ELS EVI ER Journal of Geochemical Exploration 50 (1994) 91-142

JOURNAL OF
GEDCHIlmCN
EXPLORATION
Magmatic arcs and associated gold and copper
mineralization in Indonesia
J . C. C arl i l e a, A . H . G . Mi t c h e l l b
"Newcrest Mining Limited, Level 9, 600 St Kilda Road, Melbourne, Victoria 3004, Australia
bThree Trees, Knelle Road, Robertsbridge, E. Sussex TN32 5DZ, UK
( Received 15 January 1993; accepted after revision 8 October 1993 )
A bstract
Gol d mineralization in Indonesia formed in andesitic arcs which were active for intervals of bet ween
3 and 20 My from the Cretaceous to Pliocene. Fifteen major arcs are identified with a total on land
extent of over 15,000 kms. Known orebodies and maj or prospects are confined to six arcs within the
mid-Tertiary to Pl i ocene age range. In Indonesia, these arcs total approximately 7,000 kms in length
and contain combi ned historical production and current resources in excess of 2,500 tonnes of gold
and 20 million tonnes of copper. Individual arcs or segments of arcs are characterized by specific
types of mineralization reflecting both arc basement related to earlier collisions and reversals in
tectonic polarity, and erosion level.
Porphyry copper - gol d, skarn, and high sulphidation enargi t e-gol d deposits formed in both island
arc and continental settings where intrusive stocks ascended to shallow depths near the base of a co-
eval vol cani c sequence. Low sulphidation epithermal deposits, largely confined to the western Sunda-
Banda and Central Kalimantan continental arcs, formed preferentially in the l ower part of the vol cani c
pile and somet i mes at the basement surface. The low sulphidation deposits may be underlain at depths
of several ki l omet res by sills which provi ded heat for the hydrothermal systems; the deposits probably
formed during late-stage extension on l ow-angl e faults. Sedi ment -host ed mineralization devel oped
where l ow sulphidation fluids encountered favourable calcareous marine sedimentary rocks at epith-
ermal depths. The distinctive gol d- si l ver - bar i t e 5- base metal deposits of eastern Indonesia may have
formed by venting of high sulphidation fluids into restricted shallow marine basins.
As more information becomes available and understanding of arc systems increases, the proposed
relationships of deposit type to upper basement and stage of arc evolution, and deposit abundance to
erosion level, are likely to become increasingly useful to regional and district scale assessments of
mineral potential, both in Indonesia and in arc envi ronment s elsewhere.
0375-6742/94/$07.00 1994 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved
SSD10375-6742(93) E0051- W
92 J. C. Ca rlile, A.H. G. Mitchell / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 50 (1994) 91-142
1. Introducti on
Gold mining in Indonesia dates back to the 4th century when the Chinese, and later, the
immigrant Hindu population worked mainly alluvial deposits in Kalimantan, Sumatra and
Java. The first company mining activities were established by the Dutch at the turn of the
century and continued until the start of the Pacific War in 1941. Recorded production during
this period was approximately 130 tonnes of gold and 1,300 tonnes of silver, derived mainly
from vein deposits in Sumatra ( Van Bemmelen, 1949) and North Sulawesi ( Van der Ploeg,
1945). Alter the war, gold mining resumed at Cikotok in West Java in 1957; this was the
only gold producer in Indonesia until 1972 when production started from the copper-gol d
skarns of the Ertsberg district in Irian Jaya.
The intensive search for gold and copper deposits in Indonesia over the last quarter of a
century has resulted in many new discoveries (Van Leeuwen, 1994). It has also demon-
strated a close association of mineralization with magmatic arcs and has produced new
information on both the regional setting and local geological environment in which min-
eralization took place. Deposit types identified include porphyry copper-gold, skarn, high
and low sulphidation epithermal systems, sediment-hosted gold, gold-silver-barite + base
metal deposits, and at least one deposit, Kelian, that shows geochemical characteristics
transitional between porphyry and epithermal systems (Van Leeuwen et al., 1990).
The combined past production and present reserves/resources of Indonesia are currently
estimated to exceed 2,500 tonnes of gold and 20 million tonnes of copper with approximately
8,000 tonnes of associated silver (Carlile, unpub, data). Seven mines are now producing,
two projects are under construction, a number of deposits are undergoing feasibility or are
at an advanced exploration stage, and exploration in progress is expected to result in major
new discoveries, particularly in arcs of Neogene age.
Some aspects of these new data have been incorporated into regional reviews (Carlile et
al., 1990; Mitchell and Leach, 1991; Kavalieris et al., 1992; Van Leeuwen, 1994), and
major advances have been made in understanding the tectonic evolution of much of Indo-
nesia. However, no overall attempt has been made to relate the recently discovered deposits
and major prospects to specific arc systems, or to describe the regional geological features
of the arcs which may have favoured mineralization.
In this overview, we attempt to identify the main mineralized magmatic arcs in Indonesia,
the processes and events that formed them and the nature of basement on which they are
superimposed. We then highlight the major styles of mineralization within each arc or arc
segment and summarize the main styles of mineralization and aspects of arc geology which
may have influenced their formation and preservation. Some of our conclusions are neces-
sarily speculative, particularly those on the tectonics of individual arcs. In many cases no
widely accepted interpretation exists, highlighting the need for more thorough studies of
tectonics, arc magmatism, and mineralization in the region.
2. Regi onal tectonic processes in arc systems
While the broad principles of plate interactions in arc systems are more or less universally
accepted, current ideas on many of the tectonic processes are widely scattered in the
J.c. Carlile, A.H.G. Mitchell/Journal of Geochemical Exploration 50 (1994) 91-142 93
literature. Therefore we summarize the main tectonic processes which explain features of
Indonesian geology and the regional geological settings for the magmatic arcs and their
associated gold and copper mineralization.
2.1. Ophi ol i t e empl acement , col l i si ons, and arc reversal
Many of the Indonesian magmatic arcs, for example the Sunda-Banda arc in Sumatra
(Cameron et al., 1980), include ophiolite in the basement. Early explanations invoked
obduction in the sense of Coleman ( 1971 ), with thrusting of oceanic crust and upper mantle
onto the leading edge of an island arc or continental margin during subduction beneath the
arc. This emplacement mechanism implied that arc magmatism took place on the continental
margin or island arc prior to ophiolite emplacement, and also that subduction was accom-
panied by compression in the arc, with subduction down a fixed slot in the mantle. However,
as pointed out by Hamilton (1988), most features of subduction zones are best explained
by gravitational sinking of the subducting plate, with consequent roll-back or retreat of the
subduction zone (Fig. I A) , and extensional stress in the overriding plate permitting ascent
of magma.
Subduction by gravitational sinking, together with evidence for ophiolite emplacement
onto passive, rather than destructive continental margins, has now effectively replaced
obduction in the sense of Coleman (1971) as the preferred mechanism. Consequently, it
now appears that most, i f not all major ophiolite bodies are emplaced when thick crust on
the subducting plate enters a subduction zone dipping beneath oceanic lithosphere (Fig.
1B), with or without an active spreading system on the overriding plate (Fig. 1A). These
supra-subduction zone ophiolites (Edelman, 1988) may differ from oceanic lithosphere
generated at mid-ocean ridge spreading centres. Prior to initial emplacement, ophiolites
may be overlain by submarine basalts, but in general are not overlain by pre-emplacement
andesitic arc sequences. Absence of late Cenozoic ophiolites suggests the possibility that
ophiolite generation may be confined to periods of rapid sea floor spreading, as recently
discussed by Larson ( 1991 ), although other interpretations are possible (e.g., Harris, 1992).
Emplacement of an ophiolite onto a continent (Fig. 1B) or island arc causes back-
thrusting (Fig. 1C) and initiation of subduction beneath the continental margin or island
arc (Fig. 1D), resulting in reversal of the subduction direction or polarity. Most arcs with
ophiolite in the basement have probably undergone at least one polarity reversal, and
Hamilton (1988) has suggested that initiation of subduction beneath continental margins
requires arc reversal following arc collision.
During arc-arc or arc-continent collision, ophiolite already emplaced on what subse-
quently became the overriding plate may be re-thrust, together with overlying arc rocks,
onto the subducting plate margin (Fig. 1E, F, G) . Arc-arc or arc-continent collision can
also result in re-reversal of the subduction polarity (Fig. 1G), for example in the Banda
Sea where southward subduction has begun beneath Flores and Wetar following collision
of the Banda arc with Ti mor and Sumba on the northern margin of the Australian continent
(Hamilton, 1979). Where collision involves an island arc rather than a continent on the
subducting plate, collision may result in stepping-back of the subduction zone rather than
arc reversal.
94 J.C. Carlile, A.H.G. Mitchell~Journal of Geochemical Exploration 50 (1994) 91-142
A. OPHIOUTE GENERATION
Pas.~ve Supra~,rus~
Co~ner~I Ophio=te Spreading
Margin Turbidites Centre
t Trench /
, + + . + + % i .... t c o ~
_+ + + + - " ' - - I
~ o s r ; h e ,~ c ~ t I
Sink sbd~n~nRgetSr : s /
B. OPHIOUTE EMPLACEMENT
Rysch Oph~e
Mel ange N a p p e
Assimilation
~ / i n t o Upper
Mantle
C. START OF POLARITY .REVERSAL
Foreland Back Arc
Thrusts ,'.,^.:^,:~^ Thrusts
~ ~ ~ " ~ . . . . . /~/" Ocean
E. INTRA-ARC RIFTING
Basaltic
Volcanism Graben
~ " ~ ~ / ' ~ d s e ~ e s Ocean
G. ARC-CONTINENT COLLISION
& SUBDUCT1ON RE-REVERSAL
" " - - - - Extension -----..-
Re-Thrusting
Eroded Andesite of Ophiolite
Back Arc & Exposed Plutons 1
Thrust
F
Ocean . 7
- - . . f /
D. REVERSED SUBDUCTION
Extension
-. ~ Ocean
. ~ + I~ v ~ . ~ , t l J [ l l l J l ) i l ! l [ j j j l l ! | |
SL~ducting Slab Sinks
and Retreats
F. ISLAND ARC DEVELOPMENT
Extension =-
Andesitic
Island Arc Basaltic
k Arc , ~, ~/ Upper Basement
[ -~+7 Continental Crust
I-;-~Thinned Continental or Island Arc Crust
BasaRic Crust/Ophiolite
Turbidite/Flysch/Melange
~ Plutons
Fig. 1. Maj or plate t ect oni c processes in a subduct i on setting.
J.C. Carlile, A.H.G. Mitchell/Journal of Geochemical Exploration 50 (1994) 91-142 95
2.2. Arc magmatism
For the purposes of this review, arc magmat i sm in Indonesia is divided into mafic and
andesitic types. Mafic volcanic rocks are mostly marine, predominantly basalt or basaltic
andesite, and their generation probably required strong extension within the arc (e.g.,
Nakamura and Uyeda, 1980).
Andesitic arc rocks in Indonesia are mostly calc-alkaline and erupted sub-aerially or in
shallow marine environments, and the sequences commonl y include dacites. Rhyolites are
thought to be largely confined to arcs underlain by continental crust. Andesitic vol cani sm
implies a "nor ma l " weakl y extensional stress field in the arc, which may be related to
retreat of the hinge line or trench in the subducting oceanic lithosphere (Hami l t on, 1988),
permitting ascent of magma. Intrusive equivalents of the andesitic eruptives are mostly
stocks of diorite, quartz diorite, tonalite, granodiorite, and porphyritic or sub-volcanic
equivalents.
Detailed work on Neogene andesitic arcs in Europe (e.g., Lexa, 1993) suggests that
andesitic volcanism and generation of a stratovolcano commonl y precede intrusion of stocks.
Syn- to post -magmat i c uplift, characteristic of andesitic arcs; is probably a result of mag-
matic inflation accompanyi ng empl acement of batholiths or sills in the basement (Hami l t on,
1988; Lister and Baldwin, 1993), and is important because of the resulting erosion and its
effect on the age/ preservat i on relationships of ore bodies.
2.3. Arc basement
In most mineralized arcs in Indonesia basement is exposed at least locally beneath the
volcanic host rocks. The basement mostly consists of nappes or thrust sheets which include
metamorphic rocks (greenstone, phyllite, mica schist, gneiss) and often ophiolite, some-
times with a thin sedimentary cover.
No mineralized andesitic arcs in Indonesia lie directly on oceanic crust which is still part
of, or rooted in, the mantle, and thus none of these andesitic arcs can be regarded as ensimatic,
oceanic or primitive. Island arc crust is thinner than that beneath most continental margin
arcs, for example the Peruvian Andes or mainland New Guinea. These continental margin
arcs commonl y show evidence of a pre-Mesozoic orogeny with associated anatectic granites
indicative of crustal melting.
2.4. Back-arc spreading
As argued by Karig ( 1971 ) and Packham and Falvey ( 1971 ), many marginal or back-
arc oceanic basins are probabl y generated behind magmatic arcs during subduction follow-
ing rifting within the arc (Fig. I E and F). Uncertainties remain about the precise spreading
mechanism, and the relationship of spreading to arc magmat i sm. Nevertheless, for many
arcs, the proposal of Nakamura and Uyeda (1980) that initial back-arc spreading is accom-
panied by basaltic volcanism within the arc seems to apply.
96 J. C. Carlile, A.H. G. Mitchell/Journal of Geochemical Exploration 50 (1994) 91-142
2.5. Me t a mo r p h i c cor e c ompl e x e s
Recent descriptions of met amorphi c core compl exes in Papua New Guinea (Hill et al.,
1992) and the presence of what we consider to be similar features in the Philippines, for
exampl e the trondjhemite dome at Paracale (Mitchell and Leach, 1991 ), suggest that core
compl exes and associated low-angle extensional faults may also occur in Indonesia.
Regional crustal extension associated with the detachment faulting provides a possible
mechani sm for arc collapse and we argue later that in many arcs subduction is accompanied
by a characteristic sequence of tectonic events to which mineralization may be related.
3. Tectoni c f ramework of Indonesi a
The present configuration of magmat i c arc systems in Indonesia (Fig. 2) is the result of
a compl ex history of tectonic events and processes including subduction and arc magmat i sm,
arc migration and rotation, back-arc spreading, ophiolite empl acement and collision result-
ing in arc reversals, strike-slip faulting, and inferred crustal extension. As discussed in early
syntheses (Katili, 1975, 1984; Hamilton, 1979) these events accompanied the northward
drift of the Aust ral i a-New Guinea plate from Gondwana, and the late Cenozoic collision
of the Aust ral i a-New Guinea continent and its western salient into Sulawesi with the
Sundaland promont ory of South East Asia.
In the late Cretaceous, the northwestern or Sundaland part of Indonesia may have been
oriented as shown in Fig. 3. Borneo had not yet rotated anticlockwise (Fuller et al., 1991 )
and subduction was taking place in the palaeo-Sunda trench with arc magmat i sm superim-
posed on the continental margin and on the Woyl a Group oceanic nappes (Cameron et al.,
1980; Mitchell, 1992) emplaced during the late Early Cretaceous. Northeastern Sundaland
was a passive continental margin at this time; we suggest that the Lupar ophiolite was
emplaced onto this margin by the end of the Cretaceous, deforming the flysch and shelf
sediments described by Williams et al. (1988).
By the Oligocene (Fig. 4) , Borneo had begun to rotate anticlockwise and the northeastern
margin of Sundaland was an active (subducting) margin. The Makassar Sea may have been
a wide back-arc ocean basin. The Aust ral i a-New Guinea continent was some 2,000 kms
south of its present position in the Oligocene (Veevers et al., 199 ! ), and probably continued
northwestwards as a continental promont ory into the Sul a- But on- Bumbul an salient and
possibly part of northern Sulawesi (Fig. 4). An ophiolite nappe was empl aced onto the
passive northeastern margin (Pi gram et al., 1989) of New Guinea and its northwestern
salient in the Oligocene, forming what we suggest were the formerly-continuous ophiolites
of New Guinea (Pi gram and Symonds, 1991 ), Waigeo, Hal mahera (Ballantyne, 1990 ),
Sulawesi (Parkinson, 1991 ) and perhaps east Mindanao in the Philippines.
By the Pliocene ( Fig. 5), we suggest that a north-facing arc system had collided with the
Sunda-Banda arc. New Guinea and Hal mahera had drifted north to near their present
position, and Hal mahera had moved west and rotated clockwise. The Miri block of north-
western Borneo (Hutchison, 1989), possibly a continental fragment, had collided with
Sundaland, and the Sul a- But on- Bumbul an salient of New Guinea (Fig. 4) had also collided
with Sundaland. This collision was followed by maj or strike-slip faulting in the Birds Head-
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Sula region of Irian Jaya (McCaffrey and Abers, 1991 ). To the south, the Ti mor segment
of the Sunda-Banda arc had begun to collide with the Aust ral i a-New Guinea plate by the
end of the Miocene (e.g., Hamilton, 1988).
Arc magmat i sm continued in the Sunda-Banda arc, the north and western part of Sulaw-
esi, and Hal mahera throughout the Quaternary, and also took place in the Aceh arc of
northernmost Sumatra (Aspden et al., 1982a), but any mineralization associated with these
young volcanoes is not yet exposed.
A schematic cross-section through Borneo and west Sulawesi to the North Banda basin
(Fig. 6) illustrates our interpretation of many of the tectonic processes which have taken
place in much of Indonesia since the early Cretaceous.
4. Indonesi an magmat i c arcs
Fifteen late Mesozoic and Cenozoic magmatic arcs are identified in Indonesia ( Fig. 2),
and have a total on land extent in excess of 15,000 kms (Tabl e 1 ). However, over 98% of
the count ry' s gold and copper (historical production and reserve/ resource est i mat es), is
derived from only six arcs (Fig. 7), of mid-Tertiary or younger age. In Indonesia the total
length of these arcs is approximately 7,000 kms, but they also extend into the neighbouring
countries of Papua New Guinea, the Philippines and Malaysia where they contain major
centres of mineralization (Fig. 8). Seven other arcs are either deeply eroded or little
explored, and the existence of two others, the Talaud and Coastal Irian Jaya arcs, is specu-
lative (Fig. 2).
4.1. Sumatra-Meratus arc (Middle and Late Cretaceous)
Geological setting
This continental arc (Fig. 2 and Table 1 ) extends along the inferred southern edge of
Sundaland from north Sumatra through the tip of west Java to east Kalimantan.
The Sundaland continental massi f with Palaeogene or older basement continues north-
ward through the Malay Peninsula (Fig. 2) into Thailand, Myanmar and Indochina. Sun-
daland had become a single continental landmass by the end of the Triassic or early Jurassic,
following Triassic and possibly early Jurassic collisions along sutures extending from
offshore of northeast Sumatra into Kalimantan, and probabl y through central Sumatra
(Hami l t on, 1979; Hutchison, 1989; Mitchell, 1992; and references therein). These colli-
sions resulted directly or indirectly in the highly productive Triassic tin belt of South East
Asia, and possibly the mesothermal gold belt of medial Mal aya and Thailand.
From the Middle Jurassic to late Early Cretaceous, the southern margin of Sundaland
was probabl y a passive continental margin, facing west in Sumatra and south in Kalimantan,
prior to post-Cretaceous anticlockwise rotation of eastern Sundaland and a later clockwise
rotation of western Sundaland (Fuller et al., 1991 ) to its present position.
Oceanic rocks of the Woyl a Group in western Sumatra have been explained in terms of
accretion to a south-facing arc on the continental margin of Sundaland (Cameron et al.,
1980; Waj zer et al., 1991 ). We consider it more likely that in the late Early Cretaceous, a
north-facing mafic arc and underlying ophiolite collided with, and were emplaced onto, the
J.C. Carlile, A.H.G. Mitchell~Journal of Geochemical Exploration 50 (1994) 91-142 103
Table 1
Selected features of the magmatic arcs of Inclonesia. Land lengths are approximations and only include the part
of an arc contained within Indonesia. Sunda-Banda: ( A) Continental crust underlies Sumatra and part of Java;
(B) island arc crust underlies east Java and islands to the east. Sulawesi-East Mindanao: ( A) Continental crust
underlies the western section of the north arm and the western arm of Sulawesi; (B) island arc crust underlies
most of the north arm of Sulawesi. Halmahera: ( A) Continental crust underlies Bacan; (B) island arc crust
underlies western Halmahera
Arc Age Crustal type Upper Length Au/ km Cu/ km
basement (km) (kg) (t)
I Middle and Late Continental Ophiolite and 2,000 8 0.121
Sumatra Cretaceous pre-Tertiary
Meratus schists
I1 Neogene (A) Continental Arc I and its
Sunda-Banda basement 3,700 133 730
(B) Island arc basalts
1II Neogene Continental Pre-Tertiary 320 - 2 , 8 1 3
Aceh schists
IV mid Tertiary and Continental Arc VIII and 1, 150 205
Central Kalimantan Neogene its basement
V Neogene ( A) Continental Schists and
Sulawesi- ophiolite 1,200 293
East Mindanao ( B ) Island arc basalts
VI Neogene ( A) Continental Schists
Halmahera 350 44
( B ) Island arc Basalts
VII Neogene Continental Sediments 500 2,688
Medial Irian Jaya
VIII late Early Continental Schists and 1,450
Schwanner Cretaceous granites
IX Late Cretaceous Continental Schists 1,600
Sunda Shelf
1,750
600
26,271
X Neogene Flysch over Paleocene 530
Northwest Borneo continental flysch
XI Neogene Continental Schists and 1,065
West Sulawesi ophiolite
XII Neogene Continental Schists and 330
Moon Utawa ophiolite
XIIi Paleogene and Continental Sediments 400
Sumba Timor Neogene
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106 J.C. Carlile, A.H.G. Mitchell/Journal of Geochemical Exploration 50 (1994) 91-142
passive sout hem margin of Sundaland, forming the Woyl a Group in northern Sumatra,
equivalent rocks in western south Sumatra, the ophiolite of southwestern Java, and the
Meratus ophiolite and Alino Formation in southeastern Kalimantan (Fig. 3). Similar pre-
Middle Cretaceous mafic and ophiolitic rocks were emplaced onto the western Sundaland
margin of Myanmar (Mitchell, 1992).
Arc magmat i sm began following a reversal in tectonic polarity after empl acement of the
Woyl a Group. Northward subduction resulted in development of the late Early Cretaceous
to Campani an (Lat e Cretaceous) magmatic arc (Fig. 7) extending through Sumatra (Came-
ron et al., 1980; W. McCourt, pers. commun. , 1991 ) and the Java Sea (Hutchison, 1989)
to intrusions associated with the Manunggal Group volcanics in the Meratus Mountains
(Sikumbang, 1990). In Sumatra, the intrusions include the 92 Ma Ulai pluton, the 87 Ma
Manunggal batholith, and the 97.7 Ma Sikuleh batholith (Aspden et al., 1982b; Aldiss et
al., 1983). These mostly intrude the Woyl a nappe, but in the Bafisan Range of south Sumatra
an 88 Ma granite is hosted by the structurally lower, Early Mesozoic or older rocks of the
continental basement. The granitic rocks extend through western Myanmar (Mitchell, 1992)
and then probably westwards through the Gandise batholith of the same age in Tibet.
Cessation of arc magmat i sm in Sumatra towards the end of the Cretaceous (W. McCourt,
pers. commun. , 1992) coincided with a similar interruption in magmat i sm in western
Myanmar, where deformation and generation of melanges suggest collision with a northeast-
facing island arc (A. Mitchell, unpub, results).
Mineralization
Where exposed, the arc is not well mineralized, probably due to extensive uplift and
erosion during the Tertiary. It contains less than 1% of Indonesi a' s gold resources and
negligible amounts of copper (Fig. 9A). In Sumatra, mineralization is confined to numerous
small iron and base metal skarns (Bedd0e-Stephens et al., 1987), some containing gol d-
silver, and gol d- copper with low Ag: Au ratios. Several gold prospects in the Meratus
segment at Ti mburu and Sungai Keruh are hosted by quartz and quartz carbonate veins and
veinlets and are considered to be epithermal, although some of the intrusions and associated
mineralization could be associated with the projected continuation of the Sunda Shelf arc
(Fig. 2).
4.2. Sunda-Banda arc (Neogene)
Geological setting
This arc is the longest in Indonesia, extending from north Sumatra through Java to east
of Damar (Fig. 7 and Tabl e 1 ). The western segment comprises Sumatra, West Java and
possibly part of central Java, and is constructed on the southern margin of Sundaland. East
of central Java we interpret that an island arc is constructed on either thinned continental or
intermediate crust (Fig. 2).
Palaeogene tectonics, following the Campani an tectonic event which terminated volca-
nism in the Sumat ra-Merat us arc, are controversial. The late Eocene passive continental
margin to southern Sundaland (Hami l t on, 1979; Daly et al., 1991 ) may have extended to
Sumatra, where calc-alkaline intrusions dated in the 52 to 57 Ma age range, and possibly
Au B
1. 6% 9. 4%
4. 6 q
p.6% 2. 6%
16t)
A
J. C. Carlile, A.H. G. Mitchell~Journal of Geochemical Exploration 50 (1994) 91-142 107
53.9% 65.8
1, 344 t l l l , 6 ~
Cu 0. 5% - other depoeits
14. 2% Cu 4. 7%
11 18.1%
(2, 10 [ 210, 000t) (3, 448, 00
39.0% 61. 4%
(13,136,000t1 (15, 503 O00t)
i A c ~ ~ S ~ , mJ - * ~,~..o iEp, , , , . , - - , *'r. . . . ~- , . , ums, ~r, ~ . o. d
F i g . 9. D i s t r i b u t i o n o f k n o w n g o l d a n d c o p p e r r e s o u r c e s in I n d o N e s i a l ( m ) W i t h i n t h e m a g m a t i c a r c s s h o w n in
Fig. 7; (B) by deposit type. Other deposits in (B) comprise high and low sulphidation and Au/ Ag/ Ba + base
metal deposits.
younger (N. Cameron, pers. commun. , 1991 ; Wajzer et al., 1991 ) suggest slow northward
subduction in the early to mid Eocene.
Oligocene compressi ve deformation offshore of western Sumatra (Dal y et al., 1991),
and termination of Palaeogene subduction, are best explained by northward empl acement
of an ophiolite and island arc that coincided with Oligocene ophiolite empl acement in the
Indo-Burman Ranges (Sengupt a et al., 1990) and also with the formation of melanges with
ophiolite fragments on the islands west of Sumatra (Harbury and Kallagher, 1991 ). East
of Sumatra, the ophiolite and Palaeogene rocks, including basalts on Java, were part of the
Sunda margin by the late Oligocene.
The suggested Oligocene collision was followed by subduction reversal and devel opment
of the Sunda-Banda arc. By the late Miocene, the eastern Sunda-Banda arc was either
migrating eastwards in front of the opening Banda Sea (Hami l t on, 1979), or j umped
eastwards to somewhere west of its present position, trapping older crust of the south Banda
Sea (Hami l t on, 1988 and references therein). In the late Miocene to Pliocene the arc collided
with the Tani mbar embayment in the Aust ral i an-New Gui nea continental margin (Fig. 4).
The collision zone extends westwards to Sumba, and arc reversal has initiated southward
subduction north of the Wet ar-Fl ores region (e.g., Hamilton, 1979).
W. McCourt (pers. commun. , 1993 ) has pointed out that a well-defined latest Ol i gocene-
earliest Miocene magmat i c arc extends through much of western Sumatra, forming the "Ol d
108 J.C. Carlile, A.H.G. Mitchell~Journal of Geochemical Exploration 50 (1994) 91-142
Andesi t es" of Van Bemmel en (1949). This arc is locally separated stratigraphically from
the younger Neogene arc rocks described below by marine sediments including mudstones.
No dated mineral deposits can yet be correlated to this mid-Tertiary arc, the position of
which more or less coincides with that of the Neogene arc.
A well-defined andesitic arc of Middle Miocene to Pliocene age, together with overlying
Quaternary volcanics, extends through the Barisan Range of Sumatra (e.g., Aspden et al.,
1982b; Aldiss et al., 1983) and continues through Java and the western part of the Banda
arc to Damar (Fig. 7) . Beyond this, to the east, only Quaternary volcanic islands occur,
and it is not known whether the Neogene arc extends this far. Magmat i c rocks in the arc are
predominantly eruptive, but include 12 and 13 Ma intrusions in Sumatra (Aspden et al.,
1982a) and undated intrusions in Java. No maj or Neogene batholiths are known. Rhyolites
and rhyolitic ignimbrites are largely Quaternary in age and confined to Sumatra and western
Java. The Neogene arc magmat i sm was clearly related to subduction in or near the present
Java trench.
In Sumatra, the volcanic rocks are dominantly sub-aerial and most l y overlie Early Mio-
cene volcanic rocks, mudstones, and Mesozoic and Palaeozoic basement including Late
Mesozoic ophiolitic rocks of the Woyl a Group, and plutons of the Late Cretaceous magmat i c
arc. In the Bayah dome of western Java, Early Pliocene andesitic dykes intrude mid-Miocene
sediments and andesitic tufts overlying gabbros. Syn-volcanic uplift in the Late Cenozoic
is indicated by Early Miocene marine mudstones at elevations up to 1,100 metres in the
Barisan Range, and mid-Miocene marine sedimentary rocks above 900 metres on the Bayah
dome.
East of central Java, no pre-Tertiary rocks are recorded, and the arc is probabl y underlain
by crust thinned as a result of late Cenozoic extension. Neogene island arc volcanism took
place in subaerial and shallow marine environments, and does not appear to have been
accompani ed by significant syn-volcanic uplift.
Mi ner al i z at i on
The arc is wel l mineralized and contains approxi mat el y 20% of Indonesi a' s gold and
14% of its copper (Fig. 9A) . A maj or feature of the western continental segment is the
abundance of low sulphidation epithermal vein systems (Figs. 8 and 10A, C) . Minor
sediment-hosted gold mineralization occurs in the Cikotok district of west Java, but despite
extensive exploration during the 1970s and 1980s, no porphyry copper - gol d mineralization
has yet been discovered.
A marked change in mineralization style is seen in the eastern island arc segment (Figs.
8 and 10A, D) . A maj or porphyry copper - gol d deposit occurs at Batu Hijau (Mel drum et
al., 1994) and a number of prospects with characteristics of high sulphidation mineralization
are known on Lombok and Sumbawa (S. Turner, pers. commun. , 1992). This contrasts
with the abundance of low sulphidation epithermal veins, and the apparent lack of porphyry
copper - gol d deposits in the western segment. Further east, the arc is characterized by a
gol d-si l ver-bari t e + base metal association. Here, gol d-si l ver mineralization occurs in strat-
i form barite horizons somet i mes associated with copper-mineralized massi ve sulphide
lenses, repl acement bodies, and stockworks. Gol d-si l ver-beari ng bari t e-base metal veins
and stockworks are common throughout this portion of the arc.
J.C. Carlile, A.H.G. Mitchell/Journal of Geochemical Exploration 50 (1994) 91-142
4 . 6 % 25. 0 %
A 3 t ) B ~ 159 t )
109
7 5. 0 %
1176 t)

A
9 . 0 % 0 . 4 %
(231 t l I 239 t )
C n
E 2. 0% 1. 3% 0 . 7%
18. 0 %
164 t) _ _ 33. 3%
(117 t )
m
2. 9%
00t)
65. 7%
1160 t l
Au
9 1 . 7 %
(1, 223 t )
8 . 3 %
9 2 . 4 %
(2, 025. 000t )
26. 3%
Cu
7 3. 7 %
19, 687. 000t)
~Se di mmt H~tt~l
i s ~ , ~
~L o w S. Igpithermal ~"]Stnttiform Au/Ag/Ba
i Po r p h y r y I n Metamorphoseni
Fig. 10. Comparative distribution of known gold and copper resources in selected magmatic arcs in Indonesia.
(A) Gold in the Sunda-Banda arc; (B) gold in the Central Kalimantan arc; (C) gold in the western continental
segment of the Sunda-Banda arc, (D) gold in the eastern island arc segment of the Sunda-Banda arc; (E) gold
and copper in the Sulawesi-East Mindanao arc; (F) gold and copper in the Medial lrian Jaya arc.
4.3. Aceh arc (Neogene)
Geological setting
Th i s s h o r t n o r t h - f a c i n g ar c i s c o n f i n e d t o t he n o r t h e r n e n d o f S u ma t r a ( Fi g. 7 a n d Ta b l e
1 ). S t e p h e n s o n et al . ( 1 9 8 2 ) s h o w a t r e n c h o f f s h o r e o f n o r t h e r n S u ma t r a t o wh i c h y o u n g
v o l c a n i c s o n t he ma i n l a n d ar e b e l i e v e d t o be r e l a t e d. We s u g g e s t t ha t t hi s t r e n c h ma y a l s o
h a v e b e e n a c t i v e i n t he e a r l i e s t Mi d d l e Mi o c e n e , wh e n we i n f e r s o u t h wa r d s u b d u c t i o n o f
a n o c e a n i c Me r g u i Ba s i n b e n e a t h t he r i f t e d n o r t h e r n S u ma t r a b a s e me n t o f t he S u n d a
c o n t i n e n t .
110 J.C. Carlile, A.H.G. Mitchell / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 50 (1994) 91-142
Mineralization
Although little explored, the Aceh arc appears to contrast with the adjacent western
segment of the Sunda-Banda arc, and is characterized by porphyry copper - mol ybdenum
(Van Leeuwen et al., 1987) and high sulphidation mineralization rather than low sulphi-
dation epithermal deposits (Fig. 8).
4.4. Central Kalimantan arc (Middle Tertiao')
Geological setting
This continental arc is tentatively projected from northeastern Kalimantan southwards
through central to west Kalimantan and into Sarawak (Fig. 7 and Table 1 ). Pre-Cretaceous
rocks include Mesozoic sedimentary units above late Palaeozoic schists and phyllites that
were consolidated in an early Mesozoic orogeny (Hutchison, 1989). The latter are intruded
by Late Triassic granites, perhaps including a continuation of those in the Early Mesozoic
southeast Asian tin belt. They are also intruded by Early Cretaceous plutons of the Schwaner
Mountains arc referred to later. Mid-Eocene rhyolitic tufts dated at 49.7 and 48.6 Ma
(Baharuddin et al., 1990) pre-date an Upper Eocene through Oligocene sedimentary
sequence. The rhyolitic tufts lack genetically related mineralization; they may imply a
rifting event, perhaps related to opening of the Celebes Sea.
A magmatic arc in Central Kalimantan (Fig. 7) has in recent years been recognized from
the presence of erosional remnants of Late Oligocene to Early Miocene andesitic to trachy-
andesitic volcanic centres, many of them with associated gold deposits and prospects. These
volcanic rocks include 23 Ma trachyandesites exposed near the Kelian mine (Van Leeuwen
et al., 1990), a 24.6 Ma fresh andesite intrusion near Masupa Ria (Thompson et al., 1994)
and 14.4-24.0 Ma andesite and basalt between Kelian and Mt. Muro (Van de Weerd et al.,
1987). We tentatively project this belt into West Kalimantan where 21 and 27.8 Ma tonalites
at the Serantak and Banyi gold prospects (S. Bugg, pers. commun. , 1992) are the youngest,
and probably immediately pre-mineralization intrusions.
North of the Atan volcanic centre, the arc probably extends through the granodiorite and
granite intrusions at Long Laai which have given a 26 Ma Rb/ Sr date (Hutchison, 1989),
and granodiorites reported in the Kujau area at 11640'E, 4N. The arc eventually disappears
northwards beneath Neogene arc systems in Sabah. Termination of arc volcanism around
20 My ago is best explained by collision with the Mi ri -Luconi a zone continental fragment
of Hutchison (1989) in northwest Sarawak (Fig. 6).
It seems likely that the Central Kalimantan arc is related to Late Oligocene-earliest
Miocene southward subduction (Figs. 4 and 6) in a trench situated mostly in and northwest
of Sarawak. The arcuate belt of Late Eocene and Oligocene sediments in the Ketungau,
Melawi and Mandali basins of central Borneo (e.g., Williams et al., 1988 ) appear to occupy
a forearc basin which preserves a succession originally deposited over much of Kalimantan.
Late Miocene to Quaternary basalts, widespread in Kalimantan, are the youngest eruptive
rocks, with related basalt dykes that cut mid-Tertiary arc volcanic rocks and underlying
flysch sediments; the basalts are locally associated with gold mineralization in isolated
quartz veins as for exampl e at Long Laai.
J.C. Carlile, A. 14. G. Mitchell / Journal of Geochemi cal Exploration 50 (1994) 9 l - 142 I l I
Mineralization
The eastern and central section of the arc contains approxi mat el y 10% of l ndonesi a' s
gold but no copper (Figs. 8, 9A and 10B). There are four centres of epithermal gold
mineralization (Fig. 8), in addition to Kelian, Indonesi a' s largest gold mine, which displays
characteristics transitional between epithermal and porphyry style mineralization (Van
Leeuwen et al., 1990).
Long Laai, in the northeast of the arc (Fig. 8), differs from the epithermal systems in
that gold occurs with cassiterite in greisen and skarns, in, and adjacent to, granodioritic
intrusions (Hutchison, 1989); the mesothermal veins at Gunung Mas are also associated
with granitic intrusions. The presence of tin and the high initial 87Sr/86Sr ratios at Long
Laai suggest derivation from anatectic melts, not typically assoc;,ated with gold minerali-
zation.
The western segment contains only minor mesotbermal quartz vein mineralization com-
monly spatially associated with skarns, and deeper erosion levels are inferred. The Bau
district of Sarawak extends into western Kalimantan, and lies on the projected extension of
the Central Kalimantan arc. At Bau, mineralization associated with eruptive rocks and
dioritic intrusions has yielded around 40 tonnes of gold, part of which was from sediment-
hosted ore bodies in Upper Jurassic limestones ( Sillitoe and Bonham, 1990). No significant
gold mineralization is recorded elsewhere in the western segment of the arc although base
metal vein prospects are widespread.
4.5. Sul awesi -East Mindanao arc (Neogene)
Geological setting
In the Early and Mid-Miocene, this arc extended from southwestern Sulawesi through
the north arm of Sulawesi to Sangihe Island and continued into eastern Mindanao in the
Philippines (Fig. 7 and Table 1 ). During the Late Mi o-Pl i ocene, two distinct arcs developed;
a calc-alkaline arc in the northeast (e.g., Kavalieris et al., 1992) and a shoshonitic arc to
the southwest (Van Leeuwen, 1981 ; Leterrier et al., 1990; Priadi et al., 1991 ).
In northern Sulawesi, our work indicates that Late Palaeogene to Early Miocene marine
volcanic and sedimentary rocks were probably thrust north over older basement in the Early
Miocene. Early Miocene magmat i sm is indicated by K/ Ar ages on granite and granodiorite
of 18.5 and 22.2 Ma near Gorontalo and Soroya (Bellon and Rangin, 1991 ), and by a 16
Ma age on diorite intruding andesitic rocks at Tapadaa ( Lowder and Dow, 1977). Kavalieris
et al. (1992) show a wide belt of Early Miocene granodioritic bodies, the Bone plutons,
extending through central northern Sulawesi. A 15.6 Ma date in the Kawi o Islands north of
Sangihe (Morri ce et al., 1983) suggests continuation of the Early Miocene arc towards
Mindanao. The older arc rocks lack genetically related mineralization, no doubt reflecting
deep erosion, although they may form a ' basement ' host to younger hydrothermal deposits.
The southern part of the arc is constructed on a fragment of Sundaland (e.g., Hamilton,
1979) and the central portion on a salient of the Aust ral i a-New Guinea continent (Fig. 2).
At least part of the north arm of Sulawesi is underlain by crust of intermediate composition
which, by analogy with eastern Mindanao in the Philippines, with which it may be contin-
uous (Mitchell and Leach, 1991 ), probabl y includes Mesozoic met amorphi c rocks.
In northern Sulawesi, andesitic volcanic rocks and intrusions of Middle to Late Miocene
112 J.C. Carlile, A.H. G. Mitchell~Journal of Geochemical Exploration 50 (1994) 91-142
age were formerly thought to be widespread (Trail et al., 1974) but some of these rocks in
the Tombul i l at o district (Perello, 1994) and at Bulagidun (Lubi s et al., 1994) have now
been dated as Late Miocene to Pliocene. Late Mi ocene-Pl i ocene arc rocks in northern
Sulawesi include the Middle Member of the Bilungala Volcanics, with a 5.2 Ma K/ Ar age
on hornblende andesite (Perello, 1994), and four ages on unspecified rocks of 4. 1, 4. 4, 6.9
and 7.2 Ma and an 8.8 Ma age on granodiorite (Bellon and Rangin, 1991 ). The Bilungata
Volcanics, which are interbedded with Early Pliocene limestone, are overlain unconform-
ably by the dacitic Mot ombot o Volcanics (Perello, 1994) of inferred late Pliocene age, and
by the Pinogu Volcanics which are probably Quaternary. On Sangihe Island, diorite stocks
intrude co-eval andesitic volcanics and are almost certainly Neogene, and to the north in
the Kawi o Islands Mortice et al. (1983) reported ages on similar rocks of 5.7 and 2.05 Ma.
The 600 km deep west-dipping seismic zone beneath the Celebes Sea implies westward
subduction since some time in the Miocene. This subduction may explain the mid-Miocene
to early Pliocene arc of the Sangihe Islands, and the Middle and Upper Bilungala Volcanics
and probabl y the Mot ombot o Volcanics of northern Sulawesi. The monzonitic rocks at
Sassak are provisionally included in this arc, although their high potash content perhaps
indicates a gently-dipping Beni off zone beneath this segment of the arc.
We consider that arc vol cani sm in the north ann of Sulawesi was interrupted in the Late
Pliocene by collision with the eastern end of the Sul a- But on- Bumbul an salient of New
Guinea (Figs. 4 and 5) from which the But on-Bumbul an segment had separated as New
Guinea drifted north in Miocene time. Collision resulted in arc reversal and southward
subduction in the North Sulawesi trench, generating the Quaternary Pinogu Volcanics.
Mineralization
The island arc segment, including most of the north arm of Sulawesi and Sangihe Island,
contains a variety of deposit types (Figs. 8 and 10E) and accounts for over 14% of
Indonesi a' s known gold and approximately 11% of the copper (Fig. 9A) . Deposits include
a cluster of copper - gol d porphyries in the Tombulilato district, high sulphidation mineral-
ization at Mot ombot o, and a maj or sediment-hosted gold deposit at Mesel, as well as gol d-
si l ver-bari t e + base metal mineralization at Binebase on Sangihe, which has many similar-
ities to the deposits on Wet ar in the eastern Sunda-Banda arc.
Low sulphidation epithermal mineralization is confined to mi nor veins and stockworks
in the Ratatotok district, including prospects at Doup (Kavalieris et al., 1992), Ratatotok
(Turner et al., 1994) and Lanut (Carlile et al., 1990), and a small gold bearing quar t z-
carbonate stockwork deposit occurs at Bolangitang (D. W. Sumardiman, pers. commun. ,
1992). Fracture disseminated gold mineralization at Gunung Pani (Kaval i eri s et al., 1990)
occurs in a felsic dome complex, but elsewhere mineralization is confined to minor vein
prospects adjacent to copper - gol d porphyries at Taware (Carlile et al., 1990), Bulagidun
(Lubi s et al., 1994), and Tombulilato (Perello, 1994), and deepl y eroded gold-bearing
base metal veins, breccias, and skarns (Kavalieris et al., 1992).
The western ann of Sulawesi contains only mi nor porphyry copper mineralization at
S assak ( Tayl or and Van Leeuwen, 1980), porphyry mol ybdenum mineralization at Malala
(Van Leeuwen et al., 1994) at the western end of the north arm, a number of minor skarn
occurrences, and a small volcanogenic base metal sulphide deposit at Sangkaropi.
J.C. Carlile, A.H.G. Mitchell / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 50 (1994) 91-142 113
4.6. Halmahera arc (Neogene)
Geological setting
The arc extends from Bacan in the south through the northern arm of Hal mahera to
western Morotai (Fig. 7 and Table I ) . Exposed basement in the southern part of the
Hal mahera arc on Bacan consists of schists, with Palaeogene basaltic and andesitic rocks
further north (Sufni Haki m and Hall, 1991). These Palaeogene rocks possibly overlie
ophiolite which may in turn overlie the projected continuation of the Bacan schists.
Similarities in the stratigraphy of Hal mahera and Wai geo (Hall et al., 1991 ) to eastern
Mindanao suggest that these regions were on the same plate in the Palaeogene (Mitchell
and Leach, 1991 ), and that the Hal maher a- Wai geo ophiolite may be part of the New
Gui nea-east ern Sulawesi ophiolite and its continuation into Mindanao (Fig. 4). The B acan
schists may be met amorphi c basement to the Sul a- But on- Bumbul an salient of continental
New Guinea, and south-directed thrusting of the Wai geo ophiolite (Charlton et al., 1991 )
suggests it was empl aced onto the Bacan schist in the Oligocene. Subsequently, as New
Gui nea continued to drift north, Hal mahera rotated and perhaps moved west on the Sorong
strike-slip fault, during eastward subduction of the Mol ucca Sea (Fig. 5).
The andesitic arc in Hal mahera (Fig. 7) consists of Neogene intrusions and volcanic
rocks locally buried by Quaternary volcanoes. Although the Neogene eruptive rocks are
probably Late Miocene and Pliocene (Sufni Haki m and Hall, 1991 ), tonalite intrusions on
Bacan may be somewhat older. The intrusions imply southward subduction following
empl acement of ophiolite in Hal mahera and arc reversal, and may be equivalent to those in
the Moon Volcanics and the Ut awa Diorite of Irian Jaya. The Late Neogene volcanics are
related to eastward subduction in the Molucca Sea as Hal mahera moved west. The arc is
little explored and known mineralization is confined to the Kaputusan porphyry copper -
gold deposit on Bacan (Bering, 1986).
4.7. Medial lrian Jaya arc (Neogene)
Geological setting
This continental margin arc extends from the neck of the Birds Head in Indonesia into
Papua New Guinea (Fig. 7 and Table 1 ). It is superimposed on the New Guinea mobile
belt, a zone of south-vergent thrusts and folds south of the Rouffaer metamorphic belt, and
on the structurally higher north-dipping New Guinea ophiolite ( Dow et al., 1988). The
deformed sequence includes a thick late Mesozoic marine shelf-slope succession deposited
on the passive continental margin, overlain unconformabl y by the New Guinea Limestone.
The limestone, host rock to the Ertsberg skarns, includes Eocene clastic carbonates with
interbedded siltstones and sandstones near the base (Potter et al., 1991 ).
The mid-Miocene Moon Volcanics and Ut awa Diorite ( Dow et al., 1988) formed in a
north-facing arc on the formerl y passive continental margin. Subsequently south-vergent
thrusting accompani ed the late Miocene Melanesian orogeny ( Dow et al., 1986, 1988),
during which the Ut awa Diorite was translated south on the Weyl and Thrust, and the basaltic
Mandi Volcanics were emplaced onto the Moon Volcanics. The orogeny is best explained
by collision of a south-facing island arc with the north-facing Moon- Ut awa arc on mainland
I 14 J.C. Carlile, A.H.G. Mitchell / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 50 (1994) 91-142
New Guinea. Renewed southward subduction commenced following the collision, and
resulted in the late Miocene and Pliocene andesitic volcanism of the Medial Irian Jaya arc.
It is possible that the collided arc, and the northern Coastal Ranges or Mamber amo arc
of Irian Jaya, were two separate island arcs prior to collision (Dal y et al., 1991; Harnish,
1990). However the simplest explanation is that all of northern New Guinea collided with
the mainland in the early Late Miocene, with subsequent Pliocene southward subduction in
or near the New Guinea trench. Any terrane which collided with New Guinea in the
Quaternary now lies beneath the Coastal Ranges.
Magmat i c rocks related to the southward subduction include the Late Pliocene intrusive
stocks of the Ertsberg mineral district (MacDonal d and Arnold, 1994; Mertig et al., 1994)
and scattered areas of eruptive rocks and intrusions extending eastwards into Papua New
Guinea; here the Late Miocene and Pliocene arc has been more extensively explored and is
better defined. Absence of the Pliocene volcanics in the Birds Head reflects the structural
compl exi t y of that area, which includes disruption by spreading in the north-trending Ayu
Trough (Mi l som et al., 1992).
Mineralization
More than 50% of Indonesi a' s gold and 70% of its copper resources (Fig. 9A) occur in
this arc contained within four deposits. Grasberg, one of the largest gold-rich porphyry
copper deposits in the world, and three maj or skarn ore bodies (Figs. 8 and 10F) are located
in an area of 100 square kilometres making up the Ertsberg mining district at the western
end of the arc (MacDonal d and Arnold, 1994; Mertig et al., 1994). The eastern extension
into Papua New Guinea also contains maj or world class deposits including Porgera (Henry,
1988; Handley and Henry, 1990) and Ok Tedi (Rush and Seegers, 1990). The apparent
lack of mineralization in Irian Jaya, east of the Ertsberg district, probably reflects the lack
of systematic exploration coverage due to the remote and rugged nature of the terrain. Work
currently underway suggests that this section of the arc contains other centres of minerali-
zation (D. Potter, pers. commun. , 1993).
4.8. Other magmatic arcs in Indonesia
Several other magmat i c arcs ( Fig. 2) in Indonesia are either poorly known, little explored,
deeply eroded or of limited extent. Some do however contain indications of mineralization
and therefore bri ef descriptions are included.
Schwaner Mountains arc (Early Cretaceous)
Within and north of the Schwaner Mountains (Fig. 2 and Tabl e 1 ), a wide east-trending
belt of calc-alkaline, predominantly tonalitic to granodioritic batholiths, indicates arc mag-
mat i sm in the late Early Cretaceous (Wi l l i ams et al., 1988). Several skarn occurrences are
associated with the Lower Cretaceous plutons but the arc contains no significant mineral
prospects other than those superimposed during mid-Tertiary magmat i sm associated with
the Central Kalimantan arc.
J. c. Carlile, A.H. G. Mitchell / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 50 (1994) 91-142 115
Sunda Shel f arc (Late Cretaceous)
The arc (Figs. 2 and 6 and Table 1 ) is poorly defined by scattered granitic plutons. It
extends from an 85 Ma granite in the Anambas Islands and late Cretaceous quartz monzonite
in the Tambelan Islands to a 74 Ma granite-granodiorite with an initial 87Sr/86Sr ratio of
0.71 on Karimata Island (Hutchison, 1989). Granites and alkaline granites in the south-
western Schwaner Mountains dated at 91 to 86 Ma, and Late Cretaceous (60 to 70 Ma)
volcanic rocks (Williams et al., 1988), could belong to the same belt. However, the arc
more likely continues south of the Schwaner Mountains into the Barito Basin basement
(Fig. 2) and perhaps includes some of the plutons in the eastern Meratus Mountains.
No mineralization is reported on the Sunda Shelf islands, but the gold mineralization in
the Meratus segment of the Sumatra-Meratus arc could conceivably be related to the ar t ' s
projected eastward continuation.
Moon- Umwa arc (Middle Miocene)
The arc ( Fig. 2 and Table l ) includes the mid-Miocene Moon Volcanics of the northern
Birds Head of Irian Jaya and the Mid-Miocene Utawa Diorite in the neck to the southeast.
The predominantly andesitic Moon Volcanics overlie Late Mesozoic sedimentary rocks of
the New Guinea shelf (Dow et al., 1986, 1988) and are intruded by dioritic stocks. Hydro-
thermal alteration is widespread in the Moon Volcanics but Alpha is the only advanced
prospect (Fig. 8); here gold and base metal mineralization occurs in an extensive zone of
silicification and argillic alteration that contains quartz veins and stockworks (M.J.
Andrews, pets commun., 1993). The arc is little explored but is considered to have good
potential as eruptive andesitic rocks and intrusions of Neogene age are preserved over an
80 kms strike length.
West Sulawesi arc (Late Miocene-Pliocene)
The arc extends through western Sulawesi where Late Cenozoic shoshonitic volcanism
described by Leterrier et al. (1990) is tentatively explained by extension related to eastward-
migrating subduction in the Tolo trench (Fig. 6) (Rehault et al., 1991 ), perhaps accom-
panied by opening of the Gulf of Bone.
North and west of the Gulf of Bone, Priadi et al. (1991) and Kavalieris et al. (1992)
describe a 400 kms long discontinuous belt oi' high initial XVSr/86Sr ratio granitic plutons,
the Dondo granites, extending northeastwards into the neck. The Dondo granites, dated at
6.5 to 3.8 Ma (Priadi et al., 1991), probably reflect crustal melting during continuing
convergence and westward thrusting related to the late Early Miocene collision in western
Sulawesi. They are not, however, plutonic equivalents of the shoshonitic volcanics ( Van
Leeuwen et al., 1994).
Northwest Borneo arc (Middle Miocene)
A mid-Miocene andesitic arc (Fig. 2 and Table 1 ) is inferred from scattered areas of
andesitic rocks (Hutchison, 1989) in northwest Kalimantan and eastern Sarawak (Fig. 6).
No significant mineralization is known from the arc in Indonesia or Sarawak, although the
Bau district could be part of this, rather than the older Central Kalimantan arc.
116 J.C. Carlile, A.H.G. Mitchell/Journal of Geochemical Exploration 50 (1994) 91-142
Sumba- Timor arc ( P alaeogene )
A minor magmatic arc at least partly of Palaeogene age (Fig. 2 and Table 1 ) is present
within the Sumba-Pal el o-Lol ot ai nappe in Sumba and Timor. In Sumba, andesitic volcanic
rocks and andesite porphyry intrusions occupy small areas in the southwest, central and
southeast portions of the island.
Coastal Irian Jaya arc (age unknown)
Diorites with possible porphyry mineralization in the Mamberamo belt near the north
coast of Irian Jaya (D. Bennett, pers. commun., 1993) are of inferred Neogene age but little
else is known of this arc (Fig. 2).
Talaud arc (Neogene)
This is represented on land only by Miocene andesitic volcanic rocks on Talaud Island
and andesite blocks in melange in northeast Sulawesi ( Simandjuntak, 1986) and is included
only to highlight its submarine nature (Fig. 2)
5 . Maj or styles of gol d and copper mi neral i zat i on in the Indonesi an arcs
5.1. Classification of mineralization styles
The gold and copper deposits and major prospects within the andesitic arcs of Indonesia
fall into six broad categories. These are:
Porphyry copper-gol d mineralization
Skam mineralization
High sulphidation epithermal mineralization
Gold-silver-barite___ base metal mineralization
Low sulphidation epithermal mineralization
Sediment-hosted mineralization
The distribution of gold and copper by mineralization type (Fig. 10B) and size (Fig.
11) is heavily biased by the Grasberg porphyry copper-gol d deposit. Nevertheless the
distribution emphasizes the importance of copper-gol d porphyries as the major source of
gold in Indonesia. These, together with other deep mineral environments including the
Ertsberg district skams and Kelian, cont r i ~t e nearly 80% of Indonesia's gold resources
and virtually all of its copper (Fig. 10B). Low sulphidation epithermal mineralization,
despite the epithermal gold boom of the 1980s, accounts for only around 17% of the
count ry' s gold resources. The remainder occur in one sediment-hosted deposit, a cluster of
stratiform gol d- si l ver - bar i t e_ base metal bodies, both types arc-related, and metamorpho-
genic quartz veins that are unrelated to arc magmatism.
5.2. Porphyry copper-gold mineralization
Distribution and characteristics
Major centres of porphyry copper-gol d mineralization (Fig. 8 and Table 2, with refer-
ences therein) occur at Grasberg, in the Irian Jaya continental arc, and at Batu Hijau and
Tombulilato, both in island arc settings. Smaller deposits located at Tapadaa and Bulagidun
J. C. Carlile, A.H. G. Mitchell~Journal of Geochemical Exploration 50 (1994) 91-142 117
1400
1200
1000
e~
800
r ~
z 600
400
S e d ~ t Hoe~d
S k s r n s
M ~ o ~ , ~
Fi g. l I. Si ze a nd t ype of mi ner al depos i t s in I ndone s i a wi t h an e s t i ma t e d gol d c ont e nt of ove r 30 t o n n c s
in North Sulawesi and the Taware prospect on Sangihe also occur in island arcs. Kaputusan
on Bacan and Sassak in South Sulawesi are thought to be underlain by continental crust.
The major deposits are all hosted by composite porphyritic stocks of Neogene age. At
Tombulilato (including Cabang Kiri, Sungai Mak, Kayubulan and Cabang Kanan) and
Batu Hijau, quartz diorites or tonalites intrude dominantly andesitic volcanic rocks. Dacitic
rocks at upper levels above an unconformity are partly co-eval with the intrusions at
Tombulilato. The main monzonite intrusion at Grasberg is thought to be emplaced into a
mineralized dioritic diatreme that intrudes Palaeogene limestones (MacDonald and Arnold,
1994). Intra-mineralization branching stocks are common and form a low grade core within
the main mineralized zones (Fig. 12). Post-mineralization diatreme breccias at Sungai Mak
and Cabang Kiri cross-cut supergene mineralization but are not recognized at Batu Hijau
(Meldrum et al., 1994).
118 J. C. Carlile, A.H. G. Mitchell/Journal of Geochemical Exploration 50 (1994) 91-142
Table 2
Characteristics of the main porphyry copper-gol d deposits of Indonesia. Alteration terminology is based on Sillitoe
(1990) but phyllic is used rather than sericitic: 1 = potassic; 2 = propylitic; 3 = intermediate argillic; 4 = phyllic;
5 = sodic; 6 = advanced argillic; K = K-feldspar; M = minor; Stk. = stockwork; di ssem. = di ssemi nat ed
Name Age Intrusion Count ry Alteration
rocks
Mai n Early Intra 1 2 3 4 5 6
Medial Irian Jaya arc
Grasberg Pliocene Monzo- Diorite
nite Diatreme
Sunda Banda arc
Batu Hijau Neogene Tonalite Quartz
Diorite
t,,"
Tertiary ~ M No t,," No No
Li mest one K
Tertiary t J u, ~ ~ M ~
Volcanics
Sulawesi-East Mindanao art"
Tombulilato Pliocene Quartz
Cabang Kiri Diorite
No Neogene
Volcanics
t,J t,,," M u,"
Tombul i l at o Probable Quartz No
- Sungai Mak Pliocene Diorite
Tombulilato Pliocene Breccia Quartz
Kayubul an Pipe Diorite
Tombulilato Probable Quartz No
- Cabang Kanan Pliocene Diorite
Tapadaa Pliocene Quartz No ?
Diorite
t,J Neogene t, ~ ~ t,J M ~,~ ~,~
Volcanics K
Neogene t,~ t t t,J M u ,~
Volcanics
Neogene ~ ~ u '~ No No No
Volcanics
Neogene ~ t,,,' ~ u ,~ u,~
Volcanics
Bulagidun Neogene Breccia Quartz
Pipe Diorite
Halmahera art"
Kaput usan Neogene Quartz No
Diorite
No Neogene ~ ~ u," No u ,~ No
Volcanics
Tertiary ~ I,,," t,," ~ M No
Volcanics K
Hy d r o t h e r ma l a l t e r a t i o n i n t h e i s l a n d a r c d e p o s i t s i s t y p i c a l f o r g o l d - r i c h p o r p h y r i e s i n
s i mi l a r s e t t i n g s e l s e wh e r e i n t h e r e g i o n ( e . g . , Si Ui t o e a n d Ga p p e , 1 9 8 4 ; Si l l i t o e , 1 9 9 0 ) . T h e
ma i n p o t a s s i c a l t e r a t i o n , c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y b i o t i t e - ma g n e t i t e ~t u a r t z , r a r e l y c o n t a i n s K- f e l d -
s p a r . T h i s p a s s e s o u t wa r d s t o p r o p y l i t i c a s s e mb l a g e s d o mi n a t e d b y c h l o r i t e - e p i d o t e - c a r -
J.C. Carlile, A.H.G. Mitchell / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 50 (1994) 91-142 119
Overpri nt
Mineralization Tonnes Grade References
Hypogene Super- Mt Au Cu
gene g / t %
Type Vert.
extent ( m )
1 on l Stk. and 1,500 mi nor 685 1.79 1.40 Potter et al. ( 1991 )
4 on I di ssem. MacDonal d et al. ( 19941
3 on 1 Stk. and 700 t t 335 0.69 0.80 TM Mel drum et al. ( 19941
5 on 1,3,4 di ssem.
6 o n 3
3,5 on I Stk. and 300 mi nor 136 0.58 0.43 Lowder and Dow ( 1978 )
6 on 3,4 dissem. Carlile and Kirkegaard 11985 )
Carlile et al. (1990)
Perello (1994)
3 on 1 Stk. and 200 ~ 84 0.39 0.76 Carlile et al. ( 1990t
6 on 3,4 dissem.
3 on I Stk. and 150 mi nor 75 0.46 0.62 Carlile et al. ( 19901
6 on 3.4 di ssem. Perello t 1994)
3 o n I Stk. and 100 No Carlile et al. (1990)
di ssem.
3,4 on I Stk. and 100
5 on I dissem.
4 on 5
6 on 3,4
43 0.07 0.54 Lowder and Dow i 1977)
3 on I Breccia 200 No 15 0.70 0.70 Carlile et al. ( 1990~
3 on 5 Lubi s et al. (1994)
3,4 on I Stk. and 7 mi nor 70 0.22 0.30 Bering ( 1986)
5 on 1,2 di ssem.
b o n a t e - p y r i t e wh e r e v o l c a n i c c o u n t r y r o c k s o c c u r . I n t e r me d i a t e a r g i l l i c a l t e r a t i o n
o v e r p r i n t i n g o n p o t a s s i c a s s e mb l a g e s i s c o mmo n , g e n e r a l l y f o l l o wi n g s t r u c t u r e s ; c h l o r i t e
r e p l a c e s b i o t i t e , i l l i t e - s e r i c i t e r e p l a c e s f e l d s p a r s a n d s p e c u l a r h a e ma t i t e ma y r e p l a c e p y r i t e .
S e r i c i t i c a l t e r a t i o n wi t h o u t a s s o c i a t e d c h l o r i t e i s g e n e r a l l y mi n o r , b u t i s d e v e l o p e d i n a
120 J.C. Carlile, A.H.G. Mitchell / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 50 (1994) 91-142
number of deposits (Tabl e 2). Sodic alteration characterized by albite flooding is common,
and at Cabang Kiri and Batu Hijau overprints potassic and intermediate argillic assemblages.
Advanced argillic alteration generally forms at upper levels of the intrusions and in overlying
volcanic rocks as some combination of quartz, alunite, pyrophyllite, diaspore and kaolinite.
Anhydrite veins, which post-date potassic alteration at many deposits, i mpl y descent of
sulphate fluids possibly related to overlying advanced argillic alteration.
Overlapping alteration zones related to different intrusive phases are typical (Tabl e 2),
and clearly demonstrated at Grasberg where the dominant potassic alteration is characterized
by intense biotite alteration introduced by successive intrusions (MacDonal d and Arnold,
1994). The notably high biotite content with associated K-feldspar in the potassic zone, the
widespread phyllic alteration, and absence of both advanced argillic alteration and extensive
volcanic country rocks at Grasberg contrasts with the volcanic-hosted island arc porphyries.
Hypogene copper - gol d mineralization is hosted mainly within the intrusions, dominantly
as stockworks within the potassic zone. Fracture disseminations occur in some higher grade
ore zones and are also preferentially developed in volcanic country rocks at Batu Hijau (J.
Dow, pers. commun. , 1992). Copper and gold at Bulagidun (Lubi s et al., 1994) are hosted
in breccia pipes. Here early sodic alteration is overprinted by intermediate argillic assem-
blages focused along structures, and tourmaline is present. These pipes are peripheral to a
potassically altered but unmineralized diorite complex.
The main hypogene copper mineral is chalcopyrite with subordinate bornite; the latter
commonl y increases with depth. Gold and copper grades (e.g., Carlile and Kirkegaard,
1985; Van Nort et al., 1991 ; Meldrum et al., 1994) and gold: copper ratios also commonl y
increase with depth. Gold may occur with both chalcopyrite (Mel drum et al., 1994), and
bornite ( Katchan, 1982), and the relative increase in gold grade may be related to a change
in the relative abundance of the different copper minerals with depth, where the born-
i t e:chal copyri t e ratio increases downwards. It has been noted at OK Tedi in Papua New
Guinea that gold commonl y occurs as inclusions in bornite (Katchan, 1982).
Supergene mineralization occurs at Sungai Mak and Batu Hijau, and at Grasberg where
chalcocite ore was mined at surface. Elsewhere supergene enrichment is minor or lacking
( Table 2). A chalcocite blanket approximately 150 metres thick at Sungai Mak is developed
beneath a massive leached silica body, and is associated with advanced argillic alteration.
A similar spatial association with advanced argillic alteration is noted on Sumbawa (Mel d-
rum et al., 1994).
Other styles of mineralization recorded in the Indonesian porphyry districts include minor
gold-bearing epithermal veins at Tombulilato (Perello, 1994), Batu Hijau (Mel drum et al.,
1994), B ulagidun (Lubi s et al., 1994), and Taware (Carlile et al., 1990). However, nowhere
in Indonesia are major low sulphidation epithermal vein deposits shown to be genetically
associated with porphyry copper - gol d mineralization. High sulphidation mineralization
occurs 2 kms west of, and stratigraphically above Sungai Mak, and at Elang on Sumbawa,
porphyry style alteration and mineralization has been intersected below high sulphidation
alteration. Major skarn orebodies occur within a 3 km radius of Grasberg, associated with
intrusions of similar age and composition, and skarns are also developed at depth adjacent
to the early intrusion at Grasberg (MacDonal d and Arnold, 1994).
J. C. Carlile, A,H.G. Mi t chel l / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 50 (1994) 91-142 121
Geological environment of formation
The presence of mineralized porphyritic stocks intruding through basement into volcanic
sequences in an island arc setting at Batu Hijau and Tombulilato (Fig. 12B), and into a
diatreme and maar sequence (MacDonal d and Arnold, 1994) in a continental setting at
Grasberg (Fig. 12A), contrasts with the absence or scarcity of similar stocks in the main
low sulphidation epithermal provinces of the western Sunda-Banda and Central Kalimantan
arcs. While depths to the tops of the porphyry deposits prior to erosion are unknown, the
geological setting suggests between 1 and 2 kms, comparabl e to the depths inferred for the
lower levels of some epithermal deposits in Indonesia, such as Cirotan in West Java (Carlile
and Sitorus, unpublished results) and possibly Mount Muro in Central Kalimantan. In our
view, different depths of formation alone therefore cannot explain the presence of porphyry
copper deposits in some arcs and low sulphidation deposits in other arcs of the same age as
suggested by Sillitoe and Bonham (1984) and Gi ggenbach (1992).
Less erosion in the epithermal districts also cannot readily explain the absence of porphyry
copper - gol d deposits. On the Bayah Dome in West Java where numerous epithermal vein
deposits occur, basement is exposed. Moreover, the limited vertical extent of veins and their
A
2 Km
. . . . - . Maar ...
I-1 Km - ~- _ _ / v '
| _ 4 _ D & b 4 4 & ^ ) . 4 l > p r i ~ l e n l
F"-.. ~ z~ zx tx ~ zx /Y/Z//,
Massive / Paleogene
Limestone Marl-Wacke
Skarn
Mesozoic
Mudstones
/
High Sutphidation B l
Au-Ag-Cu 2 Km
1
" ~ Eroding Minor |
Volcano Au Base Metal |
Veins |
J
Pliocene ~ ^ ^ ^ ^ _
A ~el ~el + ~ A\ AN. A A
and
Dacite ^
Miocene- Pliocen e ~ ! i : ~ i ~
! Andesitic ~ ~
To Basaltic :! !
Volcanics
And
Sediments v
M in v
Ore
Zone
Neogene Composite Intrusions
Early Breccia Diorite
Main Mineralised Stock
Intra Mineral Intrusiv es
v,~,~ V V V
V V V V
v v v O-
V V V
V V V
V V V
1 V V
V V V
v v v I Kin-
2 Km
Fig. 12. Schematic cross-sections illustrating the geological setting of porphyry copper-gold mineralization in
Indonesia at (A) Grasberg in a continental arc based on MacDonald and Arnold ( 1994); and (B) Tombulilato
and Batu Hijau in island arcs based on Carlile et al. (1990) and Meldrum et al. (1994).
122 J.C. Carlile, A.H.G. Mitchell~Journal of Geochemical Exploration 50 (1994) 91 142
sometimes high carbonate and base metal contents, implies erosion levels probably sufficient
to expose the upper portions of any porphyry copper - gol d systems, if they were present.
At Tombulilato, stocks intrude older basaltic and andesitic volcanic rocks, to levels just
below or just above an unconformity with overlying dacitic volcanic rocks that are co-eval
with the mineralized stocks (Fig. 12B). A comparabl e situation occurs at Batu Hijau, and
at Grasberg maar volcanics are probably co-eval with the early mineralized diatreme
(MacDonal d and Arnold, 1994).
These relationships suggest that the generation of porphyry copper - gol d systems may be
dependent on ascent of magma to a high level, at or near the base of eroding andesi t i c-
dacitic volcanoes (Sillitoe, 1990). We suggest that the rise of magma to these shallow
depths, where cooling would have been related to circulating meteoric water (Cathles,
1981 ), was possibly facilitated by the absence of significant extension in the crust, inhibiting
penetration of cool fluids to deeper levels.
As in most porphyry systems of this type, the main stockwork or disseminated mineral-
ization is hosted in the potassic zone within the intrusion. Mineralization is thought to have
accompanied phase separation of magmatic fluids and fracturing of the crystallized porphyry
margins in response to fluid exsolution from a crystallising melt (Phillips, 1973; Lowell
and Guilbert, 1970; Burnham, 1979).
5. 3. S k a r n mi n e r a l i z a t i o n
Di s t r i b u t i o n a n d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
The only maj or skarn deposits known in Indonesia occur in the Medial Irian Jaya arc.
Numerous minor exampl es are known in the Sumat ra-Merat us and Central Kalimantan arcs
and some small occurrences are recorded in North Sulawesi and the Birds Head of Irian
Jaya.
The three skarn bodies in Irian Jaya, Ertsberg, Ertsberg East (including the intermediate
and deep ore zone) and Dora are hosted by the Early Eocene dolomitic basal units of the
New Guinea Limestone. The Ertsberg orebody (now mined out) occurred as a pipe-shaped
plug of magnet i t e-chal copyri t e ore surrounded by calc-silicate skarn ( mont i cel l i t e- gar net -
vesuvianite) within the 3.2 Ma Ertsberg Diorite (Katchan, 1982).
Ertsberg East and Dom are both located at the limestone-diorite contact (Mertig et al.,
1994). Ertsberg East, the largest deposit, extends vertically for over 1,500 metres. Chal-
copyrite and a calc-silicate assemblage, similar to Ertsberg in the upper portions, grades to
a bornite-dominant copper mineralogy with magnetite at depth, accompanied by an increase
in forsterite. Gold grades also increase with depth from an average of 0.7 g/ t to 1.2 g/ t ,
possibly associated with an increase in the amount of bornite (Potter et al., 1991 ). Dora is
broadly similar to the upper levels of Ertsberg East.
Older minor skarn mineralization in the Sumat ra-Merat us arc occurs at Muara Sipongi
and Muara Soma where pre-Tertiary granodiorites intrude Permian marbles and limestones.
At Serantak and Buduk in the western section of the Central Kalimantan arc, mid-Tertiary
diorites intrude calcareous sediments, and weakly mineralized skarns are associated with
gold-bearing quart z-pyri t e veins. The minor skarns in West Kalimantan appear to be older
than adjacent gold bearing quart z-pyri t e veins.
,L C. Carlile, A.H.G. Mi t chel l / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 50 (1994) 91-142 123
Geological environment of formation
Formation of the maj or skams of the Ertsberg district appears to have taken place in a
environment similar to that of the deeper por phyr y- copper gold mineralization at Grasberg.
The deposits reflect the fortuitous superimposition of a Pliocene arc on a thick sequence of
continental margin carbonate-rich sediments which had been tectonised and fractured during
the Melanesian orogeny.
The vertical zonation of calc-silicate mineralogy at Ertsberg East, where forsterite dom-
inates at depth, is thought to be related to an increase in confining pressure over the 1,500
metre vertical extent of the deposit (Katchan, 1982).
5.4. High sulphidation epithermal mineralization
Distribution and characteristics
A number of prospects in Indonesia display characteristics of high-sulphidation epither-
mal mineralization, as described by Ashley (1982), Sillitoe ( 1983 ), Heald et al., 1987, and
Hedenquist (1987), but with the exception of Mot ombot o none are extensively explored.
Mot ombot o, in the Tombulilato district of North Sulawesi, occurs at the contact of a Late
Pliocene dacite porphyry and Mi ocene-Pl i ocene andesites. The dominantly dacitic Pliocene
host rocks (Perello, 1994) unconformabl y overlie Miocene andesites that elsewhere in the
district host the main porphyry copper - gol d deposits. Alteration comprises a quar t z- al uni t e-
pyrite core, with localized vuggy textures, that passes progressively outwards through
quartz-kaolinite to chloritic alteration.
Mineralization occurs mainly within the quartz-alunite zone in multiphase enargi t e-
l uzoni t e-pyri t e cemented breccias and veins, some of which are surrounded by stringer
zones (Carlile et al., 1990; Perello, 1994). Vuggy silica bodies contain only mi nor miner-
alization where enargite-luzonite is intergrown with bladed alunite and infills vugs. A
notable feature is the occurrence of oxidized breccia zones intersected in drill core at depths
of over 150 metres (Carlile et al., 1990). These are thought to be slumped blocks of surface
oxidation that devel oped in the Pleistocene (Perello, 1994).
At the recently discovered Miwah prospect in the Aceh continental arc (A. Williamson,
pers. commun. , 1992), interbedded Pliocene sediments and andesitic volcanics contain
disseminated pyrite, enargite, native sulphur and barite within an extensive alteration system.
Spectacular cliffs of silica pass laterally to silica-pyrite, si l i ca-cl ay-pyri t e and chl ori t e-
epidote assemblages. Gol d-beat i ng quartz veins and breccias at Pelangan on Lombok con-
tain alunite, pyrite and enargite, within zones of si l i ca-kaol i ni t e-al uni t e alteration (S.
Turner, pers. commun. , 1992).
Advanced argillic zones and silica bodies
In Indonesia, maj or advanced argillic zones dominated by silica, but without contained
economic mineralization, occur both in continental and island arc settings and are always
hosted in andesitic-dacitic volcanic rocks. At Masupa Ria in the Central Kalimantan arc,
silicification covering an area of several square kilometres is up to 200 metres thick, and is
cut by the low sulphidation Ongkang vein ( Thompson et al., 1994). The blanket-like body
is composed dominantly of silica but also contains alunite and pyrophyllite. In the Baguio
district of the Philippines, a similar blanket of silicification and alunite alteration, attributed
124 J. C. Carlile, A.H. G. Mitchell/Journal of Geochemical Exploration 50 (1994) 91-142
to high-sulphidation activity (Aoki et al., 1993) is also cut by low-sulphidation veins with
gold mineralization. Comparable blanket-like features at Buata and Bayade in north Sulaw-
esi, and on eastern Sumbawa at Donggomassa are of unknown thickness but also cover
extensive surface areas. Patchy gold and arsenic anomalies, locally spectacular brecciation
features and remnant disseminated pyrite are common. Whether or not these advanced
argillic residual silica bodies are underlain by related mineralized systems remains to be
tested.
In north Sulawesi, a silica blanket up to 150 metres thick overlays part of the Sungai Mak
porphyry copper-gol d deposit, and comprises massive, dense and partly brecciated silica.
The largest supergene copper blanket in Indonesia occurs beneath this leached silica body.
Geol ogi cal envi ronment o f f or mat i on
Laterally extensive blankets of advanced argillic alteration may be formed by rock
reaction with cool acidic fluids produced by oxidation of H2S to sulphate in the vadose zone
(Henl ey and Ellis, 1983), where the H2S evolved off a boiling, circulating, near-neutral pH
low-sulphidation hydrothermal system at depth. Zonation in alteration mineralogy in the
silica blanket at Masupa Ria (Thompson et al., 1994) indicates a cool surficial acid sulphate
source for the silicification above the Ongkang vein.
Advanced argillic alteration assemblages associated with high-sulphidation mineral
deposits are attributed to rock reaction with hot acid fluids which were produced by the
disproportionation of magmatic SO2 and HC1 gas evolving directly off a degassing stock at
depth ( Bethke, 1984; Giggenbach, 1992). Condensation of the gas into groundwater resutts
in extremely low pH fluids, and probably takes place in permeable structures or lithologies
in the host rocks. Reaction of the progressively cooling and neutralising hot acid fluid
(Leach and Erceg, 1990) with the volcanic rocks forms the advanced argillic assemblages
along with minerals such as pyrophyllite and diaspore indicating temperatures in excess of
200C (Reyes, 1990) ; the silica rock is a combination of residual silica, formed by extensive
leaching, and later silica addition.
High sulphidation mineralization at Motomboto, Miwah and Pelangan is associated with
extensive advanced argillic alteration. Motomboto is hosted by volcanic rocks that elsewhere
in the district lie stratigraphically above mineralized porphyries. Therefore in common with
many enargite-gold deposits elsewhere (Ashley, 1982, Sillitoe, 1983), it can be argued that
Motomboto, and possibly Miwah and Pelangan, may be underlain by porphyry copper -
gold systems (Fig. 15A).
5.5. Gol d- s i l ver - bar i t e +_ base met al mi neral i zat i on
Di st ri but i on and charact eri st i cs
Gol d-si l ver-bari t e + base metal mineralization occurs in the Sunda-Banda arc eastwards
from Flores, and at Binebase on Sangihe in the Sulawesi-East Mindanao island arc. A
similar association is known from Sarangani Island, 200 kms north of Sangihe and at
Anagase and Bagacay (e.g., Bryner, 1969) on Samar in the Philippines.
Stacked stratiform barite-jarosite horizons containing gold and silver, sometimes under-
lain by copper-bearing massive pyritic bodies and pyrite stockworks, form a cluster of
J.C. Carlile, A.H.G. Mitchell/Journal of Geochemical E~ploration 50 (1994) 91 142 125
deposits on Wet ar at Lerokis, Kali Kuni ng ( Sewell and Wheat l ey, 1994) and Mer on ( C.J.V.
Wheat l ey, pers. commun. , 1993 ). The ferrugi nous barite layers, t ypi cal l y 3- 35 metres thick
and up to 400 metres in diameter, are intercalated with fine grai ned clastic sediments and
cherts and partly covered by l i mest ones and mari ne sediments. A sequence of andesi t i c-
dacitic volcaniclastics, underlain by pillow basalt, hosts the st ockwork zones and includes
telsic dome rocks near the orebodies. Alteration in the vol cani cl ast i c rocks adjacent to the
st ockworks compri ses si l i ca- pyr i t e- cl ay- al uni t e- bar i t e passing distally to illite-chlorite
pyrite. Silver and locally high lead, arsenic and ant i mony in the baritic hori zons are asso-
ciated with sulphosalts. Enargite is a significant constituent of the massi ve pyritic lenses.
A similar but l ocal i zed gol d- si l ver - bear i ng sandy barite unit at Binebase is also underlain
by a sequence of andesi t i c-daci t i c volcaniclastic rocks and andesitic porphyries. The main
gol d- s i l ve ~c oppe r mineralization occurs in crystal tufts as massi ve si l i ca- pyr i t e- bar -
ite_+ chal copyri t e lenses and breccias, adjacent to an andesite porphyry. Pervasi ve silica
pyr i t e- cl ay- al uni t e- bar i t e alteration cut by late barite veining passes laterally to illite-
chl ori t e-pyri t e. Enargi t e float has also been f ound at the prospect by one of the authors
( J. C. C. ) .
Ge ol ogi c al e nv i r onme nt oJl f ormat i on
Mi neral i zat i on on Sangihe and Wet ar has many similarities, and the deposits display
characteristics of bot h hi gh sulphidation mi neral i zat i on and exhalative massive sulphide
systems. They appear to be co-eval with acid sulphate alteration indicated by the presence
of alunite, and contain enargite whi ch is a c ommon constituent of high sulphidation gol d
deposits el sewhere (Ashl ey, 1982, Sillitoe, 1983). The high barite content implies barium
0m (Sea Level)
250
f
750m
Massive Pyrite with
Base Metal Sulphides
Au Ag in Massive and Sulphosalts
Barite & Barite Sand / Gold-Silver-Base Metal
X / Baryte Veins and Stockworks
X / / ~ e
. . . . - - / - - - . ~ ~ Vol canocl asti cs
. . . . . . . V
7 ~ - - v (N eogenei - -
v ~ , ==~ __ Repl acement Au =Ag
Base Metals Ba Ore
^ A A A I ^1 ^ ^ A ^ Pi l l owBas al t s A A
^ m A ^ ^ ^ A ^ ^ (Pal aeogene) A ^
h A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A
Fig. 13. Schematic cross-section illustrating the possible depositional setting for "high sulphidation- submarine
gold-silver-barite-base metal mineralization in the eastern Sunda-Banda and Sulawesi-East Mindanao island
a r c s .
126 J.C. Carlile, A.H.G. Mitchell / Journal of Geochemical Exploratirm 50 (1994) 91 142
in the mineralizing f luid, with SO4 possibly f rom either sea water or oxi di zed meteoric f luid.
The strong base metal associ ati on and high silver to gold ratios are consi stent with chloride
compl exi ng of metals ( H eml ey and Hunt, 1992) . The stratif orm bedded nature of the baritic
hori zons suggests shal l ow submarine venting of the f luids in l ocal i zed troughs at depths
suf f icient to prevent reworking by wav e action. The massi v e sulphide bodi es and stockworks
probably f ormed at and bel ow the bedrock surf ace ( Fig. 13).
The mineralizing f luids may have been similar in chemi cal composi t i on to those which
f ormed advanced argillic silica bodies with hydrothermal breccias and minor gold miner-
alization within sub- aerial andesites in eastern Sumbawa, and also possibly to those asso-
ciated with the Batu Hijau porphyry copper- gol d deposit in western Sumbawa.
5.6. Low sulphidation epithermal mineralization
Distribution and characteristics
Maior low sulphidation epithermal veins and lesser stockwork deposits are largely con-
fined to the western Sunda-Banda and the Central Kalimantan continental arcs. Elsewhere,
deposits of this type are small and mainly restricted to the North Sulawesi and the eastern
Sunda-Banda island arcs.
Vein and stockwork deposits are hosted mainly by andesitic volcanic rocks and less
commonly by intrusive equivalents of mid-Miocene to Pliocene age in the Sunda-Banda
arc (Fig. 14), and by Palaeogene to Neogene intermediate intrusions and andesitic to felsic
1400 ~1 Pos t - Mi ner al Gr ab en
12gO- t / VEI N
1 1 0 0 v v
10 0 0 . _ v Vv ~
v v v v l A ndes i t i c
- v v v v v [ Vol c, ani c s
80 0 - v v v v v v v v
600-
4 0 0 - ~
3 0 0 - ~ Mari e Or Tec t oni s ed
200 B a s e m e n t
1 0 0 -
0 -
1 0 0 -
2 0 0 -
4 0 0 -
5 0 0 -
Congl omer at es
/ CI KONDANG or L a h e r s
i VEI N
CI ROTAN ~ / ~ o o ~ ' ~
VEI N r/oo ~ % ~ ~
v v v v
~ V / A : ~ i t i c v v v ,
. . . . . . iql,,naes,,,,., c I . . . . . v / Vol c ani c s v
v v v v v v v v v v v
v v v v v v v v v v l v v v ~L
x x x x "X x XOx__ X x x ,I ~qerl , ments~,
L EBONG DONOK Gab b r o, Maf i c Dyk e x x x x x x ; , ~ x x X l
VEI N Bas al t Bas ement Andes i t i c
Dyk e
v v v v v
v v v v v
v v v v v v
v v v v v
v v v v v v
v v v v v
. . / / / / / /
F ol ded
Mu ds t ones
Fig. 14. Schematic cross-section illustrating the geological setting of selected gold-bearing low sulphidation
epithermal veins in the western continental segment of the Sunda-Banda arc.
J.C. Carlile, A.H.G. Mitchell / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 50 (1994) 91-142 127
volcanic rocks in the Central Kalimantan arc (Tabl e 3). Intercalated sedimentary rocks
occur not far above basement in Sumatra and West Java (Fig. 14). The lower part of the
Cirotan vein in the Cikotok district is hosted by gabbroic basement (Fig. 14) and veins in
North Sulawesi occur in sedimentary rocks and basaltic andesites ( Kavalieris et al., 1992).
The only two major examples of disseminated mineralization, at Kelian in Central Kali-
mantan and Gunung Pani in North Sulawesi, are both spatially associated with rhyolitic
pyroclastic and/ or epiclastic rocks.
At Kelian gold mineralization is associated with the deposition of carbonate and base
metals in a disseminated vein network, which post-dated, and in places brecciated, poorly
mineralized quart z-adul ari a-seri ci t e veining. Ore grade mineralization formed in permeable
zones associated with fault movement , and around the contacts with andesite stocks. Car-
bonate species at Kelian are zoned with depth; siderite-rhodochrosite with kaolinite occur
at shallow levels, calcite and Mg-carbonates at depth, and mixed Fe - Mn - Ca - Mg carbonates
in the mineralized intermediate zones (Van Leeuwen et al., 1990), indicating fluid mixing
as the probable mechani sm for mineralization.
The vein-type deposits in Indonesia may be grouped into a number of broad categories.
Quart z-adul ari a-cal ci t e veins at Gunung Pongkor an_d Lebong Donok have very low sul-
phide and base metal contents. Veins and stockworks at Bolangitang, Lanut, and Masupa
Ria ( apart from the absence of adularia), show broadly similar characteristics. The Mt.
Muro veins which have a higher base metal and carbonate content at depth, may be more
deeply eroded equivalents. Quartz rhodonite-rhodochrosite veins, for example at Mangani.
Cirotan, Cikotok, Lebak Sembada, and possibly Salida and Doup, generally have a high
sulphide and base metal content. These veins display complex mineralogy, often including
tellurides and selenides and, in the case of Mangani and Cirotan, minor tin minerals.
Carbonate and base metal contents commonl y increase with depth in these veins and base
metal-rich shoots within the veins are usually associated with multiple phases of brecciation
and resealing. Quartz veins with sulphide and base metal-rich zones and sometimes complex
mineralogy, but lacking maj or amounts of rhodochrosite and rhodonite occur at Cikondang,
Lebong Tandai, and throughout the Cikotok and Jampang districts.
Gold occurs most commonl y as electrum, sometimes as free gold mainly in oxide zones,
and may also be locked in pyrite or arsenopyrite, and is occasionally associated with
tellurides, selenides and sulphosalts. Silver to gold ratios are highly variable and may be
zoned vertically and laterally within one deposit. High ratios in excess of 25 : 1 are commonl y
found in quart z-rhodoni t e-rhodochrosi t e veins and values of around 10:1 typify deposits
such as Gunung Pongkor. Ratios of more than 20 : 1 at Mr. Muro coincide with the base of
mineralization.
With the exception of Kelian, where mineralization formed at 300-330C ( Van Leeuwen
et al., 1990), fluid inclusion homogenisation temperatures of between 190 and 290C are
reported at Mt. Muro ( Si mmons and Browne, 1990), Masupa Ria (Thompson et al., 1994),
Gunung Pongkor (Basuki et al., 1994), and Cirotan ( KRTA, 1988a,b), but most data
indicate temperatures of less than 250C.
Wallrock alteration typically comprises an inner quartz-illite_+ adularia-pyrite envelope,
somet i mes overprinted by kaolinite and transitional outwards over a few metres or tens of
metres to chlorite _+ illite _+ carbonate + epidote _+ pyrite. At Masupa Ria (Thompson et al.,
1994), advanced argillic alteration forms spectacular silica bluffs which overlie and pre-
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J. C. Carlile, A.H. G. Mitchell / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 50 ( 1994 ) 91 142 131
date the Ongkang vein. Pyrophyllite is also recorded in a low sulphidation vein at Kaidundu
(Perello, 1994) implying the presence of acid sulphate as well as neutral pH chloride fluids,
perhaps due to a late collapse of steam-heated acid sulphate fluids, as observed in active
geothermal systems (Reyes, 1990).
Typical strike lengths of individual veins range from a few hundred metres to over 4,500
metres at Lebong Tandai, with widths commonly between one and five metres but swelling
in places to more than 30 metres. Veins at Lebong Tandai extend vertically for over 650
metres. In Central Kalimantan and on the Bayah Dome in West Java, veins occur vertically
for between 100 and 250 metres, reaching a maximum of 350 metres in the carbonate-rich
deposit at Cirotan on the Bayah Dome.
Geological environment of formation
Vein deposits in the western Sunda-Banda and Central Kalimantan arcs are hosted mainly
in eruptive rocks that pass downwards into sedimentary rocks and pre-volcanic basement,
supporting observations in the Philippines (Mitchell and Leach, 1991 ) and Japan (Izawa
et al., 1990) that epithermal veins occug preferentially immediately above and occasionally
in the basement (Figs. 14 and 15B). In the western Sunda-Banda arc, a relationship to
basement is most evident on the Bayah Dome where the surface of the mafic basement and
the elevations of veins varies from around 300 metres above sea level on the flanks of the
dome to over 700 metres on the crest. Vertical extents of veins on the crest of the Bayah
Dome are not notably less than those of veins at the flanks.
These relationships imply that the concentration of low sulphidation epithermal veins in
the Bayah Dome may be analogous to the concentration of veins in the Paracale Dome and
the Baguio basement antiform, the two most productive gold districts in the Philippines
( Mitchell and Leach, 1991 ). In the western Sunda-Banda arc, the association of epithermal
veins with basement domes coincides with a scarcity of exposed intrusive stocks and the
absence of porphyry copper-gold deposits.
We suggest that the epithermal mineralization coincided with initiation of extensional
tectonics accommodated by movement on low-angle detachment faults at depth ( Fig. 15B ).
Onset of extensional strain in the thermally weakened arc, a response to gravitational pull
of the sinking slab, may have permitted descent of meteoric fluids along pre-mineral frac-
tures and faults to depths of 7 to 10 kms, near the brittle-ductile transition zone (Nesbitt,
1988). Rising magma, perhaps cooled by the descending fluids, crystallized as sills at depths
of at least several kilometres and consequent magmatic inflation resulted in elevation of the
arc (Fig. 15B). Mineralization took place as the ascending meteoric fluid boiled (e.g.,
Henley, 1985) and mixed with cool ground water in fractures within permeable volcanic
and volcanoclastic rocks near and above the basement surface.
The abundance of epithermal deposits in Sumatra and western Java may be related
indirectly to pre-mineralization arc reversal and emplacement of the mafic Woyla Group
onto the Sundaland margin in the Cretaceous. Crustal extension and emplacement of sills
accompanied doming of the tectonically thickened basement in regional antiforms; the
domes focused ascending fluids beneath low permeability rocks on the antiIbrm flanks.
Overall, the inferred association of low sulphidation mineralization with crustal extension.
following early andesitic magmatism, contrasts with the setting of porphyry copper-gold
132 J.C. Carlile. A.H.G. Mitchell~Journal qf Geochemical Exploratirm 50 (1994) 91-142
High Sulphidation High Sul phidation
Al terati on Au-Ag-Cu
- lkm ~ ~ IAndesitic/Dacitic
. ~ ~ - ~: ~ < : ~1 Volcano
I ,..
v
- 0 V e i n s v ~ ~ / v ~ / ~ Andes!tic v
v i v i i v ( ~ I 1 . ~ Volcanics v
~~1 1 1 | + S.,edimen~ t s v
_, ~ : . ~ B.~, ^ " j
I rphyry
2 " I ' Cu-Au
Shallow
Post-Volcano
Stock
3
- 4
A
Low Sul phidation
Veins and Stockworks
Sediment Hosted Most Ore in Upper Lev els
Au
Andesitic
V V V v v / \~l ../v ~: v ' :v, V/~u~ ---~
~ ~ ~ j ~.~er v
~ , . ~ . ~ ~ ~ - "]]~.- Sediments and
~ ~ ~/? r~l %can~ s
/ ~ : ~ L _ _ ~ C C ~f \
/ ' ~ . ~ i - ~ F ' - " " P ~ / . Ma,c Nappe
? T e n s , o n ' V ? ~ I - ~ ~ ~ c o 0 . w o y , a )
Fractures~ ) ~ / ~ ~ Extension
I - ~ ~ ~ F ' ' pal e z i - Me s z i c
2 \ / ~ h ~ ' - ~ . . ~ / IV~tamorphics
1/ ~ II Wat er
Metamorphic Metamorphism ~..
- 4 Water
B
Fig. 15. Schematic cross-section comparing the inferred geological settings of (A) porphyry copper-gold and
high sulphidation mineralization in an island arc setting based on the Tombulilato district in North Sulawesi, and
( B ) low sulphidation epithermal mineralization in a continental arc based on the Bayah Dome in West Java.
deposits (Fi g. 15). It suggests that the epithermal mi neral i zat i on is younger than, and not
genet i cal l y related to, any porphyry-t ype mi ner al i zat i on or i nt rusi on in the same arc segment .
5.7. Sediment-hosted mineralization
Distribution and characteristics
The onl y maj or deposi t of this type in Indonesi a occurs at Mesel ( Tur ner et al., 1994) in
the North Sul awesi i sl and arc, al t hough mi nor amount s of gold have recent l y been recovered
from small occurrences in the Ci kot ok district (Carl i l e and Sitorus, unpubl i shed resul t s).
Sedi ment -host ed mi neral i zat i on in the Bau district of Sarawak ( Sillitoe and Bonham, 1990)
may be related to the projected west ward ext ensi on of the Cent ral Kal i mant an arc.
Mi ner al i zat i on at Mesel ( Tur ner et al, 1994) is hosted in a faul t ed sequence of Late
Mi ocene carbonat e sedi ment s beneat h the cont act with an over l yi ng pre-mi neral i zat i on
andesi t e sill. In unoxi di zed parts of the deposit, gold occurs mai nl y with fi ne-grai ned
J.C. Carlile, A.H.G. Mitchell~Journal of Geochemical Exploration 50 (1994) 9t-142 133
arsenical pyrite in decalcified and dolomitised sediments that are pervasively silicified and
carry very low base metal values and only minor silver.
Although only a minor occurrence, Langkob in the Cikotok district has some broad
similarities to Mesel. Mineralization is hosted in marls and carbonaceous shales, probably
of Late Miocene age, that are interbedded with andesitic volcanic rocks. Gold occurs in
silicified units and is associated with low base metal and silver contents and elevated arsenic
and antimony concentrations.
Low sulphidation epithermal veins occur in both the Ratatotok and Cikotok districts in
sedimentary and volcanic rocks of similar age to those that contain the sediment-hosted
mineralization. Residual palaeo-karst breccias in the Ratatotok district also contain signif-
icant gold (Turner et al., 1994).
Environment of formation
Mineralization forms where receptive host-rocks are intersected by faults that have chan-
nelled gold-bearing hydrothermai fluids. Turner et al. (1994) suggest that volume loss due
to decalcification and dolomitisation has enhanced porosity at Mesel, facilitating access of
mineralizing fluids. The overlying andesite at Mesel is weakly mineralized and may have
acted as an i mpermeabl e barrier to hydrothermal fluids, although adjacent to Langkob, the
interbedded andesitic rocks host vein mineralization.
The spatial association with low sulphidation veins suggests a possible genetic relation-
ship where similar structurally focused mineralizing fluids may either pervade porous
reactive host-rocks, or be contained within structures in i mpermeabl e rocks to form veins.
5.8. Other mineralization s~'les
Other styles of mineralization are either minor, lack significant gold, or are not directly
related to andesitic arcs. These include:
Copper-molybdenum and molybdenum porphyries
Tangse, the only known porphyry copper - mol ybdenum prospect in Indonesia, occurs in
the continental Aceh arc. Mineralization is hosted in Middle Miocene quartz diorites that
intrude a gabbro-granodi ori t e pluton; low initial strontium ratios nevertheless i mpl y magma
generation without significant continental input (Van Leeuwen et al., 1987). Porphyry
mol ybdenum mineralization at Malala in the neck of Sulawesi is associated with Pliocene
intrusions with a high component of crustal melt, and is probabl y unrelated to arc magmat i sm
(Van Leeuwen et al., 1994).
Veins associated with porphyr)' systems
Quartz veins with gold and base metals are spatially and probably genetically associated
with porphyry mineralization at Taware, Bulagidun, Tombulilato, and Batu Hijau, but no
significant production is known from veins of this type in Indonesia. Leach and Corbett
( 1993 ) have noted that similar veins elsewhere (e.g., Bingham Canyon) are mesothermal.
Veins of this type within and adjacent to porphyry systems in the Philippines typically have
fluid inclusion homogenisation temperatures of 250 to 350C (Mitchell and Leach, 1991 )
134 J. C. Carlile, A.H.G. Mi t chel l / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 50 (1994) 91-142
and are distinct in nature and genesis from the highly productive low sulphidation epithermal
gold vein systems.
Volcanogenic massive sulphide mineralization
Minor volcanogenic massive sulphide mineralization is known from marine sequences
above probably rifted continental basement at Sangkaropi in South Sulawesi (I. Kavalieris,
pers. commun. , 1993), and is thought to overlie basaits at Bukal in North Sulawesi.
Base metal veins
Numerous veins with base metals occur in Kalimantan, Sumatra and western Java, in
continental margin arcs; they do not contain significant gold.
Metamorphogenic veins
Metamorphogenic quart z-al bi t e-carbonat e-pyri t e veins host a sizeable gold resource at
Awak Mas in South Sulawesi in phyllites that occur above a thrust contact with contorted
blueschists (G. Katchan, pers. commun. , 1993). Minor veins of this type also occur in East
Kalimantan and North Sulawesi.
6. Regi onal control s on mi neral i zati on
6.1. Mineralization and arc magmatism
All the known copper or copper - gol d porphyry, skarn and epithermal deposits in Indo-
nesia lie within andesitic magmatic arcs and all for which evidence is available formed
during or shortly after the magmat i c activity. For each arc the approximate position of a
syn-volcanic trench can be identified. This indicates that the mineralization everywhere
accompanied subduction of ocean floor, and was not post-collision as has been suggested
for Mamut m Sabah (Hutchison, 1989).
Solomon (1990) noted that many porphyry copper - gol d deposits in the New Gui nea-
Philippines region occur preferentially in reversed arcs. He argued that mineralization
required two-stage melting, the first accompanyi ng pre-reversal collision. In Indonesia,
devel opment of all Neogene arcs, both with and without recognized porphyry deposits, was
preceded by at least one reversal, and therefore a direct genetic link between mineralization
and arc reversal is unlikely. The role of arc reversals in empl aci ng either mafic or tectonised
sedimentary upper basement commonl y present in arcs with low sulphidation epithermal
deposits is discussed above.
The only hydrothermal deposits in Indonesia considered to be unrelated to arc magmat i sm
are the Malala mol ybdenum porphyry deposit in Central Sulawesi, which is probably
collision-related (Kaval i eri s et al., 1992; Van Leeuwen et al., 1994), and the Awak Mas
met amorphogeni c veins in South Sulawesi.
J.C. Carlile, A.H.G. Mitchell/Journal ~ Geochemical Exploration 50 (1994) 91-142 135
6.2. Mineralization and nature of crust
Indonesia's three main porphyry copper-gol d centres, Grasberg, Batu Hijau and Tom-
bulilato, occur respectively in a continental margin arc, a former island arc welded to
Sundaland prior to mineralization, and the north Sulawesi island arc. The main epithermal
veins deposits occur in the western continental segment of the Sunda-Banda arc or the
Central Kalimantan continental arc. Therefore in Indonesia there is no evidence that epith-
ermal or porphyry copper-gold mineralization develops preferentially above island arc
rather than continental crust. On the contrary, Indonesian epithermal deposits are best
developed in continental arcs, possibly due to greater pre-mineral crustal thickening and
subsequent extension, while gold-rich porphyries occur in both island arc and continental
settings. Minor tin in epithermal systems does, however, appear to be confined deposits
formed in continental arcs.
The characteristics of fluids within active geothermal systems in continental rift zones
(e.g., Taupo Volcanic Zone in New Zealand) are significantly different to those associated
with active geothermal systems in volcanic island arc environments ( e.g., Philippines). The
geothermal fluids in active systems in New Zealand are very dilute, have a low gas content,
and may deposit percentages of silver and gold in surface pipes of geothermal wells (Brown,
1986). These systems in continental environments are therefore closely analogous to gol d-
silver epithermal systems. Fluids in the geothermal systems associated with volcanic island
arcs in the Philippines are significantly more saline and have a much higher gas content
than the New Zealand systems, and deposit percentages of copper ( > 10wt%), lead and
zinc in the surface pipework (Mitchell and Leach, 1991), with hundreds of ppm Au and
Ag.
6.3. Mineralization and age of arc
The abundance of major ore bodies and deposits shows a strong relationship to arc age.
In the Cretaceous arcs of Indonesia, no major ore bodies are known, and mineralization is
virtually confined to skarns of which only Muara Sipongi has been mined. Among the
Oligocene to Lower Miocene arcs only the Central Kalimantan arc hosts known ore bodies.
All other deposits and major prospects known in Indonesia are associated with mid-Miocene
to late Pliocene arc magmatism, with most mineralization in the Pliocene.
This age relationship may be explained by erosion as a result of uplift during and following
volcanic activity, probably reflecting magmatic inflation (Hamilton, 1988), and also by
erosion related to orogenic events accompanying post-mineralization arc reversal. Hence,
pre-late Neogene island arcs which have suffered subsequent polarity reversals or collision-
related orogeny, such as the western section of the Sulawesi-East Mindanao arc, and the
Moon-Ut awa arc, tend to be more deeply eroded than those in more stable continental areas
which commonly occur further from the trench, such as the Central Kalimantan arc.
Conversely, the absence of mineralization in Quaternary volcanic rocks reflects limited
erosion, insufficient to unroof the tops of mineralized hydrothermal systems. In Philippine
geothermal systems, the hydrothermal fluid may be as deep as one kilometre when hosted
by high relief Quaternary andesitic volcanoes (Bogie and Lawless, 1987), before flowing
laterally due to the hydraulic gradient.
136 J. C. Carlile. A.H. G. Mitchell~Journal of Geochemical E~ploration 50 (1994) 91-142
It could be argued that the abundance of Neogene deposits indicates an unusually strong
global episode of mineralization rather than erosion of older deposits. However, in the
absence of evidence for increases in magnitude of other geological processes in the ~eogene,
such as magmat i sm and related volcanism, level of erosion remains our preferred me"ehanism
to account for this observation.
6.4. Syn- rni neral i zat i on r egi onal t ect oni cs
There is no evidence for a relationship between the abundance or type of mineralization
and width of the arc-t rench gap. Deposits are associated with both medi um-K suites in the
Central Kalimantan and Medial Irian Jaya arcs and low-K suites in the Sul awesi -East
Mindanao and eastern Sunda-Banda arcs. The presence of mineralization in all the recog-
nized Neogene arcs of Indonesia also indicates that mineralization is independent of the age
of the subducted lithosphere. It probably does not require input from subducted metal-rich
sediments or ore bodies on the downgoing oceanic plate.
It is unlikely that oblique plate convergence, a postulated cause of arc pluton empl acement
in western North America, has controlled magmat i sm and associated mineralization in
Indonesia. Since porphyry type deposits are absent in the western part of the Sunda-Banda
arc and epithermal deposits are no more abundant per length of arc in Sumatra than in west
Java, there is little evidence that the maj or Sumatra transform fault resulted in preferential
mineralization.
Pl at e-scal e tectonics may, however, influence the style of exposed mineralization as
suggested for the eastward change from porphyry copper - gol d to sub-aerial advanced
argillic silica bodies, and submarine gol d- si l ver - bar i t e- base metal mineralization in the
eastern Sunda-Banda arc. This change appears to coincide with a progressively lower syn-
mineralization land surface, and reduced post-mineralization erosion going eastward.
7. C oncl usi ons
This preliminary review of the gold and copper deposits indicates that porphyries are the
maj or source of both gold and copper in Indonesia. Identification of associated magmat i c
arcs and their maj or features helps to explain the geographical distribution of deposits and
shows that all the maj or deposits are arc related. Furthermore, the amount of post-miner-
alization erosion accounts for the increase in abundance of deposits of all types with
decreasing age from the Cretaceous to the Pliocene, and the lack of exposed Quaternary
mineralization.
The review also reveals relationships between the basement geol ogy of arcs or arc
segments and mineralization style. These relationships allow the identification of differences
between the tectonic environments during formation of porphyry copper-gol d, skarn and
high sulphidation deposits on one hand, and major low sulphidation epithermal deposits on
the other (Fig. 15). The inferred stages of arc evolution in which porphyry-t ype deposits
(Fig. 15A) and low sulphidation epithermal gold deposits (Fig. 15B) develop are combi ned
in an overall arc cross-section in (Fig. 16). The distinctive gol d-si l ver-bari t e + base metal
deposits of eastern Indonesia are considered to form in a shallow submarine environment
where acid sulphate fluids, which elsewhere result in high sulphidation mineralization within
sub-aerial volcanic rocks, vent on the sea floor.
J.C. Carlile, A.H.G. Mitchell / Jounzal of Geochemi cal Exploration 50 (1994) 9 I - 142 137
l t I I f
200 km 150 1(30 50 O
MAGMATIC ARC FOREARC OUTER I TRENCH
AND GEANTICLINE BASIN ARC
I
High Sul phidation
Au-Ag-Cu . Low Sul phidation Epithermal Veins
Porphyry = s ,, /
Cu-Au / Sediment Hosted Au
I . ~ ~ Andesitic Marine Sediments 2
~ ; r : ~ .'~,.a. ~ _ ~ / " Volcanlcs [
~ . . ~ . ~ . ' ~ _ ~ v . " . . . . . . . . ~ Sea Level 0 km
- . ~ c - - ~ - ~ r a ~ ~ r ~ l ~ I / / I / / I / i . ~
I / / / / / / ; . j " 8
- I ' / , U ,o
SHALLOW ~ T I O N OFMAGMATIC ARC / / / . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . / / Subducting
~ c ~ . . J t h o s p h e r e
A n d e s i t l c / e a c l t i c ~ Cover
Au Ag Ida + Idase Metals t / / and Sedimentary
0 Vo~canics ] o~ t ~ ~ v ~ ~.J
Fig. 16. Composite schematic cross-section through the Indonesian arc-trench systems showing inferred settings
of the various styles of gold and copper mineralization.
As more information on both arc geology and gold and copper deposits becomes available,
we have no doubt that similar approaches will lead to increasingly sophisticated assessments
of the mineral potential of individual arc systems, as well as progressively more specific
identification of, and selection among, district or prospect scale targets, both in Indonesia
and elsewhere.
Acknowledgements
Numerous colleagues have provided data for this review, including Mike Andrews, Colin
Davies, Geoff Davis, Sumardiman Digdowirogo, John Dow, Rod Jones, George Katchan,
Imants Kavalieris, Graham Kirkegaard, Brian Levet, David Potter, Steve Turner and Theo
van Leeuwen, all of whom we gratefully acknowledge. We thank Don Clarke and Dennis
Taylor who reviewed an early version of the manuscript, and Max Baker, John Dow, Warren
Hamilton, JeffHedenquist, Imants Kavalieris, Jim Lawless, Terry Leach, Theo van Leeuwen
and Noel White who commented on later drafts. We also thank Dr. W. McCourt for kindly
advising us of recent revisions in the stratigraphy of the Barisan Range. Throughout prep-
aration of the paper many discussions have been held with Theo van Leeuwen, whose help
is specially appreciated. The initial manuscript was prepared by Vivien Emery and subse-
138 J. C. Carlile, A.H. G. Mi t chel l ~Journal of Geochemical Exploration 50 (1994) 91- 142
q u e n t v e r s i o n s we r e t y p e d b y Ro o s y a n t i . Di a g r a ms we r e d r a f t e d b y Ma r k C a n n o n s a n d Uu s
Ru s d i y a t a n d t a b l e s a n d p i e c h a r t s we r e p r e p a r e d b y F a u z i Y u s u f .
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