization), and
iii) chlorite sericite/illitepyrite (chloritization).
Silicification is characterized by pervasive silica
replacement of the rhyodacite groundmass, and
locally as quartz overgrowths of fractured
phenocrysts and recrystallization of fractured
phenocrysts. Primatic quartzadularia fills open
spaces in fractures and vugs. Argillic alteration is
pervasive in pyroclastic units and reflects the
increasing invasion of meteoric fluids in the
hydrothermal system as the rhyodacite ascended
towards the near surface. Chloritization is the
earliest alteration event following alkali
metasomatism that accompanied crystallization
and cooling of the rhyodacite lava. It is
commonly present in the core of the dome
complex.
Gold mineralization at Pani Ridge is hosted by
silica‐sericite altered porphyritic rhyodacite and
associated pyroclastics as fracture and breccia
fillings, quartz‐adularia‐limonite veins, and as
disseminations in permeable volcanic rocks and
at contacts. Gold occurs as electrum as late rims
on or intergrowths with pyrite. In the oxidized
zone, pyrite is altered to limonite, and supergene
gold occurs in fractures and drusy veins.
Significant supergene enrichment has taken
place. The mineralized zone is >1000m long and
about 400m wide, following the general outcrop
patterns of the porphyritic rhyodacite and the
dominant structural trends.
The gold mineralization is controlled by WNW
extensional fractures and along NNE millimeter
wide, but closely‐spaced fractures. Lithological
control is shown by pyrite‐limonite fillings in
vugs, quartz‐adularia along fractured wall rocks
on the margins of silicified rhyodacite, and in the
matrix of hydrothermal breccias and permeable
volcanic rocks. The pyroclastic and rhyodacite
intrusive contacts also exert strong lithological
control on the mineralization, probably because
of hydrofracturing along the margins due to
escaping fluids from the intrusive. The primary
control of mineralization at Pani Ridge is a NNE
trend, with a series of silicified and non‐silicified
flow banded units that have a shallow westerly
dip away from the ridge. Intersection with three
NW‐trending structural zones crossing Pani Ridge
may control the location of high grade shoots.
Recent interpretations as a result of new 3D
geological modeling indicate the possibility of
stacked sheets of mineralization.
On a district‐wide scale mineralization and
alteration are associated with a wide, late crackle
breccia and fracture event that commonly hosts
drusy quartz‐lined cavities, they occur in zones of
strong structural control, such as around the
margins of diatremes and along through‐going
faults. Quartz‐illite alteration is pervasive with
broad haloes of adularia. The Au‐Ag epithermal
adularia‐sericite system is transitional at depth
into a base metal‐carbonate system. Late domes
are fresh or display only weak alteration.
Gold occurrences can be disseminated or occur in
facture and vein stockworks, micro‐veining, and
traction breccias. High grades are focused in
hydrothermal breccias, shears, quartz veins, and
where rhyodacite dykes cut basement. Broad,
low‐grade drill intersections of gold
mineralization are found in porphyritic rocks near
the margins of diatreme bodies and their
concentric ring fractures. The Pani Ridge deposit
occurs within big blocks of rhyodacite hosted
within the large central diatreme. The phreatic
breccias themselves are poorly mineralized,
probably because their high clay content has
rendered them virtually impermeable.
Strongly anomalous antimony coincides with high
gold. Elevated base metal values occur in
basement rocks, in deeper epithermal levels
within the rhyodacite, and in carbonate veins.
There is a zonation from higher base metals in
the NW to high Sb and As in the south and east.
4.1.3.2 Tototopo district(Figure 18)
The area is located 55km west of Gorontalo and
measures 13km x 8km. It was explored by New
Hope between 1987 and 1991. Their work
located narrow, low‐grade NE‐trending quartz
veins in the upper part of the Tototopo drainage
(Lalunga and Motebo prospects). Newcrest re‐
assessed the district between 1994 and 1996,
recognizing that it is underlain by a felsic caldera
43
complex. The work was concentrated on the
Motebo and Lalunga prospects where 14 holes
(2427m) were drilled with as best intercept 86m
@ 0.6 g/t. Subsequent more detailed mapping at
Tototopo West in 1996 identified narrow Au‐
bearing quartz‐adularia veins. A 9 holes (3021 m)
scout drilling program was undertaken in 1998 to
test the depth extensions of the veins and the
presence of conceptual large tonnage
unconformity‐related disseminated gold
mineralization similar to the McDonald gold
deposit in Montana, USA. Further work was
carried out, including an IP/resistivity survey to
define follow‐up drilling targets. Soon afterwards
Newcrest withdrew from Sulawesi. Renewed
exploration was undertaken by Avocet in 2007/8,
which outlined an Inferred Mineral Resource of
5.4 Mt @ 3 g/t Au at the Bundulipu prospect.
The following summary of the geology and
mineralization of the Tototopo district is largely
based on reports by PT Newcrest Nusa Sulawesi
(1999), Pearson and Caira (1999), Santos et al.
(1999), and Budiman and Hardjana (2011).
The Tototopo district is centred on a dacite
volcanic complex considered to be
contemporaneous with the Early Pliocene Pani
Volcanics. It unconformably overlies a Miocene
basement consisting of andesitic volcanics
intruded by a polyphasal batholith (granodiorite‐
quartzdiorite‐diorite), which contains earlier
porphyry Cu‐Au‐Mo style mineralization. The
dacitic volcanics include subaerial pyroclastics
and lavas and are accompanied by epiclastics.
The sequence is intruded by high level rhyodacite
dykes and stocks and cut by associated diatreme
breccias. Surface outflow from the volcanic
system deposited sinters. These are closely
associated with lacustrine sediments, which are
strongly silicified (interpreted as silica caps).
Hydrothermal breccia boulders are found on top
of a diatreme body. All of the above rocks are
flanked by young sediments and an extensive
dacite pyroclastic cover collectively marking an
ancient vent area within the Tototopo caldera.
EW to ESE‐trending arc‐parallel fault corridors
transect the district and are cut by NW to NNW
trending arc‐normal faults, one of which bounds
the western flank of the caldera. A major arc
parallel structure forms the northern margin of
the district. Broad zones of silica‐clay alteration
with associated quartz veining are emplaced in
NE to ENE‐trending structures. These are
interpreted to be dilational splay faults related to
sinistral wrenching of the regional fault fabric,
and to roughly define the boundaries of a pull‐
apart basin that played an important role in the
deposition of the pyroclastic‐epiclastic pile, and
emplacement of diatreme and auriferous breccia
vein zones.
Zones of epithermal quartz stockwork straddle
the unconformity between the Pliocene volcanic
complex and Miocene basement within zones of
quartz‐illite‐adularia‐pyrite alteration. At least
three broad zones are present, namely Tototopo
West, Lalunga and Motebo. Low grade gold and
silver mineralization with higher grade patches is
present in association with minor base metals
and molybdenum in the stockworks at the
Motebo and Lalunga prospects. Thousands of
local miners became active on these prospects in
1996. At Tototopo West, a
quartz+illite±adularia±barite alteration affects all
rock types except the younger pyroclastic
cones/domes and dacite dykes. These are also
the most common gangue minerals occurring
with the auriferous breccia veins. Steam heated
alteration consisting of kaolinite‐ dickite±alunite
and displaying vuggy leached surfaces occur in
the area of hydrothermal breccia boulders. This
alteration assemblage and the presence of sinter
indicate the upper levels of an epithermal vein
system. Quartz, illite/smectite, ankerite,
chlorite±epidote alteration occurs at depth and
peripheral to the vein field.
Mineralization at Tototopo West includes
diatreme‐breccia, vein style and unconformity‐
related dissemination style. The former style
occurs in steeply‐dipping quartz veins and veinlet
stockworks concentrated at the edge of the
diatreme. Gold is present in the form of native
gold and electrum in several generations of gold‐
bearing veins. The early mineralization is
associated with sphalerite, barite, galena,
chalcopyrite and stibnite as cement and cavity
filling, whereas the later mineralization occurs as
44
Figure 18. Simplified geological map of Tototopo district
(modified after Budiman and Hardjana, 2011)

Figure 19. Diagram showing the evolution of the Tototopo West

epithermal gold system (modified after Santos et al., 1999)
45
 Figure 20. Simplified geological map of Doup district showing
prospect locations (modified after Porter, 1997)

Figure 21. Simplified geological map of Toka Tindung district showing

prospect locations (modified after Angeles, 2001)

46
cement and is associated with quartz, pyrite and
arsenopyrite. Fluid inclusion studies yielded
homogenization temperatures of 221‐246o C and
0.70‐1.04 wt % NaCl eq. The primary fluid
inclusions are generally vapor‐rich and CO2–
bearing. These findings combined with the
occurrence of hypogene hematite, bladed barite
and late kaolinite, and breccia vein textures are
indicative of deposition resulting from fluid
mixing and boiling. Several vein systems show a
marked increase in gold grade from surface
towards depth.
The Oletanggunga‐loba, Solupite‐Niwu and
Bandulipu prospects are interpreted to represent
different structural levels in the hydrothermal
system. At the highest level is Oletanggunga‐
loba, which is characterized by a thick silica cap,
illite‐illite/smectite‐kaolinite‐silica alteration and
chalcedonic, simple banded veining, features all
typical of a low temperature environment of
formation. Veins at Solupite‐Niwu show multiple
banded and dogtooth textures. At Bandulipu,
mineralization zones consist of quartz‐sulphide
veins, veinlets and stockworks. Veins are
generally thin (< a few cm) and have narrow
haloes of silica or phyllic alteration. Gold grades
are generally >5 g/t.
There are at least four major events in the
development of the Tototopo West epithermal
gold mineralization as shown in Figure 19.
4.1.3.3 Lanut district (II)
The exploration history and geology have been
described in 4.1.2.2. Here we briefly describe the
Lanut and Tobongan deposits.
At Lanut (Carlile et al., 1990; Register of Indo‐
Pacific Mining, 2004), gold mineralization is
hosted by a Miocene sedimentary‐volcaniclastic
sequence and overlying Pliocene volcanic unit,
which consists of trachyandesitic lavas and
interbedded volcanics. The volcanic section,
which is at least 250m thick, hosts most of the
mineralization. It is developed as quartz‐adularia
vein‐veinlets zones enveloped by chlorite‐illite‐
pyrite haloes and overprinted by kaolinite‐pyrite‐
marcasite assemblages in the upper part of the
system. The quartz vein‐veinlets are generally
sulphide poor and include green to grey chert
veinlets, dog tooth quartz veins and
veinlets/stockwork, and quartz cemented wall
rock breccia zones. The different styles of quartz
veining developed from multiple events of
hydraulic fracturing. The richest gold
mineralization occurs in quartz veins up to 1.5 m
wide, which in places show evidence of episodes
of brecciation recemented by later generation of
quartz. Fluid inclusion temperatures of 175‐250o
C have been reported. Carlile et al (1990) observe
that the contact between the sedimentary–
volcaniclastic and volcanic units had a significant
control on the mineralization with the upper unit
forming a cap to fluids focused along faults in the
lower units. Lateral flow along the contact
produced brecciated, flat‐dipping veins and a
stockwork in the hanging wall.
At Tobongan (Carlile et al., 1990), mineralization
occurs in quartz veins and stockworks, and as
fracture disseminations hosted by andesitic rocks
and surrounded by illite‐pyrite alteration grading
outwards to chlorite. As is the case at Lanut,
pyrite and base‐metal contents are low.
4.1.3.4 Doup district(Figure 20)
The Doup district is located about 10km SW of
the Mesel district in the Regencies of
Mongondow and Minahasa. It hosts four
intermediate‐sulphidation epithermal Au
prospects (Doup, Benteng, Tungau, Parabo) and
an alluvial Au deposit (Tapabeken). The Dutch
carried out both hard rock and alluvial mining in
the area. The district was investigated by Placer
Dome between 1984 and 1991, including 7252m
of diamond drilling at the two main prospects,
Doup and Benteng. A resource of about 12 Mt @
2.09 g/t Au and 4.4 g/t Ag was outlined. Initial
metallurgical testwork suggested that the deeper
mineralization, which contains sulphides, may be
refractory. The upper 40m of the prospects is
oxidized and gold is recoverable using
conventional carbon‐in‐leach technology. Antam
subsequently obtained a KP over the area and in
1995 entered into a joint venture with Pacific
Wildcat Resources, which conducted further
drilling. In late 1996, the company calculated an
47
inferred resource totaling 17 Mt @ 2.15 g/t Au
(uncut) or 1.64 g/t Au (using a 20 g/t top‐cut).
Preliminary test workconfirmed that the primary
ore from both Doup and Benteng is refractory,
but might be amenable to a bio‐oxidation
process. In 1998, reconnaissance sampling was
undertaken around Doup, which generated
several targets including Hulu Sita (up to 156 g/t
Au), but work was stopped in 2000. The property
was obtained in 2007 by Avocet, which carried
out 11,288m of diamond and reverse circulation
drilling and in early 2009 announced an Inferred
Mineral Resource of 25 Mt @ 1.2 g/t Au.
The following account is largely based on
unpublished reports by Porter (1997) and Wake
and Lapian(1998).
The Doup district is located 30km northeast of
the Gunung Ambang Volcanic Complex, which is
an area of active geothermal systems. It consists
of Miocene volcanic and marine sedimentary
rocks, which are intruded by diorite stocks and
overlain by Late Miocene limestone and
calcareous clastic sediments and Pliocene to
Recent volcanics and alluvium. Structurally the
area is complex with subduction related NE‐
trending arc parallel faults and subsidiary NW‐
trending fault development. The interaction of
these faults is interpreted to control the
emplacement of shallow and deeper level
intrusive bodies, together with proximal porphyry
and intermediate‐sulphide styles of
mineralization (Doup), and more distal sediment‐
hosted (Mesel) and high‐sulphidation (Hutu Sita)
styles.
The Doup‐Benteng area is largely covered by
alluvial dioritic‐dacitic boulder conglomerate and
waste material produced by the Dutch and more
recent artisan mining activities. The host rock to
the Doup mineralization is a quartz diorite which
has undergone an early porphyry style alteration
(biotie±albite) overprinted by intense illite/illite‐
smectite‐pyrite‐adularia alteration assemblages.
Late fine‐grained andesitic to dacitic porphyry’s
cut the altered diorite. The mineralization forms a
pipe‐like body that extends to a depth of at least
200m, and is 100 by 200m in diameter elongated
in a NW‐SE direction. At Benteng, a separate
dioritic body is present that intrudes sedimentary
rocks and shows alteration that is similar to the
clay assemblage seen at Doup. Gold‐bearing
silica‐pyrite replaces calcareous mudstone in an
E‐W oriented zone, 50‐100m wide and 300m
long, that extends to a depth of 300m.
Three styles of gold mineralization occur in the
district. These are:
1) Early porphyry Cu‐Au mineralization
associated with quartz‐magnetite‐sulphide
stockwork stringers/veinlets centred on
altered diorite intrusions. These show
relatively high Au/Cu ratios like the Taware
porphyry deposit on Sangihe Island with
better intersection of the order of 0.7‐1.32 g/t
Au and 0.10% Cu.
2) Higher grade, carbonate‐base metal–Au/Ag
veins associates with sericite‐carbonate‐clay
alteration controlled by diorite‐sediment
contacts and fault intersections. The veins are
generally narrow (<1m wide) and the primary
target of local mining activity. Disseminated
to massive sphalerite – galena mineralization
invariably occurs within the ore‐bearing
material. One of the better drill intercepts
included 2m at 49 g/t Au and 27 g/t Ag.
3) Sediment‐hosted, replacement‐type base
metal‐Au‐Ag‐As mineralization. This style is
associated with strong carbonate‐
sericite/clay‐sulphide alteration, and relatively
minor silicification in calcareous, volcaniclastic
mudstones and sandstones. Drill intercepts
example: 116m @ 3.33 g/t Au, 17 g/t Ag.
A generalized paragenetic sequence of alteration,
veining and mineralization observed at Doup and
Benteng consists of four stages; 1)
porphyry/metasomatic; 2) quartz‐adularia‐
sericite; 3) pyrite‐base metal‐sulphides‐gold; and
4) carbonate‐clay‐marcasite.
4.1.3.5 Tanoyan – Anggrek district
The following account is largely based on
unpublished reports by Pieters (2003) and
Mclean and Williams (2010). Mineralization in
48
the district was discovered by a Placer Dome–
BHP Utah‐Antam joint venture in 1986, which led
to artisanal gold rushes at both Tanoyan and
Anggrek. At the latter prospect mineralization is
centred on a diatreme breccia forming Patung
Hill. In 1987, 120 processing units were in
operation at Tanoyan. Both properties (excluding
Patung Hill) were subsequently acquired by AMS
who undertook limited exploration in 2004, and
two years later Avocet acquired an interest in
them. This company carried out detailed surface
work at Tanoyan and Anggrek, and a 4,400m
drilling programme at the former prospect,
outlining an inferred resource of 3.95 Mt @ 2.1
g/t Au. Golden Peaks Resources acquired the
properties in 2010, and started drilling at
Tanoyan the following year. Patung Hill is
currently being exploited by local miners.
The geology of the Tanoyan prospect is
dominated by andesitic pyroclastics and lava, and
dacitic tuffs belonging to Pliocene Pinogu
Volcanics. These have been intruded by a variety
of dioritic stocks and dykes. Four lode systems
have been identified, trending predominantly NE
with sub‐vertical dips and NNE to N trending
splays. A conjugate set of generally NW‐trending
faults, locally contain breccia‐hosted sulphide
mineralization.
The lode systems consist of elongate altered
zones of quartz‐chalcedony and brecciation,
typically with a silicified core and argillic halo.
They are up to 2.3km in strike length and from 2
to 15m wide. The volcanic sequence has
undergone widespread propylitic alteration.
Cockade vein textures are dominant and
accompanied by crustiform, bladed
carbonatepseudomorphs and comb textures, and
colloform banded sulphide stringer veins. Pyrite
is the dominant sulphide phase; chalcopyrite was
locally observed. Visible gold is relatively
common. Local miners reported gold grades in
the order of 17 to 67 g/t Au.
At Anggrek,the Patung Hill diatreme breccia pipe
is about 700m in diameter and intrudes a series
of Miocene volcaniclastic sedimentary rocks and
mafic‐intermediate volcanics. The sequence is
also intruded by narrow dykes and small stocks of
diorite, andesite and dacite porphyry. The
diatreme is a polymict clast supported breccia
with milled, rounded clasts set in a matrix of rock
flour. NE to NNE trending dextral strike‐slip faults
are the dominant structure, and locally contain
mineralized breccia zones. Secondary faults
include NW trending strike‐slip and normal faults,
which are also associated with gold
mineralization. Relatively narrow halos of silica‐
pyrite‐limonite and minor kaolinite‐clay‐sericite
alteration assemblages envelop quartz veins,
which are up to 15m wide and show cockade‐
crustiform textures.Magnetite andbarite are
locally present.
Six zones of alteration and coincident
geochemical anomalies and gold mineralization
have been identified, including the Osing‐Osing
prospect. Gold mineralization in this prospect
occurs in a 1.5 km long hydrothermal breccia
zone, varying in width from 1 to 3m. The breccia
is polymict with a matrix of rock flour and quartz
flooding with associated sulphides, adularia and
strong argillic alteration.
4.1.3.6 Comments
Intermediate‐sulphidation deposits possess
sulphidation states between those of the high‐
and low‐sulphidation types, typically with
stability of chalcopyrite, tetrahedrite‐tennantite,
and Fe‐poor sphalerite, but lacking appreciable
arsenopyrite and pyrrhotite (Einaudi et al., 2003).
Sillitoe and Hedenquist (2003) list several other
defining characteristics, including a genetic
relationship with andesite to rhyodacite rocks,
sericite as the key proximal alteration mineral,
but adularia generally uncommon, common
carbonate gangue, barite and Mn‐silicates
present locally, and sulphide abundances of 5 to
20%. Genetically related igneous rocks commonly
include diatreme and dome compexes.
The IS deposits of Northern Sulawesi meet some
of these criteria, but differ in other respects. The
Gunung Pani and Totopo West deposits, for
example, contain Fe‐poor sphalerite and barite,
and are associated with felsic diatreme‐dome
complexes, but have low sulphide contents,
while adularia is a significant alteration product.
49
Carbonate is not a prominent gangue mineral in
these deposits. It is in the Bolangitang and Doup
deposits, but the former is sulphide poor. Many
of the Northern Sulawesi deposits appear to be
transitional to the low‐sulphidation class. They fit
more closely the category of “epithermal quartz
gold‐silver systems” of the classification scheme
proposed by Corbett and Leach (1998), which
include the following characteristics; i) veins are
dominated by quartz which is intimately
associated with either adularia or illite, smectite
and/or kaolin clays, and locally with carbonates;
ii) the sulphide content is generally low and base
metal sulphides are rare; iii) the mineralogy is
silver rich; 4) hypogene hematite is locally
present (as e.g. at G.Pani and Totopo West); and
5) diatreme or milledmatrix fluidized
(phraetomagmatic) breccias are common.The
main difference shown by the Northern Sulawesi
deposits is that they are generally silver poor.
The Northern Sulawesi epithermal gold deposits
demonstrate that it is not always possible to have
a “one fits all” classification. With so many
variables, it is not surprising that there are so
many variations in deposit character and
transitions between deposit types.A good
example is Mexicowhere three types of
epithermal ore deposits have been recognized in
addition to rare HS deposits, named A, B, and C
(Camprubi and Albinson, 2007). Type A (or IS
type) contains exclusively from top to bottom IS
styles of mineralization with a consistent
polymetallic character and a tendancy to form in
deeper environments. Type B (or LS‐IS type)
exhibits dominant LS characteristics but has
polymetallic IS roots. Type C (or LS type) shows
only LS styles of mineralization and represents
shallow boiling deposits. These three types are
not mutually exclusive in time and space as is the
case in certain other areas like the Great Basin in
Nevada (John et al., 1999). G. Pani is the only
Northern Sulawesi deposit which to date has
been shown to have polymetallic roots and hence
to be similar to type B in Mexico. More detailed
work, including deeper drilling, at some of the
other deposits may similarly reveal type B
characteristics.
4.1.4 Low‐ Sulphidation Epithermal Au‐Ag
Au‐Ag mineralization in the Toka Tindung district
is the only example in Sulawesi that shares many
features with the low‐sulphidation (LS) type.
4.1.4.1 Toka Tindung district(Figure 21)
The district is located in the Minahasa Peninsula
at the northern tip of the North Arm. Records
suggest there was little activity relating to gold
exploration and mining in the region until the mid
1980s, when the Teweti Group commenced
exploration. It was continued by Ashton Mining
Ltd in late 1989. Their activity was the first to
identify gold‐bearing quartz float shedding into
creeks surrounding Toka Tindung, and produced
a best result of 3.6 g/t Au in a grab sample.The
source of the Au‐bearing quartz float was
discovered by Aurora Gold Ltd in 1993 following
their takeover of Ashton’s gold interests in
Indonesia. Further prospecting identified gold
vein systems at three major prospect areas: Toka
Tindung, Batupangah and Talawaan. The
company carried out extensive drilling during the
next 5 years (72,000 diamond drilling, 49,000m
RC) at Toka Tindung and on adjacent prospects,
resulting in a global resource estimate of about
1.75 Mozgold‐equivalent. The project was sold in
2002 to Archipelago Resources and after lengthy
delays was brought into production in 2011.
The following account on the geology and
mineralization of the Toka Tindung district is
based on Wake et al. (1995, 1996, 1997), Moyle
et al. (1997a & b), and Angeles (2001), and
additional information provided by B.Wake
(written com., 2009, 2010).
The Toka Tindung district is located at the tip of
the North Arm and covers an area of about
400km2. It contains a number of gold deposits
and occurrences of which the Toka Tindung
deposit is the largest known one. The
Batupangah area, located about 4km SSE of Toka
Tindung, contains four other significant vein
deposits; Araren, Pajajaran, Blambangan and
Kopra. The deposits are exposed in windows of
Plio‐Pleistocene volcanics within a widespread
cover of Late Quaternary tephras and other
50
volcanics derived from relatively recent eruptions
of the nearby Dua Saudara or Klabat
stratovolcanoes.
The Plio‐Pleistocene sequence consists
predominantly of basaltic andesite flows
containing intercalations of volcaniclastic
rocksthat range in composition frombasaltic
andesite to rhyodacite,and are locally associated
with hydrothermal eruption breccias, silica
sinters and carbonaceous tuffaceous sediments.
These rocks are partly overlain by poorly
consolidated volcaniclastics of basaltic andesite
and rhyodacite composition, with minor
interbedded limestone which are thickest in the
northern part of the district. The sequence is
intruded by rhyodacite domes and dykes.
Limited age dating results (Figure 22) and
geological considerations indicate that the
basaltic andesites and rhyodacites are
contemporaneous, i.e. they are the result of
bimodal magmatism.
The Toka Tindung and Batupangah deposits occur
in a 2km wide structural corridor defined by a
series of NNW‐trending faults that extend over a
strike length of >15km. Other prominent
structural trends in the Plio‐Pleistocene rocks are
ENE, NNE and NW. Circular fracture sets
representing possible caldera features have also
been observed. The main gold deposits are
interpreted to lie peripheral to one such circular
feature associated with dilational N‐trending
fracture sets at the intersection of NNW and ENE
trending faults. The gold mineralization is mostly
hosted by fault controlled veins, stockworks and
breccias.
The Toka Tindung deposit is a series of steeply
dipping linear stockwork vein zones with more
than 60 vein domains, up to 200m wide and over
1.7km long, elongated along a northerly striking
structure. It has a drill tested depth of 175m. At
the southern end this zone is separated into the
Ako and Western vein systems with low intensity
stockwork veining occurring between them.
Volcaniclastic rocks sandwiched between basaltic
andesite flows are the primary host of the gold
mineralization. They comprise massive to thick
bedded volcaniclastic conglomerate grading
upwards into thinner bedded, locally
carbonaceous, volcaniclastic sandstones,
siltstones, mudstones interbedded with silica
sinters at the top of the package. The coarse
sediments are interpreted to have been
deposited as a series of mass‐flows in a fault‐
bounded basin changing with time into a
lacustrine environment.
At least three silica sinterbeds, each up to several
metres thick and separated by fine grained
volcaniclastic rocks, are recognized at Toka
Tindung. These occur at the top of the
mineralized zone; the lower sinter horizons are
cut by the gold veins. The silica sinters, which
generally form thin beds, are composed of
chalcedony after an opaline silica precursor.
They show rhythmic wavy laminations, geyserite
pearls, vertical growth structures (fossilized
filamentous algal mats), dehydration cracks,
hydrothermal brecciation, and are characterized
bylocally anomalous Sb‐Hg‐Mo geochemistry, and
low level Au anomalism.
The mineralized zone is overlain by hydrothermal
eruption breccia, up to 50m thick, composed of
fragments of all the underlying rock types,
including some mineralized vein, wall rock and
silica sinter material at its base. The breccia
matrix comprises multiple generations of
silicified, locally carbonaceous and sulphidic,
hydrothermal mud together with comminuted
rock flour. The brecciacross‐cuts the lower sinter
beds and terminates(?) within a third sinter bed
horizon exposed at the northern end of Toka
Tindung. The breccia unit produces strong As, Sb,
Hg and Mo anomalies, whereas anomalous Au
values occur only where the breccia has
incorporated mineralized fragments or is cut by
weakly developed vein stockwork.
The vein systems in the Batupangah area are
hosted in a porphyritic basaltic andesite unit
overlain by recent mantle‐bedded tephra, up to
5m thick. The main gold deposits found to date
lack the near‐surface features present at Toka
Tindung, such as sinters and hydrothermal
breccias, and are interpreted as deeper level
deposits. These deposits consist of 1) Pajajaran,
two parallel NW‐trending composite veins, 2‐7m
51
thick, 800m long, with a drill tested depth of
250m, intersected by a N‐trending vein set; 2)
Blambangan, single curvilinear N‐trending
composite vein, 1 to 15m thick, 1.25km long, >
200m vertical extent; 3) Araren, two parallel N‐
trending vein sets, 1‐7m thick, with high‐grade
gold mineralization restricted to localized pods
associated with cross‐cutting faults or flexures,
and 4) Kopra, composite vein system comprising
eight anatomizing veins, including centrally
located main vein, 2‐5m thick, 600m long, drill
tested to a depth of 135m.
The Talawaan area, located about 15km west of
Batupangah, contains several vein deposits, the
most important of which is Bima. This is a simple
NW‐trending sheeted vein stockwork system,
defined by drilling over a strike length of 1km and
widths of up to 125m, and to a depth of 140m.
Stockwork veins range in thickness from 0.1m to
5m. Twelve principal veins make up the
northwestern portion of the deposit, which
progressively reduce to a single main vein along a
WNW‐trending fault in the south east. These are
hosted by a rhyodacitic flow dome and breccias
complex.
At Marawuwung, located 3km NW of Toka
Tindung, gold mineralization is associated with
silicified sulphidic hydrothermal breccias and
minor banded quartz‐adularia veins. In contrast
to the Toka Tindung and
Batupangahdeposits,significant gold
mineralization (>1g/t Au) at Marawuwung occurs
in the matrix of sulphidic breccias and is
accompanied by pronouced As‐Sb‐Hg anomalism.
The gold‐bearing veins in the Toka Tindung
district consist predominantly of chalcedony,
quartz and adularia. The strongest gold grades
occur in colloform banded, ghost‐sphere, ghost‐
lattice bladed,and moss‐textured chalcedony‐
adularia rich veins. Lower grade gold grades
generally occurin brecciated veins cemented by
later stage crystalline quartz. Vein breccias are
generally younger than the chalcedony‐adularia
veins. Late barren to poorly mineralized calcite
have been observed in a number of deposits. The
sulphide content of the veins is generally very low
(<1 vol %), mainly fine grained pyrite.
At Toka Tindung, the volcaniclastics show
pervasive silicification and adularization within
and around vein systems. The matrix of the
volcaniclastic rocks is completely replaced by
microcrystalline quartz, adularia and a mixture of
chlorite‐illitic clays. These minerals also occur as
overgrowths on phenocrysts in lithic fragments.
In contrast, in the Batupangahand Tawalaan
areas the wallrock alteration is characterized by
narrow envelopes of strong silica‐illitic clay‐pyrite
alteration which grade outward into zones of
weaker chlorite‐smectite‐zeolite alteration.
Adjacent to the veins plagioclase phenocrysts in
porphyritic andesite are altered to adularia or
albite, and then partly replaced by illite‐smectite.
Gold occurs as sub‐20m anhedral free grains
and as electrum occupying interstices between
quartz and adularia together with pyrite, minor
selenium‐bearing silver sulphides (Se‐acanthite or
aguilarite) and traces of chalcopyrite, sphalerite
and galena. Gold grades are relatively low at
Toka Tindung; average 3 to 5 g/t in veins, locally
up to 30 g/t, and 0.2 to 3 g/t in intervening
stockworks. The highest average grades are
found at Bima (5‐7 g/t Au). Higher grades are
also present in portions of the Pajajaran and
Blambangan deposits. In the former deposit the
higher grade portions are associated with vein
breccias, occasionally very vuggy, in the central
part of vein where a narrower set of composite
veins trending N‐S coalesce. A characteristics
feature of the veins in the Batupangaharea is the
presence of ginguro‐like brown‐black siliceous
bands of disseminated sulphides and rare red,
pyritic jasper. These bands are associated with
the strongest gold (+10 g/t Au) and silver (+100
t/g Ag) grades. Silver values are generally low in
all deposits with Ag:Au ratios in the order of 2:1.
Toka Tindung has the largest resource (7.9 Mt at
2.9 g/t Au), whereas the others contains 1‐1.8 Mt
with average grades varying from 2.9 to 5.7 g/t
Au.
K‐Ar dating of adularia material from veins and
wallrock yielded ages in the range of 2.16 to 1.88
Ma. This falls within the age range of the
bimodal volcanic suite that hosts the mineral‐
52
Figure 22. Schematic stratigraphy, mineralization and radiometric age dates
Toka Tindung – Butapangah prospects (B. Wake, written comm., 2009)

Figure 23. Simplified geological map of Ratatotok district (after

Hendri and Farmer, 1997)
53
Figure 24. Geological interpretation of Mesel deposit, section 20280m E (after
Hendri and Farmer, 1997)

Figure 25. Western Sulawesi. Distribution of

mineralization types, and location of prospects
and mineralized districts mentioned in the text;
for symbols see Figure 5

54
ization indicating that mineralization and
magmatism are cogenetic.
4.1.4.2 Comments
As mentioned at the beginning of this section, the
deposits and prospects in the Toka Tindung
district show many of the characteristics of LS
mineralization as defined by Sillitoe and
Hedenquist (2003). These include association
with bimodal volcanism, presence of sinter,
proximal alteration dominated by illite/smectite
and adularia, nature of vein filling (crustiform,
colloform, chalcedony, quartz, carbonate
replacement textures), carbonate gangue
relatively minor and late, low sulphide content (<
1%), low base metal content,low Au/Ag
ratios,and anomalous Mo, As,Sb, and Hg
Bimodal volcanic suites are a characteristic
feature of extensional tectonic settings. Such
settings are conducive to formation and
preservation of hot‐spring sinter, and their
usually low topographic relief leads to deposition
of fluvio‐lacustrine sediments (Sillitoe and
Hedenquist, 2003). The sedimentation is broadly
contemporaneous with hydrothermal activity
(Sillitoe and Hedenquist, 2003), as appears to be
also the case in the Toka Tindung district (Wake
et al., 1997).
As discussed by Wake et al. (1997), the Au‐Ag
bearing stockwork vein systems underlying the
sinter and hydrothermal breccia zones were
formed in a dilation zones produced by a
combination of reactivated faulting along major
regional structures and hydrofracturing caused by
overpressuring of upwelling hydrothermal fluid.
The pervasive distribution of quartz‐adularia
alteration at Toka Tindung is a function of the
primary porosity and permeability of these rock
types, acting as a large geothermal aquifer. This
style of alteration may have had some effect on
the structural preparation and broader
development of stockwork, resulting in a larger
body of mineralization than at veins that
developed in basaltic andesite flows, e.g. at
Batupangah, where vein development is tighter,
and wallrock adularia alteration less widespread
because of the lower permeability of the host
rock.
The mineralized vein and stockwork systems and
pronounced geochemical zoning in vertical profile
through the fossil hot spring system occurred in
response to boiling of rapidly upwelling, near‐
neutral pH, alkali‐chlorite fluids focused on highly
permeable fracture zones (as evidenced by the
common presence of adularia). Venting of these
fluids at the paleosurface produced the silica
sinters exposed at the highest stratigraphic level.
A hydrothermal eruption occurred late in the
hydrothermal cycle, producing the shallow
breccia apron in the upper part of the
stratigraphy. This generally marks the
termination of hot spring activity. The bulk of the
gold‐silver mineralization and the overlying
breccias occur within 150m from the
paleosurface of the fossil hot spring system.
As mentioned earlier, in Corbett and Leach’s
(1998)/Corbett’s (2007) classification scheme
adularia‐sericite epithermal /banded chalcedony‐
giguro gold‐silver systems are the equivalent of
low‐sulphidation systems. They are subdivided
with increasing depth of formation as systems
dominated by i) sinter and hydrothermal
breccias; ii) stockwork or sheeted veins, and 3)
fissure veins. All three styles are represented in
the Toka Tindung district. Black sulphidic ginguro
bands, which are a typical feature of this
category, have also been obderved in the Toka
Tindung district, although they do not appear to
be a prominent feature.
4.1.5 Sediment‐hosted Au mineralization
Sediment‐hosted gold mineralization is
prominently developed in the Ratatotok district,
which also contains other styles of gold
mineralization. Other occurrences have been
observed at Doup (Kavalieris et al., 1992) and in
the Gabanbora‐Batumaja district (Pearson et al.,
1999).
4.1.5.1 Ratatotok district (Figure 23)
The Ratatotok district, measuring 8km x 4km,
contains sediment‐hosted disseminated gold
55
mineralization at Mesel, paleokarst breccias and
“contact siliceous replacement” at the interface
of limestone and andesitic rocks at Lobongan and
Alason, and widespread residual clay‐quartz
breccias resulting from the weathering of the
other two styles of mineralization. The total pre‐
mining gold content of the district is estimated to
exceed 93 t (van der Ploeg, 1945; Turner, 2002).
Papers by Turner et al. (1994), Garwin et al.,
(1995), Corbett and Leach (1998), and Hendi and
Farmer (1997) form the basis of the following
summary.
Gold mining in the Ratatotok District dates back
to at least the 1850s when it appeared on British
maps of Celebes as the Mt. Tottik gold mine. It
was carried out initially by local people, both at
surface and underground. Between 1900 and
1921 the Dutch mined about 5 t Au, mostly from
unconsolidated eluvial deposits and locally from
underground hard rock mineralization at Hais in
the Lobongan area.In the early 1980s an
unnamed Japanese company sampled some of
the underground workings in Hais. Local mining
activity resumed in 1985, involving 8000 miners,
before it was restricted by the regional
government.
In 1989, Newmont initiated a gold exploration
program in Indonesia, and the Ratatotok district
was one of several areas selected, based on
historical reports. Exploration was initially
directed at the old Hais workings and Alason
area, locally returning very high gold grades.
Follow‐up drill testing in 1987, however,
produced disappointing results. The next year
Mesel was (re‐) discovered and explored in detail
during the ensuing three years. The first gold was
poured in 1996 and the mine closed down in
2004, having produced a total of 1.9 Moz.
The Ratatotok district is underlain by a restricted
extensional sedimentary basin that is separated
from a volcanic‐dominated terrain to the north
by the ENE‐trending Limpoga fault. Lithologies
consist of a mixed siliciclastic‐carbonate
succession dominated by limestone. It is overlain
by andesitic volcanic and volcaniclastic rocks, and
intruded by sills, dykes and laccoliths of
porphyritic andesite composition. Volcanic
conglomerates unconformably overlie the
sequence and are particularly thick to the north
of the Limpoga fault. The district is dominated by
ENE‐trending arc‐parallel and NNW‐trending arc‐
normal faults. Movements along these faults
affected sedimentation and controlled facies
distribution.
The Mesel deposit and several smaller satellite
deposits are hosted by a sequence of limestone,
polymitic conglomerate and sedimentary breccia,
mudstone and mixed siliclastic‐carbonate
horizons. The carbonate succession was intruded
by andesite forming a laccolith that overlies the
mineralized sequence and locally reaches a
thickness of >100m. Although it rarely hosts any
gold mineralization it is strongly argillized where
in contact with mineralized carbonates. At the
surface it is characterized by a 20‐40m thick zone
of yellow and red clay. Calcareous planktonic
foraminifera and nannofossils indicate a
maximum age range of 13.7‐11.4 which overlaps
with the age range of the emplacement of the
andesite intrusions (13.9±0.5 to 11.2±0.3 Ma,
based on K/Ar dating of hornblende separates
from 3 samples). This suggests that the
sedimentation and intrusive events were roughly
contemporaneous.
Gold mineralization is both lithologically and
structurally controlled (Figure 24). Lithological
control is provided by permeable carbonaceous
and enhanced by dolomitization.Ore‐controlling
structures in the Mesel area are inferred to be
ENE trending zones of imbricate high angle
reverse faults and tight folds that emplaced
receptive limestone into the relatively
impermeable andesite intrusion along the Heins
Find Fault Zone. Another important control is the
NNW trending sinistral Mesel Fault and its
intersection with the Heins Find Fault Zone,
characterized by high grade mineralization and
extensive hydrothermal alteration.
Alteration and mineralization occur within the
carbonate rocks and locally in the overlying
andesite sills. Four main stages of hydrothermal
activity are recognized: 1) early decalcification
and dolomitization adjacent to major faults and
along the contacts with the overlying andesite; 2)
56
intense silicification, in the form of open space
filling and replacement of calcite and dolomite by
smectite‐illite; decreasing intensity away from
areas of inferred fluid upflow; alteration is
present in the andesite but its distribution is
restricted to an envelope of 15m either side of
the Hein’s Find Fault Zone and a 25 thick flat lying
zone above altered limestone close to the Mesel
Fault; 3) gold mineralization in association with
quartz‐sulphide deposition during polyphasal
brecciation of the silicified dolomite and altered
limestone; the dominant sulphides are early
marcasite and pyrite, and later pyrite that
becomes progressively more arsenic‐rich during
this stage; and 4) post‐mineral calcite veining.
Gold is submicron in size and associated with very
fine grained (<10 micron) arsenical pyrite. High
grade (>10 g/t) gold zones are highest in the
polyphasal silicified breccias proximal to feeder
(fluid upflow) structures. Gold contents decline
rapidly from the upflow zones below the andesite
sills. The gold is accompanied by anomalous
values of As, Sb, Hg and Tl. Stibnite occurs as a
late sulphide phase associated with both stage 3
quartz veins and stage 4 calcite at shallow levels
and in zones peripheral to the ore body.
In the Lobongan area, karst terrain has been
extensively developed consisting of at least two
phases. The first phase preceded andesitic
volcanism, the products of which covered much
of the limestone. Mineralization formed at and
below the unconformity, with gold being
deposited together with quartz and calcite in
open‐space karst breccias, and with siliceous
replacement of fine‐grained clastic sediments at
the contact. The anastomosing veins are
crystalline and vuggy to banded and crustiform,
and commonly contain visible gold. Higher grade
Au mineralization mostly formed at major
structural intersections, which also controlled the
formation of the paleokarst, a feature that is also
commonly observed in the Bau district, West
Sarawak (Wolfenden, 1965). Base metals occur
in negligible to minor quantities as chalcopyrite,
sphalerite, galena, covellite, bornite, chalcocite,
and native copper. Arsenic values (in
arsenopyrite) are variable up to 3% and Sb is also
anomalous. Very little in‐situ mineralized contact
and paleokarst breccias remain in the Alason
area.
Residual quartz‐clay breccias, derived from the
in‐situ deflation of a mineralized karst surface are
widespread in the Ratatotok district, formed by
weathering of both Mesel and Lobongan/Alason
styles of primary mineralization. The difference
between both weathering products is the former
does not contain easily extractable gold, whereas
in the latter type relatively coarse gold is
common and can be extracted by local miners.
Sparse, possibly main stage, fluid inclusions from
quartz in jasperoid peripheral to Mesel gave
temperatures of 238o to 296o C with evidence of
CO2 liquid present in many inclusions. These data
and calculations of cover rock thickness suggest
that the mineralization was formed at a depth of
at least 1000m. Primary fluid inclusions
homogenization temperatures from late stage
quartz and calcite are within a range of 119‐170o
C, recording the waning stage of the
hydrothermal system. Fluid inclusions in vein
quartz and calcite at Lobongan indicate the veins
formed at temperatures ranging from 270 to 152o
Cfrom low‐salinity, CO2 – bearing boiling fluids.
Stable isotopic data on ore‐related minerals
suggest ore fluids consisted of magmatic fluid
that evolved by interactions with limestone and
mixing with meteoric water (Turner, 2002).
4.1.5.2 Comments
Sillitoe (1994) observed “Mesel is the first large
sediment‐hosted Au accumulation (>60 tonnes
Au) defined in an oceanic island‐arc setting”. We
are not aware of other sediment‐hosted gold
deposits having since been found in a similar
setting, i.e. Mesel may be unique in this respect.
Otherwise it shows many similarities with
sediment‐hosted Au deposits in Nevada (the
classic Carlin‐type), including micron‐size gold in
arsenian pyrite, a distinct Au‐As‐Sb‐Hg‐Tl
geochemical association, and passive alteration
of silty carbonate units characterized by
decalcification, dolomitization, silicification, and
argillization (Turner et al., 1994), and control by
high‐angle faults (Sillitoe, 1994).
57
Like several of the other mineralized districts in
Northern Sulawesi, the Ratatotok district is
characterized by the presence of more than one
mineralization style.Carlile et al. (1994) note that
the spatial association of the Mesel
mineralization with intermediate‐sulphidation
veins may suggest a genetic relationship where
similar structurally focused mineralizing fluids
may either pervade porous reactive host‐rocks,
or be contained within structures in impermeable
rocks to form veins. More speculative is
Kavalieris et al.’s (1992) suggestion that high‐
sulphidation mineralization at Simbalang, located
20 km away,may also be related to the same
magmatic‐hydrothermal system.
Various models have been proposed for the
genesis of sediment‐hosted gold deposits
(Hofstra and Cline, 2000, and references therein),
including; i) intrusion‐driven circulation of
meteoric water, plus or minus magmatic fluid
input; ii) meteoric fluid circulation resulting from
crustal extension and/or widespread magmatism;
and iii) ascent of metamorphic fluids to shallow
levels in the crust. In the case of Mesel, isotope
characteristics suggest a direct connection with
magmatism (see above). Another example is the
Bau district in Sabah, where a genetically link has
been proposed between porphyry stocks and
skarn , vein, and distal sediment‐hosted gold
mineralization (Sillitoe and Bonham, 1990). As
mentioned above, porphyry type mineralization
has been observed in the nearby Doup district.
This, or another proximal porphyry system, may
have been the source of the gold deposited at
Mesel.
4.1.6 Intrusion – related base metal – gold
mineralization
Numerous base metal–gold vein and vein swarm
occurrences are present in Northern Sulawesi.
They occur at varied distances around individual
intrusions, commonly porphyries or within
porphyry Cu districts, of both Miocene and
Pliocene age. Examples include Taware Ridge
(4.1.1.5), Kaidundu (4.1.1.4), Paleleh, Sumalata,
and Petulu. Some of the vein and vein swarms
(e.g. Paleleh, Sumalata, Dinuke, Kwandang, and
Kasia) have witnessed production from both
underground and surface mining methods for
decades by the Dutch and more recently by
artisan miners.
Published information regarding this style of
mineralization is limited. According to Kavalieris
et al. (1992) at Petulu, sheeted quartz‐
chalcopyrite‐bornite‐magnetite veins intersect a
zone of magnetite alteration and are (spatially)
associated with dacitic dykes inferred to be
related to a deeper granitoid. Gold is present in
pyrite‐rich veins peripheral to the magnetite
zone. It should be noted that Pearson and Caira
(1999) classify Petulu as a porphyry Cu‐Au
deposit. Palelehis hosted by diorite porphyry
with Au occurring in native form associated with
chalcopyrite was a significant producer of gold,
silver and lead during the Dutch time. Miocene
andesitic volcanics are intruded by diorite.
Pervasive quartz‐chlorite‐illite alteration is
developed along the intrusive contact, which
appears the main control on mineralization.
Quartz‐gold‐pyrite‐pyrrhotite‐chalcopyrite‐
galena‐sphalerite mineralization is localized
within subvertical zones of hydraulic fracture
breccias that grade outwards to veinlet and
fracture zones in both volcanic and intrusive
rocks. Gold occurs in native form (Carlile et al.,
1990; Pearson and Caira, 1999).
4.1.7 Volcanogenic massive sulphide
mineralization
Volcanogenic massive sulphide (VMS)
mineralization is hosted in the Papayato
Volcanics in two localities at the western end of
Northern Sulawesi. These are referred to as the
Papayato and Bukal prospects (Aspinall et all.,
1980).
The Papayato prospect is exposed in the
Papayato River, about 20km upstream from its
mouth. A 32m thick massive pyrite body with
intercalations of pyritic mudstone occurs in a
sequence of felsic tuffs. The sulphides display in
places colloform banding or fine laminations.
Samples taken across the body gave values of
only 0.1% Cu and traces of Pb, Zn, and Mo.
58
The Bukal prospect is located in the headwaters
of the Bukal River. It was investigated in some
detail by a London based company in 1900 that
excavated shallow pits and aidits in the main
body (“Dixon Lode”) over a strike length of 130m.
Several companies revisited the area in the
1970s, including Utah and Rio Tinto.
The mineralization occurs as two en‐echelon
stratiform lenses in massive rhyolitic volcanics,
which are chloritized, especially along the
hanging wall contacts. Where exposed in old
trenches it consists of a 2.25m thick zone of
massive pyrite and chalcopyrite overlain by
0.75m of sphalerite, chalcopyrite and subordinate
pyrite. The sulphides show in places fine‐grained
banding. Gangue minerals include barite and
quartz. In addition, an up to 2.7m thick
discordant lens is present consisting of sphalerite,
chalcopyrite, pyrite, tetrahedrite, and minor
galena, enveloped by pyrite selvages.
Disseminated chalcopyrite and sphalerite occur
within narrow zones of kaolinized rhyolite.
While base metal grades are high (3.8‐12% Cu,
2.7‐33.7% Zn, 0.5‐2.6% Pb,) the length of the
lenses appears to be limited (up to 140m).
4.1.8 Skarns
Skarns are developed as partial aureoles in the
propylitic zones surrounding several Miocene
porphyry stocks (Kavalieris et al., 1992; Pearson
and Caira, 1999). Examples include Matinan‐6
(4.1.1.2) , Adapi, and Boloila. The skarns are
hosted by the Dokokapa Formation. They are
controlled by both steeply dipping faults and
calcareous beds. Their mineralogy consists of
magnetite, pyrite, epidote, and garnet, containing
locally high gold values which are associated with
horizons of pyrrhotite, pyrite, magnetite, galena,
sphalerite, and tetrahedrite‐tennantite.
4.1.9 Placer Au and Fe deposits
The widespread occurrence of primary gold
mineralization in Northern Sulawesi has resulted
in the common presence of alluvial gold
throughout the province. However, the deposits
are generally small and/or of low grade. The
Dutch worked alluvial deposits at Tapaibekin in
the Doup distric between 1938 and 1942
producing in total 68 kg Au and 13 kg Ag.
Endeavour Resources carried out Bangka drilling
in the Gunung Pani district, where 2.8 M cum
@265mg Au and 400‐500,000 cum @ 500 mg Au
were outlined in two deposits. They also carried
out exploration in the Paguyaman river reporting
a resource of 0.5 M cum @ 169 mg Au/cum. A
larger resource figure (1.6 M cum @350 mg
Au/cum) is given by PSDG (2010). No other
alluvial gold exploration has been reported,
reflecting its restricted potential for company‐
scale exploitation. However, in recent years the
region has witnessed extensive artisanal panning
and sluicing activities supported by high gold
prices.
The lack of large size alluvial deposits is due to
the mountainous nature of most of Northern
Sulawesi with poor development of alluvial
plains. Dilution of grades occur in areas with
unconsolitated sedimentary/volcanic cover rocks.
PSDG (2010) reports the presence of a few Fe
placer deposits along the coast of the Minahasa
section up to 31M cum in size (hypothetical
resource). No further inrormation is available.
4.2 Western Sulawesi Province
Western Sulawesi appears to be less well
mineralized than Northern Sulawesi.
Furthermore it hosts mostly different styles of
mineralization, reflecting significant differences in
geological setting between the two provinces. As
mentioned earlier, mining activities have been
very limited todate.
The oldest known mineralization comprises
chromite in the Cretaceous Barru Complex, which
is hosted in serpentinized peridotite intruded by
diorite and dacite, and is best developed in shear
zones and at intrusive contacts (Purawiardi,
2008). Copper occurs in the so‐called “Koper‐
Lei” (Copper‐Slate) Formation, now known as
Toraja Formation, in the foothills of the
Latimojong Mountains as small pockets of native
copper and malachite in a shaly sequence (van
Bemmelen, 1949). Only a few porphyry Cu
59
prospects/occurrences are known, all of which
appear to be associated with Neogene potassic
alkaline intrusives and have peripheral vein
and/or skarn mineralization. Mineralization
associated with intrusive rocks other than
porphyry style, include base metal veins at
Baturappe, base metal‐Au veins at Esang, and
magnetite‐hematite skarns at Tandjung and Salo
Talimbangan. A small cluster of Kuroko‐type
deposits is found near Sangkaropi.
Manganiferous ironstones, the weathering
product of sulphide and magnetite
mineralization, occur widespread in the Biru area.
A notable feature of the metallogeny of Western
Sulawesi is the apparent poor development of
typical epithermal‐style gold mineralization. In
the central eastern part of the province several
significant gold deposits are present in the Awak
Mas and Palopo districts and near Palu. We have
tentatively classified them as intrusion‐related Au
vein deposits and discuss them under the
heading “Gold in metamorphic terrains”
Following are description of the more significant
and/or interesting deposits and occurrences in
Western Sulawesi. Their locations and those of
others are shown in Figure 25. Table 5
summarizes the main features of some of the
more important deposits.
4.2.1 Porphyry copper ± gold
Known porphyry copper Cu
prospects/occurrences are present atSasak and
Seko, both found during a reconnaissance
geochemical sampling programme carried out by
the Geological Survey of Indonesia in CW
Sulawesi and drill tested by Antam in the early
1970s, and at Masabo and Malawa. No
information is available for Seko, other than that
only low grade Cu mineralization (0.40%) was
intersected (Geomin, 2010). It is located about
200km north of Sangkaropi, but its exact position
is not known. Malawa, which is present near
Malawa village in SW Sulawesi, is a recent
discovery. Only preliminary investigation has
been carried out todate
(www.terrafirmaresources.com). Copper
mineralization (malachite, chalcopyrite in
veinlets, covellite and Cu‐bearing gossan) occurs
as float and outcrop associated with an altered
and sheared diorite body. Potassic alteration (K‐
feldspar and biotite segregations) is overprinted
by phyllic assemblages (quartz‐sericite‐pyrite‐
kaolinite) and surrounded by propylitic alteration.
Skarn veins, dominated by carbonate and
containing chalcopyrite pyrite and arsenopyrite,
have also been observed. The other two
prospects, Sasak and Masabo, are described
below.
4.2.1.1 Sasak district
Porphyry copper mineralization was discovered
near Sasak in 1969. It has been intermittently
explored between 1972 and 1998 by Antam,
Aberfoyle, and North Ltd, and is currently being
investigated by Victory West Moly. The
exploration activities included drilling of about 43
holes. The following account is based on Taylor
and van Leeuwen (1980), Muller (1998) and
Schwager (1998). A cross‐section is shown in
Figure 26.
The Sasak area comprises mainly andesites,
diorites and various tuff breccias, which have
been intruded by monzonite stocks and related
dykes. The region forms a large magnetic high
anomaly reflecting the high magnetite content of
the dioritic and andesitic lithologies that
dominate the geology at Sasak. The monzonites
have medium‐ to coarse‐grained porphyritic
textures and consist of large plagioclase and alkali
feldspar (up to 10mm) crystals and smaller
biotite, set in a fine‐grained groundmass of alkali
feldspar and minor quartz. No geochemical and
age dates have been reported for the intrusive
rocks, but they are likely to belong to the
Neogene potassic suite. Three types of tuff
breccias have been recognized: andesitic breccia,
polymict breccia with diorite, andesite,
monzonite and silicified siltstone fragments, and
a felsic tuff breccia, which has been described as
a “fragmented monzonite”.
The Sasak area is crosscut by a NW‐trending
structural corridor, which forms a magnetic low
anomaly, probably reflecting the presence of an
elongated monzonite stock at depth. A second
well‐developed fracture‐fault system has a NE
60
 Table 5 Selected features of porphyry Cu‐Au & Mo and Au±base metal veins systems in Western Sulawesi – examples

Deposit Class Deposit Style Host Rocks Ag/Au Metal Age (Ma) Resource Mineralogy Alteration
Name ratio signature
Malala porphyry qtz‐kfsp‐veins quartz monzonite Mo‐Cu‐Pb‐Zn 4 (HR) 100 Mt @ 0.14% mo‐mgt‐py‐sph‐ 1) qtz‐bt‐kfsp
(Anomaly B) Mo MoS2 ga‐cp 2) carb‐ser/ill‐chl
Sasak porphyry 1) disspy + cp monzonite stocks Cu‐Au‐Pb‐Zn Late py‐cp‐bo‐mgt 1) bt‐mgt
Cu‐Au 2) qtz‐kfsp‐sulph veins & dykes; breccia Miocene 2) ser‐ill‐chl
Masabo intrusion‐ 1) diss syenite dykes; Cu‐Mo‐Pb‐Zn‐ Late py‐cp‐po 1) act‐alb
related Au 2) qtzvns, micro‐ metabasalt Bo Miocene 2) bt‐mgt
fractures
Awak Mas intrusion‐ qtz‐alb‐carb meta‐sediments <1 Au‐Sb‐As (‐ ? Pliocene 41.7 Mt @ 1.23 g/t py (‐cp‐sph) alb‐carb
related vns, partly sheeted, stk, Hg) Au (2004)
Au bx 20.4 Mt @ 0.82 g/t
Au (2011)
Mangkaluku intrusion‐ qtz‐carb‐vns metasediments, <3 Au‐Ag‐As (‐ Pliocene Au as electrum; 1) kfsp‐bt‐act‐qtz
related Au qtzmonzonite Cu‐Pb‐Zn). py‐aspy (‐arg‐ 2) qtz‐chl‐ser/ill
cp‐cov) 3) qtz‐chl‐epi‐act
Poboya intrusion‐ qtz‐carb‐vns meta‐monzonite, <1 Pliocene 18 Mt @ 3.4 g/t Au py nearby zone of
related Au gneiss, schist kaol‐dick‐qtz‐al
Esang intrusion‐ qtz‐carb‐vns meta‐sediments py, arsenianpy – qtz‐ser/ill‐py
related po ‐ cp
Au

Source: van Leeuwen and Pieters (2011)

Abbreviations: see Table 3
61
Figure 26. Cross section showing geology and alteration zonation at Sasak porphyry Cu‐
Au prospect (PT North Mining Toradja, 1999)

Figure 27. Simplified geological map Masabo porphyry Cu prospect (PT

Mandar Uli Minerals)

62
trend. The NE‐and NW‐trending systems have
been interpreted to be controlled respectively by
extensional and compressional forces, related to
right lateral strike‐slip fault movement along the
nearby northerly trending Sadang fault system,
which may be the northerly extension of the East
Walanae fault system. The NE‐trending
extensional structures include narrow alteration
zones, galena veins, dykes and hydrothermal
breccias.
The Sasak porphyry system is characterized by a
zoned alteration pattern, which is typical for
porphyry Cu‐Au deposits worldwide. Propylitic
alteration extends over an area of approximately
3.5 x 2.5 km, including a zone with strong clay‐
pyrite‐jarosite alteration covering an area of 1000
x 700 m. Central potassic (biotite‐magnetite)
alteration is exposed in three zones at S. Doi, S.
Darung (~800 m NW of Doi) and S. Patani (~600
m SE of Doi). All three zones occur within the
NW‐trending structural corridor, the latter two at
the intersection of NE trending faults. The
potassic alteration is surrounded and partly
overprinted by argillic (kaolinite‐jarosite) and
phyllic (pyrite‐sericite) alteration. Late stage,
crosscutting anhydrite veins are a common
feature. In places, anhydrite replaces earlier
pyrite veins. Argillic alteration is commonly
structurally controlled.
The S. Darung zone extends over about 130 m
and is surrounded by kaolinite‐jarosite alteration,
which grades outwards into propylitic alteration.
Several quartz‐pyrite‐chalcopyrite‐sphalerite‐
galena veins occur both to the north and south of
this potassic zone and contain up to 8.9 g/t Au. At
S. Patani, the potassic zone outcrops over 80 m
and is overlain by moderately to strongly
kaolinite‐jarosite altered rocks. It contains
coherent anomalous Au and Cu values,
suggesting the possible presence of porphyry‐
style mineralization at depth. This interpretation
is consistent with the presence of argillic
alteration in the overlying and surrounding rocks,
and of potassic altered monzonite dykes
containing quartz‐pyrite‐chalcopyrite veining.
Porphyry Cu‐Au mineralization in S. Doi is hosted
by a succession of monzonitic tuff breccias and
cross‐cutting syn‐to post mineralization
monzonite dykes. It stops abruptly at 40 m
depth, truncated by a low angle fault dipping to
the N‐NE. The thrust fault has emplaced the
mineralized body on top of a polymict breccia in a
southwesterly to southeasterly direction. A
buried monzonite intrusive to the NW of Sasak
could include the lower, autochthonous part of
the mineralized porphyry system. Mineralized
quartz veins, stockworks and fractures mimic the
main structural orientations with quartz‐
Kfeldspar‐pyrite‐chalcopyrite‐bornite‐magnetite
veins being crosscut by steeply dipping NE‐
trending quartzpyritechalcopyritebornite
veins. The sulphide vein mineralization
overprints earlier disseminated magnetite‐pyrite‐
chalcopyrite mineralization. Better drill intercepts
include 76 m @ 0.4 g/t Au, 0.22% Cu and 99 m @
0.35 g/t Au, 0.25% Cu.
The Sasak district also contains intrusion‐related
base metal‐Au veins and skarn occurrences (van
Bemmelen, 1949).
4.2.1.2 Masabo (Figure 27)
The Masabo porphyry Cu prospect sits about
25km inland from the west Sulawesi coast in
rugged terrain. It was located by Rio Tinto in
1998 by following up a BLEG anomaly (136 ppb
Ag, 4 ppb Au) in S. Masabo, which initially let to
the discovery of a quartz vein in the middle
reaches of the river with significant Au, Ag and As
values. Subsequently a robust Pb stream
sediment anomaly was identified with several
areas of elevated Cu on the Masabo watershed.
A 560‐1000 ppm Cu in‐soil anomaly with elevated
B, Mo and Pb was tested by four shallow holes in
2000, two of which averaged 0.3 to 0.4% Cu for
their entire length and up to 1.0% Cu over shorter
intervals with gold being conspicuously absent.
The following description is based on a report by
Kavalieris (2001).
The Masabo prospect is hosted mainly by foliated
meta‐basalts of amphibolite facies, which belong
to the Karossa Metamorphic Complex (van
Leeuwen and Muhardjo, 2005). The meta‐basalts
have been intruded by meta‐tonalite, which
63
yielded a U/Pb zircon age of 51.5 Ma (van
Leeuwen and Muhardjo, 2005), and rare dykes of
syenite and related K‐rich intrusives, which also
contain copper mineralization. A larger body of
syenite, about 3km in diameter is exposed 1.3km
SW of the prospect area. These rocks are cut by
post‐mineralization syenodiorite dykes. The K‐
rich rocks were formed during the Middle‐Late
Miocene potassic alkaline magmatic event (see
3.2.).
Copper mineralization is closely associated with
biotite‐magnetite‐actinolite‐albite alteration
occurring in several irregular areas distributed
over several sq km, without a clear center, and
without a typical porphyry zonation. Porphyry‐
type quartz veins (<10% vol %) occur on the
margins of mineralized syenite intrusions and are
sparsely distributed in the meta‐basalts. The
main style of mineralization is finely disseminated
chalcopyrite in micro‐fractures, along foliation in
meta‐basalt, and in quartz veins. In the latter
case it in‐fills center‐lines in the veinlets and is
invariably associated with molybdenite. In
addition, chalcopyrite occurs in tourmaline‐
arsenopyrite‐pyrite veins localized by major sub‐
vertical structural zones up to several meters
wide, and in galena‐sphalerite‐carbonate veins.
Associated with the disseminated style is
pyrrhotite and minor pyrite, but the total
sulphide content is low (< 2‐3 vol %). The copper
mineralization correlates reasonably to zones of
stronger biotite alteration. A general paragenesis
for the Masabo system may be actinolite‐albite
 biotite magnetite  porphyry‐type quartz
veins with chalcopyrite‐pyrrhotite‐molybdenite
 sericite (minor)  polymetallic tourmaline and
base metal carbonate veins. A close relationship
between stages of magmatism and porphyry
veining is suggested by the intrusion of mm‐wide
aplite dykes in center‐line quartz veins.
The prospect area is cut by a series of N120E fault
zones, which may be an important control on the
porphyry system. They are intruded by post‐
mineral syenodiorite dykes and host large
tourmaline and base metal carbonate veins.
Oxidation along these structures is about 50m
deep, and significantly deeper along tourmaline
veins.
4.2.1.3 Comments
At both Sasak and Masabo porphyry
mineralization is associated with relatively small
dykes of potassic calc‐alkaline to alkaline
composition, and relatively large base metal veins
that cover a much broader area. Sasak is Au‐rich
like potassic igneous porphyry systems
worldwide, and it is enigmatic why the Masabo
system does not contain significant gold. Au‐rich
porphyries are commonly also rich in magnetite,
which at Masabo is present in relatively small
amounts only. But neither are Sasak and Mamut
in Sabah, which have Au (ppm): Cu (%) ratios ≥1.
Mamut is hosted by a potassic calc‐alkaline
intrusion. As at Masabo, pyrrhotite is associated
with chalcopyrite, and actinolite with secondary
pyrite, and tourmaline is common at the
Tampang porphyry, 10km SE of Mamut
(Kavalieris, 2001). Masabo differs from the other
two deposits in lacking porphyry‐type quartz
veins, and yet significant chalcopyrite
mineralization is found disseminated in hairline
fractures. In contrast, at both Sasak and Mamut
there is a close relationship between quartz vein
intensity and grade (Kavalieris, 2001).
4.2.2 Porphyry molybdenum
The only known significant porphyry Mo
mineralization in Indonesia is found in the Malala
District at the northern tip of the Western
Sulawesi Province. The district was discovered
during a regional porphyry Cu exploration
programme carried out by Rio Tinto in 1973,
covering an area of 1,700 km2. Several base
metal–molybdenum anomalies in stream
sediments from catchments in excess of 15 km2
were obtained, including the Takudan River
catchment, which yielded ‐80# values of 245 ppm
Cu, 390 ppm Pb, 340 ppm Zn, and 15 ppm Mo.
Follow‐up sampling in 1976 led to an exposure of
molybdenite in quartz veins, in an area named
Anomaly B. This prospect was investigated in
detail between 1977 and 1981, outlining a
geological resource of 100 Mt @ 0.14% MoS2,
which was well below the minimum target of 150
Mt @ 0.25% MoS2, a target deemed to be
economically viable at the prevailing
64
molybdenum price. Three other anomalies areas,
A, C and K were examined during the same
period, involving only surface exploration.
Following a surge in the price of molybdenum in
the mid‐2000’s renewed interest in the district
was shown by Victory West Moly, who initiated
an exploration programme in 2007 with the
prime focus on Anomaly B. Work carried out up
to mid‐2011 included limited drilling (2100 m)
and surface sampling.
The following account is based on an unpublished
report by Aspinall et al. (1980), a paper by van
Leeuwen et al. (1994), personal communications
from L Whitehouse (2009), and media releases
from Victory West Moly (VWM).
4.2.2.1 Malala district
The geology of the district consists of
metasedimentary and volcanic rocks belonging to
the Middle Eocene–Early Miocene Tinombo
Formation, which has been intruded by a suite of
porphyritic rocks, named Malala porphyries.
These porphyries occur in the roof zone of a large
intrusion, the Dondo batholith, composed of
predominantly porphyritic biotite‐hornblende
granite and biotite granite with subordinate
quartz monzonite and granodiorite. It was
emplaced/cooled around 4 Ma ago. Near some
of the intrusive contacts the Tinombo rocks have
been altered to biotite hornfels, forming contact
aureoles usually of only a few tens of metres
wide. In contrast, quartz veining commonly
extends for at least 1km beyond the intrusive
contact. In places the Tinombo rocks are present
as thin roof pendants and wedges in the intrusive
rocks.
The Malala porphyries occur as stocks and dykes.
They represent late stage differentiates of the
Dondo intrusive suite, and locally display
“unidirectional solidification textures” consisting
of subparallel, crenulated layers of quartz that
area separated by layers of intrusive material.
These textures, which are relatively common in
porphyry Mo systems, are probably the result of
quenching during cyclic vapor release. Narrow
rhyodacite dykes are the youngest magmatic
phase. They were emplaced after the main
mineralization event but before the cessation of
hydrothermal activity.
The dominant structural trends are NW and NE.
The Takudan fault is the most prominent
structure in the district, striking 040o to 60o over
a distance of about 30 km and passing through
Anomaly B. Another prominent fault is the 310o
trending AB linear, which connects Anomaly A
and B. Northerly and easterly trends are also
common, but less pronounced exposed faults,
fractures and veins suggest that dips in all four
sets are predominantly steep to vertical. The
faults appear to have been active before, during
and after the emplacement and solidification of
the batholith. Sharp truncation of some soil
geochemical anomalies indicates post‐
mineralization movement.
At Anomaly B, alteration and mineralization are
erratically developed over an area of 4 km2,
predominantly as a shell, up to 50 m thick, at the
intrusive contact, with minor mineralization
occurring in the Tinombo Formation. Another
important control is a series of NW trending,
steeply dipping fracture zones, collectively named
the East Zone. This zone, which is more than
1850 m long, 30‐300 m wide and more than 200
m deep, hosts the better mineralization (Fig 28).
Early potassic alteration and silicification is
overprinted by sericite/illite and carbonate
assemblages. Four stages of vein alteration and
mineralization have been recognized: 1) barren
quartz±K‐feldspar; 2) quartz‐K‐feldspar‐apatite‐
molybdenite; 3) sericite‐chlorite‐carbonate and
base metal sulphides; and 4) carbonate and
kaoline/dickite.
Stage 1 veining is multiphase. Early veins are
highly irregular, discontinuous and pod‐like,
commonly showing plastic deformation, whereas
younger veins tend to have sub‐parallel walls and
may be zoned with respect to quartz and K‐
feldspar. Locally the veins form stockwork bodies
with quartz constituting is up to 85% of the host
rock.These occur close to or straddle the SW
margin of the East Zone extending vertically over
300 m with a maximum thickness of about 130 m.
Stage II vein silicate assemblages are similar to
65
the intrusive wall‐rock groundmass in terms of
composition and in the case of quartz also
texture, with vein and groundmass quartz locally
merging. The nature of the Stage I and II veins
combined with the presence of disseminated
molybdenite intergrown with primary biotite in
the host intrusive and high salinities and
formation temperatures of stage I and II fluids,
suggests that the ore forming fluids exsolved
directly from the crystallizing magma. The
dominance of Mo over Cu can be readily
explained by the strongly fractionated nature of
the intrusive rocks (Sillitoe, 1994).
On a prospect‐wide scale there is no distinct
alteration and metal zoning, which earlier
workers interpreted to indicate that the
mineralization and alteration formed in a closed
high pressure system with small thermal and
chemical gradients. However, recent drilling
through the East Zone has shown a distinct lateral
zonation, from SW to NE, barren quartz
stockworks  potassic alteration overprinted by
sericite‐carbonate containing molybdenite and
minor chalcopyrite  propylitic alteration with
pyrite, chalcopyrite and minor molybdenite 
galena and sphalerite, suggesting more
pronounced thermo‐chemical gradients within
the major fault zone. In the northern part of the
East Zone bornite‐magnetite mineralization is
found at a relatively high level grading upwards in
a Zn zone, which may possibly indicate vertical
zoning as well.
The Anomaly A prospect is located about 10 km
NW of Anomaly B. (This would seem to be the
same area referred to as Promitis by VWM,
described as a new discovery). It appears to have
been down faulted relative to the latter area, as a
result of which much more Tinombo roof
pendant rocks have been observed. Another
difference is that while at Anomaly B the main
intrusive‐Tinombo contacts are predominantly
vertical, at Anomaly A they tend to be more
gently dipping. Contact features vary in width
from a few hundred metres to several kilometers.
They include dyke swarms, and shearing,
hornfelsing and silicification of the Tinombo
rocks.
The prospect is defined by three stream
sediment‐soil anomalies. A weak Mo in soil
anomaly, covering an area of about 1.5 km2, is
located in the northern part. A Cu‐Mo anomaly,
measuring 1200 m x 600 m, is found to the south.
The most prominent feature is a Pb‐Zn anomaly
which is about 15 km2 in size. Cu is locally
anomalous and detectable Au in soil is
widespread. Zones of higher Pb (+1000 ppm) and
Zn (+400 ppm) are linear and trend 310‐320o, i.e.
parallel to the AB linear, suggesting strong
structural control. An interesting aspect is that
soil values generally increase with decreasing
elevation, suggesting an increase in
mineralization intensity downwards.
Pyrite, galena and sphalerite are widespread, but
molybdenite is rarely seen. The total sulphide
budget is up to 3 volume % in the most intensely
altered area. The sulphides occur as
disseminations and veinlets in the intrusive rocks,
coatings on fractures in the meta‐sediments,
veins, and mineralized shears. The total sulphide
budget is considerable, but nowhere were galena
and sphalerite found in sufficient concentrations
to be of economic interest. Hypothetically,
porphyry‐type mineralization may be present at
depths, although at the surface there is no
evidence for sufficient ground preparation.
Anomaly C is located about 4 km NE of Tolitoli. It
is characterized by a 1000 m x 600 m Cu‐Mo‐Pb in
soil anomaly. Quartz monzonite‐diorite dykes
located about 3 km SW of a dioritic batholith
intrude Tinombo meta‐volcaniclastics. They
appear to be randomly orientated, are mostly
narrow, and show patchy quart‐sericite
alteration. Pyrite is the dominant sulphide phase
occurring as fracture surface coatings in the
Tinombo rocks or as disseminations in dykes and
surrounding alteration haloes. Traces of
molybdenite and galena were observed in narrow
pyritic shears and minor chalcopyrite in silicified
rock.
4.2.2.2 Comments
Two major classes of porphyry Mo deposits have
been generally recognized: 1) high grade, rift‐
related deposits accompanied by F‐rich, highly
66
evolved rhyolitic stocks, and 2) low grade, arc‐
related deposits accompanied by F‐poor calc‐
alkaline stocks or plutons (e.g. Westra and Keith,
1981). Malala closely fits the second category. It
differs mainly in its tectonic setting, which for
most other F‐poor deposits is believed to be a
subduction‐related compressional environment
with mantle‐dominated plutonism (Sillitoe, 1980).
As mentioned earlier, during the Neogene
Western Sulawesi was characterized by a post‐
subduction, extensional regime. Furthermore, the
CAK suites that host the mineralization were
most likely derived from melting of lower crustal
rocks (eg Polve et al., 1997; Elburg and Foden,
1999; Elburg et al., 2003). However, the granitic
rocks associated with the Malala mineralization
have a chemical compositionthat is similar to that
of other F‐poor deposits, suggesting that magma
chemistry may be a more important control than
tectonic setting.
4.2.3 Volcanogenic massive sulphides
In the Sangkaropi district Kuroko‐type VMS
mineralization is present at three localities,
Sangkaropi, Rumanga and Bilolo, forming a linear
distribution along a SW‐NE trend. Small scale
mining was carried out by the Japanese during
World War II. In 1974, Antam embarked on a
major exploration programme that lasted for a
number of years and involved detailed shallow
drilling. Aberfoyle investigated the area as part of
a COW exploration programme that took place
between 1987 and 1994. An UTEM survey was
carried out, but no significant mineralization was
found. The mineralization forms lenses, up to 70
m long and 18m wide, at the contact of a rhyolitic
tuff‐lava unit and an underlying andesite unit.
The rhyolite unit is overlain by marls containing
Middle (?) Oligocene foraminifera assemblages
(Jones and Kristianto, 1994) indicating an
Oligocene age for the mineralization. Yoshida et
al. (1982) recognize two styles of mineralization:
i) syngenetic brecciated to stratiform massive
sulphide ore, and ii) epigenetic vein and
stockwork‐type underlying the brecciated to
stratiform ore. A thin layer of barite covers the
ore lenses.
Three ore types have been described by Jurkovic
and Zalokar (1990): i) yellow ore consisting of
pyrrhotite and pyrite and later abundant
chalcopyrite with minor amounts of sphalerite,
tetrahedrite and enargite; ii) black ore that is
composed of pyrite, sphalerite and tetrahedrite
and accessory chalcopyrite, chalcocite and
galena, and iii) impregnation ore consisting of
pyrite disseminated in silicified host rocks.
Quartz is the dominant gangue mineral. Yoshida
et al. (1982) report a wide range of fluid inclusion
filling temperatures, including 250o‐160o C for
stockwork ore, 184o‐160o C for sphalerite, and
280o to 200o C for druse quartz in stratiform ore;
the latter temperature range is typical of Kuroko
mineralization in Japan. Assuming that the
maximum temperature of mineralization was
about 280o C and taking into consideration the
lack of boiling phenomena, the authors conclude
that ore deposition took place at a sea depth of
not less than 640 m.
4.2.4 Gold in metamorphic terrains
Relatively coarse‐grained high‐purity alluvial gold
derived from metamorphic complexes in the
northern part of Western Sulawesi is widespread,
but most important in the Moutong and
Molosipat catchment area in the Malino
Metamorphic Complex and in the Upper Lariang
River that has its catchment in the Palu
Metamorphic Complex. In both areas auriferous
quartz occurs as lenses and layers, up to several
metres thick along foliation and as narrow
(generally <0.5 m) cross‐cutting veins. In the
former area the veins are predominantly hosted
by greenschist, whereas in the latter higher grade
metamorphic rocks are the host (Kavalieris et al.,
1992). In the Malino Metamorphic Complex the
cross cutting veins fill gashes and form irregular
stockworks, consistent with hydrofracturing.
They were formed after ductile formation and
peak metamorphism, probably during uplift and
extension of the metamorphic terrain. Ag/Au
ratios are typically <1 (Kavalieris, 1991).
Kavalieris et al. (1992) point out that the gold
mineralization is comparable to mineralization in
the Otago Schist, New Zealand, described by
Henley et al. (1976).
67
Figure 28. Cartoon showing geology and mineralization/alteration
distribution at Malala porphyry Mo prospect

Figure 29. Simplified geological map of Awak Mas district showing

prospect locations (modified after Querubin, 2011)

68
 Figure 30. Simplified geological map of Palopo district showing prospect locations

Figure 31. Summary geology of Mangkaluku prospect with interpreted vein and
alteration zones (after Mclean, 2010)

69
Figure 32. NW‐SE section through drill holes MLD006 showing interpreted
sheeted vein system; location of section shown in Figure 31 (after McLean, 2010)

Figure 33. Simplified geological map of Poboya prospect (PT Citra Palu Mining)

70
The alluvial and hard rock gold has been known
for many years to local miners. More recent is
the discovery of three primary mineralization
prospects/districts i.e. Poboya in the Palu
Metamorphic Complex, and Palopo and Awak
Mas in the Latimojong Complex and adjacen
rocks. These three deposits have several features
in common: 1) they are located close to a major
structure; 2) there is no spatial relationship with
volcanic rocks; 3) Ag/Au ratios and base metal
contents are low; and 4) quartz and carbonate
are the dominant gangue minerals. Paboya
appears to have formed at a higher structural
level than the other two deposits.
4.2.4.1 Awak Mas district (Figure 29)
The following account is based on Katchan
(1994), Archibald et al. (1996), Cox et al. (1998),
RGS Global (2004), and Querubin et al. (2011).
The Awak Mas deposit is located together with
four satellite prospects in the foothills of the
Latimojong Mountains, 67 km southwest of
Palopo. The project area is characterized by
moderate to rugged topography with elevations
in the range of 800 to 1,500 m above sea level.
Extensive pre‐existing workings infilled with
mechanically crushed sand have been
encountered in drilling. The age of these
workings has not been ascertained.
The deposit was (re‐)discovered in 1989 by New
Hope Consolidated Industries Pty Ltd (NHCL)
during a regional exploration programme. In
1991, Battle Mountain Gold entered into a farm‐
in agreement with NHCL. Initial drilling of 74
diamond drill holes outlined significant
mineralization. However, Battle Mountain
decided to withdraw from the project and sold
their interest to Lone Star Exploration (LSE), who
in turn on sold 45% interest to Gasgoyne Gold
mines NL (GGM). The two companies drilled 791
holes (DDH and RC) at Awak Mas with an
aggregate meterage of about 95,800m between
1993 and 1997. In 1996, a feasibility study was
undertaken based on a 3 Mt per annum mining
and milling rate. In 1998 Placer Dome entered
into a joint venture agreement with Masmindo
Mining Corporation Ltd (MMC), in which LSE and
GGM each held 45% equity. They withdrew a
year later after having drill tested two of the
satellite prospects, viz. Salu Bulo, where a
geological resource of 160,000‐230,000 ounces of
gold was outlined, and Tarra. A total of 43 holes
with an aggregate meterage of about 3,400 m
were drilled.
The project was acquired by Vista Gold
Corporation in 2004. This company carried out
various studies and in 2006 drill tested two other
satellite prospects named Rante and Lematik,
which involved drilling of 13 holes totaling
around 2,570 m. In late 2009, after having
assumed the development for the Awak Mas
project, Pan Asia Resources Ltd (since renamed
One Asia Resources Ltd) embarked on a drilling
programme with the aim of upgrading the
inferred resource category into a measured
and/or indicated category. By mid 2011 75 holes
(5,137m) had been completed.
In all, 1,012 holes totaling 118,081 m have been
drilled and over US$ 30 million has been spent.
The Awak Mas district is situated in the southern
part of the Latimojong Complex. To the west it is
separated from the Eocene Toraja Formation by
an easterly dipping thrust, whereas the eastern
margin is defined by a major basement structure
(mélange) against which the Lamasi Ophiolite
Complex is juxtaposed. The Latimojong Complex
comprises the weakly metamorphosed
Latimojong Formation, an Upper Cretaceous
turbiditic flysch sequence with intercalations of
andesitic volcanics and limestone, and higher
grade metamorphic basement rocks, including
blueschists and other schist types, serpentinite
and metadolerite, showing in places highly
contorted foliation. The metamorphic units are
intruded by plugs and stocks of diorite,
monzonite and syenite, probably belonging to the
Neogene high‐K calc‐alkaline to alkaline suites.
The basement rocks belong to a mid‐Cretaceous
dismembered accretion zone that extended from
Central Sulawesi and through to the Bantimala
Complex in Java (Parkinson et al., 1998). In the
Awak Mas district drilling has indicated that the
basement rocks form an approximately 250 m
71
thick slab, which is tectonically intercalated
within the flysch sequence. In this area the flysch
rocks are foliated metapelites and
metapsammites with protoliths including
graphitic mudstone, predominantly greenish
mudstone to siltstone, and fine‐grained lithic
sandstone. The sequence is capped by foliated,
coarse‐grained, tuffaceous sandstone, which is
largely confined to ridge crests.
Sheared/mylonitic intervals occur as interbeds
oriented parallel to sub‐parallel to foliation,
frequently between major structures. These are
represented by a series of NNE to NE trending,
parallel to sub‐parallel, sub‐vertical fault zones.
Syn‐ to post‐mineralization movements have
resulted in the displacement of mineralized zones
in the Awak Mas prospect. Early dextral
displacement appears to have shifted
subsequently towards sinistral movement.
Gold mineralization in the Awak Mas district is
predominantly hosted within the Upper
Cretaceous flysch sequence that generally dips
15o to 50o to the north. It is commonly
associated with abundant quartz veining and
accompanied by albite‐pyrite‐quartz‐carbonate
alteration which overprints ductile fabrics.
Mineralization is preferentially localized in the
dark graphitic mudstones with minor amounts in
the green mudstones, especially where these
rocks are tectonically interleaved with the dark
mudstones. It also is found in the basement
schists and associated with shear zones in the
ophiolite sequence. Oblique normal faults, as
well as extensional shears and fractures, formed
in response to extensional deformation, serve as
local control to mineralization as does the
orientation of the host foliation. The depth of
oxidation is maximum 20 m.
Two main styles of mineralization are present,
both being mesothermal in character; one as
shallow dipping zones of sheeted quartz veining
and associated alteration that are broadly parallel
to the shear fabric, particularly in the dark
mudstones, and the other as steeper zones
associated with high angle faults cutting both
basement schists and the flysch sequence. The
steeply dipping faults and shear zones are
associated with repeated silica flooding and
brecciation. They may represent the main
feeders to mineralization where higher grade
gold intercepts are closely related to elevated
values of silver and other metals.
The results of limited mineralogical studies
suggest that gold occurs as either inclusions in
pyrite, or along contacts between pyrite grains. It
also occurs together with trace amounts of
chalcopyrite and sphalerite as inclusions within
the pyrite. Other sulphide species observed are
covellite, arsenopyrite, bornite, and tetrahedrite.
Although the mineralization is predominantly a
gold‐pyrite association, the alteration system is
overall sulphur‐poor. Mineralized quartz veins
are surrounded by an outer chlorite alteration
halo and inner albite±carbonate halo. The term
chlorite alteration is probably misleading as this
type of alteration marks the oxidation of
carbonaceous matter to carbonate, which is
accompanied by a change in colour from
grey/black to green. The chlorite/oxidation front
extends from a few meters to a maximum of 10
m from the mineralized veins. The well‐
developed oxidation front and rare presence of
hematite attest to the oxidizing nature of the
mineralizing fluids. Carbonate species in wall
rock and veins include calcite, ankerite and
dolomite. They are probably mostly derived
locally by oxidation of the host rocks. Intense
albite alteration forms haloes around
mineralization varying from a few tens of
centimeters to a meter wide.
Archibald et al. (1996) note that the flysch
sequence is unlikely to be a source of the gold
owing to the low gold contents generally inherent
to these types of sedimentary rocks. If the source
of the fluids was the Neogene potassic igneous
suites, potassic‐rich assemblages would be
expected as alteration products. A more likely
source for the fluids are the basement blueschists
and associated serpentinites and/or adjacent
ophiolites.
Intense sodic metasomatism invariably
accompanies low/medium temperature seafloor
hydrothermal alteration, an environment where
gold being leached from the basaltic‐gabbroic
rocks would be expected.
72

Archibald et al. (1996) and Cox et al. (1998) infer
that the gold mineralization took place between
8‐6 Ma based on cross‐cutting relationships,
radiometric dating and superimposition of likely
fluid temperatures on fission track uplift curves.
The radiometric age and fission track data are
from Bergman et al. (1996).
The current Measured and Indicated Mineral
Resources at Awak Mas amount to 41.7 Mt at
1.23 g/t au and additional Inferred Mineral
Resources to 20.4 Mt at 0.82 g/t Au, in both cases
using a cut‐off grade of 0.50 g/t Au.
4.2.4.2 Palopo district (Figure 30)
The following description has been summarized
from a report written by Mclean (2010) ,
information provided by P. Flindell (written com.,
2008)and a recent paper by Musri et al (2011a),
which is based on a MSc thesis carried out by the
senior author (Musri, 2001).
There are anecdotal reports of prospecting for
gold and base metals in the region during the
Dutch colonial times and of gold panning in the
Latuppa River in the 1960s. In the course of a
stream sampling programme carried out by
Antam in the region in the late 1990s a number
of Au‐Pb‐Zn‐Cu anomalies were located. Follow‐
up exploration led to the discovery of the
Mangkaluku and Siguntu prospects, located
about 6 and 10 km southwest of Palopo
respectively, and several other prospects.
Trenching at Mangkaluku outlined extensive
widths of gold mineralization, but drill testing (11
holes, 1831 m) of these zones returned mostly
narrow mineralized intercepts, and Antam
subsequently relinquished the ground.
Following a review of the geological and
exploration data for the region Avocet selected a
150,000 ha area in CW Sulawesi in 2005, which
after a preliminary assessment was reduced to
the Palopo block. Trenching and channel
sampling was carried out at Mangkaluku over
outcropping mineralization as well as anomalous
areas identified by soil sampling, which was
followed‐up by a 12 hole drilling programme. As
with the Antam drilling it did not confirm the
surface extent of the mineralization, possibly
reflecting near‐surface supergene enrichment,
although the rocks are not deeply weathered.
Ownership of the property changed hands in
2010/11 via Reliance Resources Ltd to Golden
Peaks Resources Ltd.
The geological setting of the Palopo district is
similar to that of the Awak Mas district; the
mineralized area straddles the boundary between
mafic volcanics belonging to the Lamasi Ophiolite
Complex and metasediments of the Upper
Cretaceous Latimojong Formation, which have
been intruded by the latest Miocene Palopo
Granite. The granitoids are of monzonite to
monzodiorite composition and show weak
foliated textures.
At Mangkaluku, gold mineralization is hosted by
quartz‐carbonate veins containing pyrite and
arsenopyrite (<3%), that are controlled by faults
and shears developed predominantly within
coarse, porphyritic monzodiorite. The veins are
concentrated in two NNE to NE trending zones,
each comprising both numerous discrete, in
places close spaced sheeted quartz veins as well
as multiple vein zones (Figures 31 and 32). Vein
zones are 0.5 m to tens of metres wide, with
individual veins within the zones varying from 5
to 30 cm in width. The western zone measures
about 300 m by 100 m, and contains moderately
to steeply WNW dipping quartz‐sulphide veins.
The eastern zone is more laterally extensive but
less continuous. It contains both vein zones and
individual veins of variable orientations. Both
mineralized zones are commonly displaced by
later cross cutting faults.
Three main alteration assemblages have been
recognized at Mangkaluku: i) biotite +/‐Kfeldspar‐
actinolite‐quartz‐chlorite (potassic); ii) quartz‐
chlorite‐sericite (phyllic), and iii) quartz‐chlorite
epidote‐actinolite‐calcite (propylitic). The
potassic alteration is overprinted by the other
two types. Narrow alteration vein selvages (1.5
cm) are best developed in volcanic host rocks
compared to intrusive host rocks, and where
veins are closely spaced. Alteration assemblages
include albite‐sericite, carbonate‐chlorite,
73
sericite‐silica and carbonate‐chlorite‐kaolinite.
Higher gold grades would appear to be associated
with silica‐sericite assemblages. Carbonate
phases are dominated by dolomite and ankerite.
Mineralization occurred in multiple episodes as
indicated by banded veins and cross cutting vein
relationships. This and the variety in vein
orientations may reflect a changing stress field
during mineralization. The much stronger vein
development in the monzodiorite as compared to
the volcanics suggests that the more competent
nature of the former facilitated more effectively
the development of dilational faults. At least four
generations of veining have been recognized, the
oldest having porphyry‐type affinity. Gold
mineralization is closely associated with
arsenopyrite and pyrite and with lesser amounts
of chalcopyrite, covellite and chalcocite in two
vein generations. Gold is present as electrum and
is accompanied by argentite. High gold values in
some veins are related to supergene enrichment
in the top 5m, where scorodite is a common
constituent. Arsenopyrite occurs as bands within
massive quartz veins and within laminated quartz
veins which contain only minor sulphide.
Carbonates appear late in the vein paragenesis.
Fluid inclusion measurements on 19 vein samples
yielded three ranges of homogenization
temperatures; i)140o and 170o C; ii) 200o and 270o
C; and iii) 280o and 340o C. Salinities vary from
0.2% to 6.2% wt NaCl equiv. No information is
available regardingfrom what vein material and
which generations of veining the data were
obtained.
At the Siguntu prospect, located about 5 km SW
of Mangkaluku, the mineralization occurs in
massive to crystalline quartz with accessory
pyrite and base metal sulphides hosted in the
contact zone between foliated monzonite and
metasediments. They may be the equivalent of
the porphyry‐type veins observed at Mangkaluku.
Alteration haloes around the veins are relatively
narrow selvages of silica‐chlorite and clay‐silica‐
sericite. No drill testing has yet been undertaken
because of forestry issues, but artisan miners
have been active.
Other prospects include Bilantungan (hosted by
basaltic andesites and metasedimentary rock),
Mangkaluku North (faulted contact between
monzodiorite and metasedimentary rocks), Babak
(monzodiorite), and Battang. These have
undergone limited exploration todate.
The age of the mineralization in the Palopo
district is constrained by the age of the Palopo
Granite, which has yielded 3 biotite K‐Ar ages of
5.4±0.2 to 6.8±0.3 Ma, four hornblende K‐Ar ages
of 6.0±0.3 to 10.7±1.1 Ma and three zircon fission
track ages of around 6.3 Ma (Bergman et al.,
1996). Thus the age of the mineralization is latest
Miocene or younger.
4.2.4.3 Poboya (Figure 33)
Discovered by Rio Tinto in 1994, the Poboya
prospect, also known as Palu prospect, was
drilled tested in 1996‐1998 (33 holes, 7966 m), by
which time a Taman Hutan Raya (Great Forest
Park) was established, the western border of
which cut through the prospect area. Mining is
not allowed in this type of park. More recently
the area, which at the time of its discovery was
not known to contain gold, has witnessed a high
level of local mining activity. Because of these
two factors, no significant explorationwas carried
out between 1999 and 2010, during which period
ownership of the project changed hands twice
(Newcrest and Bumi Resources). A resource and
reserve delineation programme started in
September 2011 and is expected to be completed
by mid‐2012 (Wajdi et al., 2011).
The following account is largely based on reports
by Marten (1999) and Walker and Angeles (1999),
an information memorandum prepared by
Newcrest Mining (2004), and a paper by Wajdi et
al. (2011).
The prospect is interpreted to consist of a
number of gently SW‐dipping sheet‐like quartz‐
carbonate bodies that are exposed in three main
areas and are referred to as Reef 1, 2 and 3..The
reefs strike WNW, have strike lengths of up to 2.5
km, and are up to 200 m wide.
74
The mineralization is hosted by variable foliated,
brittle monzonite and biotite gneiss, passing
downward into ductile chlorite‐biotite schist with
intercalations of feldspar‐porphyroblast schist,
belonging to the Palu Metamorphic Complex
(PMC). The schists contain a strong tectonic
fabric that is parallel to the foliation in the biotite
gneiss. Young fan‐conglomerates (Celebes
Molasse) drape the metamorphic basement to
the west and contain fragments of quartz reef
material and altered country rock.
Veining at the Poboya prospect displays a
progression from metamorphic, syn‐ductile
deformation veining, through porphyry‐style
propylitic veins, to auriferous calcite‐quartz veins.
The latter type, which is the most important one
from an economic point of view, shows typical
high‐level epithermal vein textures, such as
colloform‐crustiform banding, bladed carbonated
pseudomorphs, gel‐like chalcedonic quartz, and
bladed and blocky calcite. The common presence
of bladed carbonate in outcrop and drill holes
suggests the mineralization investigated todate
represents a relatively shallow part of the system.
Individual veins are very variable in terms of
thickness (1cm to >10m), orientation and grade
distribution. The main vein in Reef 1 (also
referred to as River Vein Zone) is enveloped by
an up to 20 m wide zone of Au‐bearing
chalcedonic quartz‐carbonate stockwork veining,
with vein thickness in the 1‐5 cm range. The
relationship between the two vein styles has not
yet been established.
Gold is generally not visible in hand specimen,
even not in outcrop containing bonanza grades,
including 150 m @ 15 g/t and 55 m @ 47 g/t Au
(not true widths). It is present as inclusions in
pyrite and as anhedral grains up to 50 microns in
diameter. Ag/Au ratios are on the order of 1:2.
Pyrite is present in trace amounts only, and no
base metal sulphides have been observed. Thin
lines of greyish fine‐grained sulphides are
commonly observed along vein edges. A gravitational collapse along early ductile low‐
coincident Au+Sb+As+Ag+Mn soil geochemistry
anomaly clearly defines the trace of the reefs. A
limited amount of oriented core measurements
suggest a dominant ENE strike of individual gold‐
bearing veins, dipping to the SW at moderate to
steep angles. A geological resource of about 18
Mt @ 3.4 g/t Au has been estimated.
Argillic wall rock alteration is primarily associated
with the veining. Spatially, and probably also
genetically, related to the mineralization is a zone
of kaolinite‐dickite‐silica‐alunite alteration. The
alunite is hypogene in nature. It contains high
atmospheric argon indicating dominance of
meteoric hydrothermal fluids. It probably
represents acid leaching above a boiling water
table. An alunite sample yielded a K‐Ar age of
1.65 Ma and the post‐mineralization fan
conglomerates contain a Pleistocene planktonic
fauna (van Leeuwen and Muhardjo, 2005). This
evidence combined with the fact that the host
rocks of the mineralization were metamorphosed
and exhumed only 7‐3 Ma ago (van Leeuwen et
al., in prep.) suggests a Late Pliocene age for the
mineralization.
The structural setting of the Poboya prospect is
very complex. Drilling has defined a gently to
moderately SW dipping fault zone termed the
Footwall Fault (FF). This fault displays post‐
mineral movement truncating mineralized zones
and containing fragments of mineralized rock. It
probably also had syn‐mineral movement and is
thought to be the primary conduit for gold‐
bearing fluids. The FF is marked by a 20‐30 m
thick zone of gauge and strong fracturing. It
overprints and generally mimics an earlier ductile
fault zone marked by mylonite. Relatively thick
fault zones with moderate to steep dips, some
hosting quartz veins, are interpreted to be splays
of the FF having listric geometry with respect to
the latter. The area is also transected by high‐
angle fault zones striking ENE and NW.
The structural framework has been interpreted to
have been developed in response to extension
above a detachment fault, which was driven by
rapid uplift of the metamorphic complex to the
east of the Palu Fault Zone with resultant
angle faults. As the elevated rock column cooled,
faulting transitional from ductile to brittle
deformation developed with superimposition of
brittle structure onto ductile mylonitic fault
zones. Initiation of a pull‐apart basin along the
75
Palu Fault Zone west of Palu probably marked the
beginning of high‐angle extensional faulting in
the area.
4.2.4.4 Comments
As mentioned earlier, the origin and classification
of the Awak Mas, Palopo and Poboyadeposits is
problematic. For convenience sake we refer to
these deposis as the central Western
Sulawesi(CWS) gold deposits.
P. Flindell (written com., 2008) and McLean
(2010) suggested that Mangkaluku is an orogenic
lode deposit. The former notedsimilarities
between Poboya and high‐level orogenic gold
deposits found in Peninsular Malaysia.
Originally, the orogenic model applied strictly to
syn‐tectonic vein type deposits formed at mid‐
crustal levels in compressional or transpressional
setting related to accretionary/subduction or
collisional processes (cf Robert et al., 2007).
However, the term has been progressively
broadened to include deposits that are post‐
orogenic relative to processes at their crustal
depth of formation. This has led to significant
ambiguity. Sillitoe and Thompson (1998) have
pointed out that orogenic deposits are often
difficult to distinguish from intrusion‐related
deposits which formed directly from fluid
exsolution during granitoid emplacement within
metamorphic rocks.
Using the expanded classification, McLean (2010)
assigned the gold mineralization in the
Palopodistrict to the orogenic gold category on
the basis that; 1) the mineralization is
mesothermal in character, 2) gold is associated
with late stage sulphur‐poor sodic‐rich fluids
producing albite‐pyrite‐silica‐carbonate
alteration, and 3) gold mineralization is
structurally controlled in sheeted and stockwork
quartz veins located within shear zones and late
stage brittle fractures related to a regional
tectonic event.Musri et al. (2011) on the other
hand favour an intrusion‐related origin for the
mineralization, which they suggest formed
proximal to the source intrusion based on its low
Ag/Au ratios.
An extensional setting is envisaged by Marten
(1999) for the Poboya deposit. He interprets the
structural framework to have developed in
response to extension above a major detachment
fault driven by rapid uplift of the metamorphic
(core) complex. Alteration and mineralization
resulted from a hydrothermal system initiated by
juxtaposition of hot lower plate rocks with cool
upper plate rocks along a detachment fault.
Proximity to metamorphic core complexes and
associated detachment faults has been observed
in a number of gold deposits and prospects
elsewhere in the world, including in the SE
California/SW Arizona region (e.g. Spencer et al.,
1986), the eastern Rhodope Massif in Bulgaria
(Marchev et al., 2002), and the Modern Massif in
Turkey (Yigit, 2009). Sillitoe and Hedenquist
(2003), who note that most of the Au veins are
not hosted by the detachment faults themselves,
assign these deposits and prospects to the low‐
sulphidation epithermal class. A different model
is proposed by Wajdi et al (2011), which
envisages that the mineralization is related to the
retrorade stage of a contact metamorphic
event.This eventt is characterized by epidote
formationfollowed by chlorite and relatively
strong development of quartz‐chlorite‐pyrite
veining, and late stage calcite and chlorite‐
smectite. Assuming that indeed such a genetic
connection exists and our interpretation that the
Poboya mineralization is of Pliocene age is
correct, it follows that it is most likely that the
contact metamorphic‐mineralizing event was
caused by CAK magmatism. In this context it is of
interest to note that mineralization of similar
character to the Poboya mineralization has been
found associated with CAK granitoids at Anggasan
to the north of the Malala porphyry molybdenum
district (Purnomo, 1998; Newcrest Mining, 2004).
Archibald et al. (1996) and Cox et al. (1998)
propose a model for Awak Mas whereby the
mineralization was induced by the onset of rapid
uplift following soon after Miocene continental
collision, which resulted in the obduction of the
Lamasi Ophiolite Complex over the basement and
the Latimojong Complex. The rapid uplift
induced hydraulic fracturing in zones of high D2
76
strain. Circulation of hydrothermal fluids
occurred in response to the regional high
geothermal gradient associated with the rapid
uplift of the Latimojong Mountains. These fluids
are inferred to have been of metamorphic and/or
meteoric origin.
In summary, several models have been proposed
for the CWS gold deposits invoking either an
orogenic origin, a direct or indirect connection
with igneous activity, rapid uplift and associated
high geothermal gradient, or gold deposition
caused by detachment fault tectonics. The CWS
deposits have a number of features in common
with orogenic gold deposits. In addition to the
ones listed by McLean (2010), these include a
tendancy of higher gold grades to be associated
with carbonaceous rocks, as seen at Awak Mas,
and salinities of < 12% observed at Mangkaluku,
and a spatial association with greenschist facies
rocks (cf. Goldfarb et al., 2005). The main
objection we have against the orogenic gold
model for the CWS deposits is that they were
formed more than 50 my after the tectonic event
that metamorphosed (part) of the host rocks,
whereas orogenic gold deposits most consistently
develop in the latter stages of still ongoing
regional deformation in the host metamorphic
terranes (Goldfarb et al., 2005).
The other models have in common that they are
linked to various aspects of the Pliocene tectonic
event that took place in Western Sulawesi,
including voluminous magmatism, rapid uplift
and high heat flow. The fact that in some places,
like in the Palopo district and at Anggasan, the
gold mineralization is hosted by young CAK
granitoids does not constitute by itself evidence
for a direct connection. If the porphyry type
alteration/mineralization observed at Palopo
forms part of the same magmatic/hydrothermal
event that gave rise to the later stages of gold
mineralization, this would support more strongly
such a relationship.
Based on the above observations were have
assigned the CWS deposits to the intrusion‐
related gold deposit category in the broadest
sense, without implying any specific genetic
model. Regardless of their origin, they appear to
be one of the more interesting deposit types in
Western Sulawesi from an exploration point of
view.
4.2.5 Intrusion‐related base metal ± gold veins
Examples of base metal ± gold veins that are not
located around (known) porphyry Cu systems are
found at Baturappe and Esang.
At Baturappe, which was already known in the
late 1960s (Supardi, 1970), more than 20 quartz
veins hosted by late Middle–Miocene basalts
intruded by adiorite–granodiorite stocks and
numerous dykes occur in three zones: Bincanai,
Baturappe and Bangkowa. These have been
described by Nur et al. (2010). Individual veins
are narrow and consist of quartz, siderite and
sulphides showing multiphase crustiform
banding. Bincanai and Bangkowa contain
intermediate sulphidation assemblages (pyrite,
chalcopyrite and tetrahedrite± tennantite,
galena, sphalerite and polybasite, whereas
Baturappe also locally contains enargite and
covellite indicating a high sulphidation
component. Fluid inclusion formation
temperatures for the three veins systems are
2300C, 2800C and 2600C respectively.The average
salinity is 2.2 wt % NaCl equiv.
Esang was found by North Ltd in the late 1990s
by following up BLEG, stream sediment and pan
concentrate anomalies. Since 2004 Antam has
carried out investigations in the prospect area,
including detailed mapping, trenching, IP and
ground magnetic surveys, and limited drilling.
The following brief description is based on an
unpublished North report (PT North Mining
Toradja,1998) and a paper by Aryani and Sinaga
(2010).
The geology of the area consists of
metasediments and metavolcanics belonging to
the Upper Cretaceous Latimojong Formation,
which are intruded by monzonite and diorite.
The rocks have undergone extensive silica‐clay‐
pyrite and chlorite‐pyrite±carbonate alteration
and are cut by a prominent NW‐trending fracture
77
zone. This is also the main trend of the
mineralization, which occurs as veins, up to 2 m
thick, in (meta)volcanics and as millimeter to
microsize foliation replacement in
metasediments in a 500 m long zone.
Gangue minerals consist of varying amounts of
quartz, carbonate and sericite‐clay. The
mineralization is sulphide‐rich with pyrite and
pyrrhotite as the dominant phases. Minor
chalcopyrite and arsenian pyrite are also present.
Gold grades range between 1.0 and 98.6 g/t, and
copper grades between 0.2 and 18.7%. The veins
are also locally high in Zn and As. Aryani and
Sinaga (2010) suggest that the mineralization
formed as a cupola over an intrusive body.
4.2.6 Iron
Several iron‐rich skarns have been found in
Western Sulawesi including at Salo Talimbangan
in the central part of the province, which is rich in
iron (60%) and contains some copper, but is very
irregular and of limited size (van Bemmelen,
1949). Small magnetite bodies are found near
Tandjung in SW Sulawesi associated with garnet,
pyroxene and epidote alteration (Widi et al.,
2007). The magnetite, which locally shows
malachite staining, occurs both in massive form
and as disseminations. The skarn is developed in
a small tectonic block of Pre‐Tertiary
metamorphics (Jaya and Nishihawa, 2011) which
are intruded by the Biru Intrusive Complex from
which Middle Eocene and Late Miocene K‐Ar ages
have been obtained (van Leeuwen, 1981; Elburg
et al., 2002). Widi et al. (2007) report Fe grades
varying from 59% to 67%.
A different type of iron deposit is present at Biru,
located 5km NE of Tandjung. It consists of
secondary manganiferous ironstones formed
after hydrothermal magnetite and sulphides. The
prospect was investigated in the mid‐1970s
(including limited drilling) by Rio Tinto with base
metal mineralization at depth as the target.
Recently a domestic company initiated
exploration to test the prospect’s iron potential.
The following account is mainly based on an
unpublished report by van Leeuwen (1976) with
additional information obtained from A. Sumantri
(pers. comm., 2011) and a paper by Widi et al.
(2007).
Numerous manganiferous ironstone bodies occur
scattered over an area of about 5km2 and locally
contain significant quantities of secondary Pb and
Ag minerals. The area is underlain by Eocene
volcanics and Eocene to Middle Miocene
limestone (Tonasa Formation), which have been
intruded by andesitic dykes and are partly
covered by Neogene volcanics. They are mostly
concentrated along three E to NE trending fault
zones. Individual bodies vary in length from 10 to
200 m, in aggregate totaling about 4 km, and in
width from 2 to 50 m. The wider outcrops, which
are unconformably covered by Late Miocene and
younger volcanics and volcaniclastics, rapidly
diminish in size with depth. In the southern part
of the area the ironstones form large sprawling
masses. Their depth extent depends on the host
rocks: about 36m in volcanics and >80m in
limestone. The manganiferous ironstone was
formed over a series of discontinuous, steeply
dipping veins at the contact of Middle Miocene
andesite dykes and along fracture zones in the
Paleogene volcanics and limestone. The veins are
generally less than 5 m thick, and consist of
disseminations, small blebs and veinlets of
argentiferous galena, pyrite, arsenopyrite,
magnetite and minor chalcopyrite and pyrrhotite.
Galena also occurs as lenses and short veins.
Quartz and carbonate are the dominant gangue
minerals. In addition magnetite and (primary)
hematite‐silica bodies up to 10 x 15 m in
diameter are present in the limestone, probably
mostly as cavity fillings. Based on geologic
relationships the age of the mineralization is
Middle Miocene.
The ironstones consist of, in order of abundance,
goethite, manganese oxides (predominantly
pyrolusite and coronadite), secondary quartz,
hematite, magnetite, cerrusite and various
copper and lead arsenates. Their iron content
varies from 30% to 54%, manganese from 0.2% to
12%, and silica from 2% to 24%.
Petrographic examinations show a complex
history of oxidation and reduction with some
78
magnetite being replaced and surrounded by
hematite followed by a phase in which some
hematite was converted back to magnetite
before the rock was subjected to further surface
oxidation. This in turn suggests a complex history
of weathering ‐> burial ‐> weathering (Figure 34).
The presence of ironstone pebbles in Late
Miocene volcaniclastics unconformably overlying
the volcanic‐limestone sequence indicates that
initial weathering and ironstone formation took
place prior to the deposition of the volcaniclastics
(stage 1). The large, sprawling masses may have
formed directly at the surface or more likely after
deposition of the Late Miocene volcanics had
started (Stage 2). As pointed out by Blanchard
(1962), unconformities of flat attitude near the
earth’s surface are especially favourable to the
formation of such “mushrooming” ironstone
deposits. He attributed this to ready circulation
along the unconformity contact and different
chemical compositions of rock units on either
side of it. During continuing burial oxidation
changed to reducing conditions. Subsequent
uplift and erosion removed most of the volcanic
cover and some of the ironstone, which was
subjected to renewed oxidation (Stage 3).
4.3 Eastern Sulawesi Province
Mineralization types found in Eastern Sulawesi
are mostly associated with the province’s large
ophiolite masses. They include lateritic nickel
and iron deposits, and primary and secondary
chromite deposits. A few small pieces of Cu‐
bearing siliceous rock found near Lampea, south
of Malili, are probably also derived from
ophiolitic rocks (van Bemmelen, 1949). In
addition alluvial and primary gold are known to
occur in a few localities, mostly notably at
Bombana, the origin of which has not yet been
established. Figure 35 shows where most or the
known mineral deposits and occurrences are
located.
4.3.1 Nickel laterite deposits
The total exposure of ophiolite rocks in Sulawesi
is one of the largest in the world. This combined
with favourable climatic, topographic, vegetation
and structural control conditions have given rise
to the formation of a large number of deposits of
varying size, from a few million tonnes to
>200Mt, the largest of which are found in the
Soroako, Pomalaa, Bahodopi and LaSampala
areas (Table 6). Information used for the
following discussion was obtained from papers by
Golightly (1973, 1981), Harju (1973), Melky
Budiantoro et al. (2010), Rafianto and Tutuko
(2010) and Rafianto (2011), and written
communications from M. Hartley (2011),
Suratman (2010), and G. Tutuko (2011).
Ultramafic rock exposures, the principal parental
rock for nickel laterite development, are present
in three forms:
i) As large irregular masses, the largest of which
is found in the Lake Area District (Lakes
Mantano, Towuti and Mahalona) covering
several thousand sq km. This body contains
the Soroako, Bahodopi and La Sampala
deposits.
ii) As imbricated tectonic slices following the
general structural grain of the obduction
complex in which they occur.
iii) As small irregular‐shaped and isolated bodies
which commonly appear to be aligned along
regional trends, as for example Sua‐Sua, Pao‐
Pao and Pomalaa.
Laterite development is controlledby six main
factors: i) nature of the ultramafic parent rock;
degree of serpentinization; iii) climatic conditions
(rainfall, temperature); iv)degree of faulting,
fracturing, shearing, and jointing in the bedrock;
v) geomorphology; and vi) rate of
ersosion.Favourable geomorphological landforms
(which are an important guide in the initial
exploration phase) include plateaus, terraces,
rolling hills, and gentle hill flanks and ridge spurs.
From north to south there is a distinct change in
geomorphological character. The East Arm is an
extremely rugged terrain, up to 3000m high,
consisting of peridotite horst blocks and molasse‐
filled graben structures, which is undergoing
rapid active erosion, resulting in a highly
dissected topography. These conditions do no
favour extensive laterite development conditions.
79
Figure 34. Diagram showing the development of manganiferous ironstones at Biru

80
 Figure 35. Eastern Sulawesi. Distribution of mineralization types,
and location of deposits and prospects mentioned in the text; for
symbols see Figure 5

Figure 36. Simplified geological map of Bombana area showing location of artisanal
mining and colluvial/primary Au‐Sb mineralization (modified after Surono and Tang, 2009)

81
 Table 6. Main nickel resources in Eastern Sulawesi

Name Material Volume (DWT) Grade (% Ni)

Bahodopi saprolite 200,000,000 1.86
BahubuluIsl saprolite 17,500,000 2.30
limonite 103,000,000 1.53
La Sampala South saprolite 51,000,000 2.10
limonite 111,000,000 1.41
Pomelaa limonite 222,000,000 1.45
saprolite 60,000,000 1.65
Soroako saprolite 26,000,000 1.74
saprolite 55,000,000 1.88
138,000,000 1.30
Source: van Leeuwen and Pieters (2011)

Table 7. Mineral deposit types: distribution in time

Pliocene – Porphyry Cu‐Au; porphyry Mo; high‐, intermediate‐ and low

latest Miocene sulphidation epithermal Au‐Ag; intrusion‐related Au; intrusion‐related
base metal ‐Au; Ni‐Fe laterite; Au, Cr and Fe placer deposits.

Late Miocene Porphyry Cu‐Au; Fe±Au±Cuskarn; intrusion‐related base metal Au; Mn‐
ironstones.

Middle Miocene Sediment‐hosted Au.

or younger
Oligocene Cu‐Zn‐Pb volcanogenic massive sulphides.

Eocene ? Sediment‐hosted Cu.

Cretaceous Primary Cr.

82
The central region, comprising the Soroako –
Bahodopi ‐ La Sampala ultramafic terrain, has
experienced relatively less uplift. Some large up‐
faulted or arched areas have local relief in excess
of 600m and are being actively eroded. Other
areas, in particular the Lake Area District
comprise extensive laterite‐covered plateaus
which are partly capped by ferricrete and have
dissected peripheral areas with well developed
nickel‐bearing saprolites. Movement along the
left‐lateral Matano strike‐slip fault caused the
blocking off the northward drainage along the
Tamalako valley to form the lakes. This in turn
caused a rise in base level, thus retarding erosion
and helping preserve laterite deposits in the
district. In the Southeast Arm the topography is
older and relatively subdued, a favourable
condition for deep lateritic development.
However, as the ultramafic bodies in this region
are mostly small, individual deposits are also
generally small in size.
The weathering profile commonly varies from 5
to 30m in thickness. At Soroako, the laterite
deposits form remnants of once extensive
erosional surfaces at different topographic levels,
with the thickest laterite development usually
occurring on the lower levels. These levels host
numerous internally drained, swampy
depressions that may be filled with transported
limonite, in places overlying buried Cr‐rich
cemented pisoliticduricrust. At La Sampala
South, an unusually thick laterite profile has
developed, which is up to 70m thick and overlain
by an up to 9m thick ferricrete layer. The deposit
occupies a large depression. Most of the nickel is
residual following removal of large amounts of
SiO2 and MgO during the weathering of the host
rocks. This process is most effective in cases
where the host rock is serpentinized and sheared,
causing significant volume collapse.
Hypogeneserpentinization (i.e. pre‐weathering)
already leaches some SiO2 from the protore, in
contrast to supergene serpentinization.
Saprolites after hypogeneserpentinized protores
tend to have relatively high melting points, and
hence such material is probably best suited for
hydrometallurgical treatment.
The Sulawesi laterite deposits fall into two
categories: i) those developed over
unserpentinized bedrock, usually harzburgite
(e.g. Soroako West, La Sampala North), and 2)
those formed over bedrock containing from 20%
to 90% serpentinized olivine, usually lherzolite,
(e.g. Soroako East, Bahodopi, La Sampala South).
In this paper we refer to them as type I and II
respectively. Ultramafic rocks originally
containing a high proportion of forsteritic olivine,
which host a Ni content of between 0.2 and 0.4
wt %, constituteparticularly good protoliths. The
laterite profile in both types consists of an upper
limonite zone and a lower saprolite zone.
The limonite zone is the oldest layer in the
profile. It is similar in either deposit type
including a usually <1m thick discontinuous
ferricrete cap, the main difference being that
stringers of quartz are commonly found only in
type 1 and the limonite in this type tends to have
a yellow‐orange colour as compared to the
darker‐brown or yellow‐brown colour of type II
limonite. The average Fe content of the limonite
zone is typically on the order of 45‐46.5%. The
values are highest in the top part and decrease
gradually toward the bottom of the zone. A
sharp drop in the Fe content marks the boundary
with the saprolite zone. Because of their
solubility SiO2 and MgO occur in relatively small
amounts (<10 and 3% respectively). Average Ni
contents of limonite material are typically in the
0.9 to 1.2% range, with the highest values (1.3‐
1.5% Ni) occurring in the bottom part, which is
usually <5m thick. Over the un‐serpentinized
peridotite (type I) the limonite is separated from
the saprolite zone by a thin limonite band with
around 1.6% Ni.
The saprolite zone shows more variability
between the two protolith types. Saprolite from
type I contains cores of unweathered harzburgite
with yellow to orange saprolite rims and fracture
fill of garnierite, quartz and MnO. This ore can be
substantially and cheaply upgraded by screening
out the fresh rock material. Type II saprolite can
be divided into “immature or hard saprolite”,
which can be similar in appearance as bedrock
but shows a different geochemical signature,
including higher Ni, and “mature or soft
83
saprolite”, which is composed of soft, friable
material and in some cases difficult to distinguish
visually from the overlying limonite zone. Soft
saprolite usually overlies hard saprolite, but the
reverse may also be the case. Generally the Ni
content of rocky saprolite is lower than that of
soft saprolite (e.g. Bahodopi: average 1.44%
versus 1.87%). The saprolite zone in the Sulawesi
deposits is generally 5 to 10m thick and has
average Ni grades of 1.7 to 2.3%.
4.3.2 Fe laterite deposits
A number of laterite deposits in Eastern Sulawesi
have low Ni contents (<1%) and can be classified
as iron laterites. Exploration programmes
conducted by the Netherlands Indies
Government between 1916 and 1921 resulted in
the discovery of about 10 deposits, the largest of
which is located on the right bank of the Larona
River, near Lake Towuti. This deposit was
investigated in some detail outlining measured
reserves of 370 million with an air dried content
of 49% Fe. Extensive metallurgical studies were
undertaken from 1918 to 1926, but the lack of
coking coal in the Indonesian region, suitable for
the blast‐furnace process, proved to be a major
stumbling block. New processes subsequently
developed in Germany and Holland, which did
not require the use of coking coal, were never
put to the test in Sulawesi because of the
outbreak of World War II.
The iron laterite deposit at Larona has been
described by Dieckmann and Julius (1925). It
occurs in a tectonic depression within a
peridotite terrain, which in earlier times was
covered by water. During that time the laterite
deposit developed, covering an area of about
25km2 and varying in thickness from a few meters
to 20m.
4.3.3 Chromite
Chromite occurs in a number of locations as small
lens‐shaped bodies hosted byperidotite. The
largest reported deposit is found near Lataoe on
the coast, containing 3000t @ 50% Cr2O3 (PSDG,
2010).
Of greater economic significance are placer
deposits found along a +30km stretch of the east
coast, in the Bungku area, about 200km north of
Kendari. The following brief description is based
on Asia Pacific Mining (1990), Utoyo (2010) and
Toreno (2010).
The chromite deposits occur as old beach and
strand line deposits located 50 to 400m inland
from the present day beaches. They lie on a
basement of barren marine gravel and extend to
surface or rarely are covered by <1m of recent
swamp material and soil. The chromite is
accompanied by magnetite, hematite, ilmenite,
quartz, and peridotite fragments. The heavy
mineral suite is contained in sands, sandy gravel
and their clay rich soil equivalents with a
thickness of 1.5 to 3.5m. The chromite‐bearing
layers increase in thickness towards the coast.
Chromite contents vary from 1 kg/m3 to 29.2
kg/m3, averaging 13 kg/m3.
4.3.4 Gold
Up to recently, the only reported gold
mineralization was alluvial gold in Aer Lagego and
Leboni area (Dieckmann and Julius, 1925). In Aer
Lagego, located north of malili, float consists
mostly of metamorphic rocks, milky to clear
quartz, and minor granite. Alluvial gold grades of
up to 400 mg/ cu m were obtained. The Leboni
area is located close to the boundary with
Western Sulawesi, from which the gold may have
been derived. Alluvial gold was observed in the 2
km wide valley of S. Tedeboe with local reports
suggesting it to be present over a distance of 10
km.
In 2008, a sudden gold rush took place in the
Langkowala area (Bombana Regency) following
the discovery of placer gold (Figure 36). It
involved initially about 20,000 traditional miners,
a number that swelled the next year to more
than 63,000 (Surono and Tang, 2009). Gold is
recovered from both active stream sediments
and paleo‐alluvial material contained in the
Lower Miocene Langkowala Formation (Celebes
Molasse). Gold grains have subrounded to
angular shapes (Makkawaro and
Kamrullah,2009). Reported grades range from
84
0.16 to 22.12 g/m3 (www.esdm.go.id; 16‐2‐2010).
The gold is accompanied by cinnabar with both
minerals generally showing a positive relationship
Gold is also found in colluvial material on the
northern slopes of the nearby Rumbia mountain
range (Idrus et al., 2010). This area is underlain
by various metamorphic rocks, including mica
schists, amphibole schists, metasediments,
metavolcanics and serpentinizedperiodite, which
have undergone greenschistfacies
metamorphism, and in places contain Au‐bearing
quartz veins (Idrus et al., 2010;Setiawan et al.,
2011). The primary gold mineralization has been
described by Idrus et al. (2010), Setiawan et al.
(2010), , Musri et al. (2011b), and Idrus and
Prihatmoko (2011).
There are at least three generations of quartz
veins. The first group consists of 2cm to 2m thick
veins that are roughly parallel to the foliation of
mica schists, phyllites and metasediments in up
to 10m wide zones. They are commonly massive
to crystalline, and sheared, brecciated, and locally
boudinaged. The second group is composed of
narrow (<20cm), more massive quartz veins that
cross cut the first generation of veins and
foliation. They show a fair degree of brecciation
and contain rare bladed carbonate
pseudomorphs. The third group consists of
laminated quartz‐calcite veins, which are
interpretated to be late stage.
The host rocks are generally weakly altered.
Alteration types include silicification, clay‐
sericite‐silica, which is largely restricted to
narrow (<1m) vein selvages, carbonate alteration,
and carbonization. Carbonate alteration is
characterized by calcite veinlets/stringers, and
carbonization by the rare presence of graphite
within or adjacent to quartz veins.
The quartz veins and silicified wall rocks contain
very fine‐grained pyrite, chalcopyrite, cinnabar,
stibnite, tripuhyite (a Fe‐Sb oxide mineral), and
rare arsenopyrite. Only small amounts are hosted
by the quartz veins. Cinnabar commonly occurs
as thin layers along the foliation of metamorphic
rocks. Stibnite and tripuhyite fill fractures parallel
to the the foliation and are disseminated within
silicified wallrock. Gold is mostly very fine
grained, but is occasionally visible as free gold in
quartz veins. It appears to be erratically
distributed with grades varying from below
detection limit (0,005g/t) to 134 g/t. Available
evidence suggests that the bulk of the gold is
associated with the 2nd and 3rd generation veins.
Base metal values are consistently low, while
arsenic is distinctly anomalous.
Preliminary fluid inclusion data presented by
Idrus and Prihatmoko (2011) show the following
homogenization and salinity values: 1st
generation veins, 184 to 245 C, 5.3 to 9.1 wt%
NaCl eq; 2nd generation, 132 to 283 C, 3.6 to
5.9wt% NaCl eq; and 3rd generation, 114 to 176
C,0.35 wt% NaCl eq. The general decrease in fluid
temperature and salinity is attributed to mixing
of magmatic and metamorphic fluids with cooler,
less saline fluids. CO2‐rich fluid inclusions are
rare.
As pointed out by Idrus et al. (2010) the gold in
the alluvials and paleoalluvials is likely to be
derived from the quartz veined metamorphics
because of i) the juvenile nature of the alluvial
gold grains, indicating limited transport; and ii)
increasing abundance of gold grains in the
colluvial material inan upslope direction, anda
decreasein gold content in present stream
sediments away from the metamorphic rock
outcrops.
A >100m long and 10m thick lens of coarse (up to
10cm) stibnite crystals occurs in the vicinity of the
alluvial workings in altered Neogenecalc‐arenites
near the faulted contact of the metamorphic
terrane and close to a hot spring. The stibnite is
accompanied by galena and minor chalcopyrite.
Gold was observed as nuggets in the calc‐arenites
at a depth of 20m in a hole drilled beneath the
stibnite lens (Musri, pers. com., 2011; Musri et
al., 2011).
4.3.4.1 Comments
The origin of the primary gold mineralization at
Bombano is not certain as it has been subjected
to only preliminary studies. Idrus et al. (2010)
and Idrus and Prihatmoko (2011) suggest that it
85
may belong to the orogenic gold type based on
its (spatial) association with greenschist facies
metamorphics and the sheared/deformed,
segmented, and locally sigmoidal nature of the
1st generation quartz veins. They interpret the
presence of stibnite and cinnabar to indicate that
the mineralization is transitional between
mesozonal and epizonal mineralization, and
suggest that pressure conditions at this relatively
shallow level were not sufficient to preserve C02
in the hydrothermal fluids. ( The common
presence of CO2 in fluids is often used to
distinguish orogenic gold from other major types
of gold deposits).Stibnite is a common sulphide
phase in orogenic gold deposits hosted by meta‐
sedimentary rocks, which may also be enriched in
mercury, reflecting the association of Hg, aswell
as Sb, As, and Au, with sulphur ligands in low‐
salinity hydrothermal fluids (Goldfarb et al.,
2005).
Setiawan et al. (2010) interpret the
mineralization to postdate the regional
metamorphic event as indicated by the
crosscutting relationship of the (2nd generation)
veins with the foliation of host rocks and by the
replacement of muscovite by epidote and quartz
by calcite adjacent to the veins. They link it to
post‐orogenic magmatic/hydrothermal activity.
Based on the limited information at hand we
propose the following speculative scenerio. There
have been at least two mineralizing events; pre‐
Neogene, as evidenced by the occurrence of gold
in the Neogene paleo‐alluvials, and Neogene or
younger, as indicated by the presence of the
stibnite‐gold vein that is hosted by Neogene calc‐
arenites. The earlier event produced the 1st
generation veins hosted by the metamorphic
complex, which may be of orogenic origin. The
younger event generated stibnite‐gold veins
hosted by both metamorphicc basement rocks
and overlying Neogene sedimentary rocks. The
veins are epithermal in nature and associated
with volcanism. Surono (written comm., 2011)
observed large (>2.5m) boulders of unaltered
andesite in the Bombana area (north of
Kasiputih) and notes that this rock type has not
been found as fragments in conglomerates of the
Neogene formations that surround the
metamorphic complex, suggesting that a young
volcanic event took place in the area. The hot
waterspring may represent the waning stage of
this event.
Clearly, much more work is required to gain a
better understanding of the nature and origin of
the mineralization in this newly discovered gold
district.
5.0 Discussion
In this section we discuss some aspects of the
metallogeny of Sulawesi and topics related to
mineral exploration and mining in the region.
5.1 Distribution of Sulawesi mineral deposits
in space and time
While establishing the distribution of Sulawesi’s
mineral deposits and prospects in space is
relatively straightforward, their time distribution
is more problematic, as only a few deposits have
been accurately dated. If the age of the host
rocks is known this will give a maximum age for
the mineralization, or if the two are genetically
related, the actual age, whereas the age of
spatially associated post‐mineralization rocks
provides a minimum age. Using these criteria
and data presented in the previous chapter we
have assigned the various mineralization types to
broad age brackets (Table 7).
Northern Sulawesi is characterized by the
presence of mineralization types that are
commonly associated with calc‐alkaline magmatic
arcs. These include porphyry Cu‐Au±Mo, high‐
intermediate‐ and low‐sulphidation epithermal
Au‐Ag vein and breccia, intrusion‐related Au‐base
metal vein, Fe±Au skarn, and VMS deposits.
Erosion of gold‐bearing rocks and volcanics has
resulted in the formation of alluvial Au and Fe
beach sands deposits respectively. The only
mineralization style that is unusual for Sulawesi’s
island arc setting is “Carlin‐like” sediment‐hosted
Au.
As can be seen on Figure 6, known mineral
deposits and occurrences are not evenly
86
distributed within Northern Sulawesi. This is
related to both geological and non‐geological
factors. Areas of Pleistocene‐Recent alluvial and
volcanic cover rocks appear to lack
mineralization, as do large batholiths. The
Paleogene Papayato Volcanics host only
insignificant younger gold mineralization, and a
few small contemporaneous VMS deposits. The
majority of the deposits and prospects appear to
occur in areas of Middle Miocene ‐ Pliocene
rocks. The absence of porphyry Cu deposits in
most of the Minahassa section is probably
because this region is less deeply eroded than the
Gorontalo section. There appears to be a
noticeable concentration of gold deposits in the
area where the North Arm bends into a northeast
direction. Both northeast and nortwest graben
structures are well developed in this area,
suggesting that these extensional structures
have influenced the distribution of gold
mineralization.
An example of a non‐geological factorinfluencing
the spatial distribution is the location of the large
Nani Wartabone National Park, east of Gorontalo.
Very few deposits/occurrences have been
recorded from this area, with the exception of
the Tombulilato and Tapadaa districts, which
were discovered prior to the establishment of the
park in 1991. Furthermore the high
concentration of deposits and occurrences found
in the central part of the Gorontalo section
reflects, at least inpart, the fact that this area has
been covered by more than one regional survey,
including the systematic exploration programme
carried out by Newcrest in the 1990s. Pearson
and Caira (1999) notea total of 184 prospects and
mineral occurrences in this region, comprising
the following mineralization types; porphyry Cu‐
Au (39 occurrences), porphyry‐related veins (44),
skarn (9), intermediate‐sulphidation epithermal
Au (31), high‐sulphidation epithermal Cu‐Au‐As
(3), gold and base metal‐bearing hydrothermal
breccias (37), and sediment‐hosted gold (12). Of
these, 31 prospects have been drill tested, the
others are mostly small occurrences for which no
information is available. Figure 7 in Pearson and
Caira (1999) shows their distribution.
A conceptual model for the mineralization types
observed in Northern Sulawesi is shown in Figure
37. The Pliocene was in terms of both quantity
and quality the most important mineralizing
epoch in Northern Sulawesi (Table 7). All known
economic and sub‐economic deposits were
formed during this time (with the possible
exception of Mesel), e.g. Toka Tindung, Riska,
Bolangitang, Gunung Pani and the Tombulilato
porphyry systems, which represent the main
mineralization styles in the province. Many of
the hydrothermal breccia deposits were also
generated during the Pliocene (Pearson and
Caira, 1999) together with some intrusion
(porphyry)‐related Au‐base metal vein systems.
A number of metal‐deficient porphyry Cu‐Au‐Mo
systems developed during the Late Miocene.
Locally extensive skarn mineralization, also with
low metal grades (e.g. Matinan‐6), are associated
with these systems. In contrast, peripheral base
metal‐Au veins commonly have high gold grades.
A number of these have been mined in the past
by the Dutch or are still being exploited by local
miners, such as Paleleh, Sumalata and Kasia.
Some of the Miocene systems are cut by younger
(Pliocene?) intermediate‐sulphidation veins and
also by superimposed peripheral porphyry‐
related veins, which attests to contemporaneous
rapid rates of uplift, leading to telescoping of
mineralization types (Pearson and Caira, 1999).
The only example of mineralization older than
mid‐Miocene is VMS mineralization hosted in the
upper (latest Oligocene ‐ earliest Miocene) part
of the Papayato Volcanics.
The age of the sediment‐hosted mineralization at
Mesel is poorly constrained. A Middle Miocene
age of the host limestones and andesites which
cut them and are altered near the contact with
the ore bodies gives a maximum age for the
mineralization. Turner (2002) reports the
presence of Early Pliocene andesite intrusions in
the Ratatotok district, but their relationship to
the mineralization has not been established.
Pliocene gold and copper deposits are also
dominant relative to other periods elsewhere in
SE Asia. It has been suggested that this reflects
87
increased likelihood of erosion with increasing
age (e.g. Sillitoe, 1989; Carlile and Mitchell, 1994;
Garwin et al., 2005). Barley et al. (2002) point
out that although erosion will certainly remove
older near‐surface ore deposits, pre‐Pliocene
volcanic and high‐level intrusive rocks are
common in SE Asian arcs with little evidence that
they were richly mineralized.They suggest
another factor that played an important role is a
major tectonic reorganization that has occurred
in the SE Asian region since about 5 Ma, and that
in Northern Sulawesi this led to subduction
reversal with subduction being initiated at the
North Sulawesi trench. In such a setting, local
extension may result from slowing subduction on
one side of the volcanic arc and incipient
subduction on the other. This would induce
melting of sub‐arc mantle that had been both
metasomatized and previously melted by earlier
episodes subduction, with such magmas being
intrinsically gold‐rich (Solomon, 1990).
Such a scenario is favoured by Perello (1994) for
the Tombulilato district. He suggests that the
reversal of arc polarity was caused by the
collision of the Sula microcontinent with
Sulawesi. Pearson and Caira (1999) believe that
strong dextral tension caused by the collision, at
the close of the Miocene, led to arc parallel
rifting. Sinistral reactivation of major early
structures in the Pliocene caused further rifting
and ENE‐dilation with Pliocene intrusions and
related mineralization exploiting these dilational
settings.
Western Sulawesi differs from Northern Sulawesi
in both the types and number of known mineral
deposits and occurrences (Figures 25 and 38). A
notable feature of its metallogeny is the apparent
lack of significant high‐to low‐sulphidation
epithermal Au‐Ag mineralization. Another
difference with Northern Sulawesi is the presence
of a medium‐sized porphyry Mo deposit and
several gold deposits of uncertain origin,
tentatively referred to in this paper as intrusion‐
related Au deposits. More obviously intrusion‐
related deposits occur around several small
porphyry Cu±Au systems and other intrusions. In
contrast to the intrusion‐related Au type, they
contain significant amounts of base metals and
are generally sulphide‐rich.
The (apparent) poor development of volcanic arc
related mineralization in Western Sulawesi is
rather puzzling. During the Neogene the region
witnessed widespread and intensive shoshonitic
to ultrapotassic (HK) magmatism. This magmatic
type has elsewhere produced major porphyry
copper and gold deposits (e.g. Muller and Groves,
1993; Sillitoe, 1997). Potassic alkaline igneous
suites are generally thought to be formed by
melting of sub‐arc mantle that has been
extensively metasomatized by fluids from earlier
subduction events, which may generate fluid‐
rich, highly oxidized magmas and destabilize
mantle sulphides to release Cu and Au (McInnes
and Cameron, 1994).
Muller and Groves (1993) discuss four different
tectonic settings in which potassic igneous rocks
occur together with their associated
mineralization. These are: 1)late oceanic arcs
(examples; Ladolam gold deposit in Papua New
Guinea and Emperor gold mine in Fiji); 2)
continental arcs (Cripple Creek gold district in the
USA and the Chilean Andes porphyry Cu
province); 3) post‐collisional/post‐subduction
arcs (Porgera gold deposit, Grasberg and OK Tedi
porphyry Cu‐Au deposits in New Guinea);and 4)
within plate tectonic setting (no direct genetic
association with economic gold or base metal
mineralization known).
As discussed earlier, the Neogene tectonic setting
of Western Sulawesi is a matter of disagreement,
some workers favour a syn‐to post‐collisional
setting related to the docking of the Sula
microcontinent or another continental fragment
with Sulawesi (e.g. Kavalieris et al., 1992;
Bergman et al., 1996; Polvé et al., 1997), whereas
others believe it was mostly extensional in
character and more akin to a within‐plate setting
(e.g. Yuwono et al., 1988; Hall, 2009; van
Leeuwen et al., 2010). However, the setting is
distinctly different from the within‐plate setting
in Muller and Groves (1993) classification (which
includes the African Rift) in which potassic
volcanic rocks, unlike their Western Sulawesi
88
Figure 37. Conceptual model for mineralization types in the Northern
Sulawesi Province

Figure 38. Conceptual model for mineralization types in The Western

Sulawesi Province

89
brethern, do not display a geochemical
subduction signature.
Whatever the nature of the Neogene tectonic
setting of Western Sulawesi it appears to have
been conducive to generating the intrusion‐
related Au mineralization. Rapiduplift ,
voluminous CAK magmatism, and high heat flow
may have played a role in their formation. While
a direct genetic connection between this
magmatism and the gold mineralization has not
been established, a broad spatial relationship
exists in that the more significant gold prospects
occur in the CAK granitoid belt, as do the
porphyry molybdenum prospects.There is also a
temporal relationship; both the granitoids and
the CWS gold and Malala molybdenum prospects
formed during the latest Miocene‐Pliocene. It is
worth noting the presence of a number of alluvial
gold occurrences in the granitoid belt between
Palopo and Palu. It is tempting to speculate that
the gold is, in part,derived from mineralization
that is similar to that found at Awak Mas,
Mangkaluku and Poboya.
Regarding the formation ages of the other
mineralization types in Western Sulawesi,
porphyry Cu and associated skarn and base
metal‐gold vein mineralization appears to be
related to potassic alkaline magmatism, which
took place between about 14 and 5 my. Hence
this is the maximum age bracket of the
mineralization. The manganiferous ironstones at
Biru developed over a relatively long period, ie
Middle Miocene to Recent., and the Kuroko‐type
mineralization at Sangkaropi formed some time
during the Oligocene.
Differences in the nature of the basement (cf
Garwin, 2000) may be one of the reasons that
Northern and Western Sulawesi have developed
as distinct metallogenic provinces. The Northern
Sulawesi and Sangihe arcs are built on oceanic
crust. Most Cu and Au deposits formed within
and adjacent to high‐level intrusions, which are
emplaced in Neogene volcanic to volcaniclastic
sequences. The thin nature of the oceanic crust
facilitated the ascent of causative intrusions to a
relatively high crusted level. In contrast, Western
Sulawesi is largely underlain by thick continental
crust with the majority of deposits and associated
intrusions being hosted in Eocene and older
formations. This suggests that the heat sources
responsible for the palaeo‐hydrothermal systems
were largely confined to deeper crustal levels.
Garwin (2000) suggests that magmatic arcs that
overlie transitional zones between continental
and oceanic crusts are sets of weakness and a
potential focus of mineralization. This type of
setting appears to favour large‐tonnage and low‐
grade disseminated and vein stockwork,
intermediate‐sulphidation gold deposits like
Gunung Pani.
The distribution of most of Eastern Sulawesi’s
known mineral deposits and occurrences is
obviously closely linked to the location of
peridotite exposures. Other controlling factors in
the case of Ni‐Fe laterite deposits include
topography and rates of uplift and erosion.
Because of economic reasons areas located
relatively close to the coast have been more
thoroughly explored than the hinterland, which
probably explains why most of the known (or at
least reported) Ni deposits are found within a
radius of less than 10km from the coast. The ages
of the Ni and Fe laterite deposits have not been
accurately established. Golightly (1979)
estimated that about 1‐5 Mawere needed to
form the laterite profilesat Soroako. He
suggested that the laterization process started
earlier in the southeastern part of Eastern
Sulawesi than further north. As mentioned
above, limited evidence suggests that gold
mineralization at Bombana took place both prior
and during or after the Neogene.
5.2 Discovery history of mineralization styles
Here we discuss when in Sulawesi the more
important mineralization types were first found
(and recognized as such). A summary is
presented in Table 8.
Like in many other parts of the world, the oldest
known mineralization type is represented by
low/intermediate sulphidation epithermal gold
veins. This style was first documented from
Sumalata in Northern Sulawesi (van Schelle,
90
1983), but is likely to have been known to the
local population for a much longer period.
From an economic point of view, the next
discovery has been the most important in
Sulawesi’s exploration history, namely the
discovery of Ni‐laterite in Eastern Sulawesi in
1916. It resulted from the recognition that the
extensive ophiolite exposures found some years
earlier had the potential to give rise to Ni and Fe
laterite deposits. Around the same time base
metal‐Au veins were found in the Sasak area.
After more than 30 years of hardly any
exploration activities porphyry Cu mineralization
was discovered at Sasak in 1969 and soon
afterwards in the North Arm. It was at a time
when this typeof mineralization had become a
major exploration target in various other parts of
the world. An unexpected outcome of the
porphyry Cu search during the 1970s was the
discovery of the Malala porphyry Mo deposit, a
type of mineralization that had previously not
been reported from the SE Asian region.
The 1980s witnessed the discovery of three new
gold mineralization styles, i.e. high‐sulphidation
epithermal Au at Motomboto, sediment‐hosted
(Carlin‐like) mineralization at Mesel, and
intrusion‐related Au at Awak Mas.
Like the discovery of Malala, Mesel’s was
unexpected as sediment‐hosted style gold
mineralization had previously not been reported
from Indonesia (although it was known to occur
in the Bau district in Sabah), and furthermore it
was the first example of such style occurring in a
volcanic island arc setting. It was probably no
coincidence that the discovery was made by
Newmont, a company with vast experience in the
exploration and mining of Carlin deposits in
Nevada. Less of a surprise was the discovery of
high‐sulphidation style mineralization at
Motomboto as Northern Sulawesi has the right
setting. It is in fact more surprising that this type
had not been found earlier as it commonly forms
distinct topographic features (“silica ledges”) and
long float trains of silica material. It is possible
that earlier prospectors found high‐sulphidation
mineralization but did not pursue it because of
the generally low gold grades associated with it.
The intrusion‐related Au style is, as discussed
earlier, of uncertain origin. Some characteristics
which distinguish it from the low base metal
variety of intermediate‐sulphidation epithermal
mineralization are Au/Ag >1 and no apparent
association with contemporaneous volcanics.
The most recent discovery is either low‐
sulphidation Au style, which was foundat Toka
Tindung in 1994 (at the time low‐ and
intermediate‐sulphidation styles were still
grouped together).,or possibly, pending further
studies, orogenic Au at Bombana.
What next? Will it be nickel sulphides, which
since 2008 have become a prime exploration
target of PT Inco (Rafianto et al., 2011), or
perhaps sediment‐hosted copper in the “Copper‐
Slates” of CW Sulawesi? Or will indications of
anomalous Sn, W, Zr and Ta values in many
stream sediment samples collected from Banggai
and Labulo islands in the Banggai‐Sula Province
(Sukmana, 2006) lead to the discovery of
mineralization types which have as yet not been
recognized in the Sulawesi region? Only time will
tell.
5.3 Discovery methods
In this section we discuss what the first
indications were that led to the discovery of the
more significant porphyry Cu/Mo, gold and nickel
deposits in Sulawesi since 1967. These include
Old Dutch reports, local mining activity, local
knowledge, stream sediment and/or pan
concentrate anomalies, mineralized float, and
remote sensing. In several cases more than one
factor can be attributed to a discovery (Table 9).
Initial area selection for gold and nickel
exploration was based in a number of cases on
the reported presence of mineralization, often
sites of past mining activity (Dutch, artisan
mining). Examples include G. Pani, Mesel, Doup,
Lanut, Soroako and Pomalaa. In other cases,
“virgin” areas were selected on the basis of their
perceived favourable geological setting, which
resulted in the discovery of several new
mineralized districts, e.g. Tombulilato, Malala,
91
 Table 8. Mineral deposit types : year of discovery

Mineralization style Year of discovery

(prospect name)
Intermediate‐sulphidation epithermal Au‐Ag Pre ‐ 1831
Lateritic Ni and Fe 1916 (Soroako, Pomelaa)
Intrusion‐related base metal ‐ Au 1916 (Sasak)
Porphyry Cu‐Au 1969 (Sasak)
Porphyry Mo 1976 (Malala)
High‐sulphidation epithermal Au 1984 (Motomboto)
Sediment‐hosted Au 1988 (Mesel)
Intrusion‐related Au 1989 (Awak Mas)
Low‐sulphidation epithermal Au 1994 (Toka Tindung)
Orogenic Au (?) 2009 (Bombana)

Table 9. Discovery factors

Deposit Style 1 2 3 4 5
Tombulilato Porphyry Cu‐Au V (V)
Tapadaa district Porphyry Cu‐Au V
Bulagidun Porphyry Cu‐Au V
Sasak Porphyry Cu‐Au V
Masabo Porphyry Cu V
Malala Porphyry Mo V
Binabase HS epithermal Au V
Motomboto HS epithermal Au V
Riska HS epithermal Au V
Gunung Pani IS epithermal Au‐Ag V
Lanut IS epithermal Au‐Ag V
Doup IS epithermal Au‐Ag V
Tototopo IS epithermal Au‐Au V
Toka Tindung LS epithermal Au‐Ag V V
Mesel Sediment‐hosted Au V V V
Awak Mas Intrusion‐related Au V V
Poboya Intrusion‐related Au V
Palopo Intrusion‐related Au V

1 = Dutch mine area; 2 = local knowledge; 3 = geochemical stream sediment sampling;

4 = float observations; 5 = geophysical methods

92
Toka Tindung, south Sangihe, Bahodopi and La
Sampala.
Almost all porphyry districts/deposits were
initially identified as the result of reconnaissance
stream sediment geochemical sampling of major
drainages, primarily as base metal anomalies (in
the 1970s stream sediment samples were not
routinely assayed for gold). As the mineralized
areas were covered by dense tropical rain forest
with very poor rock exposure, detailed follow‐up
sampling of 2nd order streams was required to
locate the source of the anomalies. After that
the normal sequence of methods applied was:
soil sampling (contour or grid), pitting, trenching
and ground geophysical survey, and drilling.
Gunung Lintang and West Kayabulan Ridgeare
the only examples of a porphyry target being
initially identified from an airborne magnetic
survey. There are no documented cases of
geophysics having played a significant role during
the prospect evaluation stage of porphyry
systems.
As seen at Tombulilato, in a single porphyry Cu
district styles of host rocks and
mineralization/alteration can differ significantly.
Similarly, surface expressions of adjacent
porphyry bodies can vary widely within a very
short distance with patterns of leaching and
enrichment being controlled by features of the
geology which cannot be seen or assessed at an
early stage of exploration. As an example, at
Cabang Kiri and Cabang Kiri Northwest three
porphyry systems are present which have low
sulphide contents. As a result formation of
copper oxides and enrichment has taken place in
the weathering zone. Because of the pronounced
Cu anomalism these systems were quickly
identified during the initial exploration stage, but
subsequently proved to be of little interest. In
sharp contrast, nearby Cabang Kiri East, which
has a higher pyrite content and relatively inert
alteration assemblages, has been strongly
leached and significant secondary enrichment has
occurred below the zone of oxidation. A subdued
geochemical base metal surface expression and
lack of outcrop made this orebody “invisible”
during the early follow‐up stage. Gold in soil
subsequently proved to be an excellent
pathfinder (Lowder and Dow, 1978). Another
example is Kayubulan Ridge, which yielded strong
geochemical anomalies, but no geological
indications despite occurring in steep terrain. A
number of experienced geologists knowing the
copper anomalies were there walked past this
area in 1973 looking hard for the source but
failing to find it (TvL, unpublished data).
Stream sediment sampling has been a less
dominant factor in the gold discoveries made in
Sulawesi during the past 30 years (Table 9).
One of the more interesting gold discovery
histories is that of Mesel in which local
knowledge played a key role. Outcropping
mineralization at Mesel was sampled by the
Dutch with shallow trenches and pits, but the
prospect was not pursued, probably because of
the refractory nature of the gold. More than 60
years later, Newmont applied for a COW area
over the Ratatotok district. Following initial
disappointing results from the Lobongan and
Alason areas, Steve Turner, who was the project
manager at the time, showed a collection of
typical gold‐bearing rocks to several local field
assistants. Two of them remembered having
seen similar rocks while working for a logging
company a decade earlier, in an area located
2.5km to the west of Hais. The area was
prospected for a few days. Channel samples
taken over 25m from very ordinary‐looking
silicified limestone returned an average grade of
8.9 g/t Au. (Hendri and Farmer, 1997). After that
Newmont never looked back.
As mentioned above, Newmont’s exploration
activity was initially directed at old Dutch
workings located about 2.5km from Mesel, which
produced highly anomalous Au results in both
BLEG and stream sediment samples. In contrast,
Mesel was barely detected by BLEG sampling,
and no gold was detected in panned concentrates
or ‐80 mesh silt. Furthermore hardly any altered
float was observed (Turner et al., 1994). Thus
had it not been for local knowledge Mesel may
not have been (re‐) discovered.
Turner et al. (1994) attributed the lack of gold in
stream sediment and panconcentrate samples to
93
two factors: the micron‐sized nature of the gold
and the host rocks being limestone. In the
weathering zone the mobility of gold was greatly
reduced as oxidizing fluids were chemically
buffered to a near‐neutral pH by the limestone
soils. Shallow auger sampling results showed no
apparent downslope hydromorphic dispersion of
the gold in soil anomalies. Furthermore, any
coarser free is likely to have been trapped in
cavities in the karsted limestone.
Another example ofthe discovery of a gold
deposit with subdued geochemical expression in
which local knowledge played a significant role is
Toka Tindung (Moyle et al., 1997a). During the
initial broad‐spaced reconnaissance drainage
sampling of the general district no pannable gold
was observed and stream sediment samples
produced only very weakly anomalous to below
detection gold results. A 4.9 g/t Au float sample
was followed up in an attempt to find its source,
but only sparse outcrops of silicified, pyritic
volcaniclastics were observed and quartz vein
float abundance was less than 1%. Subsequently,
a local field assistant (Ako) guided the team to a
place where local people had once attempted to
dig a shallow shaft. A 2 by 2m wide banded
quartz‐adularia vein outcrop was discovered and
named the “Ako vein”, at what is now known as
the Toka Tindung deposit, returning 2m @39.2
g/t Au and 21 g/t Ag in semi‐continuous rock chip
sampling. The first drill hole drilled after
additional surface work returned 49m @ 2.7 g/t
Au.
BLEG and fine‐fraction stream sediment sampling
failed to detect secondary gold shedding from
Toka Tindung due to the presence of a younger,
widely spread, mantle‐bedded tephra which had
largely covered the gold deposit and diluted the
surrounding drainages with barren volcanic sands
and silts. Thus the keys to discovering Toka
Tindung were good prospecting skills in finding a
very small amount of mineralized vein float and
local knowledge which resulted in the discovery
of the source.
Poboya is the third example of a well mineralized
outcropping body (including 55m @ 47 g/t Au)
that yielded only a weak geochemical response.
In 1992, Rio Tinto selected the Neck of Sulawesi
for a rapid BLEG sampling (maximum 1 sample
per 25 sq km) combined with ‐80 +200 mesh and
‐200 mesh stream sediment sampling. This
region, which had previously been sampled
during the company’s porphyry copper search in
NW Sulawesi when samples were not routinely
assayed for gold, was deemed to be suitable for
this type of survey because of its favourable
logistic, geomorphological and geological
conditions: coastal roads on either side of a
relatively narrow mountain range lacking
widespread palaeoalluvials, like in Kalimantan.
The sample collected from the Poboya river,
which cuts the deposit, yielded only subdued
anomalism: 27 ppb Au and 51 ppb Ag in BLEG,
and 5ppm Mo in ‐200# stream sediment analyzed
by NAA. Stream sediment samples were not
anomalous in Au and Ag in either fraction. There
was no obvious sign of quartz vein float. The
reason for this very subtle
geochemical/geological fingerprint is that the
Poboya area is covered by thick deposits of
poorly consolidated sediment (Celebes Molasse)
immediately downstream of the outcropping
mineralization, resulting in significant dilution of
mineralized material.
In the case of Awak Mas it was a combination of
stream sampling and evidence of past artisan
mining that resulted in its discovery. In the mid‐
1980s, New Hope Consolidated Industries
selected an area for reconnaissance stream
sediment sampling in the Luwuk District. During
the course of this programme evidence was
found of extensive past artisan mining activities,
resulting in the identification of a number of
drainage basins requiring further investigation. A
major drainage survey undertaken in 1988‐89
outlined seven anomalous areas, one of which
was Awak Mas, which was subsequently
identified by rock‐chip sampling.
Two high sulphidation gold discoveries were the
direct result of tracing mineralized float back to
its outcrop source, i.e. Binabase and Riska. The
first indication of mineralization in the Binabase
area, which did not have a previous history of
exploration or local mining activity, was the
94
presence of boulders of massive gossanous
material and barite observed on the nearby coast
in 1987. The source was subsequently found a
few km inland. Soil sampling gave encouraging
results, leading to trenching that returned up to
34m @ 5.2 g/t Au, 39 g/t Ag, and 52m @ 2.2 g/t
Au and 55 ppm Ag (Swift and Alwin, 1990). In
the case of Riska, one of Newmont’s field teams
traced float back to a ridge formed by silica‐
alunite altered tuffs. The prospect was
subsequently named Riska, after one of the
discoverers’ girl friend (Nugroho et al., 2005).
Nickel laterite deposits that had not already been
identified by the Dutch were subsequently
discovered by remote sensing methods, mostly
aerial photography and Landsat interpretation
(Taranik et al., 1978), followed by ground
checking. Aerial photography and Landsat
interpretation assisted in outlining areas
underlain by ultramafic rocks and with favourable
geomorphological features. Interestingly, while
La Sampala North was identified by this method,
it failed to recognize La Sampala South. As
mentioned earlier, this deposit does not have the
typical morphological expression of most
Sulawesi deposits, but instead occurs in a
swampy depression. However, it was readily
identified during subsequent false colour Landsat
image interpretation, showing up as a distinct
redcolour anomaly, which reflectedthe abundant
development of ferricrete in this area (TvL,
unpublished data).
5.4 Exploration trends
Mineral exploration is carried out in several
stages, from regional reconnaissance surveys and
initial follow up, through district‐size exploration,
to prospect and detailed deposit investigations.
A company can initiate exploration at any of
these stages, depending on a number of factors,
including the amount of information available,
available opportunities, market conditions,
company strategy, etc.
Regional reconnaissance and initial follow up
surveys, mainly for porphyry Cu deposits,
dominated mineral exploration in Sulawesi during
the 1970s and first half of the 1980s. At the time
very litlle was known about the mineral potential
of the region, and hence regional surveys were
the only way to generate targets. The early work
outlined several porphyry Cu‐Au and Mo districts.
The second half of the 1980s and 1990s saw a mix
of regional surveys and more detailed
investigations, this time with gold as the main
target. A number of significant gold discoveries
were made during this period. Since early 2005
the focus has been on advanced exploration of
known gold prospects, some of which have had a
long history of exploration. The main reason for
this is that following the drastic downturn in
exploration activities in the late 1990s a number
of prospects became available at relatively low or
no costs. This combined with rising commodity
prices created some attractive opportunities.
The history of Ni laterite exploration is somewhat
different. Initiallyin the 1970s, it involved both
investigations of known districts and regional
exploration and was carried out by two
companies, viz. INCO and Antam. Significant
resources were outlined at the known Soroako
and Pomalaa districts, a large new deposit was
discovered at Bahodopi, and a few smaller ones
were found at several other localities. Activities
were at a low level during the 1980s and 1990s
with the exception of Rio Tinto’s review of the Ni
laterite potential of Eastern Sulawesi, which
resulted in the discovery of the important La
Sampala district. When nickel prices started to
rise in 2004, activities picked up again. This time
smaller domestic companies were leading the
way, exploiting relatively small laterite deposits
and shipping the unprocessed ore to China.
Some of the areas mined overlapped with
concessions containing known deposits that were
held or under application by the larger
companies. No published information is available
on what basis other areas were selected.
Looking ahead, it is likely that in the foreseeable
future only brownfields exploration will be
undertaken. This is partly because over the past
40 years a large amount of geological and mineral
resource data have been collected. This
combined with everimproving remote sensing
methods enables a more focused approach to
target selection. However, it would be wrong to
95
assume that there is no need anymore to carry
out greenfields exploration because the whole of
Sulawesi has already been adequately covered by
grassroots surveys. On the contrary: i) some
areas have been surveyed only once, which is not
sufficient to make a comprehensive mineral
potential assessment; ii) surveys often focused on
a single deposit type or commodity; iii) in some
cases the area was not sampled systematically, or
sampling and/or assaying methods were used
that did not lead to optimum results; iv) there are
several examples of significant outcropping
mineralization having been almost missed
because of certain geological conditions (see 5.3);
other deposits may have gone unnoticed for
similar reasons; v) large areas have not been
surveyed at all, in particular in Eastern Sulawesi,
because of their perceived low mineral potential,
but as the recent gold discovery at Bombano has
shown, this may not always be the case; and vi)
new concepts and information may require
revisiting certain areas to collect additional data
on a (semi‐) regional scale.
Under the present mining law the maximum size
of an exploration permit area is 500 sq km, as
opposed to 2500 sq km and larger in the
past.Furthermore it is not possible anymore, as in
the old days, to select an area on the basis of
literature research and carry out field checking
on a so‐called SKIP (walk‐in permit) before
deciding whether or not to go ahead. This
enabled a company to assess whether minimum
expenditure commitments required by the COW
agreement were within acceptable risk limits. At
present, an exploration company has basically
two choices, either enter into an agreement with
an existing title holder or participate in a tender
for areas selected by the government. In either
case front‐end payments are likely to be involved,
which is a disincentive in the case of areas for
which little information is available. Theoretically
it is possible for a company to select an area on
the basis of its own project generation work, but
it still would have to go through the tender
process with the risk of losing the area to the
competition. Forestry permit issues are another
important factor in the area selection process.
It is because of the above considerations that we
believe that in the short to medium term the
main exploration focus in Sulawesi (and for that
matter elsewhere in Indonesia) will be on
relatively small areas with known mineralization
under existing title or for which title can be
obtained at an acceptable cost, and which are
free of major forestry issues. This in itself is not
necessarily a bad thing, as experience elsewhere
has shown that the chances of success are
greater when exploration is carried out in well‐
mineralized districts with a mature exploration
history than in less known areas (e.g. Sillitoe,
2010). However, by world standards Sulawesi is
underexplored and opportunities for brownfields
exploration are rather limited. Therefore, if
current conditions, which are not conducive to
carrying out (semi‐) grass roots exploration of
larger areas, persist, this may have a negative
impact on further development of the mining
industry in Sulawesi in the longer term.
5.5 Sulawesi’s mining industry
Historically, gold and nickel have been the two
pillars of Sulawesi’s mining industry.
Recorded gold production comprises about 15t
for the period 1896 to 1941, and about 76t for
the period 1996 to 2011 (Table 10). The total
amount of about 91t does not include gold
produced by local miners during a period of more
than 180 years for which no records exist, but
which is likely to be significant. With two gold
mines currently in production, i.e. North Lanut
mine (with a minimum mine life of 2 years and an
annual production of about 50,000 oz) and Toka
Tindung (6 years, 160,000 oz Au eq.),one project
in the feasibility stage (Bakan, 4.5 years, 50,000
oz) , plus several other gold projects in an
advanced stage of exploration, gold is likely to
continue to play a significant role in the short to
medium term, especially if the current high price
of gold is maintained. Based on published data
(van Leeuwen and Pieters, 2011) it is estimated
that Sulawesi’s total gold resources amount to
roughly 285t, with an additional 135t Au
associated with porphyry Cu deposits.We should
stress that these estimates are geological
96
 Table 10. Historical gold production in Sulawesi

A. Pre‐War period
Paleleh 6.25 t Au 6.2 t Ag
BolaangMongondow District 5.0 t Au 4.0 t Ag
Totok 3.7 t Au 1.8 t Ag
14.9 t Au 12.0 t Ag
B. Post‐War period
Mesel 62.0 t Au
Riska 10.5 t Au
Toka Tindung 3.2 t Au 1.5 t Ag
75.7 t Au 1.5 t Ag

Source: van Leeuwen and Pieters (2011)

Table 11. Historical nickel production at Pomalaa

Period Production Contained Ni

(metric tonnes)
1938 ‐ 1941 155,000t @ ca 3% Ni 4,650
1942 ‐ 1944 184,000t @ ca 3% Ni 5,520
1959 ‐ 1966 406,000t @ ca 3% Ni 12,180
1967 ‐ 1975 1,215,000t @ ca 3% Ni 36,450
1976 ‐ 2010 1,109,000t ferronickel 255,070
313,870

Source: Darmono et al. (2009). Assumptions: 1) average grade of ore mined between 1938
and 1975 was 3%; 2) annual production 1967‐1975 (not given by Darmono et al.) was 135,000t
based on 1966 and 1976 production figures; 3) production 2009 and 2010 was 60,000t
annually.

97
resources only without any economic
connotation.
Nickel mining has overshadowed gold mining in
terms of both size and revenue. Most of the
nickel produced todate has come from two areas,
Soroako and Pomalaa. Data provided by PT Inco
show that between 1976 and 2010 a total of 234
Mt of laterite ore was mined at Soroako,
containing a total of 4.5 Mt Ni (Gde Tutoko,
written comm., 2011). The total nickel
production at Pomalaa, starting in 1938, is
estimated to be around 310,000t, mostly as
ferronickel. However, this figure is based on
several assumptions (see Table 11), and
furthermore includes also some ore processed at
Pomalaa that came from outside Sulawesi. As
mentioned earlier, there has been an increasing
involvement of domestic companies in nickel
laterite mining in Sulawesi in recent years, but
production figures are not readily available. An
announcement made by the government of
Southeast Sulawesi in 2011, indicates that
companies operating in the province are
producing 50,000t to 70,000t of ore per year.
Assuming an average grade of 1.6% this means an
annual production in the order of 800 to 1,000 t
Ni.
Sulawesi has vast undeveloped nickel resources,
estimated to be in the order of 1,500million dry‐
weight‐tonnes (MDWT) averaging 1.57% Ni based
on data collected by van Leeuwen and Pieters(
2011). About 15% falls in the Proven + Probable
Reserves category. Individual deposits vary
greatly in size (3 ‐ >200 M DWT) and grade (1.2%
to 2.3%). Having a large resource base in itself
does not guarantee a long term future for the
region’s nickel industry. As discussed by Rafianto
(2011), development of Sulawesi’s Ni laterite
resources involves a number of factors that have
to be addressed, including: i) adequate tonnage
and grade to support economic projects with a
minimum mine life of 20 years; ii) mineralogy,
type and chemistry of the ore, which will
determine optimum mining and processing
methods, and in turn the economic viability of a
project; iii) the high costs of producing nickel
matte or ferronickel (PAL/HPAL); iv) lack of
infrastructure, such as power plants, roads and
ports; and v) forestry issues. The author offers
several suggestions that may reduce risks and
enhance project economics: i) apply heap leach
or tank leach technologies, which are currently
under development by several companies; ii)
produce nickel pig iron, which has a lower Ni
content than ferronickel (<15%) and higher
impurities such as P and S, but has a growing
market; iii) develop low grade Ni laterite deposits
with a high cobalt grade (0.2% Co) occurring as
coarse minerals , which can be easily separated
and concentrated using low costs techniques,
with cobalt concentrate as the main product, and
nickel and manganese as by‐products, and iv) as
an alternative to Ni laterites explore for nickel
sulphide deposits, which potentially can be
developed at much lower capital costs and in a
more environmental friendly manner.
Commodities other than gold and nickel have
hardly featured in the mining history of Sulawesi.
Only small quantities of base metals and
chromite have been mined in the past. This may
change in the future, in particular as far as copper
is concerned. The porphyry copper deposits in
the Tombulilato district may be economically
viable at copper and gold prices seen in recent
years. The longer term outlook for copper
appears to be favourable. Average head grades
at copper mines throughout the world are on a
decade‐long downward trend, and there is a
shortage of new mines due to come on stream to
offset declining production from existing
operations. Only one large deposit is under
development, i.e. OyuTolgoi in Mongolia (81
billion lbs Cu and 46 Moz Au), and this creates
opportunities for smaller deposits like Cabang Kiri
and Sungai Mak. However, at the end of the day
the fate of these projects may be decided by
socio‐political and environmental issues.
6.0 Conclusions
 Sulawesi consists of three distinct geological‐
metallogenic provinces, viz Northern,
Western and Eastern Sulawesi. Of these,
Northern Sulawesi shows the widest variety
98
 in mineral deposit styles and contains the
largest number of (known) deposits,
prospects and occurrences, whereas Eastern
Sulawesi ranks first in terms of economic
mineral (viz. nickel) resources..
 Magmatic – mineralization style associations
include:
‐ ophiolite: Ni and Fe laterite; primary and
secondary Cr.
‐ calc‐alkaline: porphyry Cu‐Au±Mo,
Fe±Au skarn, intrusion‐related base metal
– Au, sediment‐hosted Au, high‐ and
intermediate sulphidation Au Ag.
‐ Potassic alkaline: porphyry Cu±Au;
intrusive‐related base metal – Au; skarn.
‐ Bimodal: low‐sulphidation epithermal
Au‐Ag; VMS.
‐ Potassic felsic: porphyry Mo; intrusion‐
related Au.
 A rather puzzling aspect of the metallogeny
of Western Sulawesi is the apparent poor
development of typical epithermal volcanic‐
arc related precious metal deposits despite
the widespread occurrence of potassic
volcanic rocks, which elsewhere in the world
have generated a number of large gold
deposits.
 Several mineralized districts contain more
than one deposit type, e.g. the Tombulilato
district (porphyry Cu‐Au, high‐sulphidation
epithermal Au‐Ag, intrusion‐related Au), and
the close to each other located Doup and
Ratatotok districts ( porphyry Cu, high‐ and
intermediate‐sulphidation epithermal Au‐Ag,
replacement Au, and sediment‐hosted gold).
Recognition of a single type, even if only
weakly developed, may therefore help direct
exploration for potentially more significant
mineralization of other types in the same
district.
 The Pliocene was the most productive
mineralizing period, especially in Northern
Sulawesi. In this province, identifying centres
of Pliocene magmatic activity may be a useful
tool in the project generation stage. Another
potential guide is the regional unconformity
between the Mid‐ and Late Cenozoic
sequences.
 Some well or partly exposed gold deposits
may have very subtle surface geochemical
signatures, especially in areas with semi‐to
unconsolidated sedimentary or volcanic
cover deposits.
 Up to now nickel and gold have been the only
two commodities of economic interest; they
may be joined by copper and possibly
molybdenum in the foreseeable future.
Known nickel resources are large (of the
order of 1.5 billion DWT) and gold resources
more modest (about 420 t contained Au).
 By world standards Sulawesi is
underexplored. It is likely to remain so in the
foreseeable future as the exploration focus is
expected to be on relatively small areas of
known mineralization, rather than on district‐
scale, (semi‐)grassroots‐oriented
programmes. This is because of existing
opportunities (short term) and prevailing
non‐geological conditions (longer term).
7.0 Acknowledgements
Many colleagues have provided data for this
review or helped in other ways, including John
Carlile, Peter Flindell, Han van Gorsel,Jeff
Hedenquist, Arifudin Idrus, George Katchan,
Muhardjo, Thomas Mulya, Musri, Joseph
Ogermans, Sukmandaru Prihatmoko, Hendro
Purnomo, Dick Sillitoe, Gde Tutuko, Dave Trail,
Stephen Walters, and Wily Williamson‐Jones, all
of whom we grateful acknowledge. We specially
thank Tuti Mariani for preparing the manuscript,
Supriyadi for drafting the figures, and Brad Wake
for reviewing and editing the final draft.
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PROCEEDINGS OF THE SULAWESI MINERAL RESOURCES 2011 SEMINAR MGEI‐IAGI
28‐29 November 2011, Manado, North Sulawesi, Indonesia

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 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SULAWESI MINERAL RESOURCES 2011 SEMINAR MGEI‐IAGI
28‐29 November 2011, Manado, North Sulawesi, Indonesia

Sulawesi Magmatic Arcs

Bambang Priadi

Study Program of Geology, Institut Teknologi Bandung

bpriadi@gc.itb.ac.id

ABSTRACT

Magmatic products in Sulawesi mostly are distributed in West‐North Arm that elongate from Makassar‐Toraja
(South) to Palu‐Tolitoli (Central) to Manado (North) areas. The oldest magmatism exposes in southern parts,
indicating Jurassic in age. It has chemical characters of Back‐Arc Basin or Marginal‐Basin magmatism that might
have similar origin with Ophiolite Complex in East‐Arm, that had been tectonically emplaced in its present
position.

Paleogene to Early Neogene time is mostly characterized by subduction‐related magmatism. Distribution of its
products may indicate that West and North arms have not been connected until in Paleocene, and has been
connected in Eocene. The local Paleocene non subduction‐related magmatism in North Arm could represent
southward obducted parts of Sulawesi Sea. The Middle Miocene to Recent magmatism has different magmatic
affinity that are distributed in different areas. This distribution is correlated with collision of Banggai‐sula micro
continent to Sulawesi island in Early‐Middle Miocene. The collision would affect to the melting of lower
continental crust, producing magma with potassic calc‐alkaline affinity that are dispersed in Palu‐Tolitoli areas.

The collision had also halted the subduction in the southern parts, resulting magma with alkaline/shoshonitic
affinity of post‐subduction magmatism, in Makassar‐Toraja area. Meanwhile Manado area is not affected by
collision, it continues producing magma with calc‐alkaline affinity of subduction magmatism. The occurrence of
adakitic volcanites may be interpreted as products of southward subduction of Sulawesi Sea, or indication of post
collision magmatism.

Keywords : Sulawesi, magmatism, subduction, collision

DISTRIBUTION OF VOLCANIC PRODUCTS (Sukamto, 1975 ; Sukamto & Simandjuntak,

The island of Sulawesi with its specific “K‐
shape” is situated in the complex tectonic
system representing the junction of several
different tectonic‐plates of Eurasian, Indo‐
Australia and Pacific (Hamilton, 1979; Silver et
al., 1983). The island itself is geologically
subdivided into (1) East Arm that consists of
mostly obducted ophiolitic nappes, (2) Central
parts of metamorphic areas, and (3) West‐
North Arm consisting volcano‐magmatic
products of Pre‐Tertiary to Recent ages.
Another part that is considered as part of
Sulawesi geological system is (4) Banggai‐Sula
terrain in the eastern part of Sulawesi that
represents a micro‐continent consisting of
sedimentary‐volcanic rocks of Mesozoic ages
1981; Hall et al., 2002) (Figure 1).
In the West‐North Arm of Sulawesi, volcano‐
magmatic products are dated of Paleogene‐
Pliocene ages, distributed from the southern
parts (in Makassar and Tana‐Toraja areas), to
the central parts (Palu‐Tolitoli area), until to
Manado area in the northern parts. They
present various magmatic affinities indicating
that magmas were produced in different
tectonic setting (Priadi et al., 1993, 1994; Maury
et al., 1995; Polve et al., 1996).
Middle Miocene to Recent Volcanic products
show interesting geographic distribution (Priadi
et al., 1994): alkaline/shoshonitic volcanic is
concentrated in the southern part (Makassar‐
Toraja area), potassic calc‐alkalin plutono‐

111
volcanics are found in the central parts (Palu‐
Tolitoli areas), whereas calc‐alkalin products
dominate the northern part (Manado area)
(Figure 1).
40
K‐40Ar dating has been done in Laboratoire de
Geochimie de l’UBO, Brest, France using Mass‐
spectrometry Thomson Cameca 205 SE.
Chemical analyses have been done in the same
laboratory, mostly using NA (Neutronic
Activation) and AAS (Atomic Absorption
Spectrometry), for certain elements and for
comparison using ICP‐AES (Induced Coupled
Plasma ‐ Atomic Emission Spectrometry).
PRE‐TERTIARY MAGMATISM
The oldest dated volcanic products indicating
Jurassic in age (40K‐40Ar of 158.60‐137.17 Ma;
Polve at al., 1996; Priadi et al., 1997), and its
petro‐geochemical data show the Low‐Potassium
Volcanism of Back‐Arc or Marginal Basin setting.
These volcanic products wide‐spread in the
eastern sides of South‐Arm of Sulawesi, known
previously as volcanic units namely Lamasi and
Kalamiseng Volcanics (Yuwono, et al., 1988 ;
Priadi et al., 1993). The facts that the western
sides of these two volcanic units are bordered by
tectonic contacts to the other rock units, are
indicating the emplacement of these rock‐units
to its recent position is supposed to be tectonics.
The presence of layered gabbro, (normal) gabbro,
dyke swarms of basalt ‐ dolerite/diabas and the
pillow lavas, is suggesting that the known Lamasi
volcanics may represent a Dismembered
Ophiolite (Priadi et al., 1997) as mostly found in
the East‐Arm of Sulawesi. Monnier et al (1995)
has also mentioned that parts of Ophiolite
Complex in the East‐Arm of Sulawesi are
originated from Back‐Arc Tectonic setting.
These data may indicate that these rock units
have been formed somewhere in the
east/southeast areas associated with certain
subduction system(s), and then have been
emplaced in Sulawesi at around in Middle
Miocene (~18‐15 Ma ; Yuwono, et al., 1988 ;
Rangin et al, 1990).
PALEOGENE MAGMATISM
Volcanic products having ages of Paleocene (40K‐
40
Ar of 61.41‐59.17 Ma. ; Obradovich, 1974 in
Sukamto, 1978; Yuwono et al., 1988; Polve et al.,
1996) can only be found in southern part of
South‐Arm (in Makassar area). The lithology is
mostly basaltic lavas that is classified as part of
Bua Formation (Yuwono et al., 1988). Chemically,
these lithologies indicate the characters of
subduction‐related volcanism (calc‐alkaline
affinity). So far, these volcanic products represent
the oldest products of subduction‐related
magmatism occurred in Sulawesi (Figure 2).
In eastern part of South‐Arm of Sulawesi, basaltic
lavas crop out in Ningo river, that belong to
Salokalupang Formation. Lava sample of this
formation is dated by 40K‐40Ar giving the Eocene
age of 52.20 Ma (personal communication with
Alit Ascaria, 2011). Lack of the chemical data
makes the magmatic affinity as well as its
tectonic setting for the latter are still unknown,
but it is supposed to be identical to that of Bua
Formation. Dating on a gabbro sample in south of
Palopo gives also the Eocene age (40.16 Ma;
Priadi, 1993) eventhough chemically these
samples are not indicating the subduction related
magmatic products.
The other subduction related magmatism of
Eocene ages can be found mostly in the Central
to Northern parts of West‐North Arm of Sulawesi,
especially around Donggala and Tolitoli area
(Priadi, 1993; Polve et al., 1996). Tholeiitic dykes
were dated for the rocks of Tinombo Formation
around Donggala (46,82‐44.13 Ma; Priadi, 1993)
and tholeiitic intrusion (still classified as Tinombo
Formation) near Paleleh‐Tantayuo (east of Tolitoli
area) have already been dated for Late Eocene
age (37.15‐37.02 Ma; Priadi, 1993; Polve et al.,
1996).
In the northern coast of West‐North Arm around
Bintauna, crop‐out pillow lavas that are classified
as Volcanic Units of Tinombo Formation (Apandi
& Bachri, 1977). Basalts of this unit were dated,
and gave less‐reliable ages of 41.82‐40.27 Ma
(Eocene; Priadi, 1993). Geochemically these
basalts show characters of magmatism correlated
112
Figure 1. Tectonics and Geological Provinces of Sulawesi (Permana et al., 2006, simplified from
Silver at al., 1983, Sukamto & Simanjuntak, 1993, and Parkinson, 1996, 1997, 1998)

113
Figure 2. Distribution of magmatic data in West‐North Arm of Sulawesi. SH/AK/UK =
Shoshonitic/Alkaline/Ultra Potassic ; CAK = Potassic Calc‐Alkaline; CA = Calc‐Alkaline ; IAT = Island
Arc Tholeite ; BAB = Back Arc Basin. (Modified from Polve et al., 1994)

114
to Back‐Arc or Marginal Basin setting (Priadi,
1993; Polve et al., 1996), that are identical to
basalt of the seafloor of Sulawesi Sea taken by
Ocean Drilling Project (ODP; Rangin et al, 1990).
In Makassar‐Toraja areas, volcanic rocks dated of
Oligocene ages were obtained from tholeiitic
dolerite dykes cross‐cutting Kalamiseng Volcanics
(33.33 Ma; Yuwono et al, 1988) as well as rhyolite
dykes in Lamasi Volcanics (32.89‐28.60 Ma;
Priadi, 1993; Polve et al., 1996). Big intrusion of
calc‐akaline granitic composition (Kambuno
Granite) that close to Sangkaropi gives age of
29.87 Ma (Priadi, 1993; Polve et al., 1996).
A tholeiitic basalt dyke around Donggala that cut
the rocks of Tinombo Formation, has an age of
34.46 Ma (Oligocene) in 40K‐40Ar dating, whereas
tholeitic basaltic lavas of Dolokapa Formation (in
Manado area) are also indicating Oligocene ages
(30.50‐28.30 Ma).
NEOGENE‐QUATERNARY MAGMATISM
Neogene igneous rocks products are mostly
charcterized by subduction‐related magmatism,
they can be grouped into two different interval of
ages (Figure 2):
a). At about interval of 22‐21 Ma (Early Miocene)
is represented by tholeitic rocks that belong to
Kalamiseng Volcanics in Makassar Area
(rhyolite of 21.72 Ma), Tinombo Formation
around Tolitoli Area (gabbro of Tantayuo of
22.09 Ma; andesite of 21.93 Ma), and calc‐
alkaline of Bone Diorite (22.45‐22.19 Ma;
around Gorontalo)
b). Rocks aged of around 18‐15 Ma (Early‐Middle
Miocene) can be found in Makassar area
(18.74‐15.35 Ma; (Kalamiseng and Lamasi
Volcanics), around Palu‐Tolitoli area (17.95‐
17.70 Ma; Tinombo and Bilungala Formation),
until close to Manado area (18.85‐13.13 Ma;
Tinombo Formation and Wobudu Breccia).
Bunbulan Granite that is calc‐alkaline in
magmatic affinity has also ages within this
interval : 18.14 Ma (Priadi, 1993; Yuwono et
al., 1995; Polve et al., 1996).
Middle Miocene to Recent magmatism in
Sulawesi is coincidently separated geographically:
ultra‐potassic/shoshonitic magmatic products are
only in southern parts of West‐North Arm of
Sulawesi (Makassar area), calc‐alkaline potassic in
central parts (Palu‐Tolitoli areas), and calc‐
alkaline affinity in eastern tips of West‐North Arm
(Manado area) (Figure 3):
a). Ultrapotassic / Shoshonitik (SH) Magmatism
Volcanic rocks having these magmatic affinities
can be found in southern parts of Sulawesi, in
form of lava or intrusive bodies having lithologies
of basalts‐andesites (Yuwono et al., 1998;
Letterier at al., 1990; Bergman et al., 1996; Polve
et al., 1996). Geochemical and petrological data
show the presence of significantly felspatoids
that may refers to silica undersaturated magma.
The chemistry indicates the high contents of
alkaline (Yuwono et al, 1988), and incompatible
elements indicating the intensive contribution of
granitic continental composition. This kind of
volcanic products are dated mostly of 12.81‐4.30
Ma (Yuwono et al., 1988, 1989; Polve et al.,
1996), and can be found as lithologies of many
volcanic units in the Makassar‐Toraja areas
(Baturape, Sesean, Sekala, Talaya, Camba,
Sopeng, Parepare, Cindako Volcaniscs ; Sukamto,
1975; Yuwono et al., 1989; Priadi, 1993).
b). Acid Calc‐Alkalin Potassic Magmatism
In the central parts of West‐North Arm, in Palu‐
Tolitoli areas, especially along the Palu‐Koro Fault
Area (PKFZ), the occurrence of potassic calc‐
alkaline magmatism is shown by the presence of
granitoid intrusions and pyroclastic deposits of
dacitic to rhyolitic in composition. 40K‐40Ar dating
to these rocks indicating the age intervals of 8.10‐
0.55 Ma to Recent (Sukamto, 1975; Priadi et al.,
1993, 1994; Maury et al., 1995; Polve et al., 1996;
van Leeuwen et al., 1996; Widiasmoro et al.,
1997)
High silica contents (SiO2 = 61.7‐76.5%) and
normative quartz around 20% for this magmatism
indicate the involvement (anatexis) of the
components of granitic continental crust in its
genesis. Comparing the chemical compositions of
this magmatic products and those of lower crust
components (garnet peridotites, acid granulites
and basic granulites; Helmers et al., 1990) that
present as xenoliths in granitoid rocks, indicating
co‐geneticity in Extended Spiderdiagram (Priadi
115
et al., 1993, 1994; Maury et al., 1995; Polve et al.,
1996). Observation on chemical compositions
indicates that the lithologies of the lower crust
may act as principal contributors to the formation
of this potassic calc‐alkaline magma (Priadi et al.,
1993, 1994, 2009; Maury et al., 1995).
Meanwhile, the characters of subduction‐related
magmatism is also still observed (negative
anomalies on High Field Strength elements :
Ta,Nb, Ti, Zr, Hf) accompanied with high presence
of Pb and Th of continental characters (Priadi et
al., 1993, 1994; Widiasmoro et al., 1997). The
products of this kind of magmatism can be found
as acid rocks (granite, dacite, rhyolite) along Palu‐
Koro, around Tolitoli (Tolitoli Granitois; van
Leeuwen, written communication, 1990), in
Toraja area (Palopo Granite and Barupu tuff), and
around Togian islands in Tomini Gulf.
Adakitic Magmatism
Adakite is a kind of igneous rock having
composition of high contents in SiO2 (>56%),
Al2O3 (>15%), Sr (>300ppm) accompanied with
low content of MgO (<3%) and Y (<15ppm), giving
the Sr/Y ratio of >20. Adakitic volcanism indicates
the contribution of melting the young oceanic
plates (<25 Ma) to the formation of magma in
subduction areas (Castillo, 2006). This kind of
rock is supposedly present in Togian islands (in
Tomini Gulf) as products of recent volcanism
(Sendjaja & Sucipta (2008).
c.) Calc‐alkaline magmatic affinity of subduction‐
related magmatism, mostly are exposed in the
eastern proximity of the West‐North Arm of
Sulawesi, (around Manado Area) and prolong
northward to Sangihe‐Talaud Islands. They are
dated of 7.01‐0,89 Ma until recent time (Jezek et
al., 1981; Tatsumi et al., 1981; Yuwono et al.,
1995; Priadi et al., 2006).
TECTONIC IMPLICATION
The oldest magmatism (Pre‐Tertiary, 158.60‐
137.17 Ma) having characters of Back Arc Basin
or Marginal Basin magmatism is supposed to be
formed far outside of Sulawesi area. It might be
correlated with the origin of East Sulawesi
Ophiolite Complex (Monnier et al., 1995). The
presence of this magmatic products in south of
Sulawesi is supposedly by westward tectonic
emplacement due to collision of Banggai‐Sula
micro‐continent to Sulawesi.
The oldest subduction‐related magmatism in
Sulawesi is in Oligocene age in Makassar area.
The direction of subduction itself is still in debate,
but most of researchers supposed the subduction
is westward plunging as continuation of
Sumatera‐Java subduction system at that time.
Products of Eocene subduction‐related
magmatism are found in eastern sides of West
Arm and in the eastern side of Palu‐Koro Fault
Area (in Donggala), this may indicate that
subduction areas occurred in the eastern side of
West Arm of Sulawesi, and the North Arm of
Sulawesi might not be in the present position.
Eocene magmatic products in the North Arm of
Sulawesi is supposed to be part of Sulawesi Sea
seafloor that was been obducted southward onto
the North arm of Sulawesi during the
northwestward drift of this arm.
During Early to middle Miocene products of
subduction‐related magmatism can be found in
all parts of West‐North Arm of Sulawesi (Polve et
al, 1996; Priadi et al., 2009), indicating the West
and the North arms have already been
connected, as also mentioned by Hall (2002).
The following magmatic products of Middle
Miocene to Recent are characterized by different
magmatic affinities and geographically separated
in three major areas. Northwestward collision of
Banggai‐Sula micro‐continent to Sulawesi island
that probably occurred in Early‐Middle Miocene
(Hamilton, 1979; Silver et al., 1983; Priadi et al.,
1993; Polve at al., 1996) had triggered the
melting of the lower parts of obducted
continental crust, giving potassic calc‐alkaline
magmatism (high silica and high alkaline
contents) that has been distributed in central
parts of Sulawesi. The collision has also halted
the subduction system in its southern parts,
slowed down the upraising magma to be
extruded later as alkaline/shoshonitic affinity of
post‐subduction magmatism (Priadi et al., 1993,
1994; Maury et al., 1995; Waspersdorf et al.,
1997, 1998). This alkaline/shoshonitic rocks are
116
Figure 3. Distribution of Neogene magmatic products in Sulawesi having
different magmatic affinity obtained from K2O‐SiO2 discriminant diagram of
Peccerillo and Taylor, 1978)

117
distributed mostly in the southern parts of
West‐North arm of Sulawesi. As collision was
concentrated in the central part of Sulawesi,
and the North Arm is positioned out of the
north border of Banggai‐Sula micro‐continent,
the eastern parts of North Arm (Manado area)
is practically less affected by collision, and the
magmatism was being continued and still
producing the subduction‐related igneous rocks
(Priadi et al., 1993, 1994; Priadi et al., 2009).
The occurrence of adakitic volcanites in Togian
islands (Sendjaja and Sucipta, 2006) may give
interpretation that southward subduction of
Sulawesi Sea (that could be young) produced
magmatism. Rangin et al. (1990) and
Waspersdorf et al. (1997, 1998) supposed
previously that subduction of Sulawesi Sea
could not produce magma as it was not be able
to reach the certain depth to form the melting.
They considered that the previous
northwestward plunged of Molucca plate
blocked the down penetration of plunging
Sulawesi sea plate. Otherwise, recent
observations indicate that adakite magmatism
is not only correlated with melting of young
subducted plates, but it can also be formed in
Collisional Tectonic Setting (Topuz et al., 2011).
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120
 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SULAWESI MINERAL RESOURCES 2011 SEMINAR MGEI‐IAGI
28‐29 November 2011, Manado, North Sulawesi, Indonesia

Basement Rocks of Sulawesi and Their Contribution to the Metallogenic Formation

Ade Kadarusman

Mining and Exploration Department, PT INCO Tbk,

Sorowako, South Sulawesi

ABSTRACT

The Sulawesi’s basement rock distributed within four lithotectonic units. Five type basements are recognized with
different origins. It consists of (i) accretionary‐collision complex (Bantimala and Barru Complex in SW arm), (ii)
metamorphic rocks with continental margin parentage (metamorphic complexes in West, NW, Central and SE
Sulawesi), (iii) ophiolitic rock and oceanic crust (East and North arm, respectively), (iv) melange or broken
formation (Central part), and (v) continental granitic basement (Banggai‐Sula and Tukang Besi). All the basements
are Mesozoic in age, and some of the metamorphic rocks have Paleozoic in protoliths age. Metallogenesis
occurrence in Sulawesi correlated with the basement type with three ways. Firstly, they occurred genetically as the
source such as ultramafic massif of East Sulawesi Ophiolite for Ni laterite deposit and its correlated base metal.
Second, the basement as the country rock of metalogeny‐related to subduction magmatism, e.g host of Neogene
volcanism in North and NW Sulawesi were occurred in two different basements. Lastly, the basement itself is
carrying mineralization before incorporate with rest of Sulawesi terranes, for example discovery orogenic gold
deposit in metamorphic terrane in Mekongga block. Therefore understanding the Sulawesi basement will lead a
good exploration targeting.

INTRODUCTION at least since 1930 where Brouwer led the

The terms of basement and crystalline basement
are used to define the rocks below a sedimentary
platform or cover, or more generally any rock
below sedimentary rocks or sedimentary basins
that are metamorphic or igneous in origin. In the
same way the sediments and/or sedimentary
rocks on top of the basement can be called a
"cover" or "sedimentary cover" (Wikipedia). The
same definition about from Glossary Geology,
that the basement rock, the oldest rocks in a
given area; a complex of metamorphic and
igneous rocks that underlies the sedimentary
deposits; usually Precambrian or Paleozoic in
ages. With a specific definition, the basement
rocks are readily distinguishable from their covers
rocks based on their petrological, structural and
stratigraphic appearances. This definition has
been applied in this paper to differentiate the
basement rocks and their contribution to the
tectonic and metallogeny province. The Cenozoic
magmatism will not be included in this paper
because it is not included in the definition above.
It will be discussed separately in this volume.
Studies on basement rock in Sulawesi dated back
expedition to Sulawesi. Several publications,
geological maps and PhD theses were produced
during this period up to post War era (a series
publication by Koolhoven 1930‐1932; Egeler
1947‐1949; de Roever, 1947‐1953). In the Plate
Tectonic Era, several groups made contributions
to the basement studies, e.g. (i) the Royal
Halloway University of London Group (Audley
Charles, 1974; Parkinson 1991, 1996, 1998;
Coffield et al, 1993; Bergman et al, 1996), (ii) LIPI‐
GSJ Japan (Miyazaki et al, 1996; Wakita et al.,
1996), (ii) Geological Survey of Indonesia (now as
“Badan Geologi/Pusat Survey Geologi”; Sukamto,
1975, 1986; Simandjuntak, 1980, 1986,
1992;Mubroto et al, 1994; Surono, 1994, 1996),
(iii) Rio Tinto Indonesia (van Leeuwen, 1981; van
Leeuwen et al, 2007, 2010; van Leeuwen &
Muhardjo, 2005), (iv) French – ITB Group
(Monnier et al., 1994, 1995; Villeneuve et al,
2001), (v) LIPI‐Tokyo Institute of Tech. Japan
(Parkinson et al., 1998; Parkinson, 1998;
Kadarusman & Parkinson, 2000). Contributions
are also made by geologists from Australians
Group (Berry & Grady, 1987), Inco’s geologists
(Ahmad, 1975), and Indonesian (LIPI)‐Dutch
Snellius II expedition and LIPI (Helmers et al,
121
1989, 1991; Sopaheluwakan, 1979;
Sopaheluwakan et al., 1993, 1995; Soesilo &
Sopaheluwakan, 1998).
The Sulawesi has been subdivided into four
lithotectonic units or terranes, which are
bounded by large‐scale tectonic dislocations and
thrust faults (Audley‐Charles, 1974; Katili, 1978;
Sukamto, 1975; Hamilton, 1979; Sukamto &
Simandjuntak, 1983 in Parkinson 1991). These are
from west to east (see the Figure 1): (i) the West‐
North Sulawesi volcano‐plutonic Arc, (ii) the
Central Sulawesi metamorphic belt, (iii) the East
Sulawesi Ophiolite belt, and (iv) the Continental
Fragments of Banggai‐Sula, Tukang Besi and
Buton. The basement rock in each lithotectonic
units showed different characteristics and ages,
this paper will summarize the basement rock
based on studies conducted by above groups and
their contribution for the formation of
metallogenetic province in Sulawesi.
THE WEST‐NORTH SULAWESI VOLCANO‐
PLUTONIC ARC
The West Sulawesi Plutono‐Volcanic Arc can be
divided into a continental margin segment
(Southwest‐West Sulawesi) and a Tertiary island
arc segment underlain by oceanic crust (Northern
Sulawesi). The basement of this Southwest‐West
Sulawesi unit consists of (i) Pre‐Tertiary
Bantimala and Barru complex in the Southwest
Arm, (ii) three metamorphic complexes in the
Central and NW Sulawesi and (iii) Latimojong
Formation in the Central Sulawesi. Those
basements form the rifted continental margin of
SE Sundaland and are characterized by the
widespread occurrence of high‐K volcanic and
granitoid rocks intruded into (van Leuween &
Muhardjo, 2005). The Northern Sulawesi
basement, which is oceanic crust presumably
from Celebes Sea basin did not expose in the
surface and covered completely by a Cenozoic
island arc system.
Bantimala Complex is a part of Central Indonesia
Accretionary‐Collisional complexes that appear
sporadically in an arc extending from Java to
Kalimantan and Sulawesi (Sundaland margin) in
the Cretaceous. The Central Indonesia
Accretionary‐Collisional complexes are result of
collisional processes between the Asian,
Australian, and Pacific plates from the Cretaceous
to the present (e.g., Wakita, 2000). The Bantimala
complex is a tectonic assemblage of slabs and
blocks consisting of sandstone, shale,
conglomerate, chert, siliceous shale, basalt,
ultramafic rocks, schist, schist breccia, eclogite,
amphibolite, blueschist and felsic intrusive rocks
at Jurassic to Late Cretaceous in age (Sukamto,
1975; Wakita et al., 1994, 1996; Miyazaki et al.,
1996; Parkinson et al., 1998; Maulana, 2008).
The Bantimala Complex is surrounded by Tertiary
and Quaternary sedimentary and volcanic rocks,
and unconformably covered by Late Cretaceous
to Palaeocene sedimentary rocks and is intruded
by Palaeogene diorite. Barru Block is considered
to be similar occurrences with Bantimala
Complex; however the block is characterized by
low to medium grade metamorphic rocks
assemblages without trace of HP metamorphic
rocks (Maulana et al., 2008).
The Metamorphic Complex is regional
metamorphism consists of Malino, Palu and
Karrosa metamorphic complexes (van Leeuwen &
Muhadjo, 2005). The old zircon ages and isotopic
characteristics of the host rocks indicate that
those complexes represent a continental
fragment of Australian origin.
The Malino Metamorphic Complex (MMC) is
located at the western end of the north arm of
Sulawesi (mostly exposed in the southern part of
the Tolitoli region). The MMC has been studied in
detail by van Leeuwen et al., (2006). It consists of
mica schists and gneisses (derived from proximal
turbidite and granitoid protoliths), with
intercalations of greenschist, amphibolite,
marble, and quartzite, forming an E‐W elongated
dome‐like structure bounded on all sides by
faults. This Paleozoic age, the presence of
Archean and Proterozoic inherited zircons, and
the isotopic signature of the mica schists and
gneisses indicate that the terrane was derived
from the New Guinea‐Australian margin of
Gondwana. The rocks of the MMC show a
Barrovian‐type progression from greenschist
through epidote‐amphibolite to amphibolite
122
Figure 1. Lithotectonic division of Sulawesi (Kadarusman et al., 2004) modified from
Parkinson (1998) and Wilson and Hall (2000)

123
facies. P–T estimations suggest a depth of burial
of up to 27– 30 km. K/Ar and 40Ar/39Ar cooling
ages of 23–11Ma, and a 7Ma age for
unconformably overlying volcanic rocks,
indicate that the complex was exhumed during
the Miocene (van Leeuwen et al., 2006).
The second complex, the Palu Metamorphic
Complex (PMC), forms the backbone of the
neck and extends further to the south into the
Palu Zone. It is made up of biotite schists and
gneisses, amphibolites, and amphibolitic schists
and gneisses. Higher‐grade rocks, including
granulite, eclogite and peridotite are locally
present as tectonic slices, mostly along the Palu‐
Koro Fault zone. The Palu Metamorphic
Complex contains metasediments and
metagranitoids (dated as Permo‐Triassic) of
Australian–New Guinea derivation, but also
contains metabasites of MORB affinity, and
possibly rocks of Sundaland parentage (van
Leeuwen et al., in preparation). The high‐grade
rocks have been detailed described in a series of
abstracts and papers in several groups (e.g.
Sopaheluwaken et al., 1995; Helmers et al.,
1990; Priadi et al., 1993; Kadarusman and
Parkinson, 2000; Polvé et al., 2001; Kadarusman
et al., 2005; Syafri et al., 2005; Watkinson
(2010) that limited to high‐ to ultra high
pressure rock samples from the Palu‐Koro
valley, mostly involving geothermobarometry
with very limited geochemical, isotope and age
dating work; however, there is a general
consensus that at one stage some of the (U)HP
rocks resided at considerable depths (≥60km),
there is less agreement on how and when they
were formed and transported to the surface.
The recent paper by van Leeuwen et al (in
preparation) has been written to attempt
postulated origin and the tectonic history of the
PMC with detailed isotopic and geochemistry
data.
Finally, the third complex, the Karossa
Metamorphic Complex, which is exposed in the
SW part of the Lariang region, consists of a
metabasite unit, also of MORB affinity, and a
dominantly metapelite unit (van Leeuwen et al.,
in preparation). The Palu and Karossa
Metamorphic Complexes may represent young
metamorphic core complexes (van Leeuwen et
al., in preparation).
The metamorphic complexes are overlain by the
Late Cretaceous Latimojong Formation and
Paleogene Budungbudung Formation, Tinombo
Formation and Papayato Volcanics (van
Leeuwen & Muhardjo). The latter consists of a
volcanic sequence with rare sedimentary
intercalations, whereas the other three
formations are composed dominantly of marine
sedimentary rocks. The units, which are
moderately to strongly folded, have undergone
low‐grade greenschist metamorphism and are
intruded by mid‐Eocene to mid‐Oligocene
stocks and dykes, varying, in composition from
gabbro and diorite to granodiorite and granite
(van Leeuwen & Muhadjo, 2005). Latimojong
Formation is low‐medium grade regional
metamorphosed pelitic and fine‐grained
psammitic rocks, alternating monotonously with
subsidiary intercalations of conglomerate,
coarse sandstone, basaltic to andesitic lava and
volcaniclastics, quartzite, chert and limestone,
and believed to be Late Cretaceous to Eocene in
age . Several authors like Sukamto (1973)
included this unit in the Tinombo Formation or
vice versa. I believe only Latimojong and
Tinombo Formations are categorized as
metamorphic basements. The Latimojong
Formation overlies/flanks the Karossa
Metamorphic Complex (in the few localities
where the contact was observed it appeared to
be tectonic) and is unconformably overlain by
the Paleogene Budungbudung Formation and
younger formations (van Leeuwen & Muhadjo,
2005).
THE CENTRAL SULAWESI METAMORPHIC BELT
The Central Sulawesi Metamorphic Belt
comprises of (i) ophiolite melange or broken
formation and (ii) metamorphic rocks
(Pompangeo Schist Complex, including
Mekongga Block at SE arm). The K‐Ar dating
yielded ages of ca 111 Ma (Parkinson, 1998).
The metamorphic rocks consist of materials of
both continental and oceanic derivation,
probably including Australian crust (Parkinson,
124
1991). The Pompangeo Schist Belt has been
described in detailed by Parkinson (1991, 1998),
which crops out over ~5000 km2 in Central
Sulawesi, and is predominantly composed of
interbanded phylitic marble, calcareous phyllite,
graphitic schist, quartzite and
metaconglomerate; rocks predominantly of
shallow marine with continental origin. Typical
low T and high P minerals such jadeite,
lawsonite, aragonite, ferrocarpholite and blue
amphiboles have been described by de Roever
(1947), and famous as Glaucophane
metamorphism in early formation concept in
high P metamorphism. Along the eastern
margin of the complex, Pompangeo complex
are interthrust with unmetamorphosed Jurassic
sandstone and limestone (Mesozoic Sediments),
which may represent parental material of the
complex, and both underthrust beneath an
extensive nappe of metamorphosed ophiolitic
mélange which constitute the base of the East
Sulawesi Ophiolite. There is no detailed study
on metamorphic rock SE Sulawesi, except
detailed discovery of blueschists rock and
metabasite in at Mekongga block by Helmers et
al. (1989).
The eastern part of the Central Sulawesi
Metamorphic Belt is composed of a melange of
tectonised and metamorphosed ophiolite
fragments and variably disrupted broken
formations (Parkinson, 1991; Parkinson, 1998b).
Metamorphosed ophiolite melanges (Peluru
Melange Complex and Wasuponda Melange)
are of Oligocene age, including metamorphic
sole beneath, thrusted in between Pompangeo
schist and East Sulawesi Ophiolite (Parkinson,
1998). Within the melange area the western
lower part is composed of ophiolitic clasts in a
sheared matrix of red phyllite, whereas the
eastern upper part has a serpentinite matrix
and components have suffered Oligo‐Miocene
blueschist recrystallization (Hall & Wilson,
2000). The broken formations, tectonically
intercalated within the melange, include upper
Cretaceous bathyal limestones and chert, and
siltstones, sandstones and conglomerates of
Jurassic or Cretaceous age (Rutten, 1927;
Koolhoven, 1932; Sukamto and Simandjuntak,
1983 in Hall & Wilson, 2000). Blocks within the
melange, derived from the ophiolite, range
from pebble size to several hundreds of metres
across, whilst those of the broken formations
may be up to hundreds of metres across.
Melanges are also known from contacts of
microcontinental blocks of Banggai‐Sula and
Buton (Hall & Wilson, 2000).
THE EAST SULAWESI OPHIOLITE BELT
The East Sulawesi Ophiolite (hereafter as ESO),
a dismembered ophiolite that is tectonically
intercalated with Mesozoic deep‐sea sediments,
and probably includes Indian Ocean MORB,
marginal basin crust, parts of the Sundaland
fore‐arc or oceanic plateau of Pacific plate. The
total length of the ESO is some 700 km from
Gorontalo Bay, through the East Arm and
central Sulawesi toward the Southeast Arm and
the islands of Buton and Kabaena (Kadarusman
et al., 2004); it also extends to the Lamasi
complex of the South Arm passing through the
Bone Gulf. The total outcrop area is more than
15,000 km2. East Sulawesi Ophiolite is one of
the three largest ophiolites in the world along
with the Oman Ophiolite and the Papua New
Guinea Ophiolite. The ESO are now intercalated
and juxtaposed in a complex manner with
Mesozoic and Tertiary sedimentary rocks, as a
result of Late Oligocene/ Early Miocene
collision, subsequent obduction, and later
strike‐slip faulting (Bergman et al., 1996;
Parkinson, 1998; Hall, 2002; Kadarusman et al.,
2004).
The origin and age(s) of the ESO are still matters
of debate due to incomplete geochemical and
geochronological data sets. Three major
tectonic settings have been proposed for the
origin of the ESO: typical mid‐oceanic ridge
(Soeria‐Atmadja et al., 1974; Simandjuntak,
1987), a suprasubduction zone (SSZ) setting
(Monnier et al., 1995; Bergman et al., 1996;
Parkinson, 1998) and oceanic plateau
(Kadarusman et al, 2004).
125
Monnier et al. (1995) argued that the ESO has
similarities with the oceanic crust of the Celebes
Sea, whereas Bergman et al. (1996) speculated
that the Lamasi ophiolite could represent a
fragment of Indian Ocean crust, similar to the
trapped crust of the Banda Sea. The idea that
the ESO is an on‐land analog of the Banda Sea
was first proposed by Katili (1978) and Hamilton
(1979). Based on the geological and marine
geophysical data, Silver et al. (1983) have
proposed that the ESO is laterally continuous
with the basement of Gorontalo bay basin. The
paleomagnetic data of Mubroto et al. (1994),
however, suggest that the ophiolite was some
2000 km south of its present position. Parkinson
(1998) considered that the origin of (at least)
the westernmost segment of the ESO was
probably a small ridge‐transform basin formed
behind an oblique subduction zone at the
Sundaland margin in the Eocene. Later
Kadarusman et al (2004) suggested two
alternatives of nature of ESO; they may have
formed in one tectonic setting (MOR origin) and
were later overprinted by magmatism in a
different environment (oceanic plateau and
subduction magmatism overprinting) or the ESO
is not a single coherent ophiolitic body, but
consists of a composite of imbricated slices of
ophiolite fragments with different origins.
In addition to the discrepancies regarding the
origin of the ESO, the age(s) of the ophiolite is
still unresolved (e.g., Parkinson, 1998). There is
evidence for both a Cenozoic and/or Mesozoic
formation from conventional K–Ar and Ar/Ar
geochronology (Simandjuntak, 1987, 1992;
Mubroto et al., 1994; Monnier et al.,1995;
Bergman et al., 1996; Parkinson, 1998). They
include Cretaceous (79–137 Ma), Paleogene
(64–28 Ma) and Neogene (16–23 Ma) ages for
basalt and gabbro of the ESO. One possible
interpretation for the Neogene ophiolite ages is
that they may indicate either timing of ophiolite
metamorphism or ophiolite emplacement, or
the rock samples may have been mistakenly
derived from Neogene volcaniclastic basalt
(NVC) covering the ESO as subduction
magmatism overpinting. The majority of the
oldest ages (Cretaceous) may indicate the initial
generation of oceanic lithosphere or time of
first eruption (Kadarusman et al., 2004).
Simandjuntak (1992) obtained Valanginian to
Lower Cenomanian fossil ages from chert and
limestone of the Boba beds in the East Arm.
Although a clear depositional contact between
ophiolite lavas and overlying Boba beds has
never been reported, because the relation is
commonly faulted, a rare stratigraphic contact
between lava and undated chert of the Matano
Formation (which has been correlated with the
Boba beds) in the Kolonodale area suggests that
the unit was deposited on top of the ophiolite
(Simandjuntak, 1992). If so, a Cretaceous age of
at least part of the ESO is supported by the
stratigraphic relationship.
In most cases, units underlying the ESO include
the Pompangeo schist complex and correlative
units (Mekongga Complex and Mesozoic
Metasediments) and the Peleru (or Wasuponda)
melange complexes (Parkinson, 1996, 1998).
The age of the Pompangeo complex is Early
Cretaceous (Parkinson, 1998), whereas both the
mélange complex and metamorphic sole have
similar age ranges of 28–33 Ma (Parkinson,
1998). Based on the east dipping thrust contact
between these underlying units and the ESO,
Parkinson (1998) interpreted that the ESO is
overthrust onto the Pompangeo schist complex
and its correlative units, and the Late Oligocene
age indicates the timing of final emplacement of
the ESO onto the Sundaland margin. In the Poh
Head region, underlying units include Banggai–
Sula microcontinental materials. The Batui
Thrust separates the ESO from sedimentary
rock deformed along the leading edge of
Banggai–Sula platform. The timing of collision
between the ESO and Banggai–Sula
microcontinent is probably Late Miocene (Silver
et al., 1983).
The full suite of ophiolite lithologies (ultramafic
and mafic sequences) is present along the
northern coast of the East Arm. In the large
parts of the ESO, ultramafic sequences
dominate in the Southeast Arm, Southern part
of the East Arm and Kabaena Island, whereas
only the basaltic volcanic unit is exposed in the
126
Lamasi and Poh Head area. The ultramafic
outcrops in the East and Southeast Arm of
Sulawesi occur in three forms (PT Inco MRMR
Report 2007):
 As large irregular masses of up to
several hundred square kilometres. The
largest of these is that of the Malili
Lakes Area Massif that covers several
thousand square kilometres of
continuous ultramafic terrain
 As imbricated strips following the
general structural grain of the
subduction melange. According to this
grain, imbricated strips have their
convex sides generally to the west.
 As small irregular‐shaped and isolated
bodies of ultramafics (Latao, Sua‐Sua,
Pao‐Pao, Pomalaa, Torobulu, Kia‐Kia,
Kabaena etc.). These smaller bodies lie
in specific regional trends. Thus, Latao,
Sua‐Sua, Pao‐Pao and Pomalaa form a
distinct northeasterly trend.
THE CONTINENTAL FRAGMENTS OF BANGGAI‐
SULA, TUKANG BESI AND BUTON
Continental fragments of Australian derivation
consist of Buton‐Tukang Besi and Banggai‐Sula
fragments, which collided with eastern Sulawesi
during the early Miocene and Pliocene,
respectively (Hall, 2002). The Banggai‐Sula
microcontinent is interpreted as to be a
fragment of the North Australia‐New Guinea
continent (Garrard et al., 1988). The basement
of this microcontinent apparently is not only
composed of granitoid rocks (namely Banggai
granite), but also composed of regional
metamorphic rocks which consist metapelites
and intercalation with metabasites and
metapsammitic and acidic volcanics rock
(Mangole Volcanics). The Carboniferous
metamorphic basement was intruded by
Permo‐Triassic Banggai granite and overlain by
contemporaneous Mangole volcanics. This
basement complex is unconformably covered
by Jurassic continental to shallow marines
sediments. Early investigation by Kadarusman
et al (1994) and Natawidjaya & Kadarusman
(1994) suggest low pressure and high
temperature continental metamorphites form a
substantial part of the Australian basements
rock in this microplate.
Buton and the adjacent islands Tukang Besi are
frequently viewed as two small Australian
derived microcontinental fragments, began
docking with Sundaland in the Eoecne‐
Oligocene and Pliocene respectively. However,
there is no clear tectonic suture between two
microcontinents. Both areas have granitic
basements below sea level, and only Buton has
remnants of obducted ophiolite (Kapantoreh
Ophiolite). The basements were overlain by
Late Triassic‐Paleogene platform sediments.
CONCLUDING REMARKS AND ECONOMIC
GEOLOGY IMPLICATION
Basement rock can be classified as (i)
Continental Basements (e.g. cratons,
continental shelf, continental fragments, etc),
(ii) Convergent Plate Boundary Products
Basements (e.g. island arc, active continental
margin, accretionary‐collisional complexes, etc),
and (iii) Oceanic crust Basement (e.g. marginal
basin, ophiolite complex, etc). Based on this
classification and detailed of basements
description above, the Sulawesi has convergent
plate boundary products Basements which
consist of (i) accretionary‐collision complex
(Bantimala and Barru Complex in SW arm), (ii)
metamorphic rocks with continental margin
parentage (metamorphic complexes in West,
NW, Central and SE Sulawesi), (iii) melange or
broken formation in the Central part. The
continental basement present (iv) in Banggai‐
Sula and Tukang Besi microcontinents. Finally,
(v) the ophiolitic rock and oceanic crust
occupied in East and North arm basement,
respectively.
Correlation between metallogenesis occurrence
and the basement type in Sulawesi existed in
three ways. Firstly, they occurred genetically as
the metal source such as ultramafic massif of
East Sulawesi Ophiolite. The ultramafic rocks
127
are favorable for source of nickel laterite and
nickel sulfide deposits. In addition to nickel, we
can expect the ultramafic rock host for
chromite, cobalt, base metal, platinum group
metals (PGM), diamond, gemstone and lateritic
iron ores. Sulfides of Cu‐Fe‐Ni are common
accessory phases in upper mantle peridotites
both ultramafic xenoliths and massif
occurrences. A large of sulfides compositions
have been reported the ultramafic rock
association with magmatism. If the exposed
ultramafic rocks were overprinted by later
magmatism that involving underneath
volcanic/granitic basement, then we can expect
that base metal and nickel sulphides deposit
(+PGM) is present in that setting.
Second, the basement as the country rock of
metalogenesis‐related to subduction
magmatism, for example host of theoletic‐calc
alkaline Neogene volcanism in North Sulawesi
were deposited on the top of the oceanic
basement, and potassic calc alkaline Neogene
Volcanism in NW Sulawesi where the
metamorphic rocks as the basement (Priadi et
al., 1993; Soeria‐Atmadja et al., 1999). There is
exists of differences mineralization type in both
locations; Unique Porphyry Cu‐Au and Low‐high
Sulphidation epithermal Au‐Ag‐Cu in North
Sulawesi, and Porphyry Mo and metamorphic
gold deposit in NW Sulawesi. Although, most of
authors believed that differences because of
two different type in subduction magmatism,
but basement rock contribution as the host rock
also can not be avoided.
Lastly, the basement itself is carrying
mineralization before incorporate with rest of
Sulawesi terranes, for example discovery
orogenic gold in metamorphic terrane in
Bombana (as a part of Mekongga block).
Preliminary investigation showed that this area
is a potential host of metamorphogenic‐related
hydrothermal ore deposits which not have any
relationship with Neogene volcanism.
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