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Available online at

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Case study

Using heritage risk maps as an approach to estimating the threat to

materials of traditional buildings in Tainan (Taiwan)
Ping-Sheng Wu a,∗ , Chun-Ming Hsieh b , Min-Fu Hsu a
a
Department of Architecture, National Cheng Kung University, No.1, University Rd., Tainan 70101, Taiwan
b
Green Building and New Energy Research Center, Tonji University, 1239, Siping Rd., Shanghai, China

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Academic studies concerning how climate influences Asian heritage are rare. The object of this study
Received 29 January 2013 was to utilize the concept of heritage climatology together with a spatial analysis approach that includes
Accepted 16 October 2013 respective climate parameter risks to cultural heritage sites. The study area, Tainan City, Taiwan, is in a
Available online xxx
subtropical zone south of the Tropic of Cancer. Tainan has nearly 300 hundred years of rich history and a
multicultural background. This study used maps to gain information about potential climactic threats to
Keywords: Tainan’s cultural-historical legacy. There are four kinds of map that use ArcGIS to analyse and demarcate
Heritage climate
regions not only by climate parameters but also by risk to heritage. These four types of map are climate
Cultural heritage
Heritage risk
maps, heritage climate maps, heritage maps and heritage risk maps. Climate maps give the short- to
Heritage preservation medium-term general status of the climate in Tainan City and thus served as the foundation of the other
Spatial analysis maps used in this study. Heritage climate maps give data concerning index factors that influence wood
and stone materials. Heritage maps show locations of cultural heritage sites on an administrative map
and categorize them according to their historic value. Heritage risk maps use accumulated calculations
to superimpose the heritage climate map onto the heritage map in order to evaluate the risks to heritage
sites in certain areas and categorize the levels of risk. Heritage sites in mountainous areas generally
need to be protected from heavy rain, whereas downtown city environments, due to the urban heat
island effect, require better protection against heat and cracking. By comparison of our field study results
and climate risk maps, we found that in urban areas wooden materials have a higher risk of structural
cracking, colour fading and bio-degradation, while coastal areas have a higher risk of weathering of stone
materials.
© 2013 Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction and research aims
Three major factors that lead to the degradation of cultural
heritage sites include: (1) the bio-deterioration process, (2) the
exposure of materials to atmospheric deterioration or weather-
ing, and (3) natural and manmade pollution. Hence, the style of
damage and the scale of the degradation process, which is also the
worst negative influence on exterior materials of cultural heritage
sites [1], are determined primarily on the basis of the environ-
ment [2]. As in Europe, cultural heritage in Taiwan is mostly
made of wood or stone materials that are prone to damage due
to natural factors such as physical weathering, rain damage or
man-made factors, such as traffic impacts, the growing tourism
industry, or the burning of fossil fuels. Other factors that might lead
to bad influences on building materials include extreme weather
events such as floods, earthquakes or landslides, or bio-degradation
such as is caused by mold, fungus and insects [3,4]. As a result,
concerning risk preparedness [5] related to cultural heritage, pro-
tective measures and the establishment of monitoring mechanisms
are crucial.
It has been noted that increased attention from international
societies has been placed on the influence of climate on cultural her-
itage since the European Commission 6th Framework Programme
on Research agreed to support a transnational long-term research
project known as the global climate change impact on built her-
itages and cultural landscapes under The Noah’s Ark Project (June,
2004–May, 2007), which focused on predicative research on cli-
matic parameters that may influence stone, marble, wood and other
materials related to cultural heritage [6–8]. A similar concept can
be found in Grossi’s and Brimblecombe’s heritage climatology argu-
ments, in which it was stated:
“Heritage climatology can be seen as the study of the climate
parameters that affect monuments, materials and sites. Focus
on cycles and combinations of meteorological parameters that
relate to material damage [9]”.

∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +886 6 27575753; fax: +886 6 2083973. According to this line of thinking, it can be posited that climate
E-mail address: pswu@mail.ncku.edu.tw (P.-S. Wu). parameter combinations and cycles, such as the freeze-thawing

1296-2074/$ – see front matter © 2013 Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.culher.2013.10.005

Please cite this article in press as: P.-S. Wu, et al., Using heritage risk maps as an approach to estimating the threat to materials of
traditional buildings in Tainan (Taiwan), Journal of Cultural Heritage (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.culher.2013.10.005
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process that leads to the cracking of stones, serve to cause degra-

dation of more than one kind of material of cultural heritage.
Most studies concerning the material damage of heritage avail-
able so far have tended to observe this phenomenon from the
perspective of the influence of anthropogenic air pollution [10–12].
However, consideration must also be taken of the long-term risk
changes in urban environments that are influenced by climate
factors. With long-term urban environment-related statistics avail-
able, different climate parameters can thus be evaluated, with an
overall observation that takes regional characteristics into consid-
eration and further distinguishes the cause of damage according
to material analyses and structural models, such as the cause of
cracking damage on stone rose windows being attributed to the
freeze-thawing process [13]. In the case of wooden materials, risk
of degradation may arise due to mould, which can be lowered if
the relative humidity of the air is low. Risk can also be high due
to a dry environment that leads to structural shrinkage, bending
or even cracking. Hence, in most cases, damage to building materi-
als is caused by multiple climate parameters and thus worsens the
overall degradation.
Academic studies concerning how climate influences the her-
itage in Asia are rare. Hence, using the concept of risk preparedness,
this study recognized the humid and hot weather in Tainan City Fig. 1. Locations of weather monitoring stations.
on the island of Taiwan, which includes geographic characteristics
including plains as well as coastal and mountain areas. This study
intended to utilize the concept of heritage climatology together of a spatial distribution map of climatic information (e.g., climate
with a spatial analysis approach incorporating ArcGIS to demar- map and heritage climate map).
cate regions with respective climate parameter risks to cultural The IDW method calculates every unknown value using the val-
heritage. Further, a cross comparison of the aforesaid demarca- ues of surrounding known spots for weighted calculation, with its
tion of regions and a damage study of heritage in Tainan City was weighted mean evaluated in accordance with distance. The con-
conducted in the hope of transforming relative cultural heritage cept is that any spot with an unknown value will be influenced by
preservative studies to authentic policies in order to assist in the its surrounding known spots according to their distance. If the dis-
prioritization of sustainable maintenance management strategies. tance is large, then the influence is small. This evaluation approach
is commonly adopted in assessing known variants in space, and the
spatial property of this variant has a certain degree of relevance
2. Study area and methods to its distribution and direction, such as temperature and humid-
ity. Information for spots can thus be converted to information for
2.1. Study area surfaces.
After mapping the heritage climate maps, the image layers can
Tainan City is located in southwest Taiwan (121 ◦ E, 23 ◦ N), fac- be reclassified via ArcGIS Spatial Analyst, and a raster calculator can
ing the Taiwan Strait to the west, Mt. Ali to the east, Chiayi County then be used for the final heritage risk maps.
to the north, and Kaohsiung City to the south. With an area of Below, definitions of the maps used in this research are given.
2,191 km2 , the population is around 1.87 million [14]. As Tainan
City is located south of the Tropic of Cancer, it is in the subtropi-
2.2.1. Climate maps
cal zone with a Monsoon and Trade-wind Coastal Climate (Am), in
Climate maps include conventional parameters such as annual
which the summer has a rainy season creating approximately 80%
rainfall, average temperature, and average wind velocity, among
of the annual precipitation, lots of sunshine and an average annual
other weather-related factors. This type of map serves to depict
temperature of 24 ◦ C. The annual average relative humidity is 75%,
the short- to medium-term general status of the climate in Tainan
and the average annual precipitation is 1,570 mm. In addition, with
City and thus was used as the foundation of the other maps used in
nearly 300 hundred years of rich history and a multicultural back-
this study.
ground, heritage in Tainan City includes Dutch architecture made of
Considering the completeness of the statistics provided by
red brick and stone from 1624 when the Dutch colonization began,
weather stations, 16 years (1995-2010) of historic hourly meteo-
traditional southern Fukien architecture mixing wood and brick
rological data were selected for this study, provided by 13 weather
from 1662 when immigrants from China started to come to Tai-
stations in Tainan City and the surrounding areas supervised by the
wan, and also Japanese architecture including various woods, stone,
Central Weather Bureau, including temperature, relative humid-
and washed granolithic tiles and concrete structures from the 1895
ity, rainfall, wind velocity and wind direction. The positions of the
Japanese colonization. In total, there are 175 cultural heritage spots
monitoring stations are shown in Fig. 1:
in Tainan City, which as a result is known in Taiwan as the ‘City of
Culture”.
• downtown (approx. 5000∼13 000 persons/km2 ), including A-1
Tainan Station and A-2 Yongkang Station;
2.2. Methodology • suburbs (approx. 700∼2000 persons/km2 ), including B-1 Xinying
Station, B-2 Jiali Station and B-3 Shanhua Station;
This study uses inverse distance weighting (IDW) in a spatial • countryside (approx. 100∼200 persons/km2 ), including C-1 Qigu
analysis extension of arc GIS9.3, inserting monitor stations into Station, C-2 Tsengwen Station, C-3 Yujing Station and C-4
rasters and setting cell sizes at 100 by 100 meters for the mapping Guanziling Station;

Please cite this article in press as: P.-S. Wu, et al., Using heritage risk maps as an approach to estimating the threat to materials of
traditional buildings in Tainan (Taiwan), Journal of Cultural Heritage (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.culher.2013.10.005
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• counties, including D-1 Chiayi Station, D-2 Puzi Station, D-3

Biaohu Station and D-4 Weather Station.

After obtaining all the data needed, GIS (geographic information

system) maps at different scenarios were developed. By taking the
annual average of the hourly statistics of each climate parameter,
mapping can be conducted via the GIS.

2.2.2. Heritage climate maps

The data used in this study were derived from climate param-
eters and climatological factors that help to form certain heritage
climate maps, especially concerning index factors that influence
wood and stone materials.
In terms of temperature, the surface temperature of building
materials changes due to the absorptivity of solar radiation. Large
temperature differences lead to thermal expansion of building
materials such as stone and wood. Thermal expansion of building
materials induces crackling or ablation and changes in water con-
tent. In addition, as the temperature reaches higher than 30 ◦ C along
with high humidity, bio-deterioration processes will be accelerated
in all materials, while they will be decelerated if the temperature
remains under 4 ◦ C [15].
Further, concerning humidity, damp weather leads to a higher
probability [15] of bio-threats to building materials (e.g., termites
eating wood, growth of fungi, etc.), and causes corrosion of mate-
rials and poor adhesion forces related to mortar or gunite. Changes
in humidity will also lead to deformation of wooden structures and
activation of soluble salts. On the other hand, aridity leads to crack-
ling and weathering of wooden structures or building surfaces.
With longer periods of wetness (with a relative humidity above Fig. 2. Heritage maps.
80%), there is a higher probability that building materials will be
corroded [16,17]. As the distribution map suggests (Fig. 2), most historic spots
Times of relative humidity shifting from above 75.3% to below are located in A-1 (110 spots). As for historical buildings, the distri-
will influence the crystallization of salt (NaCl) in stone materials bution is more even, with 1-2 spots in each district. The structure
and increase the chance of weathering [7]. of the cultural heritage mainly consists of brick, stone, wood and
Wind moves particulates in the air (e.g., sand, sulphate aerosol, concrete. The exterior structural material is mainly stone, while
and sea salt, among other materials) and also accelerates evapora- tiles, bricks and stucco are commonly used on the exterior façades
tion of water in building materials and increases the crystallization of the buildings, and the roofs are made of concrete, copper and
of salts. In addition, wooden buildings with roofs may have a high stone tiles. In the case of traditional buildings, wooden structures
chance of losing parts under conditions in which there is a strong are common. The selection of preferred structures for observation
wind. and comparison of damage included surfaces without manmade
In addition, wind-driven rain hits building surfaces. Rain that is damage and access by humans.
supposed to fall vertically is moved by wind and hits the vertical
façades of buildings with horizontal weight [17]. Other influences 2.2.4. Heritage risk maps
of rain include infiltration and freeze damage resulting from water To produce the heritage risk map, first, it is necessary to assess
accumulated in porous materials, weathering resulting from water- the impacts of the climate parameters, which are derived from the
influenced salt changes, and stains on surfaces resulting from water heritage climate maps, on building materials. Using the equal inter-
marks. Also, heavy rain in a short period of time will lead to val method, the results of the evaluation were sorted into four levels
corrosion of surfaces and structural deterioration, and roofs and from low to high. Second, using the natural break method, heritage
downspouts have a load capacity for bearing strong, heavy rain risk maps were produced by superimposing the aforementioned
occurring in a short time period. heritage climate maps. Furthermore, heritage risk maps were cat-
egorized into high, intermediate, medium and low risk to evaluate
2.2.3. Heritage maps the risks to specific materials (e.g., wood and brick) from each cul-
Via the GIS, cultural heritage sites in Tainan City are marked tural heritage site that are prone to deterioration in each district in
on an administrative map and categorized according to their his- Tainan City. The results can serve to inform administration bureaus
toric value. Data needed for documentation included: (1) type and in each district regarding general risk pattern information for cul-
code of historic spots, (2) name, (3) position, (4) X and Y National tural heritage in specific administrative areas.
Grid coordinates, (5) exterior structural material, including each
part and position, (6) picture of current status, (7) historic infor- 3. Results and discussion
mation, and (8) the current use of that historic spot. By inputting
this data into the GIS, private case searches and comparisons can 3.1. Climate map results
be conducted.
This study focused on 175 tangible cultural heritage sites as According to the hourly data from weather stations, an average
defined by the government in the plains, costal and mountain areas climate map for the past 16 years was mapped (Fig. 3). It can be seen
of Tainan City, including historical sites (22 first ranked sites and that the average temperature of Tainan City gradually decreases
103 second/third ranked sites) and historic relics (45 spots). from the west coastal areas to the east mountain areas (a), and the

Please cite this article in press as: P.-S. Wu, et al., Using heritage risk maps as an approach to estimating the threat to materials of
traditional buildings in Tainan (Taiwan), Journal of Cultural Heritage (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.culher.2013.10.005
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Fig. 3. Climate maps presenting (a) annual average temperature (◦ C) and (b) annual average relative humidity (%).

annual average humidity is around 75% (b). Concerning the annual
accumulated precipitation, the east mountain area has a greater
amount, which gradually decreases in the coastal areas. As for the
annual average wind velocity, higher speeds are found in the coastal
areas, as the terrain is flat and is subjected to sea breezes for long
periods of time. The average wind velocity can reach up to 4 m/s,
while in the east mountain areas, due to more hindrance (from
woods and higher ground), the wind velocity is lower. The majority
of monitored annual average winds are from the North, and winds
from the NNE direction are the second most frequent (Table 1).
3.2. Results of heritage climate maps
According to different climate conditions and their impact on
heritage, based on the 1995-2010 climate data, it can be seen that
there are 50 days with annual temperatures exceeding 30 ◦ C in
coastal area B-2 (as in Fig. 4a); but closer to the mountain areas (C-2,
C-4), the number of days with high temperatures is less than 5. C-1
has a higher wind velocity, and the number of hours with an annual
wind velocity exceeding 3 m/s reaches 5000 hours, roughly around
208 days (as in Fig. 4b). As for wind-driven rain (m×mm/s×year),
C-1 in the coastal area demonstrates the highest statistics at 8903,
but the statistics reduce closer to mountainous areas (C-2, C-4), to
roughly around 2000-3000. In the case of high relative humidity
(>80%), B-3 has the highest result, exceeding 130 days, while other
areas are below 80 days. There are over 600 times when the rela-
tive humidity falls below 75.3% in all areas other than in C-1 and
A-1, which experience such changes over 700 times. Finally, heavy
rainfall occurs more in mountainous areas (C-2, C-4) (Table 2).
3.3. Results of heritage climate risk maps
3.3.1. Wood materials
The heritage risk map focusing on wooden materials superim-
poses five heritage climate maps (including maps for accumulated
days with temperatures of over 30 ◦ C in a year, accumulated
hours with wind velocity exceeding 3 m/s in a year, wind-driven
rain, accumulated days with relative humidity exceeding 80%
in a year and accumulated days with precipitation exceeding
50 mm in a year) and the heritage map (Fig. 5) for analy-
sis.
This map denotes the high-risk areas to be A-1, B-2 and B-
3; intermediate risk areas to be A-2 and C-1; the medium risk
area to be C-3; and low risk areas to be B-1, C-2 and C-4. A-1,
which is situated in a high-risk area, has the highest density of
cultural heritage sites under consideration, as it was developed
earlier and is also in the centre of the city. As it is near coastal
areas, subjected to sea winds, and is in an area with a high build-
ing density and thus is under heavy influence from the urban heat
island effect, this area exhibits higher temperatures than any other
area. A-1 has 1 month when its temperature exceeds 30 ◦ C, and
its wind velocity can also reach 3 m/s, hence resulting in wind-
driven rain that places wooden buildings under weather-related
risks. As for the relative humidity in A-1, although days with rela-
tive humidity over 80% are fewer than those found in mountainous
areas, there are still 2∼3 months in a year when this area has
high humidity, causing bio-deterioration of wooden structures.
Water accumulated inside materials leads to structural degrada-
tion and makes the structure further prone to deterioration. In
addition, in summer, due to the influence of the monsoon sea-
son and typhoons, heavy rain fall within short periods of time
occurs frequently, hence decreasing the load limit of the wooden
surfaces of buildings. Weakened wooden surfaces become less
resistant to damage by rain, and surface paint tends to peel off as a
result.
For example, the Tainan Mayoral Residence (1901) (A-1) is
located in a high-risk area in the cultural heritage climate risk
map for wooden materials. With the impact of the climate, damage
includes fragmentation of wood, destruction of exterior surfaces
due to climbing plants, mottled surfaces due to the air drying

Table 1
Yearly average meteorological data for the selected 16 years.

Area A-1 A-2 B-1 B-2 B-3 C-1 C-2 C-3 C-4

Tainan Yongkang Xinying Jiali Shanhua Qigu Cengwen Yujing Guanziling

Average temperature (◦ C) 24.4 24.4 23.5 24.0 23.8 24.3 23.4 23.4 21.1
Average wind velocity (m/s) 3.0 2.8 1.5 2.4 2.2 4.5 0.7 0.4 0.4
Average rainfall (mm) 1533 1811 1870 1489 1728 1480 2860 2388 3074
Average humidity (%) 75.3 73.4 74.5 73.5 77.7 71.1 74.6 75.2 73.7
Average wind direction N N N N N NNE N W NNW

Please cite this article in press as: P.-S. Wu, et al., Using heritage risk maps as an approach to estimating the threat to materials of
traditional buildings in Tainan (Taiwan), Journal of Cultural Heritage (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.culher.2013.10.005
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Fig. 4. Cultural heritage climate maps. a: accumulated days when the temperature is over 30 ◦ C in the year; b: accumulated hours when the wind velocity exceeds 3 m/s in
the year.

Table 2
Climate characteristics of heritage sites in all weather stations during the 16 years studied.

Area A-1 A-2 B-1 B-2 B-3 C-1 C-2 C-3 C-4

Climate Characteristics Tainan Yongkang Xinying Jiali Shanhua Qigu Cengwen Yujing Guanziling

Days with a temperature above 30 ◦ C in a year. 29 15 4 50 3 22 1 0 0

Hours with a wind velocity exceeding 3 m/s in a year 4129 3234 1339 3251 3234 5592 1027 300 329
Days with a relative humidity exceeding 80% in a year 77 66 71 60 133 35 75 90 63
Times of relative humidity falling below 75% in a year 780 668 663 720 644 772 683 680 685
Wind-driven rain (m/s × mm × year) 6964 5974 4545 5833 5974 8903 3679 2219 2376
Times of total rainfall exceeding 50 mm within 24 hrs in 9 10 8 9 10 8 15 13 17
a year
Times of total rainfall exceeding 130 mm within 24 hrs 2 3 2 1.5 2 2 3 3 3
in a year

Fig. 5. Heritage climate risk maps for wooden materials.

Please cite this article in press as: P.-S. Wu, et al., Using heritage risk maps as an approach to estimating the threat to materials of
traditional buildings in Tainan (Taiwan), Journal of Cultural Heritage (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.culher.2013.10.005
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Fig. 6. Heritage climate risk maps for stone materials.

process, peeling paint, and termites, among other structural and
cosmetic hazards. The Ancestral Hall of the Wang’s (1923) (A-1)
is influenced by the climate as well, including the fragmentation
of wood and surface weathering. As for the Ancient House of the
Huang’s (1923) (B-1), damage includes surface paint peeling off,
weathering and termites.
3.3.2. Stone materials
The heritage risk map focusing on stone materials superim-
poses five cultural heritage climate maps (including maps for
accumulated hours with a wind velocity exceeding 3 m/s in a year,
wind-driven rain, times when the relative humidity falls below
75.3% in a year, accumulated days with precipitation exceeding
130 mm in a year) and the cultural heritage map for analysis
(Fig. 6).
The high-risk areas on this map include areas A-1, B-2, B-3 and
C-1; the intermediate risk area is A-2; the medium risk area is C-3;
and the low risk areas include B-1, C-2 and C-4. The weathering
of stone materials is highly related to wind and wind-driven rain,
especially in coastal areas such as C-1, where the annual average
wind velocity exceeds 4 m/s as compared to 3 m/s in A-1. If stone
materials are porous and have a low density, they will then have a
lower ability to resist force and have less hardness, hence decaying
faster when exposed to either sunshine or rain. Torrential rainfall
within a short period of time (accumulated precipitation reach-
ing 130 mm within 24 hours) will also lead to the weathering of
stone. With a relative humidity less than 75.3%, soluble salts in
the pores of stone will begin the crystallization process (Fig. 6).
With a constant shifting of relative humidity around 75%, cracks
appear easily in stone and decrease the density of stone materi-
als.
Relative examples include cases as follows: Tainan Prefecture
Hall (1916) (A-1) is located in the high-risk area in this cultural
heritage climate risk map for stone materials. With the influence
of climate, damage results from salt crystallization, moss accumu-
lation, staining of wall surfaces and indentations due to surface
weathering. The Screen Wall of Wan Fu Convent (1806) (A-1),
which is located in the high-risk area of this map, exhibits dam-
age such as peeling paint and mottled surfaces. As for the Houbi
Station (1903) (B-1), surface paint is peeling off due to the impact
of the climate.
4. Conclusions
Studies concerning the influence of the climate on heritage in
Asia so far are still under development. Based on a risk preparedness
concept, this study recognized different damage types on materials
brought by climate parameters with a particular focus on regional
differences. From the climate point of view, it was noticed that
heavy rain in mountainous areas causes more damage to materials
than it does in the plains. As a result, heritage sites in mountain-
ous areas should be protected more from heavy rain. Because in
downtown city environments, due to the urban heat island effect,
the temperature is relatively higher than in suburban areas, better
protection against heat and cracking is needed for urban her-
itage sites. As for heritage in coastal areas, due to strong winds
and wind-driven rain, protective approaches for wind-proofing
and rain-splashing should be prioritized. Further, the high rela-
tive humidity is a concern for all areas. Microorganisms, plants
and fungi are commonly found, and due to the invasion of their
roots and hypha, inner structures are prone to serious damage. In
addition, concerning different materials, from a comparison of our
field study results and the climate risk map, it was noted that in
urban areas, wooden materials tend to have a higher risk of struc-
tural cracking, colour fading and bio-degradation, while a higher

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risk of weathering of stone materials is found more in coastal
areas.
Acknowledgments
This research was financially supported by the Bureau of Cul-
tural Heritage, Ministry of Culture of Taiwan.
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