Journal of Cultural Heritage 46 (2020) 207–217

Available online at

ScienceDirect
www.sciencedirect.com

Original article

Spatial variability of aerosols over Greek archaeological sites using

Space-Borne Remote Sensing
Arezina Sakka a , Evangelos Gerasopoulos b,c,∗ , Eleni Liakakou b,c ,
Iphigenia Keramitsoglou d , Nikolaos Zacharias a
a
University of the Peloponnese, Department of History, Archaeology & Cultural Resources Management, 24100 Kalamata, Greece
b
National Observatory of Athens, Institute for Environmental Research and Sustainable Development, 15236 P. Penteli, Athens, Greece
c
Navarino Environmental Observatory, Costa Navarino, Navarino Dunes, 24001 Messenia, Greece
d
National Observatory of Athens, Institute for Astronomy, Astrophysics, Space Applications & Remote Sensing, 15236 P. Penteli, Athens, Greece

i n f o a r t i c l e A b s t r a c t

Historique de l’article : Twenty-one archaeological sites in Greece were selected to study their exposure to particulate pollution,
Reçu le 6 janvier 2020 in terms of aerosol loading and chemical type, to infer on the potential impact on the structural mate-
Accepté le 9 juillet 2020 rials (specifically stone) of the monuments, using Space-Borne Remote Sensing instruments, MODIS and
Disponible sur Internet le 15 August 2020
CALIPSO. The analysis revealed three geographical distributed clusters, with higher loads in the northern
Greece, slightly lower values in the south-east corner of Greece and finally the lower values over an area
Keywords : that transverses Greece from its NW to its SE corners, with differences spanning from 15 to 20%. The most
Cultural heritage
dominant aerosol types in terms of occurrence were polluted dust (38%) followed by dust (28%), together
Monument
Stone
accounting for on average 66% of the time, while the sites located on islands showed increased exposure
Aerosol to clean marine aerosol (in the order of 25%). Polluted continental aerosol increased over continental
Air pollution areas at the north and west parts of Greece, while smoke contribution was as high as 35% in specific
Dust sites. Three distinct seasonal patterns were also revealed with respect to aerosol loadings, a summer
Smoke maximum cycle in the north part of Greece, a spring maximum along an arc-like path from the west
Remote sensing coastline towards the southern parts of Greece and a spring and summer plateau in different parts of the
MODIS Greek territory. During the last decade, an important decrease in aerosol levels was observed (on average
CALIPSO
15 ± 6% per decade), attributed to effective controlling and mitigating measures in Europe. In conclusion,
Preventive conservation
the exposure of antiquities to aerosols in Greece, varies in time, seasonal intensification and chemical
type, thus continuous monitoring of particulate pollution over cultural heritage (CH) sites is imperative
to support the selection and design of appropriate measures in the field of preventive conservation of
monuments, in order to mitigate corrosion and avoid further damage.
© 2020 Les Auteurs. Publié par Elsevier Masson SAS. Cet article est publié en Open Access sous licence
CC BY (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

1. Introduction pollution phenomena [1]. This process of deterioration by external

Cultural heritage (CH) monuments and sites are constantly
exposed to a multitude of environmental factors and the envi-
ronment in which monuments are located plays an important
role on their long-term preservation. Building materials weather
progressively in the natural environment and many factors may
accelerate this procedure (e.g. air pollution). Materials degrade not
only nearby high emission areas but also in unpolluted conditions,
as a result of a combined natural aging processes and transported
∗ Corresponding author at: National Observatory of Athens, Institute for Environ-
mental Research and Sustainable Development, 15236 P. Penteli, Athens, Greece.
Adresse e-mail : egera@noa.gr (E. Gerasopoulos).
environmental factors is a multi-dimensional interaction of clima-
tic, biological and chemical processes, resulting from the impact of
contaminants and natural elements of the surrounding setting [2].
Air pollution, and specifically aerosols, is a principal environmen-
tal factor amongst others (moisture, temperature, solar radiation,
precipitation, chemical and biochemical attack) that influence CH
materials [3].
Aerosol is of major importance as a constituent of the Earth’s
atmosphere and has major impacts on climate, human health,
ecosystems, and materials [4]. They are found in solid or liquid
form in suspension in the atmosphere and they can block sun-
light via absorption or scattering. The amount of these particles
in the atmospheric column is quantified by an optical measure, the
Aerosol Optical Depth (AOD) or Aerosol Optical Thickness (AOT)

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.culher.2020.07.001
1296-2074/© 2020 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Masson SAS. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
208 A. Sakka et al. / Journal of Cultural Heritage 46 (2020) 207–217
[5]. It is a dimensionless quantity that measures, usually verti-
cally, the extinction of solar radiation by aerosols [6,7]. Atmospheric
aerosols can have very complex chemical composition due to the
various sources and transformations they undertake [8]. Sulphates,
nitrates, ammonium, organic material, crustal species, sea salt,
metal oxides and hydrogen ions are among the species compo-
sing aerosols of different particle sizes [9,10]. The aforementioned
substances, which consist a polluted atmosphere, combined with
various external environmental factors, like humidity and tempe-
rature, affect the structural materials of CH monuments [11].
Aerosols are continuously present in the atmosphere in quite
variable concentrations, due to the very large heterogeneity of their
sources and their moderately short residence time. They are trans-
ported by winds, so continental aerosol can be seen over oceans
and vice versa, marine aerosol over land. Their spatial and tem-
poral variability depends on the distribution of sources and sinks
from local to regional and global scales and transport processes. Dry
and wet deposition are the two major sinks of aerosols [10]. The
presence of aerosol in Greece may vary significantly in space and
time. Northern Greece is mainly influenced by long and mid-range
transport from Eastern Europe and the Balkan countries, princi-
pally during summertime, as well as from local sources [12]. In the
southern parts of the country, the frequency of dust transportation
from N. Africa, mainly during the transition seasons (spring and
autumn) is well documented, whereas in urban areas local pollu-
tion is superposed over regional background [13]. In coastal areas,
the occurrence of marine aerosol (can be classified as primary, deri-
ved from the mechanical process of bubble bursting, and secondary,
derived through ocean emission of precursor biogenic VOCs) in the
form of sea spray, mobilized by winds, is also widely evidenced
[14–18].
There are limited studies dealing with the effect of specific
aerosol types on cultural heritage monuments. The interest of the
scientists has been mainly concentrated in basic gaseous pollutants
(e.g. SO2 , NOx), which are however precursors of specific aerosol
components. Most of the studies are focused on urban sites and the
identification and formation of black crusts or on marine areas and
the investigation of salts’ crystallization on stone surfaces. A new
analytical method of the chemical composition of powder deposits
on the dolomitic stone used in the Richini courtyard, a masterpiece
of Lombard Baroque, placed in Milan [19], supports the fact that
in urban environments, EC (elemental carbon) is one of the main
particles responsible for the blackening of the surfaces and the for-
mation of black crusts [20], studying the marbles of the Demeter
Sanctuary in Eleusis, Greece, demonstrated that particles contai-
ning Si, Fe, Al and Cu explain the rusty-yellow color of washed-out
marble surfaces, and fly ash particles play significant role on surface
encrustations. The presence of non-carbonate carbon (NCC) aero-
sols and their role on surface blackening and soiling has been the
subject of investigation at the Florence Baptistery [21]. The wea-
thering mechanism of marbles, granites and sandstones exposed
to marine environments has been the focus of two studies, one
at Delos archaeological site, where dissolution and crystallization
of salts, occurring in cycles, was shown [22], and the other at the
sandstone surfaces of the Medieval Wall in Rhodes [23].
Stone, as the principal structural element of monuments, is the
main concern of scientists regarding air pollution impacts. There
are many studies that demonstrate that the main deterioration
pattern of stones due to aerosol action is the formation of crusts
(Table 1) [24,25]. Crusts are formed via reactions of materials with
air pollutants deposited on their surface, and their composition and
form differs depending on the type of the stone, the composition of
airborne particles and the climate of the area [26–28]. The mecha-
nisms of stone deterioration also differ according to the attacking
aerosol or precursor agent. Sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, and car-
bon dioxide are capable of dissolving in water and creating an acidic
Table 1
Types of crust according to their composition and environment.
Types of crust Formation
Black crusts • Hard black crust Gypsum, recrystallized
(cities/industrial • Loose particulate deposit calcium carbonate,
areas) carbon particulate
matter (sheltered
areas).
Carbonaceous Salts deposit in the surface
crusts (natural from the interior. Integration
environment) of elemental and biological
particles.
Salt crusts Soluble salts (presence of high
salt levels) formed by wet and
dry cycles.
solution which reacts with calcareous materials (CaCO3 ) to pro-
duce gypsum. The repeated deposition of gypsum and the formed
porous crust has little or no attachment to the stone and as a result
the stone exfoliates [25,28,29]. If the stone is exposed, the reaction
products are washed away with rain and the surface of the stone
progressively recedes, but if the stone is in a moderately sheltered
position, the reaction products accumulate and form dense black
crusts. Sea spray, salt solutions of marine origin, are transferred by
the wind and deposited on vertical surfaces. Containing chloride
acids and fly ashes they are amongst the most destructive particles.
The growth of salt crystals and their evaporation within the pores
of a stone, generates stresses that are sufficient to turn the stone
into a powder (crystallization) [15,25]. On the other hand, dust par-
ticles have no direct impact on the stone, but may have harmful
mechanical effects through abrasion (gradual loss of material of
the surface by the constant exposure to environmental elements)
and soiling (surface blackening which reduce the artistic appeal,
caused by alterations, deposition and biological colonization) [30].
Dust particles may also carry corrosive chemicals (e.g. sulphates,
nitrates and chlorides) through c̈oatingp̈rocesses, which create an
oxidative environment on the surface of the stone [2,28,31]. In
general, atmospheric particles and dust play a catalytic role, acting
as a transitional layer for the deposition of air pollutants and for
the subsequent chemically reactions.
The systematic monitoring of air quality is a requirement in
most of the heritage conservation plans, since CH monuments and
sites are constantly endangered by both anthropogenic and natural
threats (e.g. earthquakes, floods, fires, urbanization) [32,33]. Howe-
ver, in relation to other environmental parameters such as humidity
and temperature, air pollution is less often monitored [34]. Satellite
remote sensing applications on ambient air quality investigation
has dramatically evolved over the last decade and satellite data can
be efficiently used to monitor air pollution and its potential effects
[35], opening up new horizons also for the science of archaeo-
logy. However, relevant studies are limited and mainly focus on
urban areas [33–37]. Despite the fact that satellite remote sensing
is an expensive technique for mapping small areas and requires
specialized training for analyzing data [38], it may prevail over
other conventional methods due to the frequency and quickness of
data acquisition over large areas. Moreover, remote sensing tech-
nologies, as innovative, non-destructive techniques, have shown a
great potential for the monitoring and protection of monuments
and sites, facilitating systematic data and information gathering
[39,40]. The identification of polluted cultural heritage sites and
the documentation of the way cultural heritage sites is affected by
air pollution, as seen from space, is still limited. The knowledge of
aerosol types and their concentration in the atmosphere, combined
with their known effect on materials, can undoubtedly contribute
to better understanding the corrosion mechanisms of materials and
hence to the most suitable selection of conservation strategies.
 A. Sakka et al. / Journal of Cultural Heritage 46 (2020) 207–217 209

2. Research aim Table 2

Basic statistics of AOD observations for all the archaeological sites of interest
(monthly average values for the time period 2002–2016).
The present work attempts to shed light on the potential
contribution of remote sensing on understanding the ambient envi- Avg Stdev Min Max Median
ronment that affects cultural heritage values at risk. The loading 1MR 0.217 0.058 0.095 0.410 0.219
and type of aerosols, their geographical distribution, their seaso- 2AV 0.216 0.062 0.087 0.368 0.216
nality, and trends during the last fifteen years over Greece, were 3FL 0.174 0.088 0.038 0.434 0.161
4WT 0.247 0.088 0.069 0.453 0.239
used as proxies of the exposure of well-known CH monuments
5VR 0.219 0.086 0.060 0.410 0.218
and sites spread in the Hellenic territory. The study of the impact 6LS 0.185 0.079 0.039 0.378 0.186
of aerosols on ancient and historical monuments, using Space- 7DD 0.205 0.082 0.064 0.396 0.203
Borne Remote sensing, is a relatively new direction in the field 8NC 0.187 0.072 0.062 0.372 0.180
9MS 0.200 0.052 0.105 0.332 0.197
of CH science. Unambiguously, it can serve as a useful instrument
10PL 0.204 0.057 0.094 0.347 0.206
to better understand chemical weathering mechanisms of mate- 11DE 0.186 0.071 0.055 0.346 0.186
rials, enforcing decision making towards efficient antipollution and 12AC 0.201 0.054 0.088 0.333 0.206
preventive conservation measures, targeting at mitigating further 13MC 0.180 0.056 0.072 0.333 0.178
formation of deterioration patterns, in a geospatially disaggregated 14OL 0.199 0.055 0.092 0.331 0.197
15IR 0.198 0.047 0.100 0.342 0.196
manner.
16ME 0.190 0.058 0.077 0.350 0.189
17DL 0.191 0.048 0.099 0.373 0.183
18ST 0.187 0.046 0.097 0.326 0.183
3. Materials and methods
19RH 0.203 0.056 0.090 0.353 0.207
20FS 0.204 0.053 0.109 0.376 0.204
Twenty-one archaeological sites in Greece (Table S1, Fig. 1) were 21KN 0.200 0.049 0.095 0.314 0.200
selected to study their exposure to particulate air pollution and
the potential impact on the structural materials of the monuments,
using Space-Borne Remote Sensing. Table S1 (see Supplementary On the other hand, CALIPSO is a LIDAR mission developed by
material online) contains the examined archaeological sites, their NASA and it mostly aims to improve the understanding of the role
geographical designation and their main building material [41–52]. that clouds and atmospheric aerosols play in regulating the Earth’s
The selection of the CH sites was based on the following criteria: climate and air quality, by providing the vertical structure and pro-
perties of aerosols [58–60]. CALIPSO data are available through the
• Full and dense geographical coverage of Greece in latitude and LIVAS (Lidar climatology of Vertical Aerosol Structure) project that
longitude, to obtain a representative picture at the national level, provides a global and extensive aerosol and cloud optical database
• Acquisition and study of data for different environmental [61,62]. In particular, the LIVAS climatology is a three-dimensional
conditions, with emphasis on the micro-climate and dominant global aerosol and cloud optical database, based on CALIPSO obser-
pollution sources, namely urban, remote and coastal sites, vations at 532 and 1064 nm. The final LIVAS global dataset includes
• Constant exposure to the external environmental conditions, time-averaged CALIPSO/CALIOP observations on a uniform grid of
• Historical and archaeological significance of the monuments. 1◦ × 1◦ horizontal resolution and with the original vertical resolu-
tion of CALIPSO [63]. In the framework of the present study, LIVAS
mean extinction coefficient profiles at 532 nm are implemented,
Two satellite remote sensing instruments were used to map air
for the LIVAS classified aerosol-subtypes [64].
pollution over the areas of interest, MODIS (Moderate Resolution
It is noted here that the resolution of 1◦ × 1◦ provided by GIO-
Imaging Spectro – radiometer) for the period 2002–2016 (14 years)
VANNI and LIVAS does not allow for explicit information extraction
and CALIPSO (Cloud-Aerosol Lidar and Infrared Pathfinder Satellite
over urban centers (3 out of 21 sites in this study), however it
Observation) for the partially overlapping period of 2008–2011 (4
has been used here for homogeneity purposes with respect to
years).
remote/rural sites, and also to promote ready to use, universal
In the present study, the Aerosol Optical Depth at 550 nm obtai-
approaches, versus demanding retrievals of raw data that is not
ned by MODIS has been processed. MODIS, flying onboard the
yet automated.
Terra and Aqua polar-orbit satellites, provides columnar AODs
at high accuracy [53,54] and due to its wide viewing swath,
a global coverage is achieved almost on a daily basis. AOD is 4. Results
derived via the implementation of different retrieval algorithms
applied over vegetated land and maritime areas, relying on the 4.1. Exposure of CH monuments to aerosol levels and types:
Dark Target (DT) approach [55] with varying assumptions depen- general characteristics
ding on the underlying surface type, as well as over deserts
and low-covered vegetated surfaces, relying on the Deep Blue Satellite based, times series of AOD monthly average values,
(DB) approach [56]. Here, the monthly MODIS-Aqua DT AOD550 for the time period 2002–2016 from MODIS and vertical pro-
data, derived by the latest version (Collection 6.1, C061) of files of aerosols types from CALIPSO, averaged for the time span
the applied retrieval algorithms and available at 1◦ × 1◦ spatial 2008–2011, were produced. In Figs. 2 and 3, selected sites are
resolution (Level 3, L3), has been utilized. The aforementioned presented being indicative of the geographical coverage and of
dataset has been acquired through GIOVANNI (Goddard Interactive different types (or combination of types) of aerosol (e.g. higher
Online Visualization and Analysis Infrastructure) web application percentage occurrence), respectively.
(http://giovanni.gsfc.nasa.gov/giovanni/), developed by the GES Basic statistics for all the sites are included in Table 2. The
DISC (NASA Goddard Earth Sciences Data and Information Ser- geographical distribution of the average AOD values reveals the
vices Center), which provides a simple way to explore interactively, existence of specific patterns in exposure. In particular, the inten-
visualize and analyze vast amounts of atmospheric data from satel- sity of exposure to particulate pollution is higher in north Greece
lites. Data derived from MODIS observations through GIOVANNI (average 0.225 ± 0.015, Maronia, Avdira, White Tower, Vergina).
can be used also by non-experts to study processes and trends on The next distinct cluster reveals slightly lower values in south
local to global scales [57]. Greece (average 0.202 ± 0.002, Falassarna, Knossos, Rhodes). Simi-
210 A. Sakka et al. / Journal of Cultural Heritage 46 (2020) 207–217

Fig. 1. Map of Greece indicating the location of each site followed by its code name (see Table S1). The seasonality (color of the large boxes) and the dominant aerosol types
(color of the internal squares) are also presented, shorted vertically according to their percentage of occurrence. The codes of the aerosol types in the label correspond to
clean marine (CM), dust (D), polluted continental (PC), clean continental (CC), polluted dust (PD) and smoke (S). (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure
legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

lar values are found in the central-north Aegean Sea (average
0.200 ± 0.003, Sanctuary of Messa, Palamari, Ireon), which toge-
ther with the previous cluster cover the south-east corner of Greece.
Finally, two more clusters are formed, one with sites in Peloponnese
and Cyclades (Olympia, Messene, Delos, Ancient Thira) with values
in the range 0.186–0.203, and another in west and central Greece
(Dodoni, Larissa, Nicopolis, Delphi, Mycenae, Acropolis) with values
in the range 0.180–0.0.199. Again, these two clusters constitute an
area that transverses Greece from its NW to its SE corners. The dif-
ference of those less polluted clusters from those which exhibit the
highest levels at the north is in the order of 15–20%.
In Table S2, the aerosol subtype occurrence for each archaeolo-
gical site is presented. In general, the most dominant aerosol type is
polluted dust (38%) followed by dust (28%). As expected, the higher
contributions of clean marine aerosol (in the order of 25% or higher
compared to the average of 11%) are encountered in sites located
at islands in the Aegean Sea, including Crete island, unless ano-
ther aerosol type is extensively dominant to mask the contribution
of marine sea salt. Over the same geographical area, the highest
percentages of dust (in the range 30–40%) are also revealed, cha-
racteristic of the southernmost sites of this analysis (Falassarna,
Knossos, Rhodes), where the most intense impact of Saharan dust
is found. This is also the case in the central Aegean, probably reflec-
ting the significant contribution of dust to such a relatively pristine
environment. Polluted continental aerosol is observed on average
during 8% of the time, with maximum values over continental areas
at the north and west parts of Greece, where continental pollution
mainly from central Europe and the Balkans takes place [65]. Clean
continental aerosol is the less frequently occurring aerosol type
with an average of 2% occurrence. The highest polluted dust occur-
rence is bounded at the sites in northern Greece, ranging within
40–50%, while 3 more sites (Mycenae, Ireon and Rhodes) also suf-
fer from high contributions, probably due to mixtures of dust and
pollution received from urban agglomerations (like Athens and Tur-
kish cities e.g. Izmir) located upwind from the sites. Finally, smoke,
which appears on average during 12% of the time, can reach contri-
butions more than 20% (mostly in central-west Greece) and up to
35%, the latter in the case of Filippoi.
4.2. Seasonal patterns of exposure
In order to study the seasonality of aerosol loadings, plots of
the AOD monthly averaged values were created for each site (not
shown) and distinct annual patterns were revealed with maximum
values observed mostly during summer or spring. After cluste-
ring the sites according to the season when the maximum value
was found, three distinct patterns were formed: a seasonal cycle
with summer maximum, a seasonal cycle with spring maximum
and a cycle forming a plateau during spring and summer (denoted
as SUM MAX, SPR MAX and SPR-SUM MAX respectively in Fig. 1).
Sites falling within the same pattern were aggregated and the ave-
 A. Sakka et al. / Journal of Cultural Heritage 46 (2020) 207–217
Fig. 2. Time series of area averaged Aerosol Optical Depth at 550 nm for land (corrected): monthly MODIS-Aqua DT AOD550 data, derived by the latest version (Collection
6.1, C061) over July 2002–June 2016.
rage cycles were calculated (Fig. 4). In the SUM MAX cluster, the
maximum value is found in August with about 2.5 times higher
value compared to the winter background level encountered in
December. In Fig. 1, it is shown that these site (red squares) are
located in the north part of Greece (Avdira, Filippoi, White Tower,
Vergina, Larissa) and this summer maximum reflects the trans-
port of pollution from the Balkans and Eastern Europe [65,66],
which is intensified during summer time due the dominance of the
well-established northerly, etesian winds [67,68]. In the SPR MAX
cluster, the maximum is observed during April and it is two-fold the
minimum value, once more encountered in December. The distri-
bution of these sites (green squares in Fig. 1) forms an arc covering
the west coastline and the southern parts of Greece (Nicopolis,
Olympia, Messene, Falassarna, Knossos), these areas being the first
to be exposed to dust outbreaks from N. Africa according to the
three identified pathways of Saharan dust transport over the Eas-
tern Mediterranean [65]. It also covers the Aegean Sea (Ancient
Thera, Sanctuary of Messa, Ireon, Palamari, Delos), including Acro-
polis in Athens, where the relative contribution of dust is still high
in spring. Finally, the remaining cluster SPR-SUM MAX includes
five sites spread in different parts of Greece, from the north, eas-
ternmost (Maronia), to the south, easternmost (Rhodes), and along
211
the main continental axis of Greece (Dodoni, Delphi, Mycenae),
where none of the above two pollution sources does not appear
to be dominant with respect to the control of their seasonality. The
plateau of the values spans the period from April to August, and
only a slight decrease in June is distinguished. As in the case of the
SPR MAX cluster, the maximum to minimum ratio is around 2.
Similarly, the seasonal variation is also depicted in the extinction
vertical distribution of typical sites falling in the different clusters
(Fig. 5). Since the AOD refers to the columnar loading of aerosols
over the sites, in order to infer on the seasonality of monuments’
exposure, one could also look into the near surface aerosol seaso-
nal patterns. However, it should be taken into account that certain
limitations exist when focusing on the analysis near the surface.
The LIVAS vertical resolution within the Planetary Boundary Layer
(PBL) is of 60 m resolution, as it follows CALIPSO Level 2 (L2) aero-
sol and cloud profile products. Considering that the aerosol subtype
classification algorithm is applied to L2 products, no finer vertical
resolution than the 60 m can be achieved, leading to aerosol obser-
vations at heights even closer to the CH sites. Furthermore, the
effort of studying aerosol properties close to the surface is constrai-
ned by several factors, such as (a) the non-ideal recovery of the
CALIOP 532 nm photomultiplier tubes (PMTs) after interaction with
212 A. Sakka et al. / Journal of Cultural Heritage 46 (2020) 207–217

Fig. 3. Vertical column of aerosol type observations (aerosol extinction at 532 nm per type) over the selected monuments (from LIVAS database). (For interpretation of the
references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

Table 3
Seasonal aspects of CH monuments’ exposure.

Code Seasonal maximum

Columnar Near surface

1MR SPR-SUM ALL

2AV SUM SUM*
3FL SUM ALL*
4WT SUM WIN
5VR SUM WIN
6LS SUM WIN
7DD SPR-SUM SPR-SUM-AUT
8NC SPR SPR-SUM-AUT
9MS SPR ALL
10PL SPR WIN
Fig. 4. Annual cycles of AOD at 550 nm (monthly average values for each month
11DE SPR-SUM ALL*
for the period 2002–2016) over the three clusters of sites with similar seasonal
12AC SPR WIN
patterns. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the
13MC SPR-SUM WIN*
reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
14OL SPR WIN
15IR SPR WIN
16ME SPR WIN
17DL SPR WIN-AUT dissipates smoothly above this height and up to about 4 km. Bet-
18ST SPR WIN ween 2 and 4 km the dominance of the summer time aerosol is clear
19RH SPR-SUM AUT and this drives the columnar summer maximum pattern. When loo-
20FS SPR WIN-AUT
king at the 1st km from the surface, the winter component becomes
21KN SPR WIN
more pronounced, which, given the limitations described, indicates
SPR = spring, SUM = summer, AUT = autumn, WIN = winter, ALL = year round, * = spiky the combination of more anthropogenic activities (e.g. residential
profiles.
heating) and a lower mixing height, as a result of colder condi-
tions. This near surface difference is less pronounced at non-urban
strong backscattering targets (e.g. Earth’s surface, Oceans, clouds, sites. With respect to the SPR MAX cluster, the spring columnar
even dense aerosol layers [69]; (b) misclassified gaps of clear-air values appear larger (e.g. Fig. 5b), not necessarily being the case
between Earth’s surface and the base of detected aerosol layers near the surface, where in most of the cases (see Table 3) winter
[70]; (c) layer detection errors due to low Signal-to-Noise Ratio aerosol appears again more dominant, in few cases also together
(SNR) or algorithm classification errors; (d) surface returns; (e) with autumn profiles, always keeping in mind the constraints of
representativeness/weighting effects of the computed climatolo- near surface values retrieval. Finally, the SPR-SUM MAX cluster is
gical profiles due to topographic/orographic effects [61,71]. Table 3 characterized by similar profiles in spring and summer, in most
summarizes the seasonal patterns information at the column and cases there is no seasonal pattern near the surface and spiky profiles
near the surface, for each site. are indicative of the different type of high load events, at several
The SUM MAX cluster, as evident in the case of White Tower heights. Given the significant contribution of Saharan dust mainly
(Fig. 5a), is driven by an elevated mixing layer of aerosol (up to during spring, but also summer, it should be noted that in spring
3 km), and has a relatively homogeneous vertical distribution that time dust transport is evidenced as homogeneous layers travelling
 A. Sakka et al. / Journal of Cultural Heritage 46 (2020) 207–217
Fig. 5. Vertical column of aerosol seasonal observations (aerosol extinction at 532 nm per season) over selected monuments. The digital elevation map (DEM) used by CALIPSO
(LIVAS product), provides the maximum surface elevation over the CALIPSO overpass for the grid cell of interest. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure
legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
from near the surface and up to some height, whereas in sum-
mer the case of elevated dust layers, especially over the south and
central parts of the country, is also observed [72].
4.3. Geographical and temporal trends
In addition to the seasonal patterns of monument’s exposure
to pollution, inter-annual trends and north-south, west-east gra-
dients were also investigated.
In Fig. 6, the average AOD levels are displayed by latitude and
longitude. Taking into account the errors associated with the AOD
levels at each site, Fig. 6a shows clearly that in north and south
Greece there is greater exposure of the sites to aerosols compa-
red to central regions, attributed to two distinct processes and
emission sources in the Eastern Mediterranean. The sites located
in the northern part of Greece are influenced by transported pollu-
tion from the industrialized Central and Eastern Europe (including
the Balkans), while the southern parts are frequently influenced
by dust outbreaks from Saharan desert [65,66,73]. The geogra-
phical overlap of these two distinct influences drives the v-shape
look of the points in Fig. 6a, and two linear regression curves
were fitted to each one of the branches to facilitate the estima-
tion of trends. The trend is in the order of 4% (7%) per degree
latitude, from south (north) to central Greece and this finding is
fully aligned with the three seasonality patterns revealed in Section
4.2.
213
Similarly, Fig. 6b depicts that the western parts present slightly
less exposure to aerosols (in the order of 1% per degree longitude).
This can be attributed to the regional climate differentiation intro-
duced by the Pindos mountain range, which operates as a blockage
for meteorological systems from the west, leading to more rain over
western Greece and thus cleaner atmosphere [74]. On the other
hand, the eastern part is slightly more exposed to aerosol as it is
under the influence of Istanbul’s plume [75,76], but also due to
biomass burning from the Black Sea [65,66].
During the last decade, an important decrease in AOD levels is
observed in most of the sites, as seen in Fig. 7. This is attributed to
measures taken at the European level for controlling and mitigating
aerosol emissions. A negative trend of AODs is observed during the
period of study over the selected Greek sites, on average 15 ± 6%
per decade. The largest decrease is found over Filippoi and Delos
(−25%). Percentage trends higher than 20% per decade present an
uncertainty in the order of 25% (i.e. the trend in Filippoi is 25 ± 6%
per decade), trends in the range 10–20% have an uncertainty in the
order of 30%, and finally trends lower than 10% can have an uncer-
tainty as high as 150%, on average. On top of the general declining
trend over Greece, geographical patterns can be distinguished but
need to be treated with caution given the magnitude of uncertain-
ties. In Fig. 7a, with the exception of Delos, the higher reductions are
observed at the south and north of Greece, where the higher AODs
are also encountered, and in the same line Acropolis also stands
out with a reduction >20%, being situated in a highly urbanized
214 A. Sakka et al. / Journal of Cultural Heritage 46 (2020) 207–217
Fig. 6. Geographical distribution (a. latitude, b. longitude) of AOD annual values for the period 2002–2016 of all sites (excluding cities). The continuous lines are the regression
lines between the data points and the error bars correspond to the standard error of the respective annual AOD means.
area. Similarly, longitude-wise (Fig. 7b) the trends are lower at the
eastern and westernmost parts of Greece (with the exception of
Nicopolis), and markedly the three lowest values are found in east-
north east sites, probably under the influence of emissions from
urban agglomerations in Turkey, potentially reflecting inefficient
mitigation measures.
5. Conclusions and discussion
CH monuments have been exposed to natural components of
pollution (e.g. dust from desert areas) for hundreds to thousands
years now. The anthropogenic pollution has been rising mostly
after the industrial revolution and has been emerging among the
most serious environmental problems of the planet, also giving
rise to climate change due to the emission of Green House Gases
(GHGs). Any instrumental exploration of the exposure of monu-
ments to atmospheric pollution refers to this latter era, when
human’s intervention has been maximized, and the attempts are
driven massively by technological advancements. Satellite remote
sensing has been used in this study to quantify and investigate the
geographical aspects of the exposure of CH materials to particu-
late pollution in Greece, both in terms of absolute exposure and
pollutant type. The intention was an analysis to cover the whole
Greek territory, for long time periods, and to map the background
pollution condition that triggers the respective corrosion mecha-
nisms of monuments, in support of decisions and the design of more
appropriate conservation plans.
The major conclusions are summarized in the following points:
• The exposure of CH monuments to particulate pollution revealed
three geographical distributed clusters, with higher loads in the
northern Greece, slightly lower values in the south-east corner of
Greece and finally the lower values over an area that transverses
Greece from its NW to its SE corners. The difference between the
most and less polluted clusters is in the order of 15–20%, with
pollution from the Balkans and eastern Europe on one hand and
Sahara dust from N. Africa being the main sources of the aerosol
burden.
• The most dominant aerosol types in terms of occurrence are pol-
luted dust (38%) followed by dust (28%), together accounting for
on average 66% of the time. The higher contribution of dust is
encountered in the southernmost sites of this analysis (up to
40%) due to Saharan dust transport, while, as expected, the sites
located in the Aegean Sea islands showed the major exposure to
clean marine aerosol (in the order of 25%). Polluted continental
aerosol makes its presence noticed over continental areas at the
north and west parts of Greece, while in certain sites the average
contribution from smoke can be as high as 35%.
• Three distinct and geographically delimited seasonal patterns
were revealed with respect to aerosol loadings. A summer maxi-
mum cycle (max in August) in the north part of Greece, reflecting
the transport of pollution from the Balkans and Eastern Europe,
a spring maximum (max in April) forming an arc from the west
coastline towards the southern parts of Greece, areas first expo-
sed to dust outbreaks from N. Africa, including parts of the Aegean
Sea, and finally a unimodal cycle with a spring and summer
plateau, spread in different parts of the Greek territory. The maxi-
mum annual values are 2–2.5 times higher compared to the
 A. Sakka et al. / Journal of Cultural Heritage 46 (2020) 207–217
Fig. 7. Negative trends of AODs monthly average values per decade by a. latitude, b. longitude.
minimum; the latter encountered during December. Given the
constraints and uncertainty accompanying the near Earth’s sur-
face retrievals, a constant exposure is found in winter, despite the
minimum columnar values in this season, which is probably indi-
cative of the increased anthropogenic combustion activities this
season and the entrapment of pollution within a lower Planetary
Boundary Layer (PBL).
• During the last decade, an important decrease in aerosol levels is
observed in most of the sites (on average 15 ± 6% per decade),
attributed to effective controlling and mitigating measures in
Europe. The higher reductions are observed where the higher
levels are found (north and south of Greece), with the highly
urbanized site of Acropolis standing out with a reduction >20%.
In a changing environment due to global development, urbani-
zation and climate change, it is imperative that pollution is closely
monitored to evaluate its additive impacts on monuments. Des-
pite the general reduction in anthropogenic aerosol noted in many
parts of the world, known as global brightening [77] and attri-
buted to reduced anthropogenic emissions [78,79], the levels of
particulate pollutants are still considerable and their effect can
be disproportionate to this decrease due to existing deterioration
of the materials and memory effects [28]. Hemispheric or global
scale circulation patterns, such as the North Atlantic Oscillation
(one of the most prominent modes of variability in the Northern
Hemisphere characterized by a meridional displacement of atmos-
pheric mass over the North Atlantic) and El Niño (a major source
of seasonal to interdecadal variability in the global atmosphere),
215
are considered to further affect the Mediterranean by more aero-
sol washout related to higher precipitation. However, the impact
of more precipitation can also have reverse to atmospheric clea-
ning effects, as water presence is a significant proxy for material
corrosion, and the balance between the two processes is not yet
understood.
The contribution of remote sensing techniques for monitoring
the pollution levels and other relevant parameters in a methodical
way and global coverage, is certainly a new and promising field,
especially after the launch of the new generation of Sentinel-5p
satellite. Given the accompanying uncertainties and the limited
spatial resolution (e.g. for urban scales) of the satellite measure-
ments, as well as the spatio-temporal variability of aerosols, the
combination of satellite remote sensing with ground sampling
seems the way forward [80,81], to effectively exploit Earth obser-
vation techniques in Cultural Heritage policies.
The European Union through the European Environment
Agency, collects air quality data (e.g. ‘Air quality in Europe — 2018
report’ EEA report No 12/2018) in an effort to review the progress
made towards meeting the air quality standards. However, a link
between CH sites and environmental factors/pollution remains to
be seen as an established European policy.
The continuous monitoring of particulate pollution over CH sites
can unambiguously support the selection and design of appropriate
measures in the field of preventive conservation of monuments, in
order to avoid further damage. As shown in this study, the expo-
sure of antiquities to aerosols in Greece, varies in time, seasonal
intensification and chemical composition. Given that the basic buil-
216 A. Sakka et al. / Journal of Cultural Heritage 46 (2020) 207–217
ding material (marble, limestone, etc.) also varies, the corrosion
effects can be highly differentiated. The above demonstrate that
it is not appropriate to apply a horizontal conservation method to
cover the needs of each CH monument and that conservation and
preservation measures should be based on a combination of the
particularities of the monument, with the type and the loadings of
pollution, as well as other factors. Further look into the details of
the chemical weathering, at the individual monument scale, and
by combining remote sensing techniques with in situ sampling
and other ground truth measurements would be of unquestionable
importance for CH, and would certainly exert pressure towards
mitigating air pollution emissions affecting monuments (at least
at local scales), but also towards establishing tailored prevention
and preservation measures over archaeological sites of interest.
Acknowledgements
The current study is part of the diploma thesis of Sakka Are-
zina in the MSc course CultTech at the Department of History,
Archaeology and Cultural Resources Management of the Univer-
sity of Peloponnese. EG and EL would like to acknowledge support
of this work by the project “PANhellenic infrastructure for Atmos-
pheric Composition and climatE change” (MIS 5021516) which is
implemented under the Action “Reinforcement of the Research
and Innovation Infrastructure”, funded by the Operational Pro-
gramme C̈ompetitiveness, Entrepreneurship and Innovation(NSRF¨
2014-2020) and co-financed by Greece and the European Union
(European Regional Development Fund). Analyses and visualiza-
tions used in this paper were produced with the GIOVANNI online
data system, developed and maintained by the NASA GES DISC, and
through the ESA-ESTEC project: Lidar Climatology of Vertical Aero-
sol Structure for Space-Based LIDAR Simulation Studies (LIVAS).
The authors would also like to acknowledge the technical assis-
tance received by Dr. A. Gkikas, Dr. E. Proestakis and A. Kakouri
with respect to the optimal use of the satellite data.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary material related to this article can be
found, in the online version, at doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
culher.2020.07.001.
Références
[1] J. Watt, J. Tidblad, V. Kucera, Hamilton Ron, The Effects of Air Pollution on
Cultural Heritage, Springer, s.l., 2009.
[2] A. Moncmanova, Environmental Deterioration of Materials, WIT Press, s.l.,
2007.
[3] V. Labropoulos, Environment of Monuments, Museums and Archaeological
Sites, s.n, Athens, 2003.
[4] A. Voiland, NASA, Earth Observatory [Online] Available at:
earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Features/Aerosols, 2010.
[5] M. Chin, Atmospheric Aerosol Properties and Climate Impact, Synthesis and
Assessment Product 2.3, U.S. Climate Change Program, s.l., 2009.
[6] U.S. Climate Change Science Program and the Subcom, Aerosols and their
climate effects, in: M. Chin, S. Schwart, R. Kahn (Eds.), Atmospheric Aero-
sol Properties and Climate Impacts, Climate Change Science Program (U.S.),
Washington, 2009.
[7] Y. Zhang, X. Wen, C. Jang, Simulating
chemistry–aerosol–cloud–radiation–climate feedbacks over the conti-
nental U.S. using the online-coupled Weather Research Forecasting Model
with chemistry (WRF/Chem), Atmos. Environ. (2010) 3568–3582.
[8] J.H. Seinfeld, S.N. Pandis, Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics: From Air Pollu-
tion to Climate Change, 3rd ed., Wiley, s.l., 2016.
[9] N. Marley, J. Gaffney, Introduction to Urban Aerosols and Their Impacts, ACS,
Washington, 2006.
[10] O. Boucher, Atmospheric aerosols, in: Atmospheric Aerosols: Properties and
Climate, Springer, s.l., 2015, pp. 9–24.
[11] T. Skoulikidis, Erosion and Maintenance of the Building Materials of Monu-
ments, Crete University Press, s.l., 2000.
[12] E. Gerasopoulos, M. Andreae, C. Zerefos, T. Andreae, D. Balis, P. Formenti, P.
Merlet, V. Amiridis, C. Papastefanou, Climatological aspects of aerosol opti-
cal properties in Northern Greece, Atmos. Chem. Phys. (November) (2003)
2015–2041.
[13] E. Gerasopoulos, G. Kouvarakis, P. Babasakalis, M. Vrekoussis, J.-P. Putaud,
N. Mihalopoulos, Origin and variability of particulate matter (PM10) mass
concentrations over the Eastern Mediterranean, Atmos. Environ. (April) (2006)
4679–4690.
[14] A. Stefanis, P. Theoulakis, C. Pilinis, The decay effects of sea-salt aerosol on the
surface of historic buildings, in: Proceedings of 9th International Conference of
Environmental Science and Technology, Rhodes, 2005.
[15] P. Prokos, Equilibrium Conditions of Marine Originated Salt Mixtures: An Ecos
Application at the Archaeological Site of Delos, Greece, SWBSS, Copenhagen,
2008.
[16] V. Kiliyanpilakkil, N. Meskhidze, Deriving the effect of wind speed on clean
marine aerosol optical properties using the A-Train satellites, Atmos. Chem.
Phys. 11401 (2011).
[17] S. Mishra, S. Tripathi, S. Agarmal, A. Arola, Optical properties of accumulation
mode, polluted mineral dust: effects of particle shape, hematite content and
semi-external mixing with carbonaceous species, Atmos. Chem. Phys. (May)
(2012).
[18] M. Brett, E. Andrew, M. Meyer, J. Russell- Smith, Carbon Accounting and Savanna
Fire Management, CSIRO, s.l., 2015.
[19] P. Fermo, S. Goidanich, V. Comite, L. Toniolo, D. Gulotta, Study and characte-
rization of environmental deposition on marble and surrogate substrates at a
monumental heritage site, Geosciences (Switzerland) 8 (9) (2018).
[20] A. Moropoulou, K. Bisbikou, K. Torfs, R. Van Grieken, F. Zezza, F. Macri, Origin
and growth of weathering crusts on ancient marbles in industrial atmosphere,
Atmos. Environ. 32 (1998) 967–982.
[21] N. Ghedini, I. Ozga, A. Bonazza, M. Dilillo, H. Cachier, C. Sabbioni, Atmosphe-
ric aerosol monitoring as a strategy for the preventive conservation of urban
monumental heritage: the florence baptistery, Atmos. Environ. 45 (33) (2011)
5979–5987.
[22] A. Chabas, D. Jeannette, Weathering of marbles and granites in marine environ-
ment: petrophysical properties and special role of atmospheric salts, Environ.
Geol. 40 (3) (2001) 359–368, http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s002540000157.
[23] A. Stefanis, P. Theoulakis, C. Pilinis, Dry deposition effect of marine aerosol to
the building stone of the medieval city of Rhodes, Greece, BUILD ENVIRON 44
(2) (2009) 260–270.
[24] D. Vallero, Fundamentals of Air Pollution, 4th ed., Elsevier, AP, s.l., 2008.
[25] F. Di Turo, C. Proietti, A. Screpanti, M.F. Fornasier, I. Cionni, G. Favero, A. De
Marco, Impacts of air pollution on cultural heritage corrosion at the Euro-
pean level: what has been achieved and what are the future scenarios, Environ.
Pollut. (July) (2016) 1–9.
[26] G. Amoroso, V. Fassina, Stone Decay and Conservation, Elsevier, s.l., 1984.
[27] E. Borrelli, Salts, Laboratory Handbook. Conservation of Architectural Heritage,
Historic Structures and Materials, 1999, pp. 3–23.
[28] E. Doehne, C. Price, Stone Conservation: An Overview of Current Research, 2nd
ed., The Getty Conservation Institute, s.l., 2010.
[29] John E. Yocom, Air pollution damage to buildings on the acro-
polis, J. Air Pollut. Control Assoc. 29 (4) (1979) 333–4338,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00022470.1979.10470796.
[30] C. Saiz-Jimenez, Air Pollution and Cultural Heritage, AAB, s.l., 2004.
[31] A. Moropoulou, K. Bisbikou, R. Van Grieken, K. Torfs, K. Polikreti, Correlation
between aerosols, deposits and weathering crusts on ancient marbles, Environ.
Technol. (2001) 607–618.
[32] D.G. Hadjimitsis, K. Themistocleous, D.D. Alexakis, A. Sarris, Remote sensing
for archaeological applications: management, documentation and monito-
ring, in: Remote Sensing of Environment: Integrated Approaches, InTech, s.l.,
2013.
[33] A. Agapiou, V. Lysandrou, D.D. Alexakis, K. Themistocleous, B. Cuca, A. Argy-
riou, A. Sarris, D.G. Hadjimitsis, Cultural Heritage Management and Monitoring
Using Remote Sensing Data and GIS: The Case Study of Paphos Area, Cyprus,
2015.
[34] H. Agbota, C. Young, M. Strlic, Pollution monitoring at heritage sites in develo-
ping and emerging economies, Stud. Conserv. (2013) 129–144.
[35] K. Themistocleous, A. Nisantzi, A. Agapiou, D.D. Alexakis, D.G. Hadjimitsis, V.
Lysandrou, S. Perdikou, A. Retalis, N. Chrysoulakis, Long term monitoring of air
pollution on monuments and cultural heritage sites in cyprus using satellite
remote sensing, Int. J. Herit. Digital Era (March) (2012) 145–167.
[36] K. Themistocleous, A. Nisantzi, D. Hadjimitsis, A. Retalis, D. Paronis, S. Michae-
lides, N. Chrysoulakis, A. Agapiou, G. Giorgousis, S. Perdikou, Monitoring air
pollution in the vicinity of cultural heritage sites in cyprus using remote sensing
techniques, in: Euro-Mediterranean Conference, Lemessos, 2010.
[37] J. Christodoulakis, C. Varotsos, A. Cracknell, G. Kouremadas, The deterioration
of materials from air pollution as derived from satellite and ground-based
observations, Atmos. Environ. (2018) 91–99.
[38] A.P. Cracknell, L. Hayes, Introduction to Remote Sensing, 2nd ed, CRC Press,
2007.
[39] J. Wiseman, F. El- Baz, Remote Sensing in Archaeology, Springer, s.l., 2007.
[40] R. Lasaponara, N. Masini, Satellite Remote Sensing: A New Tool for Archaeology,
Springer, 2012.
[41] G. Kokkorou-Alevra, E. Poupaki, A. Eustathopoulos, X. Hatzikonztantinou, Cor-
pus of Ancient Quarries: Quarries of the Greek Area from Prehistoric to
Medieval Times, Kardamitsa, Athens, 2014.
[42] K. Kallingi, Ministry of Culture, Ancient Theater of Larisa [Online] Available at:
http://www.larissa-theatre.com/theatro-larissas/ (Accessed 2019), 2012.
[43] L. Acheilara, I␳␻ ␶␻ ␧␮ M␧␴␴␻, YPPO, Mitilini, 2004.
 A. Sakka et al. / Journal of Cultural Heritage 46 (2020) 207–217
[44] Skyros Municipality, Skyros [Online] Available at: http://www.skyros.
gr/index.php/el/?option=com content&view=article&id=7&Itemid=125
(Accessed 2019), 2016.
[45] F. Petsas, Delphi, Monuments and Museum, Krini, Athens, 2004.
[46] E. Spathari, Mycenae, Historical and Archaeological Guide, Esperos, Athens,
2001.
[47] A. Maranti, Olympia, Contests in Antiquity, TOYBI’S, Athens, 1999.
[48] P. Themelis, Ancient Messene: History, Monuments, People, Milhtos, Athens,
2014.
[49] Chatzidakis, P., 2012. [Online] Available at: http://odysseus.culture.
gr/h/3/gh351.jsp?obj id=2371 (Accessed 2019).
[50] Culture Ministry, 15 Years of Restoration Work in the Medieval City of Rhodes,
Athens, 2007.
[51] Milidakis, M., 2012. [Online] Available at: http://odysseus.
culture.gr/h/3/gh351.jsp?obj id=2615 (Accessed 2019).
[52] M. Bredaki, Knossos 2000–2008, Conservation, Consolidation and Promotion
of the Palace and the Archaeological Site, YPPO, Hiraklion, 2008.
[53] R.C. Levy, L.A. Remer, R.G. Kleidman, S. Mattoo, C. Ichoku, R. Kahn,
T.F. Eck, Global evaluation of the collection 5 MODIS dark-target aero-
sol products over land, Atmos. Chem. Phys. 10 (2010) 10399–10420,
http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-10-10399-2010.
[54] Y. Shi, J. Zhang, J.S. Reid, B. Holben, E.J. Hyer, C. Curtis, An analysis of
the collection 5 MODIS over-ocean aerosol optical depth product for its
implication in aerosol assimilation, Atmos. Chem. Phys. 11 (2011) 557–565,
http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-11-557-2011.
[55] R.C. Levy, S. Mattoo, L.A. Munchak, L.A. Remer, A.M. Sayer, F. Patadia, N.C. Hsu,
The collection 6 MODIS aerosol products over land and ocean, Atmos. Meas.
Tech. 6 (2013) 2989–3034, http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/amt-6-2989-2013.
[56] N.C. Hsu, M.J. Jeong, C. Bettenhausen, A.M. Sayer, R. Hansell, C.S. Seftor, J. Huang,
S.C. Tsay, Enhanced deep blue aerosol retrieval algorithm: the second genera-
tion, J. Geophys. Res. Atmos. 118 (2013) 9296–9315.
[57] Gregory Leptoukh, Steve Cox, John Farley, Arun Gopalan, Jianping Mao, Stephen
Berrick, Exploring Nasa and Esa Atmospheric Data Using Giovanni, the Online
Visualization and Analysis Tool, ESA, Montreux, 2007.
[58] D. Lajas, P. Ingmann, T. Wehr, A. Ansmann, Aerosols and clouds: improved
knowledge through space borne lidar measurements, in: Third Symposium on
LIDAR Atmospheric Applications, 2007.
[59] S. Young, M. Vaughan, The Retrieval of Profiles of Particulate Extinction from
Cloud-Aerosol Lidar Infrared Pathfinder Satellite Observations (CALIPSO) Data:
Algorithm Description, AMS, 1 June, 2008.
[60] D. Winker, M.A. Vaughan, A. Omar, Y. Hu, K.A. Powell, Z. Liu, W.H. Hunt, S.A.
Young, Overview of the CALIPSO Mission and CALIOP Data Processing Algo-
rithms, AMS, 1 November, 2009.
[61] V. Amiridis, E. Marinou, A. Tsekeri, U. Wandinger, A. Schwarz, E. Giannakaki,
R. Mamouri, P. Kokkalis, I. Binietoglou, S. Solomos, T. Herekakis, S. Kazadzis,
E. Gerasopoulos, E. Proestakis, M. Kottas, D. Balis, A. Papayannis, C. Kontoes, K.
Kourtidis, N. Papagiannopoulos, L. Mona, G. Pappalardo, O. Le Rille, A. Ansmann,
LIVAS: a 3-D multi-wavelength aerosol/cloud database based on CALIPSO and
EARLINET, Atmos. Chem. Phys. (July) (2015) 7127–7153.
[62] NASA, MODIS [Online] Available at: https://modis.gsfc.nasa.gov, 2016.
[63] D.M. Winker, J. Pelon, J.A. Coakley, S.A. Ackerman, R.J. Charlson, P.R. Colarco,
P. Flamant, Q. Fu, R.M. Hoff, C. Kittaka, The CALIPSO mission: a global 3D
view of aerosols and clouds, Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc. 91 (9) (2010) 1211–1230
https://doi.org/10.1175/2010BAMS3009.1.
[64] A. Omar, D. Winker, C. Kittaka, M. Vaughan, Z. Liu, Y.X. Hu, C. Trepte, R. Rogers,
R. Ferrare, K. Lee, R. Kuehn, C. andHostetler, The CALIPSO automated aerosol
classification and lidar ratio selection algorithm, J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol. 26
(2009) 1994–2014, http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/2009jtecha1231.1.
[65] E. Gerasopoulos, V. Amiridis, S. Kazadzis, P. Kokkalis, K. Eleftheratos, M.O.
Andreae, T.W. Andreae, H. El-Askary, C.S. Zerefos, Three-year ground based
measurements of aerosol optical depth over the Eastern Mediterranean: the
urban environment of Athens, Atmos. Chem. Phys. (2011) 2145–2159.
217
[66] M.E. Koukouli, S. Kazadzis, V. Amiridis, C. Ichoku, D.S. Balis, A.F. Bais, Signs of a
negative trend in the MODIS aerosol optical depth over the Southern Balkans,
Atmos. Environ. 44 (2010) 1219–1228.
[67] D. Melas, I. Ziomas, O. Klemm, C.S. Zerefos, Flow dynamics in Athens area
under moderate large-scale winds, Atmos. Environ. (June) (1998) 2209–2222,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1352-2310(97)00436-6.
[68] P. Kassomenos, Anatomy of the synoptic conditions occuring over
Southern Greece during the second half of the 20th century. Part
I. winter and summer, Theor. Appl. Climatol. 75 (2003) 65–77,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00704-003-0730-z.
[69] Y. Hu, Depolarization ratio–effective lidar ratio relation: theoretical basis for
space lidar cloud phase discrimination, Geophys. Res. Lett. 34 (2007), L11812,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2007GL029584.
[70] J.L. Tackett, D.M. Winker, B.J. Getzewich, M.A. Vaughan, S.A.
Young, J. Kar, CALIPSO lidar level 3 aerosol profile product: ver-
sion 3 algorithm design, Atmos. Meas. Tech. 11 (2008) 4129–4152,
http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/amt-11-4129-2018, 2018.
[71] E. Marinou, B. Amiridis, I. Binietoglou, A. Tsikerdekis, S. Solomos, E.
Proestakis, D. Konsta, N. Papagiannopoulos, A. Tsekeri, G. Vlastou, P.
Zanis, D. Balis, U. Wandinger, A. Ansmann, Three-dimensional evolution
of Saharan dust transport towards Europe based on a 9-year EARLINET-
optimized CALIPSO dataset, Atmos. Chem. Phys. 17 (2017) 5893–5919, 2017
www.atmos-chem-phys.net/17/5893/2017/doi:10.5194/acp-17-5893-2017.
[72] N. Kalivitis, E. Gerasopoulos, M. Vrekoussis, G. Kouvarakis, N. Kubilay, N. Hat-
zianastassiou, I. Vardavas, N. Mihalopoulos, Dust transport over the Eastern
Mediterranean from TOMS AERONET and surface measurements, J. Geophys.
Res. 112 (2007), D03202, http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2006JD007510.
[73] Amiridis, et al., Four-year aerosol observations with a Raman lidar at Thes-
saloniki, Greece, in the framework of EARLINET, J. Geophys. Res. 110 (2005),
D21203, http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2005JD006190.
[74] P. Katsafados, S. Kalogirou, A. Papadopoulos, E. Mavromatidis, Cartographic
represantation of climate spatial variability in Greece, in: Patra, 9th Symposium
of Oceanography and Fisheries, 2009.
[75] U. Im, K. Markakis, M. Kocak, E. Gerasopoulos, N. Daskalakis, N. Mihalopoulos,
A. Poupkou, T. Kindap, A. Unal, M. Kanakidou, Summertime aerosol chemical
composition in the Eastern Mediterrenean and its sensitivity to temperature,
Atmos. Environ. 50 (2012) 164–173.
[76] M. Kanakidou, N. Mihalopoulos, T. Kindap, U. Im, M. Vrekoussis, E. Geraso-
poulos, E. Dermitzaki, A. Unal, M. Koçak, K. Markakis, D. Melas, G. Kouvarakis,
A.F. Youssef, A. Richter, N. Hatzianastassiou, A. Hilboll, F. Ebojie, F. Wittrock,
C. Von Savigny, J.P. Burrows, A. Ladstaetter-Weissenmayer, H. Moubasher,
Atmospheric environment, review megacities as hot spots of air pollution
in the East Mediterranean, Atmos. Environ. (February) (2011) 1223–1235,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2010.11.048.
[77] C.S. Zerefos, K. Eleftheratos, C. Meleti, S. Kazadzis, A. Romanou, C. Ichoku, G.
Tselioudis, A. Bais, Solar dimming and brightening over Thessaloniki, Greece,
and Beijing, China, Tellus (2009) 657–665.
[78] H. Wanner, S. Brönnimann, C. Casty, D. Gyalistras, J. Luterbacher, C. Schmutz,
D. Stephenson, E. Xoplaki, North Atlantic oscillation—concepts and studies,
Surveys Geophys. 22 (2001) 321–381.
[79] A. Floutsi, M.B. Korras-Carracas, C. Matsoukas, N. Hatzianastassiou, G. Biskos,
Climatology and trends of aerosol optical depth over the Mediterranean basin
during the last 12 years (2002–2014) based on collection 006 MODIS-Aqua
data, Sci. Total Environ. 551-552 (2016) 292–303.
[80] Z. Li, X. Zhao, R. Kah, M. Mishchenko, L. Remer, K.-H. Lee, M. Wang, I. Laszlo,
T. Nakajima, H. Maring, Uncertainties in satellite remote sensing of aerosols
and impact on monitoring its long-term trend: a review and perspective, Ann.
Geophys. (March) (2009) 2755–2770.
[81] A. Agapiou, A. Nisantzi, Lysandrou, R. Mamouri, D. Alexakis, K. Themistocleous,
A. Sarris, D. Hadjimitsis, Mapping air pollution using Earth observation tech-
niques for cultural heritage sites, in: First International Conference on Remote
Sensing and Geoinformation of the Environment, Paphos, 2013.