Engineering & Technology

In Ancient India

Edited and Compiled By

Dr. Ashok S. Nene

Ishaan Publications Nagpur

October 2021
 Table of Contents

SN Topic Page

List of Figures
List of Tables
List of Sanskrit Verses
0 Prologue
1 Krushi shastra
2 Jala shasra
3 Khani shatra
4 Ratha shastra
5 Nauka shashtra
6 Agniyan shastra
7 Veshma shastra
8 Prakar shastra
9 Nagar rachana shastra
10 Yantra shastra
11 References
12 Annexure

1
 0–PROLOGUE

The vast ancient Indian literature includes

texts on engineering sciences also. The

information in these texts has scientific

background and can be very useful to modern
scientists and engineers. Engineering sciences

were very advanced in India in ancient period

(as early as 15000 BC). More than thousand

texts (Shilpasamhitas) can be mentioned on

the various engineering sciences. Out of these

approximately five hundred texts are

preserved, in the form of manuscript on palm
leaves, tree barks etc, in some of the libraries
of Oriental research institutes and museums.

The vast technical literature still exists as it is

concealed in religious and mythological
scriptures. Modern engineers and scientists,

unfortunately, have not paid proper attention

to this ancient literature mainly due to lack of

2
knowledge of the language i.e. Sanskrit or due

to improper translation and interpretation of

this information by non-technical

academicians. Though there are hundreds of

ancient references on engineering only few

easily available are quoted here. The

references are from ancient Indian literature

such as Vedas, Puranas, and Shilpa-

Samhita(s) etc. Most of the practices

mentioned in these references are scientific

and relevant to modern engineering.

0.1 Terms and terminology

Shilpa - The Sanskrit word has a very

wide meaning, other than sculpture or

idol. Shilpa includes many articles

(things), machines, innovations, metals,

and artificial means. Shilpa -The word

Shilpa is derived from words Sheel

3
samadhou which mean anything that
please the mind. Sage Bhrugu has given

a definition of Shilpa (SV1.1)

Shilpashashtra - science which deals

with creation of a Shilpa is termed as

Shilpashashtra.

Shilpasamhita means compilation of

rules and procedures related to a
particular Shilpa. The exact period in

which Shilpa-Samhitas i.e. compilations

were made is not known.

Shilpdyna is one who is a master of

Shilpasamhita or an engineer or
architect of modern term.

Vidya- Vidya means a particular

technique. One must have both

theoretical and practical knowledge of

that subject. There are thirty-two Vidyas

related to Shilpashashtra.

4
 Kala - Kala means an art which can be

acquired by practice and observation.

Even a handicapped person can be

expert in a particular art without any
theoretical knowledge. There are sixty-

four Kalas related to Shilpashashtra.

Chiranjivi Shilpdyna - Matsyapooran describes

eighteen divine engineers. Ref.SV 1.2. It can

be interpreted as eighteen different schools of

learning, prevalent in ancient India. Bhrugu,

Atree, Vashishtha, Vishvakarma, Maya,

Narada, Nagnajeet, Vishalaksha, Purandara,
Bramha, Kumar, Nandeesh, Shounaka, Garg,
Vasudewa, Aniruddha, Shuka and Bruhaspati
are the eighteen divine engineers. The

structures (mainly houses, Temples, Palaces)

in different parts of the country were built

according to these schools of thought. For

instance in Northern part, central part and

5
southern parts structures were built according
to Samhitas (Engineering practices) of

Kashyapa, Bhrugu and Maya respectively. Out

of these eighteen divine engineers Bhrugu,

Vishvakarma and Maya are more known
amongst the masses. Matsyapooran describes

Vishvakarma (Vidhha- old learned person), his

tools (Tape Jar a level, Binocular and books),

his vehicle (Swan) and his works (Creator of

palaces all worlds). Ref. SV1.3

Sthapati is an Engineer or Architect in charge of

construction. Samarangana Sutradhara, which

describes characteristics a "Sthapati"

The Sthapati should be well-versed in the

science involving the significance of objects

to be created and their specifications.

6
He should know the theory and the
practice; he should have the insight and the
skill accompanied with procedure.

That person is said to be an expert in

workmanship who knows how to sketch
the ground plan, draftsmanship, the
horizontal and vertical measurements,
the details of ground work of the plot,
the 14 kinds of sketch lines, the cutting
of the logs and stones etc., and seven

kinds of circular sections; well finished

joining of the joints and proper
demarcation of upper, lower and outer
lines.

A Sthapati should know eight-fold

workmanship, the draftsmanship and

sketches of various kinds, and variety of
carpentry, stone-masonry and gold-

7
 smithy. The engineer equipped with

these merits invokes respect. One who

knows the fourfold engineering with its

eight constituents and who is pure in his
mind gets status in the assembly of
engineers, and is endowed with a long
life.

0.2 Scope and extent of Shilpashashtra

Table 1.1 - Extent of Shilpashashtra

Shast Engineeri Shastra Engineeri

ra ng ng
Science Science

1 Biological 6 Vyomayan Air or

Krishi Sciences Space
Transport

2 Jala Water 7 Veshma Dwellings

Resources

3 Mining & 8 Prakaara Forts

Khani Metallurgy

8
 4 Surface 9 Town
Ratha Transport NagarRrach planning
ana

5 Water 10Yantra Machines

Nauka Transport

Sage Bhrugu divided the entire knowledge

related to Shilpashashtra into three Volumes.

He further included three Shilpashashtra to

each of these volumes. The entire knowledge

is further divided into thirty-two Vidyas and

sixty-four Kalas. The organization of

Shilpashashtra is shown in a table 1.1.

Yantrashashtra (Machines) is common to all

volumes and it is considered as 10th Shastra.

Information related to geotechnical

engineering is available in most of these
Shastras. The relevant Shastra is indicated in

the subsequent chapters.

9
 Table 1.2 below indicates the Vidya-s

Table 1.2 – 32 Vidya-s (Techniques)

Vidyas Techniques Vidyas Techniques

Vrikshya 1.Plantation Setu 17.Bridges

Pashu 2.Cattle Shakunta 18.Training

Handling Birds

Manushya 3.Human Viman 19.Aeronautics

resources

Sanchetan 4.Water Vaso 20.Tents

Supply

Samharan 4. Kutti 21. Huts

Dewatering

Stambhan 6.Water Mandir 22.Temples

Storage

Druti 7.Gemology Prasad 23. Houses

Bhasmkaran 8.Calsination Doorg 24. Forts

Sankaran 9.Compound Koota 24. Castles

Making

Pruthhakaran 10. Aakar 26. Moats

Separation

10
Tari 11.Raft Yuddha 27. Warfare
making

Nau 12.Boat AapaNa 28. Markets

making

Nauka 13.Ship Rajgruha 29.Palaces

building

Ashwa 14. Horse Sarwajanawas 30.Public

riding places

Patha 14.Roads Vanopawan 31.Gardening

Ghantapath 16.Hill roads Dewalaya 32.Temple arts

Table 1.3 shows sixty-four Kala(s) -Arts

or Skills
English English
1.Ploughing 9.Removal of skins
2. Tree climbing 10.Leather Tanning
3.Sugar Making 11.Shaving
4.Cane arts 12.Tailoring
4.Horse ridding 13.Cleaning of pots
6.Dairy 14.Laundry
7.Animal Training 14.Amusement
8. Saddle making 16.Writing Scripts

11
17.Baby sitting 24.Testing of chemicals
18.Punishment 26.Removal of oils
19.Seting Bed 27.Brick making
20.Flower garlands 28.Combination of metals with
herbs
21.Food & Nutrition 29.Glass making
22.Extaction of work 30. Smithy
from water, wind and
fire
23.Gemology 31. Making metal pots
24.Slag removal 32.Grading of gold
33.Powder making 41. .Tunneling
34.Metal alloys 42.Making Arches
34.Floats & Buoys 43.Canal Building
36.Rope preparation 44.Ballons
37.Cloth to mast 44.Birds training
38.Navigation 46.Gold plating
39.Ground leveling 47.Leather Tents
40.Breaking stones 48.Soil selection
49. Grass Roofing 57.Roof construction
50.White washing 58.Wrestling
51.Painting 59. Weapons
52.Carpentry 60. Missiles
53.Soil conditioning 61.Military formation
54.Drawing and 62.Surgery
Painting
54.Sculpture 63.Wound Dressing

12
56.Foundations 64.Garden layout

0.3 Reasons for loss of ancient technical

literature
There were more than 20,000 texts on these
subjects but by 20th centaury the number
diminished to less than 1200. Reasons for loss
of ancient literature on Shilpashashtra-s can
be summarized as below.

Natural - Limited life of the writing

materials, such as Barks of trees
(Bhurjapatra), Palm leaf (Talapatra) and
paper. Many texts were destroyed by
white ants, moisture and fire.
Language – Most of the texts are written
in Sanskrit. Scientists and engineers did
not know this language. Sanskrit
scholars did not know engineering.
Secrecy – The knowledge was encrypted
in religious texts and the texts were not
available to all sections of society.
Foreign aggression - Most of the texts
were destroyed during foreign

13
aggression and some very important
texts were taken to other countries by
scholars.
Improper interpretation – Some texts
(Vastushashtra) were wrongly
interpreted and lost its utility.
Neglect by modern engineers - Authors
of books on engineering completely
ignored the ancient Indian references.
Religion – There is a misconception that
ancient texts are for a particular
religion. Hence the governments did not
include these subjects in the education
systems.
Irrelevance – Most of the educated class
thinks that the ancient Indian texts are
outdated or irrelevant.
Absence of technical data - None of the
ancient texts includes technical data,
formulae or specifications as those are
provided in foreign texts.

14
 नानाविधानाां िस्तुनाां यांत्राणाां कल्पसांपदा ।

धातुनाां साधनाांच िास्तुनाां शिल्पसांज्ञीतां ॥

भृगस
ु हां िता

SV0.1- Definition of Shilpa

भृगरु वत्रिवशिष्ठच विश्वकर्ाव र्यस्तथा ।

नारदौ नग्न्जितच्चैि वििालाक्षः पुरांदराः ॥२॥

ब्रम्िा कुर्ारौ नांहदिः िौनको गगव एिांच ।

िासुदेिो शनरुध्दष्च तथा िुकबृिस्पती ॥३॥

अष्टादिैते विख्याता िस्तुिास्तोपदे शकाः

र्त्सस्यपुराण अ २५२

SV0.2 - Eighteen Devine Engineers

15
 कांबासूत्राांबप
ु ात्रांििशतकरतले पुस्तकां ज्ञाांनसूत्रां ।

िां सारुढां वत्रनेत्रः िुभर्ुकुटशिराः सिवतािृध्दकाया ॥

त्रैलोक्यांएनसृष्टां सूरगृिां राििम्याहदव िम्याव ।

दे िसौसूत्रधारोिगतग्निलहितः पातुिोविश्वकर्ाव ॥

र्त्सस्यपुराण अ २५३

SV 0.3 - Description of Vishwakarma

***.***

1-BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES

1.0 Trees, animals and humans all have to go

through three processes i.e. birth (Prasav),

rearing and growth. Hence this science

contains three Vidyas as mentioned in table

1.1 and SV1.1

Vidyas & Kalas: Biological Sciences (Krushi

Shastra) - This includes three Vidyas and

16
eleven Kalas as Shown in Table 1.1 and 1.2

below,

Table 1.1 – Three Vidyas

(Techniques)

1.Vrikshavidya - Plantation

2.Pashuvidya - Animal Sciences

3.Manushyavidya - Human Resources

Table 1.2 –Kalas (Skills)

1.Siradyakarshan-Ploughing

2.VriksharohaNa- Tree climbing

3.YawadiKshuvichar- Sugar Making

4.VeNutruNadikruti - Cane arts

4.GajaAshwasarathya-Horse ridding

6.Dugdhadivichar-Dairy

7.Gatishikshya-Animal Training

8.PayataNkriya- Saddle making

17
9.Pashucharma-Removal of skins

10.Charmamardawakriya-Leather Tanning

11.Kshurkarma-Shaving

12.Kanchukadisiwan- Tailoring

13.Gruhabhandadimardan- Cleaning of pots

14.Vastrasamarjan- Laundry

14.Manokul sewa-Amusement

16.NanadeshvarNan-Writing Scripts

17.Shishusanrakshana-.Baby sitting

18.Sayuktadan -Punishment

19.ShayyastaraN- Seting Bed

20.Pushpadigranthan- Flower garlands

21.Annapachana- Food & Nutrition

1.1 Vrikshavidya – Plantation

Indians had deep knowledge about the trees since

ancient time. Unlike western botany, one can find

very appropriate names for trees. Wood was used

18
since ages for chariots, carts and columns and
beams of houses. Ancient texts like Mayamat,

Brihat Samhita Sakaladhikar etc contain names

and description of more than 150 names of tree
which are still available in many parts of India.

1.2 Indian Botanical Classification:

Western Botanist divide trees into two classes

viz.; 1) Endogenous or growing from inside and

2) Exogenous or growing from outside. Former

is harder outside while latter is harder in the

central core. Ancient Indian texts (Mayamat,

Manushyalaya chandrika etc) however mention

four classes of trees viz.

Nissar – Trees having no hard core. Nissar

trees are Ashwathha, Nyagroth and Udumber.

However thick these trees grow they form no

core. Their flowers are closed. Fruits are

bunch of flowers

19
 Antassar- Trees having hard core inside.

Antassar trees (Exogenous trees as per

western Botanist), are Aamra, Panus, Nimb

tree and other trees.

Bahhissar – Trees having hard core outside.

Bahhissar trees, Endogenous trees as pre

western Botanist, are Nadwat, Nariker, Poog
and others of this class.

Sarvassar- Trees having core throughout their

cross-section. Sarvassar trees are hard

throughout the cross-section. Tintini, Shak,

Shirish and Bhallatak tree are the examples of

this class. SV 1.2.

Ssar or core / pith is the hard portion of tree

composed of cells, which have ceased to live or

carry juice, and therefore those trees which

20
 have no such core or portion composed of dead
cells, are called immortal trees (Amar).

Table 1.3 - Indian Botanical Classification

Class Trees
Nissar Ashwath, Bilwa, Udumbar ,Nyagroth
or Vat.

Antassar Aamra, Nimb. Panus

Bahhissa Nadwat, Nariker /Ker, ,Poog or

kramuk,Tāl
Sarvassar Bakul, Shirish, Tintini

Out of these four classes, trees having a core

either on outside or inside are suitable for
engineering works. As these trees have some

portion of the section harder than other. Thus

failure of softer part gives an indication that

tree is failing and sudden collapse and danger
to life is avoided. Trees having no harder

portion are useless for engineering works.

21
Trees having hard section throughout,
deteriorate simultaneously, a sudden collapse
is therefore possible. Ancient Indian texts

specify that such trees should not be used for

building purposes but should be preserved for
firewood. Trees with no cores (Nissar) should

be used as shade giving trees or sacrificial

trees. These trees are very altruistic and any

other tree can be planted on them without any

injury to them. Thus following trees are

Unsuitable for building purposes

Ancient Classification Systems of trees

The trees were classified in accordance to age,

imperfections (gray shades) and gender.

A- Age

22
The age of trees is considered to be 103 year. Trees

were classified as child, Young or old as explained

in Table 1.4 below.

Table 1.4 - Classification

based on age

Child Less than 16

years.

Young 16 to 50
years.

Old More than 50

years.
The timbers
obtained from trees having age between 16 to 50
years are considered good for construction.

To ascertain the stage of life of a tree, a bore

through the stem, at 60 cm above ground is
made. This test is called formation test. The

age of the tree is indicated by,

23
 1. color of the core,
2. hardness,
3. Juice oozing from the bore.

If a tree is already cut, instead of juice, the

sound produced by tamping with a heavy rod,
will the stage of age.

B- Gray shades

The signs such as a flag, umbrella, cone,

sphere etc. found on the cut cross-section

of tree, were considered good.

But signs such as a women, spiral, snake,

headless person, partridge, vulture etc.

were considered bad indication for

construction (Vishwakarma Prakash

.91.116-120)

Timber should be free from pores.

24
Pores on wood were termed as,

Nishkut - big pores

Kol- medium pores

Dhushtinetra- pores circular or elliptical

(like eyes)

Vatsak- pores of irregular shapes

Kalabandhak - pores made by insects

Sushir- micro-pores (like those in an

earthen pot)

The timber with pores is not suitable for

building construction.

C- On the basis of gender

The on the basis of gender trees were

classified as Male, Female, or Neutral. Ref

Mayamat & Shilparatna This type of

classification is explained in Table 4.2 below.

25
1. Masculine-Trees have uniform cross-

section from top to bottom, strong

vertically or in compression. These

trees have deep roots, fragrant

flowers, and leafs smooth to touch.

Masculine trees should be used as

columns
2. Feminine - Trees have broad and

narrow cross-sections at bottom and

top respectively. Such trees have

very fragrant flowers or fruits, Leafs

are cool when touched and rich in
fluids. These are strong laterally or in

tension. Feminine trees should be

used as beams.

3. Neutral- Trees have broad and

narrow cross-sections at top and

bottom respectively and have weak

roots or branches

26
 List of Masculine or feminine trees as per
Mayamat, Manushyalaya Chandrika and
Yuktikalpataru is as below, SV 1.3

Table 1.5 - Tree Classification by Gender

Male Trees
Ajkarni Dhanwan Pishit Shishap
Arjun Khadir Punnag Simha
Ashok Kshirni Rajadan Statak
Bakul Padma Sal Vanhi
Chandan Pindi Saptak
Deodar Pindi Shami
Female Trees
Aasan Gawakshi Likunch Saptaparna
Bhouma Kak Neem Shirish
Ek Katfal Panus Timis
Tishrit

27
For pegs of tents etc, following trees, shown
in Table1.6, are recommended. Any hard

wood is allowed

The timbers of masculine trees are best, feminine

are of medium quality and neuter are of least
quality.

Table 1.6 -Unsuitable Trees

Bilwa ,Chinchini , Kadamb,Kovider,Kutaj ,

Lodhra, Mahadrum,Nyagridh or Vata,Palash
or Kinshuk ,
Parijatak, Pilu, Ashwath , Plaksh Saptaparna
,
Shirish , Shlemantaka ,Udumbar

Selection of trees
A- General -As already noted above, a tree

consists of hard and soft portions. In this

connection the engineer has to take following

precautions.

28
Bottom of the tree, which has
accustomed to bear the weight of the
upper portion and being older than rest
of the tree, is always stronger.

Therefore bottom portion of tree should

be used as bottom of the post. The

bottom of one tree should be joined with

upper portion of another tree to
increase the length.

The bottom portion should be used as

lower portion of the post. The harder

portion should be in compression and

softer portion should be in tension.

The portion expected to weather,

should be on the outside and used for
mortise. The non exposed portion

should be used in tenon.

29
All pegs, nails or dowels should be of
harder wood. Only wooden pegs should

be used in wood work.

The lightweight variety of wood should

be used for boats, balloon and such
other things
In carts and other works where sudden
jerks have to be borne, the stronger
variety should be used.

In joinery similar woods should be used

to avoid unequal expansion or
contraction.

Seasoned and un-seasoned, old and

new wood should not be used.

Iron nails should not be used in wood

sap. Nails should not be used in sea

going boats.

30
 A tree grows for eight months and rests
for four months which are suitable for
cutting of a tree.

To differentiate bottom portion of tree

from top portion, the wood is allowed to
float on water. The portion which sinks

is bottom portion.

In mortises the hole should be smaller

than the tenon to avoid loosing of joint
by contraction of tenon during drying
with age.

B - Rejection of trees: Texts such as

Rajvallabha, Shilpadipak, Goubhil

Gruhyasutra, Paraskar Gruhyasutra,
Sukhananda Vastu and Brihatsamhita gives
various symptoms of trees which should NOT
selected for construction.

31
Brihat Samhita 58.54-58) specifies that

following trees should not be used in

engineering works. A Tree;

in the vicinity of religious place

struck by lightning (The trees loose its

strength after the stroke)

scorched by fire. ( Fire softens the

wood)

Grown in covered area or grown along

the roadside (It gives shelter to

passengers) or grown in unhygienic

conditions.

Broken by wind or impact of animals

(vehicles).

entangled by other trees or wound by

creepers

32
 Grown in anthills or supporting honey
beehive or grown on cremation ground
or which harbors vultures or owls.

C- Selection of trees for timber: Following trees

are suitable

Strong, fat trees, and having age neither

more nor less, straight, sacred mountain,
forest and timber found in remote worship
places etc.

Having enchanting appearance those

timber are better for making poles.

The timbers obtained from trees having

inside portion white in appearance are best
and if red, yellow, black colors then they
are lesser good. Straight, strong, desired

33
 Not affected by rain also where there is
plenty of water then, the timber obtained
from trees growing in that area are good.

If water or milk like fluid comes out, after

cutting the tree then the timber obtained
that tree is good if the fluid reasonable red
in color then the tree is worth abandoning.

Table 1.7 - Worshiped Trees - Not to be used in

construction

Aamalak Dunduka Patali Ref

Abhayaksha Kantaka Pindi Mayamat

Agaru Kapittha Putrajeev Shilparatna

Aribhed Karanj Tilak Vishnudharmottar

Purana
Ashwamari Karpur Varun
Samarangana
Badari Karskar Sutradhara
Bakul Padmak Vishwakarma
Vastushastra

Seasoning of Trees For seasoning of wood,

as per Mayamat, it should be placed on sand
34
with bottom portion facing wind blowing from
west or south direction. SV 1.4

Felling the tree - Mayamat mentions that

before felling a tree, its branches should be

cut first to avoid unusual strains.

The wood deteriorates due to loss of oily

substance. Hence Bhrugu Samhita specifies

that the wood should be painted to avoid the

losses. An oil coat should be applied every

year after rainy season. After the wood is well

dried it may stored for preservation. SV 1.5

Frames and door shutters - Manushyalaya

Chandrika specifies that the frames and

shutters of doors/ windows should be of same

type wood so that the action of weather may

be same on both. Unequal action produces

unequal strains and it is detrimental to

architecture. SV 1.6

35
Water retarding substances- As per

Agastha Samhita or Brihat Samhita, juice of

coreless trees contains water retarding
substances (lakh) and hence the juice was

used in preparing gas holders made of silk

cloth in ancient India. The last coating was

given with the decoction of mash.

Table 1. 8 - Water retarding

substances
Kshirdrum Kadmb Aamra Gawaksh
Amalaki Bibhitak Haritaka

In tempering of steel, juices of various trees

were used. Particular juice for a particular tool

was specified. Use of herbal plants for

tempering of steel is not discussed here

Timber Preservation

36
During discussions with some Sthapati
(architects specialized in ancient Shilpa

Shastra), it was gathered that Gomutra

(Cow's urine) and solution of (Haridra)

turmeric powder in water, were used to

protect wood from attack of termites. All

wooden parts of Sphurti Aashram (at Godhani,

on Nagpur Koradi road) were treated as per

this method, fifteen years ago and it is a

standing proof of the effectiveness of the
method. SV 1.7

Botanical Classification: In 1735 Carolus

Linnaeus, in his book "Systema Natrrae,

classified plants". But according to Sushruta

Samhita (6th Century BC) plants are called

Sthawar (non-movable) and grouped under

four heading, Ref. Table 1 below SV 1.8

37
 Table 1.9 - Ancient Botanical
Classification
Sanskrit Exact Explanation
Name Meaning
Vanaspati Lord of Large Trees
Forest which bear
fruits
without
flowering
Vrukshya One that Trees,
gets cut which
bears both
flowers and
fruits.

Virudha that Herbs,

which which are
spreads stem less
and spread
out
(bushes)

Oushadhi Basis of Medicinal

digestion Plants
which
wither
away once

38
 their fruits
ripen

Five senses of perception: As per Indian

knowledge system all creatures are divided

into two categories -Living and moving. Any

being which has five basic senses of

perception (hearing, touching, seeing,

smelling and tasting) is termed as living. The

plants are living creatures as these posses the

five senses of perception. This is described in

verses 11 to 18, chapter 184, of Mahabharata

(3000BC), as a dialogue between two sages

Bhrugu and Bharadwaja. The meaning of the

dialogue is as under, (Ref. SV1.9)

Leaf, bark, fruit and flower fade due

heat. Because it (the plant) fades and

decays there is sense of touch.

39
By sounds of wind, fire and lightening
fruit and flower decay rapidly. Sound is

received by ear. Therefore plants hear.

A creeper surrounds a tree; from all

sides it moves. Unseen, path does not

exists; therefore plants see.

Similarly, by a variety of good or bad

smells (aroma) plants blossom disease

free, hence plants smell.

By the drinking of water with their feet

(roots), by exhibitions of disease, sense

of taste exists in plants.

From the grasping of happiness and

unhappiness, from the healing of
wounds I see life. Plants have

sentiments.

The heat and light digest the water

drawn by the plant; the digested water

40
 is converted into juices necessary for
the growth.

As one sips water upward through a lotus

stalk (straw), plant endowed with air,

drinks with its feet. SV 1.9

Rainfall prediction: Water is essential for

agriculture. Main source of water is rains. It is

beneficial if one knows well in advance, the

amount of rainfall ant its probable time. This

helps to plan the agricultural activities such as

plough, sowing etc.

There are two methods of forecasting of

rainfall.

Aditiya (Based on Astronomy) - In this

method positions of Sun, Moon Venus,

Jupiter and Mars are taken into
consideration.

41
 Bhouma (Based on ground conditions) - In

this method Winds, Clouds, snowfall etc

are taken into consideration. SV 1.10

Forecast of rains is based on position of

Jupiter, change of place and effects of the
change; Sunspots, their numbers etc. Sun's

position gives idea of fruit production;

Jupiter's position gives idea of production of
grass and fodder. These rules are included in

Kautilya Arthshastra. This is the use of

astrology for prediction of rains. SV 1.11

Varahmihir (Brihat Samhita chapter 21)

mentions that "pregnancy period of rain was

assumed as 195 days from first day of

Margashirsh to first day of Ashadha."

Nowadays Meteorological departments

measure the amount of rain fall. The ancient

methods are described by Varahmihir and

42
Kautilya. The ancient unit of measurement of

rain fall was Drona. (65 mm.) SV 1.12

Varahmihir states that "a copper pot (50 cm

x50 cm) should be used to collect the rain

water. The water collected should be

expressed in Palas (1 Pala =30 cc) and Adhak

(1 Adhak= 1500 cc)" SV 1.13

Kautilya states that "The rainfalls in different

parts of the country are mentioned below;"

Jangal (Kuru - 16 dronas (1 drona =65

mm)
Dry tracts -8.5 dronas
Ashmak (Hilly areas)-13.5 dronas
Avanti (Magadadha) - 23.5 dronas
Aparant (Konkan) - Very heavy
Himalaya or Sind - Very rare

43
Sind province is famous as Nadimatruk (Feed

by river water) and Kulyawap is feed by canal

waters. SV 1.14

Fertilizers: Kautilya has described different

types of manures.

Grains are soaked in solution of copper

sulphate for three to seven days. The

grains are sun dried and then used for

sowing in the field.

For stem propagation a mixture of

honey, ghee, fat and excreta of a pig
should be applied.

Before sowing hard nuts a coat of cow

dung should be applied.

A manure of cow dung, bones, dry fishes and

milky juice of "sher" should be used for

plantation of trees. SV1.14. During summer

season watering should be done twice, once

44
in morning and second in the evening. In

winter watering should be done in evening.

During rainy season watering should be done

in night only if the soil is dry. SV 1.16

Horticulture: Kautilya gives certain tips on

horticulture,

If the manure of excreta, urine, ghee

and mud is used the cold water should
be used while watering of plants/ trees

Manure of Kulith, Udid, Moong, Jav or

Til should be applied if there is
premature falling of fruits.

A mixture of cold water and ghee should

be fed to fruit or flowering trees
If a manure of excreta of sheep's or
goats, jawa powder, til oil cake, cow's
blood or meat is used it results high
yield of flowers or fruits.

45
 For vigorous growth of branches and
leaves, a manure of fish with water
should be used.

A manure of copper sulphate, fishmeal, and

meat should be given to cure diseased trees
SV 1.17

Milky Juice of Rui, ash of horns of sheep,

excreta of pigeon and rat are mixed into oil.

The steel implement is heated red hot. The

oily mixture is applied to the edges of tool and

it is dipped into juice of leafs of Agastha.

Such tool remains sharp for long time.

Treatment of saline soils: An ancient text

Krishishasanam, (Ref.7) states about saline

soils and also describes the procedure to treat

such soils. Saline soil destroys seeds sown in

it. This soil should be excavated again and

again and replaced by fertile soil. Add

46
fertilizers and water or plant trees such as
Tobacco etc., which remove salinity of soils.

The chapter "Upavanvinoda" among other things

discusses the selection of soil for planting of trees,

the classification of plants, the sowing of seeds
and methods of their propagation, the process of
planting, the rules of protection of plants,
construction of garden house, details of nutrient
solutions, treatment of plants in disease, botanical
marvels and experimental results. Texts such as

Garuda Purana also dealt with the laying out of

pleasure gardens and pavilions along with notes
on construction of religious, military and
residential buildings.

The Amarkosha (c. 400 BC) described 12 types

of lands in its chapter on Bhumivargha, depending

upon the fertility of the soil, irrigation and physical
characteritistics.

47
 Table 1.10 – Types of Lands
Urvara- fertile),
Ushara- barren
Maru- Desert

Aparahata- fallow
Shadvala-grassy
Pankikala-muddy
Alaprayah- watery
Kachachaha- land contiguous to water
Sharkara- full of pebbles and pieces of limestone
Sharakaravati- sandy
Nadimarruka- land watered from a river
Devakarruka- rain fed

Rishi–krishi method of Vermiculture: The

Amrit pani consists of 250 g ghee from cow

milk + 500 g honey + 200 litre water + 10 kg

cow dung. Firstly, ghee is mixed with cow

dung thoroughly followed by honey and then

water is added to it. Farmers collect 25 kg soil

from the base of banian tree which is

48
sufficient for sprinkling well–prepared Amrit

pani on an acre uniformly.

A Sanskrit treatise “Sarangathara Padhati“ an

anthology compiled by Sarangadhara –a

courtier of king Hammira, contains Padhati“

an anthology compiled“ treating arbori-

horticulture (translated by Majumder 1935) In

Brhat Samhita (ca 500 A.D) there are

reference on the methods of propagation like

cuttings grafting and about plants suitable for
different methods of propagating Propagation
of jackfruit, jamun and fact Sadhale (1996)

draws a close parallel and resemblance

among “Vrikshayuveda“ of Surapala (ca 1000

AD) “Upavana Vinoda“ of Sarangadhara and

Varaha Mihira’s “Brhatsamhita“ in respect of

science of plant life. The Brahma Vaivata

Purana (around 800 AD) lists some good fruits

49
which include indigenous ones like mango
(amra), banana (kadali) jackfruit (panasa),

bael (sriphala) and introduced but ancient

ones like pomegrante (dadima) date (khajura)

and grape (draksa) (sensarma 1989) (Table 1)

Four fruits, viz., mango, banana, bael and

jackfruit are considered as ancient and sacred

fruits extensively used in pujas religious
festivals and ceremonial occasions.

Various fruits are mentioned in the Puranas.

(Vayu, Mastsya, Brahmavaivarta Brahma,

Kurma, Agni)

Dadima (Pomegranate)
Khajura (Wild Date),
Jambu (Jamun)
Aamra(Mango),
Panasa (Jack fruit),
Kadali (Banana),
Narikela (Coconut),

50
 Sriphala (Vilva/Bael)
13 Vegetable farming -Floriculture

The art of gardening and kinds of gardens

were described by Sarangdhara (1300 AD)

and Vatsyayana (300-400 AD) respectively.

Vatsyayana (AD 300-400) has also rendered

interesting accounts of four kinds of gardens

namely pramadodyam udyan vrishavatika
and nandanvana. The science of plant life.

(Vrikshayurveda) on arbori-horticulture and

usefulness of trees and gardens were well-

known in ancient India. In the Ramayana

mention is made of Ashokavana or

Panchavati, in which sita was held captive
Ashoka tress (Saraca asoca) were

prodominant in this garden. In the

Panchavati, five trees were planted. asvattha

(Ficus benghalensis) on the west amla

51
(Emblica officinalis) on the south and the

ashoka (Saraca asoca) on the southeast. A

description of the layout of gardens and parks

and artificial lakes in the city of Indraprastha
is given in the Sabha-Parva of the

Mahabharata. The association of Lord Krishna

with the Kadamba tree (Anthocephalus

indicus) is well known.

The planting of roadside avenue trees

(margeshuvriksha) was an important

contribution of the king Asoka (233 BC). He

was the first king in Indian History who

encouraged Arboriculture and adopted it as a
state policy. Mathura sculptures of Kashan

period depicted Kadamaba tree

(Anthocephalus cadamba), Champaka

(Michelia champaca), Mesua ferra and lxora

abrorea.

52
The art of gardening was spread to
neighbouring east from India with preaching
of Lord Buddha. The trees which were

associated with Lord Buddha are Sal (Shorea

robusta), asoka (Saraca indica) and plaksha

(Butea monosperma).

Concept of identifying trees with goes and

goddesses and threats and punishments
against the destruction of usefull trees helped
to save the trees and flora which is a
remarkable contribution of our ancient people
In Ramayana stated “I have not cut down any

fig tree in the month of Vaisakha why then

does the calamity befall me“. Felling of trees

as an offence has been mentioned in several

old texts like Kautilya’s Arthasastra, Agni

purana, Varsha Purana Mastsya Purana and

Buddhist and Jain literature.

53
2 Pashuvidya - Animal Sciences

World's first vet was Indian. His name was

Shalihotra and he was born on Saturday, April 24,

2352BC (Vedic Age). The last Saturday of April is

every year celebrated as World Veterinary Day!

Shalihotra, was an expert in horse husbandry

and medicine and composed a text Haya
Ayurveda. Sage Palakapya was an expert

dealing with elephants and composed a text

Gaja Ayurveda. During Mahabharata period

(1000 BC), Nakula and Sahadeva, the two

Pandava brothers were experts of horse and

cattle husbandry, respectively. The great king

Ashoka (300 BC) erected the first known

veterinary hospitals of the world.

Surgical treatment of animal disease was very

much developed during Vedic period. Skilful

54
surgeons treated animals with precision and
great perfection. Various techniques of

surgical operations along with instruments

have been dealt in detail in Shalihotra’s and

Palakapya’s works.

Scriptures such as Skanda Purana, Devi

Purana, Matsya Purana, Agni Purana, Garuda
Purana, Linga Purana, and books written by
Charaka, Susruta, Palakapya (1000 BC), and

Shalihotra (2350 BC) documented treatment

of animal diseases using medicinal plants.

Vedic texts also describe divine healing

powers. Yajurveda cites importance of growth

and development of medicinal plants and

Atharvaveda mentions about the value of
medicines in curing the diseases. Shalihotra

undoubtedly appears to be the first

veterinarian of pre-historic times. The ancient

Indians were so apt with the knowledge of

55
herbals, even Alexander acquired some of the
skills used by Indians, particularly for
treatment of snakebite.

Elephant medicine or Gaja Ayurveda

Palakapya, an ultimate authority on elephant

medicine belonged to the Rigvedic period
2000– 4000 BC. The Gautam Samhita, the

Ashva Ayurveda, and Hastya Ayurveda are

the only treatises on animal science till now.

Palakapya wrote Hastya Ayurveda or Gaja

Ayurveda dealing with elephant medicine and
dedicated to Lord Ganesha. Elephant medicine

and surgery were divided into four parts by

Palakapya, viz., Maha Rogsthan or major

diseases, Kshudra Rogasthan or minor

diseases, Salyasthan or surgery, and materia
medica-diet and hygiene.

56
He classified various ailments of elephants
into: Adhyatmika (physical) and Agantuka

(accidental or incidental); physical classes of

ailments were called Manasa (caused by

mental diseases) and Dosaja [caused by

disorder of bodily humors – vata (air), pitta

(bile), and kapha (phlegm)]. Hastya Ayurveda

also mentions about anatomy of elephant,

treatment of different kinds of diseases,
training of elephant, and also classification of
elephants on the basis of a number of
characteristics.

According to Nakulshastra, a good horse rider

is;

One who looks straight.

One who reads mind of the horse.
One whose chest is non-shaking.
One whose legs move.

57
 One who knows when and where to hit
the horse.
All others are a burden to the horse. SV
1.18a
For a horse trainer, Nakulshastra specifies
that,
Hit the chest if the horse is timid
Hit the mouth if the horse is
uncontrollable
Hit the hips if the horse is angry
Hit the legs if the horse is wild
Hit the part of the horse is loose
Do not hit the horse unnecessarily else it will
damage the horse. SV 1.18b An ancient text

"Gawaryuveda" mentions seven defects of

oxen

1. Unequal parts (Eyes, nostrils, legs or

kidneys)- Vyanga
2. Different colors in front and back
portions. -Vivarna.
3. One side higher than other side. -
Vishama

58
 4. White spots (leucoderma type)-
Khistri
5. Bright horns and back tail side dark
black- Dhumra
6. Shaking horns or teeth – Chala
7. Unhealthy skin –Khar SV 1.20
Sage Palakapya thought of antibodies present
in the stomach of animals which eat poisons
creatures. He advised that a serum should be

prepared from the meat of mongoose,

peacocks and pigs. This serum should be used

as medicine against poisons. SV 1.21

Parahar Krushi mentions fibers and woven

cloth. A cloth can be made by weaving four

types of fibers; fibers of

Barks (Jute)
Fruits (Cotton)
Cocoons (Silk)
Animal hairs (Wool) (Romaj or Lomaj)

59
Woolen cloth should be made of fine soft hairs.

Animal skins are also used for cloths. A cloth

should preferably contain only one type of

fiber. Cloth of two types of fiber is considered

inferior. A cloth with more than two types of

fibers is not suitable. SV 1.22

Kings and noble men should keep dogs for

hunting, chasing or for games.Qualities of

good breeds of dogs are many and those are

detailed in Yuktikalpataru. SV 1.23

Life span of animals

The life span of some animals mentioned by

Shalihotra is given below:

Table 1.11 -Life span of few

animals

60
 Elephant:120 years
Horses:32 years
Cows:24 years
Asses and camels:25 years
Dogs:16 years
Jackals:25 years
Bees:14 days

Breeding of cattle: In the Agnipurana we

find the king enjoined to preserve the breed

of cattle in the country. There were certain

restrictions on castrating bulls. Emperor

Asoka issued an order that a bull, a goat or a

ram must not be castrated on the 8th, 10th,
15th and 13th day of each fortnight, neither
on the Punarvasu day, on a festival day and
in every fourth month of the year

The only source of use of indigenous drugs in

veterinary medicine is Agni Purana, which
reveals the real picture of practice of

61
veterinary medicines during the Gupta
dynasty (300-500 DA). The ancient system of

Indian medicine is termed Ayruveda

(Gavyayurveda fir cattle, Hastyayurveda for

elephants, and Ashvayurveda for equines.

Shalihotra lectured on the subject of horse

and its treatment, the
“Ashvayurveda“or“Turangama shatra“.

Garuda Purana also describes the treatment

of horses. King Nala had a surname ‘Ashvavit,

i.e., versed in the science of horses. Nakula

and Sahadeva, the twin sons of Madri, were

taught by Drona the art of training,
management and treatment of horses and
cattle respectively. To Nakula is ascribed the

work called Ashvachikitsa or “Treatment of

diseases of the horse“ which is still in

existence. This book is also called

“Shalihotra“. In the epic Mahabrarata, Virata

62
Parva (Chapter III). Sahadeva, the fifth

Pandava, has described himself as well versed

in the science of management and treatment
of cows. He also mentions that he knows such

type of cows and bulls whose urine when

smelled by a barren woman; the conception
occurs (Mahabrarata, Virat III.12). Perhaps

the cow urine contains some type of hormone,

which needs to be investigated. Nakula

Samhita is considered the first treatise

dealing with treatment of animals with herbal
preparations and was compiled during the
Mahabharata period. During the early

medieval period drugs of vegetables and

animals origin and minerals have been used
for treatments. Jayadeva also wrote on the

treatment of horses and he is quoted by

Jayadatta. Shalihotra, father of veterinary

science in India, flourished in Shalatur, a town

63
near Kandhar or old Gandhara. According to

an incomplete manuscript of Shalihotra (India

Office Library, London), he is described as the

father of Susruta. Hastyayurveda or

Gahayurveda is also an important branch of

veterinary medicine. The source of the

science is Palakapya’s Hastyayurveda which is

now available (Published in Anandashran

Sanskrit Series, Poona, 1894). Susruta

Samhita. Thus it may be assumed that this

work also belongs to 1000 BC.

Animal feed: The breeds were fed on barley

and corn, and in the Agnipurana,

Vishnudharmottara Mahapurana (500-700 AD.)

contains information on the medical practices of

treating the diseased animals.

Dipping the food of animals in its urine

for the control of food and mouth
64
 disease.
Dipping the tail in hot water or by
applying powdered camphor for
overcoming tail neurosis.
Feeding ground neem leaves for
internal parasites.
Feeding sprouted whole wheat for 10-15
days continuously for anoestrus, etc.
Also, application of ground custard apple leaves or
sprinkling camphor powder on affected area is
practiced. Both act as a fly-repellent, and are anti-

inflammatory and give soothing effect.

1.3 Human Resources -Manushyavidya

Growth and maintenance of a human body

depends upon the food. The human behavior

is dependent on the properties of food one

takes. Knowing the good or bad effects of

food, ancient learned persons have devised

certain fasts to control the bad effects of food.

SV1.24.

65
The three types of a good human are,

1. One who works methodically -

(Susheel)
2. One who removes the obstacles in
the work- (Chatoor)
One who is vigilant to avoid mistakes -
(Daksha) SV1.25

Necessity of Education
Education makes a person
educated -Vidyawan.
The educated then becomes a
person of good character -
Sheelwan.
After passing of few generations
the family becomes a reputed
family -Kulawan.
Knowledge of mathematics, law
and a structured language makes
a person methodical- (Susheel)
Knowledge of Science, Chemicals
and mechanisms make a person
imaginative - (Chatoor)

66
 Knowledge of astronomy,
medicine and engineering makes
a person vigilant or confidant -
(Daksha).
Every person should have minimum
elementary knowledge of these nine branches
of education so to be called as a cultured
person.

Small insects like white ants construct huge

anthills by carrying minute soil particles.

Tenacity is more important than strength.

People should therefore work collectively.

There are four types of persons,

1. One who cannot read (Adnya)

2. One who can read (Granthi)
3. One who can read and knows the
meaning. (Dharina)
4. One knows the meaning and
implements it. (Dynani)

67
Without knowing practical application of
knowledge, the learning is meaningless.

SV1.26. There are only three means of

acquiring knowledge and no forth way.

1. Learn from a teacher after pleasing

the teacher
2. Pay to teacher to get the education
3. Exchange knowledge with
knowledge.
More one digs (well) more is the
quantity of water in the well. Similarly
more the efforts for learning more is the
knowledge one acquires. SV 1.27

Like seeds, long term benefit is better than

quick small benefit. Grain harvesting is better

than grass harvesting. Similarly, one should

learn from teacher so that it can be taught to

others. This is effective and meaningful

learning. SV 1.28

Perfumes

68
India has a perfumery tradition that dates
back to over 5,000 years to Indus Valley
civilization. In the excavations of Harappa and

Mohanjodaro, a ‘water distillation still’ and

‘receiver’ have been recorded whose shape

resemble to the ‘deg’ and ‘bhabka’ currently

used by ‘attars’s (traditional perfumers) of

Kannauj in India.

There was competition in the preparation of

aromatic essence. The roots, flowers and

leaves were used in perfumery. The Sanskrit

Encyclopedia 'Manasollasa' composed by

Someshwara in AD 1127 deals with the
blending of perfumes which were used in royal
baths and for the rituals and worship.

Preparation of Perfumes (Brhat Samhita):

The word ‘yukti’ means combination and

composition. Perfumes and scents are

69
manufactured for the benefit of royal
personages and inmates of harems. All these

things show that the level of scientific and

industrial enterprise was pretty high in
ancient India. In fact civilization grows if

people’ desire increases for a happier livings,

which in turn finds new avenues of getting

luxury goods.

Hair Dyes: Cook the grains of Kodrava

(Paspalum scrobiculatum) in sour gruel or

vinegar in an iron dust and make a fine paste.

After washing the hair with sour gruel (or

vinegar) apply this paste to the head. Then,

covering the head with green (juicy) leaves,

remine for six hours. Thereafter remove the

paste from the head and apply a paste of

myrobalan (Emblica officinalis). Cover it again

with green leaves and retain it for another six

70
hours. On being washed, the hair will become

black.

Royal head-bath: A scented water fix for the

washing of kings’ head is prepared with equal

quantities of woody cassia, costus (Saussurea

lappa), Renuka (Piper aurantiacum), Nalika

(Hibiscus cannabinus), Sprkka (Bryonopsis

laciniosa) Rasa or Bola (Commiphora myrrha),

Tagara (Valeriana wallichii), Valaka (Aprorosa

lindieyana), Nagake-sara (Mesua ferrea) and

Patra (Laurus cassia).

Few important reference books

1. Srilakshyana (Sage Shakatayan)

mentions different characteristics of
women.
2. Purushlakshyan (Sage Babhru)
mentions different characteristics of
men.

71
3. Kanyalakshyan (Sage Babhru)
mentions different characteristics of
virgins.
4. Supashashtra (Sage Sukesh)
mentions 128 different recipes.
World’s first book on cookery.
5. Lokasangrahum (Sage
Vivekanacharya) deals with
anthropology, characteristics of men
and women from different states,
dress, and food habits etc.
6. Karmadisar (Sage Aapastambha)
mentions duties, planning of work,
auspicious time (Muhurta) for a
specific work.
7. Namarthkalpum (Sage Atri)
mentions how to select a name of a
child based on birth constellation
(Janma Nakshyatra). The personality
and destiny , it was believed,
depends upon the name such
selected.
8. Apte, M. S. "Selected articles from
Salihotra's Asvasastra." Indian

72
 veterinary journal 15 (1938): 415-
420.
9. Froehner, R. "Salihotra."
Veterinärhistorische Mitteilungen 2,
no. 1 (1922): 1-2.
***.***

िृक्षाप्रसिारोषण क्रर्ाहदहक्रया कृ षी ॥ कृ षी पारािर

SV1.1 - Biological Sciences

अांत:साराश्च िृक्षाः पनसतरूर्ुिाः सिवसारश्च

िक्कशचांचाद्या
स्तालकेरक्रर्ुकयबफलाद्या बहिःसार िृक्षाः।
शनःसाराः शिग्र्सप्तच््दिुकतरिः हकांिुकाद्याश्च
कायावस्तेष्िाद्या
र्ध्यभागे बहिरवपच ततः सिवसारास्ततोऽजये॥
र्नुष्यालयचांहिका
ग्नस्न्धसारा र्िासारा िृध्दास्तरूणेतराः ।
अिक्राशनर्व्वणा सैिग्रिी॥ र्यर्त

SV1.2 - Indian Botanical

Classification

पुरूषः िहदरः सालो र्धुकः स्ततकस्तथा ।

शििांपािून
व ािकणी क्षीरणी पद्मचांदनौ ॥

73
वपशितोधांिनः वपांडी शसांिो रािादनः िर्ी ।
पुरूषः बकुलः िग्नजिक्षीररणीत्सयेकर्ाद्याः ।
सुग्नध्दविर्लसारास्थुवपकोकाः प्रशसध्दः ॥ र्नुष्यालयचांहिका
शनिँबासनशिररषाश्च एक: काकश्च कटफल:
शतशर्सो शलकुांचश्चैि पनस: सप्तपणवक:
भौर्ाचैि गिाक्षी चेत्सयादय: स्त्रीर्िीरुि: ॥ र्यर्त अ १५

िहदर: िाहदरश्चैि र्धुक: क्षीररणी तथा ।

िातिांकुदृर्ा प्रोक्ताचेचाांबे सारदारि: ॥ र्यर्त

दां तच
ां चांदनां चैि िहदर: कहदर: िर्ी
िाकश्च शतांदक
ु शकैि िांकु िृक्षा उहदस्ता: युवक्तकल्पतरु

SV 1.3 - Tree Classification by Gender

कर्वर्ांडपकेजयस िालुके पररिायतेत ् ।

प्रागांघ्न चात्तराग्र िा प्यािुशकां रक्षसेत्सपुनः ॥ र्यर्त

SV 1.4 Seasoning of Trees

िालाशर्थविकणी उध्िावश्च पतनांिुभां ॥ र्यर्त

SV 1.5- Felling the tree

एक िाशत तरूशभः प्रकग्नल्पतां व्दार पादफलकाहदकां िुभां

। र्नुष्यालयचांहिका

74
 SV 1.6- Frames and door shutters

िव्यनािस्तु कालेन स्नेिनािात्सप्रिायते ।

तस्र्ात्तैलां सदालेप्यां िे र्ांते शिशिरे ऽयिा॥
कर्वर्ांडपेचि
ै काष्ठां स्यािक्तरग्नितां ।
हकिा्नेद्धतत्सकुदं गारा िृतिे तुना ॥ भृगुसांहिता

SV 1.7- Preservation of Wood

तासाां स्थािराश्चतुविवधाः
िनस्पतयो िृक्षा िीरूधा औषधय इशत।
तासु अपुष्पा फलिांतो िनस्पतयः ।
पुष्पफलिांत्सयः िृक्षाः ।
प्रतानित्सयःस्तग्नम्बजयश्च िीरूधाः ।
फलपाकशनष्ठा औषधय इशत ॥
सुश्रत
ु सांहिता अध्याय १ पररच्छे द २९
SV1.8- Botanical Classification

उष्र्तो म्लायते पणं त्सिक् फलां पुसपर्ेि च ।

म्लायते िीयवते चावप स्पिवस्तेनात्र विध्यते ॥११॥

िाय्ि्जयिशनशनशनघोषैः फलां पुष्पां वििीयवते ।

श्रोत्रेण गृह्यते िब्दस्तस्र्ाच्छृण्िांशत पादपाः ॥१२॥

75
 िल्ली िेष्ठयते िृक्षां सिवतश्चैि गच्छशत ।

ना ह्यद्दष्टेश्च र्ागोऽग्नस्त तस्र्ात ् पादपाः ॥१३॥

पुण्यापुण्यैस्तथा गांधध
ै प
ू ैिच विविधैरवप।

अरोगाः पुग्नष्पताः साग्नजत तस्र्ाग्नजिघ्रांशत पादपाः

॥१४॥

पादै ः सशललपानाच्च व्याधीनाां च दिवनात ्।

व्याधीप्रशतहक्रयत्सिाच्च विद्यते रसनां िर्

ु े ॥१५॥

सुिदःु ियोश्च ग्रिणाग्नच्छजनस्य च विरोिणात ्।

िीिां पश्चाशर् िृक्षाणार्चैतजयां न विद्यते ॥१६॥

तेनतजिल्र्ादत्तां िरयग्न्न र्रूतौ ।

आिारपररणार्च्च स्नेिो िृग्नध्दश्च िायते ॥१७॥

िक्त्रेणोत्सपलनालेन यथोध्र्ि िलर्ाददे त ्।

तथा पिनसांयुक्तः पादै ः वपबशत पादपः ॥१८॥

र्िाभारत िाांतीपिव अ १८४

SV1.9 - Sentiments of Plants

पिवजयस्योपलग्नब्ध बृिस्पतेः स्थानगर्नगभावधानेभ्यः।

76
िुक्रस्योदयास्तर्यचररभ्यः। सुयस्
व य प्रकृ शतिैकृताच्च।

सुयावव्दीिशसग्नध्दः बृिस्प्तेः सस्यानाांस्तांबकाररता

िुक्राद्वष्ट
ृ ीररशत ॥

SV1.10 -Forecast of Rainfall

र्ागवशिरः िुक्लपक्षप्रशतपत्सप्रभृशतक्षपाकरे ऽषाढार् ्

पूिाव िासर्ुपगते गभावणाां लक्षणां ज्ञेयर् ् ॥६॥

यजनक्षत्रर्ुपगते गभावणाां भिेत्सस चांिििात ् ।

पांचनिशतहदनिते तत्रैि प्रसिर्ायाशत ॥७॥

शसतपक्षभिा: कृ ष्णे िुक्ले कृ ष्णा द्युसांभिा रात्रौ ।

नक्तप्रभिाश्चािशन सांध्यािाताश्च सांध्यायार् ् ॥८॥

िरािसांहिता अ २१

SV1.11 -Forecast of Rainfall

िस्तवििालां कुांडां सर्शधकृ त्सयाांबुप्रर्ाणशनदे ि:।

पांचाित्सपललर्ाढकर्नेन शर्नुयाजिलां पशततर् ्॥

बृितसांहिता अ. २२

77
षोडििोण िाांगलानाां प्रर्ाणां । अध्यधव अनुपानाां
दे ििापानां ।

अधवत्रयादि अशर्कानाां । त्रयोविांिशतरिांतीनाां । अशर्तां

अपरां तानाां ॥ कौहटल्य

SV1.12 - Rain gauge description

षोडििोण िाांगलानाां प्रर्ाणां । अध्यधव अनुपानाां

दे ििापानां ।

अधवत्रयादि अशर्कानाां । त्रयोविांिशतरिांतीनाां । अशर्तां

अपरां तानाां ॥

कौहटल्य

SV1.13 - Rainfall distribution

तुषारपायनां उष्णिोषणां चासप्तरात्राशतशत

धाजयबीिानाां। वत्ररात्रां िा कोिीधाजयानाां ।

र्धुघत
ृ सूकरिसाशभ: िकृ द्युक्ताशभ: काांडबीिानाां।

व््िे दलेपो र्धुघत

ृ ेन कांदानाां।

अग्नस्थ बीिानाां िकृ दशलप:।

78
िाग्निनाां गतवदािा गोग्नस्थिकृ ग्नभ्द: काले दौहृदां च ।

प्ररुढाांश्चिुष्ककटु र्त्सस्याांश्च स्नुहिक्षीरे ण िापयेत ॥

कौहटल्य २-४-४१

SV1.14 - Sowing of seeds

सायांप्रातस्तु धर्वतौ िीतकाले हदनाांतके ।

िषावरात्रौ भुि: सेक्तव्या रोवपतदृर्ा: िृक्षायुिद

े

SV 1.15 -Watering of plants

विडां गघृतपांकाक्तान ् सेचयेत ् िीतिाररणा ।

फलनािे कुशलथ्येश्च र्ाषै र्ु्दै यिैग्नस्तलै:॥

घ्रुतिीतपय:सेक: फलपुष्पाय िायते।

आविकाििकृ च्चूणं यिचूणव शतलाशन च ॥

गोर्ाांससर्ुदकां चैि सप्तरात्रां शनघापयेत ।

उत्ससेक: सिविक्ष
ृ ाणाां फलपुष्पाहदिृग्नध्दद: ॥

र्त्सस्याांभसा च सेकेन िृग्नध्दपविशत िाग्निन:।

विडां गतांडुलोपेतां र्त्सस्यां र्ाांसां च तुग्नत्सथतप:॥

सिेषर्वििेषेण: िृक्साणाां रोगनािनर् ्। िृक्षायुिद

े

79
 SV1.16 – Tips on Horticulture

आकव पयो िुडुविषाणर्िीसर्िेत ्।

पारितािुिकृ ता च युतां पलेपः ॥

टां कस्य तैलर्शथतस्य ततोऽस्य पानर् ्।

पश्चात ् शितस्य शिलासु भिेद् विधातः ॥११६॥

बृितसांहिता अ ५४

क्षारे कदल्या र्शथतेन युक्ते हदनोवषते

पाशयतर्ायसां यत ्।

सम्यग्नक्ितां नाशर्शन चैशत भांगां न

चाजयलोिे ष्िवपतस्य कौठयर् ्॥

बृितसांहिता अ ५९

SV1.17 -Tempering of tools

चलहकिलयपाद: कणवर्ध्यैकदृवष्ट:।

न चलशत कहटदे िे स्िासने सांग्नस्थतो य: ॥

ियहृदयगशतज्ञ: स्थानदां डािपाती ।

80
 स िलु तुरयाता पूजयताां पाशथविेन॥
िाशलिोत्र

SV1.18a - A good horse rider

र्ेरुग्नस्थरो यस्य चलौ च पादौ ।

वत्रकोजनत सांितर्ासनां च ॥

स िाग्नििाि: प्रशथत: पृशथव्यार् ्।

िेषा“ नरा भरकरा ियानार् ्॥ नकुलिास्त्र

SV1.18b - A good horse rider

भीते िक्ष:स्थलां िजयात ् िक्त्रां

चोजर्ागवगाशर्न:।

कुवपते पुच्छसांस्थानां भ्ाांते िानुव्दयां तथा:॥

यज्ञत्सप्रस्िलते गात्रां तस्य दां ड शनपातयेत ्।

अस्थानदां दपाताच्च बिुदोषी प्रिायते ॥

िाशलिोत्र

SV 1.19 -Tips for a horse rider

व्यांगो वििणो विषर्: ग्नित्री धूम्रश्चल: िर: ।

81
 एते सप्तर्िादोषा िृषभाणार्ुदीररता:॥ गिायुिद
े

SV 1.20 - Defects of Oxen

भक्षयांशत र्ाांसाशन विवषणाां भक्षयांशत तान ्।

नकुलानाां िरािाणाां पृषतानाां च युवक्तत:॥

र्ाांसाजयादाय तेषाां तु यथोक्तां कारयेिसर् ्।

औषधाशन शभषक्तेषाां विषिारीग्नण कारतेत ्॥ िस्त्सयायुिद

े
२-६

SV1.21 - Insulin preparation

त्सिक्फलकृ शर्रोर्ाग्नण िस्तयोशनश्चतुविवधा ।

िांतरोर्ोभ्दिां रोर्िां नार्कीशतवतर् ्॥

सुक्ष्र्रोर्ा सुिस््िी कोर्लाांगस्तु भिेत ्।

ब्रम्ििाशत: स विज्ञेयो िस्त्रां चास्य गुणोत्तरर् ्॥

एकिाशतभिां भिां व्दै िातां सुिसांर्दर् ्।

बिुिाशतसर्ुद् भूतर् ् लोर्िां न सुिाििर् ् ॥ परािरीय

कृ षी

SV1.22 - Types of fibers

82
 र्ृगयाथव िाकुनाथव कौतुकाथव र्िीभृता।

स्िान: पोष्यास्तस्तेषार्ात्र िक्षाशर् लक्षणर् ्।

गुणिाशतप्रभदे न िुनाां भेदा ह्यनकधा॥ युवक्तकल्पतरु

SV1.23 - Hunting dogs

िरररग्नस्थशतिे तुभूतत्सिादािारसिधर्ावण: कार्ा:।

िात्ससायन कार्सूत्र

SV 1.24 - Effect of food on mind and

body

सुिीलश्चतुरो दक्ष: कुलिीलगुणाग्नजित: ।

कल्पक: स्िेष्टकृ च्चैिाप्रर्ादी सांस्कृ तो नर: ॥

र्नुष्यविद्या

SV 1.25 - Three qualities of a good

human

अज्ञेभ्यो ग्रांशथन: श्रेष्ठा ग्रांशथभ्यो धाररणस्तथा।

धाररभ्यो ज्ञाशनन: श्रेष्ठा ज्ञशनभ्यो व्यिसाशयन: ॥

र्नुस्र्ृशत

83
 SV 1.26 - Four types learned
persons

गुरुिुश्रष
ू या विद्या पुष्कलेन धानेन िा।

अथिा विद्यया विद्या चतुथन

ं ैि विद्यते॥

यथा िनन ् िशनत्रेण नरो िायवशधगच्छशत ।

तथा गुरुगताां विद्याां िुश्रष

ू ुराशधगच्छशत॥

SV 1.27 - Means of acquiring knowledge

शचरादविशनपाती बीिसधर्ां लाभ: श्रेयान ्।

ग्नक्षप्रर्ल्पलाभात ् ॥ कौहटल्य ७-९-११५

SV 1.28 -Effective learning

***..***

2 WATER RESOURCES ENGINEERING

2.0. Introduction

84
Water Resources Engineering (Jala

Shastra) is the second Shilpa Shastra. Table

2.1 below indicates the “Techniques and

Skills“ related to Water Resources

Engineering

Table 2.1 – Three Vidya and one

Kala
Vidya Techniques
Sanchetan Water Supply
Samharan Drainage of
water
Stambhan Storage of
water
Kala Skills
Jalavayanagnisanyog Water, Air and
fire control

Water is available in all the three states, solid

(ice), liquid and gaseous (water vapors) states.

85
The whole living system is evolved with the
combination of earth and water. (Ref. SV2.1)

In Rig-Veda, the earliest sacred book of

Aryans, mentions four sources of water. Ref.

SV 2.2. Water which;

comes from sky (rain water);

flows in river and streams;

obtained by digging;
Oozes out from springs.

A prayer from Rig Veda praises water as

mother of welfare of mankind. (Ref. SV 2.3). It

says "Water is mother of welfare. May our

mother show the way to prosperity and impart

its strength to us.“

Rig-Veda states that water has medicinal

properties. It cleans all impurities (Ref. Rig-

Veda 1-23-20&22).

86
Atharva-Veda mentions various sources of

water which is essential to all. (Ref. SV 2.4). It

also gives description of digging canals from

rivers. River is mentioned as a cow and canals

its calf.

In Yajur-Veda also mention is made of canals

and dams. They are termed as Kulya and

Sarasi respectively. Sarasi denotes a big

reservoir as well as a lake. Deep dug well

whose bottom is completely dark due to its

depth, is mentioned in Jaiminiya-Brahmana, a

work connected with Sama-Veda. (I, 292)

Rig-Veda (I, 84.10, 116.9, IV 17.16) mentions

a term avata which signifies a well. In another

place (Vii, 103.2) reference is made to a dried

up reservoir in which a dry bucket is lying.

Another passage mentions Kulya an artificial

river or canal as reaching a lake.

87
Brihaspati, anther law -giver and writer on

policy states that the construction and repairs

of dams is a pious work and its burden should
fall on the shoulders of the rich men of the
land. Vishnu Purana also enjoins merit to a

person who repairs wells, gardens and dams

Manu says (VIII, 248) that the dams, wells,

pools and public gardens should be

constructed on the boundary lines. (IX,

279:281).

In the lexicon of Nighantu as many as

fourteen types of wells are mentioned. The

lexicon mentions hundred different names of

water

Manu the earliest law-giver writes in his work

Manu-smruti (VII, 196) that a king who wishes

to conquer his enemy should first of all

destroy the dams (Tataka) in his territory.

88
Rishi Narad, a great writer on polity, once
came to court of emperor Yudhishitira and
asked “Are the dams full of water and big

enough and well distributed in different parts

of the kingdom, and whether agriculture
depends only on rain water?"

In addition to Vedic references, one can find

references in Puranas and Nitishastras.

Naradniti contains questions asked by Narada

to King Dharmaraj. One of the questions is as

below;

“The rainwater which falls on earth flows into

rivers, tanks and canals. O King, have you

ensured that this water storage is not wasted?

The water saves the mankind, trees and
animals. Do you ensure that the water does

not seep out of tanks? “

89
Narad Shilpasashtra contains following
chapters related to hydraulics.

Bhagirath brought river Ganges down from

Himalaya to plains. This is not the only wonder

of Indian hydraulics. There is another

astonishing work of ancient Indian engineers.

There is an ancient story about a big ocean of

sweet water in central India. Sage Agasthi

drank the whole water and made the land

suitable for habitation. The technical meaning

of this story is that sage Agasthi dewatered

the land. Sage Agasthi was also an authority

on aeronautics. His text Viman Samhita is

partially available.

Another hydraulic work, construction of Sea

Bridge is mentioned in the epic Ramayana.

The bridge was not constructed by Hanuman

with the help of tribal of Nala tribe and not

90
monkeys. The bridge in shallow water

between coasts of India and Shri Lanka was

constructed in five days using huge stones
and trunks of trees. Well versed readers of

Ramayana know that Hanuman was not a

monkey but man residing in forests.

In a Pali text “Dhammapada“, a stanza

mentions nettikas forcing water to go by itself.

The king was praised as “builder of canals and

aqueducts. This indicates that irrigation canals

and aqueducts were common in a period prior

to Mauryan period.

Classical Sanskrit literature

In Sanskrit literature "Pranali, Kulya, Sarasi,

Nika, Nala and Nalika" are the words used for

different types of canals and channels. There

is also another word Tilmaka which denotes a

channel which leads the water from hill side

91
over the fields which rise in terraces one
above another. Similarly the word Kunda and

tala are used for small and big tanks and

words tataka and sarsu for big dams.

Hemadri in the Danakhanda of his Chatur

varga Chitamanni quotes a verse from
Devipurana, which indicates difference
between a Kupa and vapi and again quotes
from Vishnu-Purana that dams and nadivahas

or small channels were used for watering the

fields. Pali, Vipali and many more words are

mentioned in Devi-Purana as quoted by

Hemadri, in the context of water courses. Pali

possibly denotes a dam or embankment and

Vipal must be smaller in dimensions or
subsidiary of Pali. The term Pala for

embankment is still used in Bundelkhand

area.

92
There is an interesting verse in the Karma-

Pradeep of Katyayana which draws distinction

between a Nadi and Garta based on the speed
of their current. This shows that speed was

one of the factors of distinction and there may

have been several other factors that were
responsible for the variety of names which we
find scattered in the literature.

According to another ancient writers, the

digging of a tank is regarded as greatest of
seven meritorious acts of a man that are
calculated to provide water, viz giving water ,
prapa, kupa, vapi, kulya, padmakara, tataka
or dam

Amarkosha a work composed in 4th century

AD, mentions two types of land

Devmatruka- Land irrigated by rains

Nadimatruka- land irrigated by rivers

93
According to lexicographer Amara (1st

Century AD) Kulya is a small artificial stream.

This also shows that canals were dug for the

purpose of irrigation.

Dalhana (12th century AD) in his commentary

on medical work Sushruta, has differtiated

between various types of water reservoirs and
water channels. According to him the Ganges

and other river etc should be called Nadi and

rivers Sindhu and Sona as Nada. A natural

tank is named as sara and those constructed

by men is called tadaga or dam. In another

work Manasollas water lifting arrangements

are described. From the above it is evident

that artificial irrigation was given supreme

importance.

2.1 Storage of water –Stambhan

94
Narad Shilpashashtra contains four chapters
as mentioned below

Table 2. 2 - Four chapters of

Naradsamhita
Sanskrit English
Jalashaya Ponds & Tanks
Lakshnakathanum
Pranali Arch Bridges
Lakshnakathanum
Jaldurga Lakshyanam Water Forts
Vahinidurg Lakshyanam River Forts

2.2 Properties of Static Water

The art of storage of water was termed as

"Stambhan vidya" Sage Bhrugu has described
the properties of static water as below;
1. The top surface of water is always
horizontal, irrespective of its depth or
cross section.
2. The water is very unsteady; it escapes
if there is little scope. The pressure

95
 exerted by water is same in all
directions.
3. The water pressure is equivalent to its
weight.
4. Waves are created in water due to wind.
Waves move like a rolling pin and
recede afterward.
5. The banks should be sloping to reduce
the damage due to waves.
One can find reference on automatic gates in
Bhrugusamhita Ref. SV 2.5

2.3 Tanks: The idea of construction of lake

originated from a well .different types of tanks
are mentioned in ancient texts. . These types
are described below in an order of increasing
size.

kund is a Small enclosure in river bed.

palwal is similar to open cast mine.
tadag is a lake spread in an area of 100
hectors
mahasar is a very big lake with island
inside Temples or palaces are
constructed on such island.
Koop is a deep and narrow well

96
 Dipika is An oblong well
Vapi is a big well with steps inside
nanda, jaya or vijay are large well with
steps from many sides

The table 2.1 gives the list of tanks

constructed in India during 11th to 17th
century

Table 2.3 Ancient Indian

Tanks
Period Name
1010 – Arikesari
1011 Mangalam
1012 - Gangaikoda
1044 Cholapuram

11th Bhojapura (near

century Bhopal
11th
Rajatataka
century

11th Bhavadeva
century Bhatta (WB)

1106 – Sindhuvall, Dist.

1107 Mysore

97
 Periyavayakkal,,
1219
Trichi

13th Pakhala Lake

century Warangal A.P.

Porumamilla
1369
Tank
Firangipuram,
1409 Guntur Dist. A.P

Haridra dam
1410
,Vijayanagar
Narsambwddhi
1489 ,District
Annantpur
Nagalapura,
1520
District Bellary
Korragala and
Basavanna
1521
Channels Dist
Bellary
Shivsamudra
1531–
lake ,District -
1532
Guddapah
Satpulah bund
1326
,Delhi

98
 14th Old Jamuna
century Canal, Delhi
1627 -
Ravi River Canal
1657

Padma puran mentions that “The person who

pollutes waters of ponds, wells or lakes goes

to hell.“ Ref. SV 2.6.Vasturatnakar stress the

importance of maintenance of water bodies.

Ref. SV 2.7

Porumamilla Tank

An inscription dated A.D. 1369 on two stone

slabs in a nearby temple states that the work

of construction of reservoir took two years;
that 1000 workers were employed; and 100
carts were engaged for carrying stones to the
site. The inscription gives remarkable

specifications for the selection of tank site and

99
its construction and enumerates the following
12 requisites for a good tank.

1. A king endowed with

righteousness, rich, happy and
desirous of fame.
2. A person well versed with
Hydrology (Payasshastra)
3. Bed of tank of hard clayey soil.
4. A river conveying sweet water
from a distance of 24 miles
5. Two projecting portions of hill in
contact with it (dam)
6. Between the projecting portions
of hill a dam built of compact
stones firm but not too long.
7. The two extremities of the hills to
be devoid of fruit bearing land.
8. The bed of the tank to be
extensive and deep.
9. A quarry containing long and
straight stones.
10. Fertile low and level land in
the neighborhoods to be irrigated.

100
 11. A water course having
strong /stone eddies in the
mountain region
12. A group of men skilled in
the art of tank construction. SV
2 .8
It is also interesting that the inscription
enjoins six faults to be avoided, namely
1. Oozing of water from dam
2. Saline soil
3. Site at the boundary of two
kingdoms
4. High ground in the middle of tank
5. Scanty water supply and
extensive area to be irrigated
6. Too little land to be irrigated but
excessive water supply.

This shows that the science of building dams

was well advanced in those days.

Details regarding maintenance and repairs of

big dams are not forthcoming. The records are

lost. But some information can be gained from

101
the inscriptions about maintenance and
repairs of small tanks and canals in the
inscriptions of South India.

Automatic gates are provided inn dams to

remove silt deposits. The axis of these gates

is at one-third the height of gates so these

gates functions properly.

In 1800 East India Company sent Dr. Francis

Buchanan to India to study economic and

agriculture aspects of India. His report was

published in London (1805) as Buchanan’s

journey from Madras etc. (London 1805) Vol.

I- III. In this report he says “At Condutur I

saw one of these Hindu Irrigation Works for

which South India was always famous. It was

a large reservoir formed by closing an opening

between two natural ridges of ground. The

sheet of water was even or eight miles in

102
length and three in width, and was let out in
numerous small canals to irrigate fields in the
dry season. In the mains it was replenished

from the Cheir Nadi, there were sluices at

different places twenty or thirty feet wide and
these sluices were fortified by stones, placed
in a sloping direction, to let out the
superfluous water. The reservoir could irrigate

the lands of thirty two villages during a

drought of eighteen months. In a country

liable to famine from want of rain a reservoir

such as this is of inestimable value.“

2.4 Sanchetanvidya - Water Distribution

India is essentially an agricultural country and

Indians have always fully appreciated the
beneficent use of water. This is evident from

the Vedic prayers and especially from the

famous hymn Apohishta. Artificial irrigation as

an aid to agriculture is practiced in India, from

103
times immemorial starting from very ancient
times, the science of irrigation has developed
in this country to its present state of
advancement and for us the science of
hydraulics is synonymous with the science of
Irrigation“.

Vaze did pioneering research on ancient

Indian Engineering Sciences ("Shilpashastra).

Many Vedic mantras related to water are

quoted in his book (Ref.). Vaze in his book

'Agriculture and allied arts in Vedic India’ has

mentioned following different topics related to

water

“ Rain and water sources

“ Prayers against excessive rains.

“ River water Irrigation

“ Soil erosion by rivers, and its control.

“ Wells

104
“ Mud wells

“ Other water sources

“ Ships and sea navigation

According to Shri Vaze, Vashitha Samhita

deals with navigation and hydraulics.

Prof. Haridas Mitra has given list of books

related to hydraulics in his book includes the

ancient texts which are additional references.

Central Board of Irrigation, Government of

India, has a big reference library which
publishes books related to hydraulics. The

book by Mr. Baker contains pictures of

aqueducts of Mogul period.

King Nala was an engineer and water

distribution through pipes was his invention.

Interlocking cylindrical earthen tiles were

105
used to transport water. Such pipelines still

exist in old Shri Lanka.

Keeping aside the myths about ancient

hydraulics, one can still witness the expertise
of Indian hydraulic Engineers.

C.B.I.P. Government of India published a book

“5000 Years of Indian Architecture“. Page 6 of

this book shows isometric projection of great

bath at Mohenjodaro. This clearly indicates

progress of Indian hydraulics.

Dr. Acharya, has described ancient hot sitting

baths in his book “Elements of Hindu culture

and civilization".

There were many water works in ancient

period .The water works constructed at

Burhanpur and Aurangabad, are comparable

to modern water works. Big closed Intake

106
wells were constructed near Aurangabad. The

water under the force of gravity was taken

through canals to residential areas. Siphon

principle was also used. One curious person

Shri Gogate of Akola had the privilege to

inspect these canals in intact condition and
published his experience in an article “Ancient

water works“

Shri T.V. Mahalingum has described the

irrigation practices of well-known

Vijayanagara dynasty in an article entitled

“Irrigation under the Vijayanagara Kings“.

Hydraulics machines were fabricated in

ancient India to utilize hydro power.

Kallanai Built By Karikalan, a Chola King. (This

image also shows 19th century additions to

the ancient dam).It was built by the Chola king

Karikalan around the 2nd Century BC and is

107
considered as one of the oldest water-

diversion or water-regulator structures in the

world, which is still in use.

The dam is built on the Kaveri River in the state

of Tamilnadu in southern India.

The Kallanai is a massive dam of uneven one, 329

meters (1,080 ft) long and 20 meters (60 ft) wide,

across the main stream of river Kaveri. The

purpose of the dam was to divert the waters of the

Kaveri across the fertile delta region for irrigation
via canals. The dam is still in excellent state, and

provided a model to later engineers, including Sir

Arthur Cotton's 19th-century dam across the

Kollidam, the major tributary of the Kaveri. The

area irrigated by the ancient irrigation network is

about 1,000,000 acres (4,000 square kilometers).

108
Sweeping past the historic rock of Tiruchirapalli, it
breaks into two channels at the island of
Srirangam, which enclose between them the delta
of Thanjavur (Tanjore), the garden of South India.

The northern channel is called the Kollidam

(Kolidam); the other preserves the name of

Kaveri, and empties into the Bay of Bengal at

Poompuhar, a few hundred miles south of Chennai
(Madras). On the seaward face of its delta are the

seaports of Nagapattinam and Karaikal. Irrigation

works have been constructed in the delta for over

2,000 years.

Irrigation Engineering: Another name for

India was Yilaa Varta. The hidden meaning of

this name is Jala Maaruta, the country of

water laden winds. No other country in the

world has monsoons. The rainfall in India is

more than the total rainfall in the rest of the

109
world. India is the land of mighty rivers. In the

olden days, the water flow rate in the Ganga

exceeded that of any other river in the world.

The people of South India built and

maintained an extensive system of irrigation
tanks and associated canals with
extraordinary managerial and social skills.

They shared the waters following the ways of

nature from time immemorial. Construction of

small dams at every possible location was

carried out with such completeness that a
British engineer of the
19th century thought that it would be
impossible to add another tank to that
irrigation system. It was a marvel of Indian

engineering and human

cooperation. Nothing like it existed elsewhere

in the world at any time in the past. While

peasants of other countries broke their backs

110
to reap one harvest, the Indians produced two
or three bumper crops a year. The harvest in

the Krishna and Kaveri river basins was large

enough to meet the needs of rest of our
country during periods of crisis. Visitors from

Europe and China in pre-Christian times wrote

that India was a land of plenty. Our Buddhist

and Jain religious records also say the same

thing.

Irrigation for Agriculture- The land irrigated by

rain water alone, is termed as "Dev matruk

desh" The land irrigated by river water, is

termed as "Nadi matruk desh" The land with

scanty rains is termed as "Anup desh". Canals

can be constructed by cutting the river banks.

Such canals are called as "Kullya". The water

springs of hilly region are called "Strot". Small

bunds are constructed to store water for

111
distribution through streams, called "Baah"

When the river water is inadequate one has to

go for well water irrigation.

Irrigation by dug wells: The capacity of such

irrigation is limited. The wells have to be lined

with stone masonry to prevent collapse of

sides of well. The wells are dug deep enough

to store desired quantity of water.

2.5 Water Supply or Sanchetan

King Bhagirath may be considered as the first

irrigation engineer of India. Sir William Wilcox

(The father of Modern Irrigation Engineering)

has praised Bhagirath in these following

words

“Following the genius of your country, your

ancient writers (Vyas in Mahabharata)

described the physical facts they were writing

112
about in spiritual language, but the facts were
there all the same. Every canal which went

southward, whether it has become a river like

the Bhagirathi, or remained a canal like the
Mahabharata was originally a Canal. They

were lined out and dug fairly parallel to each

other. They were spaced apart that Canals

should be placed. I remember quite well when

I began to line out a system of Canals for the

irrigation of the country; I was astonished to
find everywhere that a so-called “dead river“

on the map was just where a canal should be

placed“

Treatise on Dams: There were several texts

pertaining to the construction of dams, which

are however not available now. Eight leaves

of treatise on water by Sage Garga are even

now preserved in the library of Nepal durbar
(No.1633 pp 76 of catalogue). The manuscript

113
is dated 1070 AD. Devipurana says "The

measurements of a superior type of

Palibandha are given as 200 cubits by
specialists in their treatise". The inscription

referred in the last Para also bears witness to

the fact that treatise were written on the
subject, which had to be mastered by
hydraulic engineers. Another inscription of

Bhaskara Bhavdura, year 1291 also makes

mention of Brahmans learned in the science
of hydrology (Pathas-Shastra) E. I Vol.Xiii p

108.

2.6 Properties of water

Flowing Water

Properties of flowing water: Sage Vashishtha

has described the properties of flowing water.

These properties, mentioned below, are still

114
relevant in the context of modern principles of
hydraulics.

1. The surface of water slopes in a

direction of flow. Higher the slope

higher is the velocity of flow.

2. The surface of water is not plane but

raised in the middle and sloping towards
both of the banks (like the back of

tortoise).

3. The velocity of water is less along the

banks and more in the middle.

4. Water level is higher at the bank where

erosion is more. Velocity of water is also

high at this side.

5. Water with higher velocity moves

forward hence the mouth of flow of
water is like a mouth of a fish.

115
6. When there is an obstruction to flow,
water exerts a pressure proportional to
its velocity.

7. The hydraulic pressure increases with

the depth of water.

8. Weight of a body suspended in water is

equivalent to weight of water of volume
same as submerged portion.

(Archimedes Principle).

9. Velocity of water reduces due to

frictional resistance of the surface. This

resistance is less if the surface is

smooth.

10. Velocity decrease with increase in

cross-sectional area or wetted

perimeter. To maintain the velocity of

flow the area to perimeter ratio has to

be kept constant.

116
 11. When water strikes one bank it
rebounds in other direction and strikes
the opposite bank. This results into

zigzag path of flowing water.

Flowing water transports clay, sand pebbles

or big boulders depending upon its velocity.

When velocity decreases coarser par

Kautilya sutra (XL, 3-6) also explains the

rituals of opening ceremony of letting water

into a canal, A gold plate was laid at the
mouth of a canal on which a frog tied with blue
and red threads, was made to sit. The frog

was then covered with moss (Shevala) and

water was let in.

Kautilya (300 BC) has mentioned canals and

dams in different contexts" Ordinarily a

revenue tax of one-fourth of the produce was

paid to the state for water used from rivers,

117
lakes and dams and from well worked with
machines. During times of famine the king

and his subjects took shelter near dams.

Water animals in rivers, canals and dams

were protected and fishing license. If

privately managed dams were neglected for

five years their charge was taken over by the
state. If these were constructed by public

contribution, revenue for five years was

remitted and if only repairs were carried out
on public effort, revenue for four years was
remitted (3.9). According to him one of the

good features of a state is that cultivation in

it does not depend on rains alone (4.1). He

also ordains that one who withdraws water

from culverts without his turn or obstruct it
shall be punished with a fine of six coins
(pannas).

118
2.7 Samharanvidya - Drainage and

dewatering

If a land is waterlogged then the water should

be drained out by digging drains parallel to
north east and refilling the trenches by
brickbats and stones so that excess water
drains out. Bhrugusamhita (SV 2.09)

Water drains should be deep (1 meter) below

ground and the bottom surface should be

smooth and sloping. If such drain is not

provided then the owner should be fined (54

coins).Bhrugusamhita (SV 2.10)

The height of waste water drains should be

more than 3/4 height of a person so that such

drains can be cleaned when necessary.

2.8 Kautilya and Water resource

Engineering

119
Kautilya (300 BC) in his text Arthshastra has

given some guide lines on various aspects of

water resource engineering. These aspects are

discussed below.

A-dam construction

Kautilya advises that; (Ref. SV 2.12)

The king should construct a dam in a

region where there is shortage of
water
The dam should be constructed
jointly with the kings of neighboring
states on sharing basis (cost or
water.)
The work of persons assisting in
construction should be properly
compensated with rights of
cultivation, or wood or passage
rights.
The farmers should spare their
servants and animals for
construction or share the
construction cost.

120
 The king should appoint officers to
supervise the related works such as
fishing, boating, disposal of floating
trees etc.

The agricultural taxes of farmers should be waived

of for a periods of 3 to 5 years depending upon
their contribution. The Arthshashtra recommends

that the king shall construct reservoirs (setu) filled

with water either perennial or drawn from some

other source. Alternatively he might provide sites,

roads, timber and other necessary things to those

who constructed reservoirs of their own accord or
on a communal basis. Since the creation and

upkeep of reservoirs was a communal effort,

rather than an official governmental one, the
reservoirs must be of a manageable size.

B- Fines to be imposed

121
Punishments are laid down for defaulters. Who so

ever stays away from any kind of cooperative

construction (sambhuya setubandat ) should send

his servants and bullocks to carry on his work,

should have a share in the expenditure but should
have no claim on the return. The natural overflow

of water from higher tanks to tanks lower

downstream shall not be stopped unless the lower
tank has ceased to be useful for three consecutive

years."

Kautilya has also suggested a fine to be

imposed on persons, who construct barriers
resulting submergence of land on upstream
side or restrict the flow of water to
downstream side. SV 2.13

For proper utilization of water, Kautilya has

suggested following fines

122
 A person, who causes damages to
farms, gardens or tanks, shall
compensate for damages and also pay
fines to the king.

A person shall not obstruct water

flowing to tanks at lower levels. But the

tanks at lower levels are not used for

three years; water at higher level can
be retained.

If the tanks are not in use for five or more

years, the owner shall loose the rights of such
tanks SV 2.14

Severe punishment is prescribed for offenses,

including emptying a tank of its water. Persons,

found letting water out of the tank or stopping the

water from the fields of others during their time,
are to be fined.

123
Kautilya has specified fines for digging a
stream from water stored in lake / pond or

obstruction to flow of water streams, so that

there is no wastage of water. SV 2.15

C- Agricultural tax

Kautilya has mentioned canals and dams in

different context. "Ordinarily a revenue tax of

one-forth of the produce was paid to the state

for water used from rivers, lakes and dams

and from wells worked with machines. During

times of famine the king and his subjects took

shelter near dams. Water animals in rivers,

canals and dams were protected and fishing

was allowed under license. If privately

managed dams were neglected for five years

their charge was taken over by the state. If

these were constructed by public contribution,

revenue for five years was remitted for four

124
years.). According to him one of the good

features of a state is that cultivation does not

depend on rain alone. He also ordains that

one who breaks water from culverts it.

Kautilya constituted rules for agricultural tax

for contract cultivation. The taxes varied
between 20 to 33 percent of the yield from the
land. Ref. SV 2.16

Annual maintenance and repairs of the water

systems was a communal voluntary effort, almost
like a village festival; according to the
Arthshastra, even compulsory for all, either in
person, or by the sending of deputies.

D -Kautilya advises

Kautilya gives a very important advice saying

"that during war the tracts of land of the

enemy should be flooded with water by

breaking the lakes, dams and embankments

125
Kautilya also advises that "Earlier good

practices such as construction of dams,

mineral explorations etc. should be continued

by the successors of the king" He also advises

that "old practices should be reviewed with

modern perspective". Ref. SV 2.17

2.9 Sanskrit Verses

आप एिसिीदौ तासुिीयविासुिन ्।

द्यौ वपता प्रुथ्िीर्ाता पिवजयेरेत ॥

SV2.1 - Evolution of Creatures

या आपो हदव्या उत िा स्त्रिांती उत िा या ঃ

स्ियांिा । सर्ुिाथाव या ঃ िुचायঃ पािकास्ता आपो
दे िीररि र्ार्नजतु ॥ ऋ्िेद ७-४९-२

SV 2.2 - Sources of water

आपोग्नव्दष्ठा र्यो भुिस्तानौिे दधातन र्िे णावय

चक्षसे ॥ ऋ्िेद १०-९-१

126
 SV2.3 - Vedic prayer of water

िांनो आपो धांिजया िसु अनुप्याः ।

शंनः खनननिमा आपःशमुयाः कु म्भ अमृताः ॥

अथर्वर्ेद १-५-४

SV 2.4 - Sources of water

पांक्क्षालनशसद्धध्यथं प्रिािाकषणावय च ।

यथाशभलवषतान व्दारान ् वपधानोध्दाटनक्षर्ान ् ॥

भ्ुगुसांहिता अ. १२

सेतुबांधेषु कुिीत तृतीयाम्िविभाशगन: ॥ भ्ुगुसांहिता अ.

१२

SV2.5 - Automatic gates

सुकूपानाां तडागाना प्रपानां च परां तप ।

सरसा चैि भैत्तारो नरा शनरयगाशर्न: ॥ पद्मपुराण

९६-७-८

SV2.6- Water pollution

127
 िापीकूपतडागेषु दे िताततनेषु च ।

िीणावजयुध्दरते यस्तु पुण्यर्ष््गुणां भिेत ॥१०॥

िास्तुरत्नाकर

SV 2.7 –Maintenance of water bodies

शनशर्वतस्य तटाकस्य व्दादिाांगाशन िास्त्रतः ।

िक्षाशर्भाविभूपानार्ुकाराय िासने ॥३६॥

धर्ावढ्यो धनिान ग्नस्थरयिोिव्याशभलाषी नृपः ।

पाथिास्त्रविदग्र
ु िश्च िढ
ु म्रुदस
ु ांिोशभताचोिवरा ।

र्ाधुयांबुिि वत्रयोिन नदीतद्योगिांडीशगररः ।

स्सेतुस्तत्र विशनशर्वती घनशिलाशभत्सयल्प्दीघवग्नस्थरः ॥३७॥

िृांगोिाल्य्फल ग्नस्थरापररिूतौ विग्नस्तर्ण शनम्नोदरां ।

र्ृजिायार्िष
ु त्ससशनश्च शनकटक्क्षेत्रां फलाढ्यां सर्ां ।

अग्न्दस्थन दृढभ्र्ािलगशतस्तत्सकर्व र्त्सयर्व्ंिश्चेद्गग ।

व्दादिसाधनैश्च सुलभः श्रेष्ठः स्तटाको भुवि ॥३८॥

128
SV 2.8 - Earth Dams: Twelve desirable
things

अनुपां िलपांकर्यां दे िां पूिोत्तर िातशभररष्ट

कोपल पुररताशभगतावराशभस्त्राियेत ्॥ भृगुसांहिता अ ८

SV2.09-Drainage of water

वत्रपदीप्रशतक्राांत अत्सयधवर्रत्नी िा प्रिेशय गाढप्रसृतां

उदकर्ागं

प्रस्तिणां प्रघातां िा कारयेत । तस्याशतक्रर्े

चतुष्पांचाित्सपणो दां ड:॥

भृगुसांहिता

SV2.10- Waste water drains

वत्रभागाशधकायार्ा भाांडिाहिनी: कुल्या: कारयेत ्।

SV2.11- size of waste water drains

129
अनुदकदे िे कूपसेतुबांधोत्ससान स्थापयेद ।

सहोदकं आहपोदवकं र्ा सेतुं बंधयेत ॥

अन्येषां र्ा बघ्नन्तं भूनममार्वर्ृक्षोपकरणानुग्रहं कु यावत ।

सांभूयव सेतु बांधाद प्रकार्तः कर्वकर बलीिदाव कर्व कुयुःव

॥

व्ययकर्वग्नणच भाशगनः स्युः ।

र्त्सस्य पल्ि िररत पण्यानाां सेतुषु रािा स्िाम्यां गच्छे त॥

कौहटल्य अथविास्त्र २-१-१९

SV2.12- Economic aspects of dam

construction

सेतुभ्यो र्ुांचस्तोयां अपारे षटपणोदर्:

पारे िातोयर्जयेषाां प्रर्ादे नोपरुां धत: ॥ कौहटल्य ३-१०-

६०

SV2.13 - Fine for law breaking

केदारारार्सेतुबांधानाां परस्परहिां सायाां हिां साग्नव्दगुणो दां ड:

।

130
पश्चाग्नजनविष्टां अधरातटाकां उपररतटाकस्य केदार उदकेन
न आल्पियेत ।

उपररशनविष्टां च ना अधरतटाकस्य पुरास्त्रािां िररयेत ्।

तटाकिार्नांच अजयत्र वत्रिषावपरतकर्वण: तस्याशतक्रर्

पूि:व हित दां ड: ।

पांचिषोपरतकर्ेण: सेतुबध
ां स्य स्िाम्यां लुप्तेत अजयत्र
आपदभ्य: ॥

कौहटल्य ३-२०-६०

SV2.14-Kautila's rules

सेतुभ्यो र्ुांचतस्तोयां अपारे ष्टपणोदर्ः

पारे िातोयर्ांतेषाां प्रर्ादे नोपरुां धतः ॥ कौहटल्य अथविास्त्र

SV2.15-Fines for canal leaks

िस्तप्रािशतवर् उदकभगां पांचर्ां दद्युः । स्व्कांधप्रािशतवर्ां

चतुथव ।

स्त्रोतोयंि प्रार्र्तवमंच तृनतयं । चतुथव नदीसरस्तटाक

कूपोव्दाटां ।

131
कौहटल्य अथविास्त्र

SV2.16 - Agricultural Taxes.

निांर्अनिेन िोधयेत ्। कौहटल्य

SV2.17 -Review of Past practices

3 MINING & METALLURGY

3.0 Introduction – The word Khani is

derived for a root Khan which means to

excavate. Sanskrit terms related to Khani

shashtra are shown in a Table 3.1 below.

Table 3.1 - Terminology

Sanskrit English
Aar Brass metal

132
 Abhrak Mica
Ahi lead metal
Alak Orpiment
Ayah Iron
Ayaskant Load stone / magnet

Bhanu Copper
Chandra silver
Chandrark Amalgam of gold and
silver
gagan Mica
Gairik/ Geru Red ochure

Hartal Orpiment
Kansya/ Bell metal
krushna
Kashopal Testing stone
kasis / Khag Ferrous Suphate

Kharpar Zinc ore

Kitta Rust of iron
Kshyar Alkali

133
 Kshyar raj Borax
Kshyetraj Variety of gold
Kutil / Vang Tin

LavaN Salt
Maharatna nine precious stones
Mandur Rust of iron
Naag lead metal
Navsar Salt of ammonia
Parad Mercury
Shulwa Copper
Sindur Lead oxide
Soubir Galena / Lead sulphide

Sudha Lime
Tamra Copper
Tank Borax
tar silver
Vyoma Mica

3.1 Metals in India

134
Gold and Silver: Early gold and silver ornaments

from the Indian subcontinent are found from

Indus Valley sites such as Mohenjodaro (ca 3000

BC). These are on display in the National Museum,

New Delhi.

Zinc: In India there is unique evidence for the

extensive and semi-industrial production of

metallic zinc at the Zawar area of Rajasthan. An

ingenious method was devised of downward

distillation of the zinc vapor formed after smelting
zinc ore using specifically designed retorts with
condensers and furnaces, so that the smelted zinc
vapor could be drastically cooled down to get a
melt that could solidify to zinc metal. The

Rasaratnakara, a text ascribed to the great Indian

scientist Nagarjuna, of the early Christian era
describes this method of production of zinc.

135
Another remarkable artistic innovation by Indian
metalworkers of the past was the use of zinc in
making highly elegant bidri ware, an inlayed zinc
alloy, which came into vogue under the Muslim
rulers of the Bidar province in the Hyderabad
region from about the 14th century AD. Several

impressive vessels, ewers, pitchers, vessels,

huqqa bases etc. were made of bidri ware with

patterns influenced by the fine geometric and

floral patterns and inlayed metal work.

Iron: Forging of wrought iron seems to have

reached its zenith in India in the first millennium

AD. The earliest large forging is the famous iron

pillar at New Delhi dated by inscription to the

Gupta period of the 3rd c. AD at a height of over

7 m and weight of about 6 tons. The pillar is

believed to have been made by forging together a

series of disc-shaped iron blooms. Apart from the

dimensions another remarkable aspect of the iron

136
pillar is the absence of corrosion which has been
linked to the composition, the high purity of the
wrought iron and the phosphorus content and the
distribution of slag.

Steel: India has been reputed for its iron and

steel since Greek and Roman times with the

earliest reported finds of high-carbon steels in the

world coming from the early Christian era, while

Greek accounts report the manufacture of steel in
India by the crucible process. Wootz is the

anglicized version of ukku in the languages of the

states of Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh, a term
denoting steel. Literary accounts suggest that

steel from the southern part of the Indian

subcontinent was exported to Europe, China, the
Arab world and the Middle East. In the 12th

century the Arab Idrisi says ‘The Hindus excel in

the manufacture of iron. It is impossible to find
anything to surpass the edge from Indian steel’.

137
Mercury: Mercury is a volatile metal which is

easily produced by heating cinnabar followed by

downward distillation of the mercury vapour.

Some of the earliest literary references to the use

of mercury distillation comes from Indian treatises
such as the Arthashastra of Kautilya dating from
the late first millennium BC onwards. Some

evidence for mercury distillation is reported from

the ancient Roman world. Mercury was also at the

heart many alchemical transmutation

experiments in the Middle Ages in Europe as well
as in Indian alchemical texts which were
precursors to the development of chemistry.

Lead: The mineral-rich Aravalli region of

Rajasthan was one of the important early lead

mining regions in antiquity. The use of low melting

lead-tin eutectic as a solder became common in

Europe by the late medieval period.

138
Copper: Early copper artifacts of about the sixth

millennium BC are also reported from the pre-

Indus Valley sites of Baluchistan in the

northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent
close to the Iranian border. There is also some

evidence for smelting furnaces from the Harappan

civilizations of the northwestern part of the Indian
subcontinent. There is fairly extensive evidence

for the ancient mining of copper ores from the

Khetri region of Rajasthan in northwestern India
dating to about the 3rd-2nd millennium BC.

Tin: Amongst the earliest bronze castings in the

world is the well executed statue of a dancing girl

from Mohenjodaro from the Indus Valley,
Some of the most beautiful and well executed
bronze castings in the world are the icons from the
Chola period in the Tanjavur area of south India
(ca 10th c. AD). South Indian bronzes were mostly

solid cast.

139
Nail-cutter made of iron is mentioned in the

Chandogya Upanisad, (VI.1.6), copper (loha)

is also mentioned. One can infer the depth of

knowledge on metals contained in the

Chandogya Upanishad, where it talks of
alloying of the metals. It says:

“Just like a person would join gold with salt

(borax), silver with gold, tin with silver, lead with

tin, copper with lead, wood with copper and

leather“.

Yet another wonderful example of the Vedic

people having the knowledge of iron or steel
which was used to make an artificial leg is seen in
the Rigveda. We find here the story of a queen

Vipala, the consort of Khela, who was involved in

a fight with an enemy king. Vipala, fought with

valour, but in the process she lost one leg. But the

140
valorous lady prayed to the divine physicians
Ashvini kumaras who performed a surgery and
fixed an artificial leg to her made of iron (steel).

Later she conquered her enemies.

3.2 Archaeology

The knowledge of the ancient Indians on

metallurgy and mining can also be substantiated
with archaeological evidences available from
various sites. One of the findings which exist even

now is the standing monument (250 feet) in the

Singbum copper mine and the 600 feet vertical

shaft in Hutti gold mines. These two indicate the

degree of high technological advancement in the

field of mining in ancient India at least during
three thousand years ago.

Apart from archeological evidences, we have

evidences through epigraphy and

141
numismatics. For example, the Sanskrit

inscriptions of Vishnupadagiri by king Chandra

of 5th cent. A.D. and the coins of Gupta

kingdom throw much light on the

development of the metallurgical and mining
skill of ancient Indians.

3.3 Mining in India

The descriptions of various ornaments made of

gold, silver, precious gems, weapons like different
varieties of arrows, spears, maces and mechanical
contrivances of many types are found in ancient
Sanskrit texts starting from Vedas, down to the
texts in mediaeval and later periods of India. The

ancient Indians did have a sound knowledge of

mining and other industries allied to it. As a

sample, we can take some ideas from the

Arthashastra of Kautilya of the 400 B.C. Kautilya

gives much importance to mining, as it was a

source of considerable income for the treasury. He

142
says the treasury depends on mines, the army is
sustained by the treasury and the earth is
conquered by both treasury and the army.

According to Kautilya, starting of new mines and

the renewal of old and discarded ones, being an
important function of the state, this responsibility
was vested with ‘director of mining’ who should

be an expert in geology and metallurgy. He has

to make a survey of all the regions where mineral

deposits are likely to be found and start new ones
or renovate old ones. The most important metals

to be looked for are gold and silver, according to

Kautilya. He also describes characters of gold and

silver ores of different types, the process of

refining gold and silver and also other metals to
be procured from mines such as copper, lead, tin,
iron and precious stones like diamond and rubies.

Kautilya also refers to salt mines, under the

control of a separate authority.

143
While the ancient teachers preferred small mines
which yield products of high values such as
diamond, Kautilya expresses the opposite view.

He says that large mines, even if they yield

products of smaller value may be preferred, for
they ensure a continuous sale, while articles of
high value would attract only few purchasers. It

is also interesting to note that though Kautilya

gives importance to mining as an important
industry, he does not lay emphasis on coal, iron
and steel, which are generally regarded as
important heavy industries. It is stated that it was

during this time that Greeks, after the invasion of

Emperor Alexander, showed much interest in
importing steel and iron from India for making
swords of good quality. Perhaps to keep the

mining activities of steel and iron secret, Kautilya

deliberately avoided any description on this
subject. Another noteworthy aspect of Kautilya’s

description on mining is that he explains the

144
nature of ores, areas where they can be found,
extraction of metals, the various kinds of income
derived through mining industry and so on.

The C14 carbon studies conducted by the

metallurgists have shown that there were many
ancient mines from which silver, copper, tin, zinc
and lead were produced. Some of the sites are:

Copper Rajapura, Dariba, Udaipur in 1300

ore Rajasthan B.C.
mines
Hatti in Karnataka 1000
B.C.
Zawarmala and Ambamata in 500
Rajasthan B.C.
Iron ore Komaranahalli and 1300
Tadanahalli in Karnataka B.C.
mines
Pandu Rajar Dhibi in Bengal 1300
B.C.
Alamgipur in Rajasthan 1000
B.C.
Varanasi 1000
B .C .

145
3.4 Drutividya - Gemology

Rig Veda mentions that "Sage Agastya started

excavating wells with pick-axe. He provided

water for men, animals and trees. He thus

earned fame in universe". In other words,

there are unlimited treasures of water, metals

and precious stones embedded below the
earth's surface. Ref. SV3.1

For tempering of steel, Yukta (Nausagar) is

mixed with ash of plantain tree. The mixture

is applied to a tool and kept for a day. The tool

is hardened by heating and quick cooling.

146
Such tool remains sharp for a long time and
can break stone or iron. Ref. SV3.2

Stones should be procured from mines from

which stones were used for earlier
construction. Stones of desired quality, of

ringing sound should be used in construction.

The top and bottom position of stone should

be similar to its original under ground
position. Ref. SV3.3

A Big rock piece is inspected by tools such as

hexagonal crow bars and chisels. The covering

soil is removed. The big boulders are uplifted

and then broken into small pieces. Such stone

pieces are used in construction. Ref. SV 3.4

3.5 Bhasmikaranvidya -Calcinations

147
Ancient text "Shilpdeepak" gives detailed

information about brick kilns.

After the bricks are sun dried, a

brick kiln, facing wind direction,
should be constructed.

Bricks, wood, grass etc should be

stacked properly.

The outer wall of kiln should be

made of mud.

Wooden logs at its mouth should be

ignited.

148
 The fire should be extinguished
after 15 days and bricks should be
immersed in water for a period of
six to eight months before these are
used for construction. Ref. SV 3.5

Shilpdeepak" Ref. SV3.6 also gives procedure

to prepare lime mortars. The steps are;

1. Take two parts of coarse sand,

2. Take two parts each of honey, ghee,
banana pulp, coconut water, black
gram power mixed in water,
decoction of barks of Rudrakshya
trees, Jagaery and decoction of
Trifala
3. Mix the above materials to 100 parts
of white powdered lime.

4. The mortar thus prepared is kneaded

and pounded to prepare lime mortar

149
Briquettes of soil and lime mixture should be
made. After four months these briquettes

should be fired and then powdered. Such

mortar is useful for waterproof plaster for

terraces. Ref. SV3.7

3.6 Sankarvidya -Making of Alloys

According to ancient text "Dhatukalpa" there

are seven sub-metals as mentioned below;

1. Swarnamakshyak - This is sulfide of

iron. Its name is due to its golden
color. The English name of this sub-
metal is Mackinawite,
2. Tamramakshyak this is known as
iron pyrite, white in color. This is
sulphur compound of iron. Another
variety Makshik , black in color, is
called Elmenite in English, FeS2, Iron
Sulfide
3. Tuttha means sulphate of copper or
Morchut. Its color is similar to neck

150
 of a peacock hence is also known as
Mayurgriva or Shikhgriva.
4. Kansya is made of copper and tin.
Compared to brass proportion of tin
is more.
5. Riti -brass this is made by
combination of copper and zinc.
Rajariti is black but Bramhariti is
brown in color
6. Sindur is a red oxide of lead.
7. Shilajatu is a condensed liquid which
flows out of mountains during
summer when the temperature of
mountain increases. Like any other
metals it has many types and
properties. It is known as Jucepitch.
Shilajit is a Sanskrit word meaning
"exuding from the rocks." Ref. SV 3.8
3.7 Pruthakkaran vidya – Separation of
metals

151
Gold obtained from mine is mixed with lead
and melted together. The product is cooled

and bitten in mortar till the compound is thin

as paper. Alternately the molten metal is

poured in juice of bulbs of banana or vajra, to

get gold briquettes. Ref. SV3.9

Gold is found in mines, river beds. Gold is

always found in its pure form. Ref. Sv3.10

Ancient text "Yuktikalptaru" specifies a test to

identify guanine pearls. The pearls should be

placed in a pot containing cow's urine and

alkali (papadkhar). The solution is boiled. The

pearls should be taken out wiped dry and

152
rubbed with rice grains on the palm. Guanine

pearls shine more but impure one break. Ref.

SV3.11

The five defects of a diamond are, Ref. SV3.12

Table 3. 2 -Five defects of a diamond

1 Opaqueness Mala

2 Spot Bindu,

3 streak or line Rekha

4 Non uniform cuts Tras

5 marks Kakapada

Higher the weight more is the cost of a

precious stone. But in case of a diamond it is

reverse. Diamond should be bigger in size and

smaller in weight. This is the basic difference

between diamond and other precious stones.

Other precious stones are some sort of stones

but diamond is made of carbon. Ref. SV3.13

153
3.8 Sanskrit Verses

अगस्त्सय: िनर्ान: िशनत्रै: प्रिार्पत्सयां

बलशर्च्छर्ानर्ां ।

उभौ िणो ऋवषरुग्र: पुपोष सत्सया दे िेषु आशिष

आिगार्: ऋ्िेद

SV3.1- Mining

क्षारे कदल्या र्शथतेन युक्ते हदनोवषते पाशयतर्ायसां

यत ्।

सम्यक् शितां नाशर्शन चैशत भांगां न चाजयलोिे ष्िवपतस्य

कौठयर् ्॥ बृितसांहिता अ. ५९

SV3.2- Tempering of steel

शसध्दािया करसांभिा िसुर्तीभ्ना स्ििणोशचता ।

ग्नस्न्धा िस्त्रसिा हदशयाहिताग्रा शिला ॥

ग्राह्या शिल्पविधौ स्फुशलांगबिुला तस्या: शिरोऽधोर्ुिां

।

यत्सकाष्ठाशभर्ुिी सर्ुग्नत्सथिती च तहद्दां गर्ुिी ॥

154
तांत्रसर्ुच्चय पटल १-१११

SV3.3 - Selection of Building stones

धातुसूच्यवष्टलाभ्याां िोधयेत्सप्रथर्ां शिला ।

तीक्ष्णिस्त्रेण र्िता यवष्टलेन प्रिारयेत ्॥ र्यर्त अ ३०

SV3.4 - Building stones

अथ िुष्के सुल्नादौ चुल्ली कृ त्सयानुर्ारुतर् ्।

तत्रेष्टका: सुसांदध्यात्ससाांतरां क्रर्िग्नश्चता: ॥

काष्ठै: पलािभाराद्यैरशचता: स्युशनरां तरर् ्।

बहिराच्छादतेत्ससम्य्र्ृत्सस्नया र्ृद ु लेपयेत॥

तजर्ुिेष्िग्न्नर्ाधाय दिािां पक्षर्ेय िा

सांस्कृ त्सय जिलने िाांते सर्ुद्धध्दत्सयेष्टकास्तत: ॥

प्रग्नक्षप्य सशलले िषवर्ष्टौ र्ासान ् षडे ि िा ।

उध्दरे हदष्टकास्ता: स्यु: शिल्पकर्वहक्रयोशचता: ॥

शिल्पदीपक अ

SV 3.5 - Brick kilns

155
पूिं व्द्यांिां करालां र्धुघत
ृ कदलीनाररकेराांबुर्ाषाव्यूषां ।

िाक्षाकषायस्तांिलशधकुलत्रैफला&भाशस चैि ॥

िृध्दा्जयांिक्रर्ेण स्फुटिाशिधिलां चूणय

ं ुक्त िताांि ।

वपष्ठ सिंयथािद् भिशत परसुधा िज्रलेपस्तथैि ॥

शिल्परत्न अ १४

SV 3.6 - Lime mortar

चतुग्नस्त्रव्दयर्ासाांते र्ुहटका युवक्तशनशर्वता ।

श्रेष्टर्ध्योत्तर्ाज्ञेया सुधा सौधहदां बशधनी ॥

शिल्परत्न अ १४

SV3.7 - Lime mortar for terrace

सप्तोपधाति: स्िणवर्ाग्नक्षकां तारर्ाग्नक्षकर् ्।

तुत्सथ काांस्यां च रीशतश्च शसांदरु श्च

शिलाित ्॥

ताम्रत्रपुियाख्यातां काांस्यां
स्ताग्नत्सपत्तलाशधकर् ्।

रीशतरप्यपघत: स्यात्ताम्रत्सय िसदस्य च ॥

156
 र्ाग्नक्षकव्दयतुत्सथाशन औषधीविषयाग्नणच ।

सीसोपधातु: शसांदरू ां तुत्सथां ताम्रर्यूरित ्॥

शनदाघे धर्वस%तप्ता: धातुसारां धराधरा: ।

शनयावसित्सप्रर्चांशत तत ् शिलाितु
कीशतवतर्॥

धातुकल्प अ २९

SV3.8 - Making of alloys

आकारो्दतां हिरण्य शससाजियेन शभद्यर्ानां पाकपत्राग्नण

कृ त्सिा गांहडकासु कु्टयेत।

कदलीबज्रकांदकल्के िा शनषेचयेत ्। कौहटल्य

SV 3.9 - Gold purification

िशन: स्त्रोत: प्रकीणवकां िे र्योनय: कौहटल्य

SV 3.10 - Availability of Gold

ग्नक्षपे्दोर्ूत्रभाांडे तु लिणक्षारसांयुक्ते ।

स्िेदयेव्दग्नजिना िावप िुष्किस्त्रेण िेष्टतेत ्॥

िस्त र्ौवत्तकर्ादाय र्व्ीहिशभश्चोपघषवयेत ् ।

157
कृ वत्रर्ां भांगर्ाजपोशत सििां चाशतदीष्यते ॥ युवक्तकल्पतरु

SV 3.11 - Guanine pearls

र्लो वबांदस्
ु तथा रे िा त्रास: काकापदस्तथा।

एते दोषा: सर्ाख्याता: पांच िज्रेषु कोविदै : ॥ रत्नपररक्षा

SV 3.12 - Defects of diamond

गुरुता सिवरत्नानाां गौरिाधानकारणां ॥

िज्रे तव्दै परीत्सयेन सूरय: पररचक्षते ॥ रत्नपररक्षा

SV3.13 - Precious stones-Diamond

***.***

4.WATER TRANSPORT

4.1 Introduction - The cheapest mode of

transport is water transport. Big wooden logs,

bails of bamboos are dropped at one place in

flowing water of a river and collected at

158
another location. For transport of non-floating

heavy materials some other means of

transport was necessary.

4.2 Terminology: To understand the topic of

the chapter one must have some knowledge

about the Sanskrit terms explained in Table
4.1 below. The Sanskrit terms are shown in

italics.

Table 4.1 Terminology

Sanskrit Meaning
terms
Phalayan prepared by tying dry
fruits (Pumpkins)

Vrikshyan prepared by tying tree

branches
Charmayan prepared by tying
leather bellows
Droni wood carved in the
shape of leaf cone
(Drona)

159
 Nau which moves with wind
force alone (with sails)

Nauka which moves with the

helps oars and sails
Shringa or A high mast which
Kupadanda supports the sails
Nava- Anchor of the ship
Bandhan-
Kilaha
Nauka vastra Sails of the boat
or Vata vastra
Navadhyksha ship superintendent
Sthool Bhaga Hull of the boat
Kenipat or Rudder of the boat
Karna
Vritantbhaga Sextant
Yantra
Matsya Yantra Compass
Stula hull of the ship
Matsya Yantra Mariner’s compass

Nava-Taala ship's keel

160
4.3 Vidyas & Kalas: Water Transport

(Naukashashtra) - This includes three Vidyas

and four Kalas as given in Table 4.2 below,

Table 4.2 - Vidyas & Kalas

Vidyas (Techniques)

11 Tari Vidya - Raft making

12 Nau Vidya - Boat making

13 Nauka Vidya - Ship building

Kalas (Skills)

35 Balhyadibhirjalataran -Floats &

Buoys
36 Sutradi rajjukaran -Rope making

37 Patabandhana - Tying cloth to

masts
38 Naukanayan – Navigation

4.4 History of Water Transport

161
Boats were not only engaged for
transportation of cargo, crossing rivers and
lakes pleasure trips for noble people but also
for naval warfare. This practice also appears

to be very old. The art of employing boats and

ships for military purposes was known in India

since the Early Historical Period. However, the

Rig Veda refers to naval warfare and states

that Bhujyu the son of Rishi king Tugra was
sent for naval warfare to distant islands to
fight against the enemies, however his ship
wrecked by a storm in the mid sea was
rescued by the two Asvins .

Sanskrit literature is full of references to river

transport and sea voyages. Sometimes we

have graphic descriptions of fleets, even of

ship-wrecks. The Rig-Veda is taken as the

earliest extant work of the Aryans, though

there is no general agreement as to its exact

162
age. At one place, Rishi Kutsa Angirasa prays

to Agni: “Remove our foes as if by ship to the

yonder shore. Carry us as if in a ship across

the sea for our welfare.“

Vedic period (5000 BC to 300 AD): Indians

were competent mariners for thousands of

years. They first sailed in primitive rafts made

from estuarine rushes, then on logs or planks

bound together to form a boat, still in use by
off-shore fishermen along the southern

peninsular coasts. It is amazing to learn that

navigation existed beyond continents in past,

among countries of different civilizations.

Ships plied to and from India, 5,000 years

ago, to Yawadweep (Java), Kamboj

(Cambodia) Babylonia, Mesopotamia, Egypt

and countries of Europe.

163
At Mohenjodaro, (now in Pakistan) Harappa

and Lothal (10 miles away from Gulf of

Cambay (Gujarat), archaeologists have

unearthed evidence of sea-trading and ship-

building. The Harappans seals of steatite and

baked clay are interpreted as trademarks,

used by merchants to specify their goods.

Such seals are discovered in areas of ancient

Sumerian civilization Archaeological research
at sites in Mesopotamia, Bahrain, and Oman
has led to the recovery of artifacts traceable
to the Indus Valley civilization, confirming the
information on the inscriptions. Among the

most important of these objects are stamp

seals carved in soapstone, stone weights, and
colorful carnelian beads. A fairly large-sized

brick-lined dockyard was excavated at Lothal.

Sea-going ships of those times had high prow

and stern, single or double mast, rectangular

164
sail, oars, paddles, rigs and anchors in the
form of heavy stones. There were shore-

sighting birds with the crew. The dockyards

worked on tidal principle and had wooden

gates.

There are significant references to

navigational activities in the Rig Veda which
has words `Samudra`, `Nav` etc. Later

literature of the Shatapatha Brahman, the

Ramayana, the Mahabharata, Manusmriti, the
Puranas serve ample proof of the maritime
inclinations of the Aryans. There is this line in

the Mantra Pushpanjali, which invokes

`Prithivyai Samudra Paryantayah Ekarakiti`
standing for: `Let our writ run across this

ocean-girt Earth`. Vedic literature (3,000

B.C), mentions vessels of different types

mainly sailboats having a hundred oars at

times. Several names existed as per type.

165
Buddhist literature reveals evidence of sea
and ocean voyages. Big merchant-ships

regularly plied between India and regions of

Far and Near East. Some of these were large

enough to accommodate 800 passengers

besides merchandise. SV4.1

The Arthasastra (3rd century BC) of Kautilya

mentions Navadhyaksha or the

Superintending of boats and ships, engaged
in trade activities and collecting taxes from
the ships sailing in the sea and those moving
in the rivers. The text further mentions the

word that Himsrikah, which means pirate

ships and the Navadhyaksha had to see that
they were pursued and destroyed whenever
they were found. Similarly the same

regulation was applied for the vessels of the

enemy countries when they were sighted in
territorial waters. It is known from the Vayalur

166
inscriptions near Mahabalipuram that the
Pallava king

Post-Vedic period - (300 AD to 1100 AD):

Narasimhava Varman - II (680-720 AD) had

naval wars and conquered Lakshadweep

Islands with the help of his fleet of ships. The

inscription reads:

“May he exercise the royal prerogative and

take up the vow of administering (his)

subjects up to the extremities of his

kingdoms, as even to include the
Dvipalaksham (thousand of islands).“

Shatapatha Brahman, the Ramayana, the

Mahabharata, Manusmriti, the Puranas serve
ample proof of the maritime inclinations of the
Aryans. In the Arthshashtra, Kautilya codifies

the entire spectrum of a state’s maritime

concerns and activities. The Admiralty is the

167
nodal office under the Navadhyksha, the
superintendent of ships. The Buddhist Jatakas

are full of interesting accounts of Indian

maritime activities. The Baveru Jataka

describes the adventures of some Indian

merchants who, for the first time, conveyed
peacocks to Babylon by sea.

Tilakamanjari a Sanskrit work of 9th century CE

contains details of activities of a port-town and

embarking rituals for a distant journey. Ship-

building was an active public-sector industry in

Mouryan times. Indian ships were built of strong

and processed timber which withstood corroding

salty waves, rough weather and rocky passes.

The state of Karnataka had pride of place in

seafaring. An 11th century Ballegavi inscription

tells about corporate body of Nandesis, "who

168
penetrated regions of six continents (Shatkhanda)

by land or water, dealing in horses, elephants,

precious stones, perfumes and drugs". Kannada

words have been identified in a 2nd century

manuscript discovered in Memphis (Egypt).

The Tamil land had leading role in establishing

Indian culture in near eastern countries
throughout. Nearly 2,000 nautical words are

traced in Tamil language. Several sculptures at

Borobudur in Java depict sailing scenes. Some

hero-stones of Goa and Konkan have carvings of

naval battles, wherein the hero died fighting while

at sea. SV4.2

The inscriptions of King Harsha Vardhana

(606-647 AD) of Kanauj refer that his

victorious camp was furnished with ships,

elephants, and horses: mahanauhastya-sva-

169
jaya-skandhavarai. Similarly, the Aihole

inscription of Pulakesin II (610-642 D) of the

Chalukya dynasty states that Pulakesin II

attacked Puri (probably Elephanta Island,

near Mumbai) with his fleet of hundred

fighting vessels, defeated the Mauryas,

annexed the North Konkan to his empire and
reduced Puri to submission . During the reign

of Kumarapala there were rebellions and

insurrections throughout the kingdom,
Vaidyadeva, the minister restored peace in
the whole empire with the help of strong navy.

This shows that the royal navy under the Palas

(8th to 11th century AD) was efficient both for

offensive and defensive purposes. The Cholas

were also a great sea power. It was under the

Cholas the naval power of the Tamil land

attained its culminating point. The Chola kings

appear to have organized a fleet of ships,

170
which enabled their troops to cross over the
ocean and invade the neighbouring islands.

Rajaraja Chola (984-1013 AD) destroyed the

fleet of the Chera and also conquered Ceylon.

The overseas conquests of Rajendra Chola

(1013-44 AD) have been recorded in many of

inscriptions. The inscriptions found on the

Rajarajesvara temple at Thanjavur states that

“he despatched many ships in the midst of the

rolling sea“ and it is said to have invaded up

to the Ganges and conquered, Gujarat,

Nicobar Islands, Malay Peninsula, Sumatra,
Lakshadweep and Maldives. This was the

climax of the Chola naval achievement . The

Tilakamanjari (8th century AD) of Dhanapala

narrates in great detail the victorious

expedition of Samaraketu to Indonesia . On

the other hand, the Rashtrakutas (8th to 10th

century AD) had maintained fleet in the West

171
Coast of India. Originally the Goa Kadambas

hailed from Banavasi (presently in Karnataka)

and they ruled over Goa from 950-1300 AD

(SV 1). The power of the Kadambas reached

its zenith under the king Jayakeshi . Some

inscriptions issued by the rulers of the

Kadamba dynasty refer to sea voyage and
naval activities. For instance, the inscription

of Narendra describes that king Jayakesi

(1104-1148 AD) built a bridge with line of

ships reaching as far as Lanka and conquered

Lanka and Kavadidvipa, probably Kavaratti
Island of Lakshadweep. The inscription reads:

This shows that rulers of the Kadamba

dynasty had maintained an efficient navy.

Besides inscriptions, the literary sources also

mention the construction of ships meant for
naval warfare.

172
4.5 Yuktikalpataru

The Yuktikalpataru (the wishing tree of

artifice) composed by the king of Bhoja of

Dhara (11th century AD) gives a detailed

account of boats and ships and the class of

boats according to the length and position of
the cabins. The Yuktikalpataru specifies the

ships, which use to have the cabin towards

prows called agarmandira. These types of

boats used for long voyages and were equally

suitable for naval warfare.

A Sanskrit treatise Yuktikalpataru is the most

authoritative reference on ancient Indian
navigation. This treatise gives a technocratic

exposition on the technique of shipbuilding. It sets

forth minute details about the various types of

ships, their sizes, the materials from which they
were built. Yuktikalpataru also gives an elaborate

173
classification of ships based on their size. The

primary division is into two classes' viz. Samanya

(ordinary) and Vishesha (Special).The ordinary

type for sea voyages. Ships that undertook sea

voyages were classified into, Dirgha type of ships

which had a long and narrow hull and the Unnata
type of ships which had a higher hull.

The treatise also gives elaborate directions for

decorating and furnishing the ships with a view to
making them comfortable for passengers. Also

mentioned are details about the internal seating

and accommodation to be provided on the ships.

Three classes of ships are distinguished according

to their length and the position of cabins. The

ships having cabins extending from one end of the

deck to the other are called Sarvamandira vessels.

These ships are recommended for the transport of

royal treasure and horses. The next are the

174
Madhyamarnandira vessels which have cabins
only in the middle part of their deck. These vessels

are recommended for pleasure trips. And finally

there is a category of Agramandira vessels, these

ships were used mainly in warfare.

Interestingly there were Sanskrit terms for many

parts of a ship. The ship's anchor was known as

Nava-Bandhan-Kilaha which literally means 'A Nail

to tie up a ship'. The sail was called Vata Vastra

which means 'wind-cloth'. The hull was termed

Stula Bhaga i.e. an expanded area. The rudder

was called Keni-Pata, Pata means blade; the

rudder was also known as Karna which literally

means a 'ear' and was so called because it used
to be a hollow curved blade, as is found today in
exhaust fans. The ship's keel was called Nava-Tala

which means 'bottom of a ship'. The mast was

175
known as Kupadanda, in which danda means a
pole.

Even a sextant was used for navigation and was

called Vruttashanga-Bhaga. But what is more

surprising is that even a contrived mariner's

compass was used by Indian navigators nearly
1500 to 2000 years ago. This has in fact been the

suggestion of a European expert, Mr. J.L. Reid,

who was a member of the Institute of Naval

Architects and Shipbuilders in England at around
the beginning of the present century. This is what

Mr. Reid has said in the Bombay Gazetteer, vol. 8

Part 2 Appendix A.

"The early Hindu astrologers are said to have used

the magnet, in fixing the North and East, in laying

foundations, and other religious ceremonies. The

176
Hindu compass was an iron fish that floated in a
vessel of oil and pointed to the North.“

It is thus quite possible, that the Matsya Yantra

(fish machine) was transmitted to the west by the

Arabs to give us the mariner's compass of today

4.6 Tarividya-Making of Rafts

Different means of water transport are

described below SV4.3

Swimming is last method. It is not

suitable for transport of goods etc.
Jantuyan means using animals for
crossing the water transport
Kashtayan is a Raft made with light
wooden logs

177
 Charmayan is balloons made of leather
Falayan is made of dried hollow fruits
(Pumpkins etc)
Ghatiyan is made of sealed pots.
Droniyan is prepared by carving big
wooden log in the form of a leaf cone
All above means are suitable for flowing
water. Ref. Yuktikalpataru ch.1-7

Horses and Chariots are Land vehicles

(Bhumiyan), Boats are Water vehicles

(Jalayan) and aero planes are Air vehicles

(Vyomayan). Ref. Yuktikalpataru SV.4.4

4.7 Nauvidya – Boats

One which is suitable for wind and water

current is called Nau or boat. Ships and

178
launches sailing on sea are of this type. Boats

and ships are used for river transport. Ref.

Bhrugusamhita chp.15 SV4.5

Depending upon the length of a boat number

of masts may be from one to four. Higher the

number more is the speed of the boat. Length

of boat may vary from 8 to 40 hasta (4 to 20

meters). A boat longer than 20 meters is

called a ship. Ref. Abdhiyan

The mast of the ship should not be straight

and strong and round. It should free from

insects, without any crack. The sail should be

made of cloth, tri-angular in shape so that it

can be stretched properly. Ref. Abdhiyan

The boat should be light in weight, narrow,

without holes and loaded evenly. To prevent

179
the toppling a long, wooden log Undali (with

two bamboos) is attached to it Ref. Abdhiyan

4.7 Naukavidya – Ships

The Superintendent of Ships shall keep a watch on

navigation not only on oceans and mouths of
rivers, but also on lakes natural or artificial, and
rivers. Ref. Kautilya 2.28.1

In those large rivers which cannot be forded even

during the winter and summer seasons, there
shall be launched large boats provided with a
captain a steersman and servants to hold the
sickle and the ropes and to pour out water. Ref.

Kautilya 2.28.45

180
Freight for transport should be proportionate
to the goods. The fare should be decided on

place and time. But this is applicable for river

transport and not for sea transport. Ref.

Manusmriti

SV4.1 – Ancient Dockyard at Lothal (Gujrat)

181
SV4.2 - Hero-stones at Panaji Museum Goa

Sanskrit Verses

बािुभ्याां सांतरे द िाररिधजयाशर्शतशनणवयः ॥१॥

िांतुशभः सशलले यानां िांतुयानां प्रचक्षते ॥२॥

यानां यल्लघुशर्ः काष्टैिक्ष

ृ यानां तदच्ु चते ॥३॥

चर्वशभिािावयुपूणैच चर्वयानां तदच्ु चते ॥४॥

तुांब्याध्यैस्तु फलैयावनां फलयानां प्रचक्षते ॥५॥

घटीशभधवहटतां यनां घटीयानां तु गद्यते ॥६॥

िोणीरुपां तु यद्यानां िोणीयानां तदच्ु चते ॥७॥

एिां नौकजयतो यानां प्रिािे युक्तर्ुच्चते ॥८॥

युवक्तकल्पतरु

SV 4.3 -Means of transport

अश्वहदकां भूशर्यानां स्थले सिे प्रशतवष्ठतां ।

िलै नौकैि यानां स्याद आकािेव्योम्यानकां ॥

युवक्तकल्पतरु

182
 SV4.4 - Transport vehicles

पिर्ानसोर्ाभ्याां नीता नौः ॥ भृगुसांहिता १५

SV4.5 - Definition of Boat

चतुःिृांगा वत्रिृांगा ग्नव्दिृांगा चकैिृांशगणी ।

एर्ं चतुर्र्वधा न ः स्यादायामानधकतार्ुणात ॥ अनधधयान

SV 4.6 -Numbers of masts

अिक्रां शनर्व्वणां ग्नस्न्धां र्िासारां च सुर्व्ुतां ।

शसतप्टे न सव्दां िां िृांगां स्यात्ससिवदा िुभां ॥ अनधधयान

SV4.7 - Mast of boats

लघुता दृढता चैि गाशर्ताऽग्नच्छिता तथो ।

सर्तेशत गुणोद्दे िो नावि सचेक्ष्यते बुधःै ॥ अनधधयान

SV4.8 - Qualities of a boat

नािाध्यक्षः सर्ुिसांयानदीर्ुितरप्रचाराां ।

दे िसरोविसरो नदीतराांश्च स्थनीयाहदष्व्िेक्षेत ॥

कौहटल्य अथविास्त्र २-२८-१

183
 SV4.9 - Duties of Superintendent

िासक-शनयार्क-दात्र-रग्नशर्ग्रािक-उत्ससेचकशधसवष्ट-ताश्च

र्िनािो िे र्ांतग्रीष्र्तायावसु र्िानदी प्रयोियेत ्॥

क्षुहिकासु िषावस्त्रविणीषु । कौहटल्य २-२८-४५

SV4.10- Crew of a ship

भाांडाहदपूणय
व ानाशन तायेदाप्याशन सारतः ।

ररक्तभाांडाशन यग्नत्सकांशचत्सपुर्ाांसश्चपररच्छदः ॥

दीघावध्िशन यथादे िां यथाकालां तरो भिेत ।

नदीतीरे षु ताग्नब्दद्यात्ससर्ुिे नाग्नस्तलक्ष्णां ॥ र्नुस्र्ृती

SV4.11 - Fares for sea voyages

***.***

5-SURFACE TRANSPORT

184
5.0 Vidyas & Kalas: Surface Transport

(Rathashashtra) - This includes four Vidyas

and four Kalas as Shown in Table 4.1 below,

Table 5.1 – Vidyas & Kalas

4 Vidyas (Techniques)

14 Ashwa Vidya – Horse riding

15 Patha Vidya –Construction of

roads
16 Ghantapath Vidya –Hill roads

17 Setu Vidya- Construction of

bridges
4 Kalas (Skills)

39 Samabhumikriya-.Leveling of
ground
40 Shilarcha - Breaking of
rocks
41 Vivarkaran – Tunnel
construction
42 Vrutakhandabandhan –
Construction of arches

185
5.1 History of Surface Transport: - Any

device used to move goods from one place to

another place was called Bhumiyan (land

vehicle). The first Bhumiyan was feet of a

human and the footpath was called padahani

(mauled by feet). The next way was head

transportation but it required a help from

another person to load or unload the material.

Hence a wooden pole, supported by two

persons on their shoulder, was used. The next

improvisation was Doli or palanquin.

Yuktikalpataru gives the description of

method of construction and materials for Doli
or palanquin. Mayamat has a separate chapter

on land vehicles. Three types of palanquin

namely Pitha, Sekara and Maunadi are

described. The chapter also includes

dimensions, frame, assembly and various

186
shapes of chariot. An imaginary drawing of a

chariot (based on this description) is shown in

SV4.1.

SV 5.1 - Wooden framework for a Ratha

Subsequently man stated using animals such

as horse elephants etc. Those who could not

afford such animals resorted to a method in

which a wooden plank loaded with material
was pulled on ground. More effort was

necessary when the ground surface was rough

and uneven, Wheels were attached to the
plank and subsequently an artificially leveled
ground or a road was constructed. A Ratha or

187
chariot was the final ancient means of surface
transport.

One can find description of Ratha in ancient

Indian epics Ramayana and Mahabharata.

One can also find distinctive names of Ratha

in Vedas. Manasara, Bhrugusamhita, and

Kautilya Arthshashtra recommend wood of

certain trees such as Khadir, Jackfruit or
Babul for chariot construction .Ancient chariot

had three to nine wheels.

5.2 Desirable properties: ancient texts

mention twelve desirable properties of a good

road which are relevant to modern
construction practices.

1) Smooth and hard surface

2) Level and straight without bends as
far as possible
3) Width, between 1 to 14 meters (1- 7
danda )

188
4) Trees on both sides of road and wells
for drinking water
5) Traffic control rooms equipped with
bells at suitable locations. Animals
attached to vehicles on hill road
(Ghantapath) must have bells on
their necks
6) Tunnel roads (Chhinnapath) must
have fire at the ends of tunnel
(Bhrugudar).
7) Free rest houses (Dharmashala) on
the both ends of a bridge.
8) Road surface sloping from centre to
edges for quick water disposal
9) Paved road surface to avoid frequent
repairs
10) Bridge (Setu) if necessary, to
cross a river.
11) Adequate bathing places (Ghats)
with steps should constructed at the
ends of a bridge
12) Imposition of fines to prevent
pollution of bathing places and area
near roadside trees by passengers

189
5.3 Planning of Roads - An ancient text

"Mayamat“ has a separate chapter on

planning of villages or towns. It was based on

number of roads. The various types of villages

are shown in a Table 4.2 below.

Table 5.2- Classification of a village or

town
Number of roads in a
particular direction
Type
East to North to
West South
Dandaka 1 1
Prastara 3 3 to 7
Swastik 4 4
Prakirnaka 4 8 to 12
Nandivrata 5 13 to 18
Paraga 6 18 to 22
Padma 7 3 to 7
Shripratishtha 8 28 to 38

190
The Swastika village with its road
configuration is shown in aSV4.2. This type is

considered the best. The concept of bypass

roads originated from this configuration.

Fig 5.1 - Road configuration in Swastika

village
5.4 Ashwavidya- Horse ridding

191
Yuktikalpataru -A mode of transport with two

legs (wheels) is called "Dwipadyan" or Dola/

Doli. Dola is made of four wooden pieces tied

together and with arrangement for seating.

Ref. SV4.3

Doli should be light weight, strong and

comfortable. Based on the supporting poles it

can be Mena is the poles are straight or Palaki

if the poles are curved. Both of these vehicles

are rectangular and have seating

arrangement for one person. Ref. SV4.4

192
There are four types of vehicles

1. Chatushapada (Four legged) -

Elephant, Horse or Camel
2. Dwipada (two legged) -Palki, Doli
Mena
3. Bahupada (many legged) - Chariots
of different types
4. Vipad (single legged) - Boat or aero
plane.
Number of marking a vehicle makes on
surface are the legs of the vehicle. Ref. SV4.5

5.5 Pathavidya – Roads

193
Those wise men who prepared vehicles with
round wheels and capable to go anywhere,
prepared comfortable chariots with reamed
wheels and provided milking cows. Ref. SV4.6

May your chariots and their horses be strong,

may the wheels be lined and may reins be
made of good leather. Ref. SV4.7.

A text "Rathalakshyana“ describes a good

chariot as below,
The width of wheels should 120 to 160
cms.
The wheels are strengthened with iron
reams.
The load is properly balanced on axle.
The axle is properly fixed to the chariot.
Ref. SV4.8
There should be pitched road between the
blocks. The pedal with a decorated main door
should be surrounded by pitched road. Ref.
SV4.9

A road which is smooth and paved is called

"Satpatha"-good road. All long distance roads
should be paved, smooth and decorated. Ref.
SV4.10

194
 5.6 Ghantapathvidya- Hill Roads

Hill Roads- Bhrugusamhita compares a hill

road with a creeper climbing on a tall tree by
gradual rising. The text recommends that the
slope for hill roads should be 1 to 16 and the
surface should be sloping towards the hill side.
Ref. SV4.11

The hill road should be strong. It should be

partly rising and partly sloping. There should
be drain for water. Ref. SV4.12

The surface of hill road should be sloping

towards hill so that water is collected in a
drain and the slope is stable. The city road is
sloping inside but hill road should be high at
outer edge and low at edge near the hill. Ref.
SV 5.13

195
It is always preferable to construct a tunnel
when the hill is surrounded by flat terrain. The
digging of tunnel should be made from
opposite end such that these tunnels meet at
midpoint. The Sanskrit name for a tunnel is
"Bhrugudar" i.e. “Door of Sage Bhrugu“. The
construction of a tunnel depends upon the
rock formation.

5.7 Setuvidya - Bridge Construction

As a tunnel is necessary to cross a mountain,

a bridge is necessary to cross a river. The
bridge should be strong and of minimum
length. Initially it is costly but it is
economically cheap in long term. An irrigation
canal which crosses a valley is termed as Aal
(super passage). SV 5.14

196
Transportation over a bridge is more
convenient than loading and unloading the
goods on a boat to cross the river. The bridge
tax should be lower the ferry rate so people
can afford it. SV 4.15

Construction of jetties is similar to bridge

construction. The length should be such that
it is useful both in high and low tides of sea.
For rivers ghats with steps are constructed
.Such ghats are suitable both for men and
boats. SV 5.16

5.8 Additional References on Ancient

Road Communications
1. Prachin Hindi Shilpasar (Marathi) by
K.V.Vaze, Ch. 9 , Rathashastra
2. Inland Transport and
Communications in Medieval India
by Bejoy Kumar Sarkar, Calcutta
University 1915
3. The highway and Byways of India.
The Mawson-Vermon and Co.
Bombay.
4. Our roads, Govt. of India Publications
1948 Rs. 2.5

197
 5. Granthamala –Yatatat ka Sadhan
(Hindi) 1903
6. Prachin Bharat ki Rath Paddhati
(Hindi) by Motichandra Sarthawah,
1953, Bihar Rashtrabhasha Parishad,
Patna, pages 283,Rs. 9.5
7. Highways in Punjab, Past and
Present by W.S.Dorman, paper for
Punjab University Congress, 1919.
8. Presidential Address of the 14th
session of Indian Road Congress
1940 by Brija Mohanlal
9. Rathalakshhana by Sage
Vishwakarma, Shantiniketan Library
No. 2248 and 2473.
10. Bharatme Rajyamarg Nirman ki
Katha (Hindi) , Jr. of Institution of
Engineers (India), Vol.38, No.1
Sept.1952

Sanskrit Verses

यानां स्याग्नद्धव्दपदाभ्याां ।
यत्तद्दोलाहदकर्ुच्च्यते॥

198
 चतुशभवयुवव क्तसांयुक्तैदं डधतुगुणाांबरे ।
दोलेशतव कथ्यते तेषाां शनयर्ोऽत्र प्रदिवते॥
युवक्तकल्पतरु
SV 5.3 - Doli

र्नोिरत्सिां लघुतादृढतेशतगुणत्रयां ।

प्रोक्तां ग्नव्दपदयानाांना सििां शिल्पकोविदै ः ॥

तेषाां भेदो ग्नव्दधादां डिक्रािक्रप्रभेदतः ।

र्ानाहदकां पूित
व ुल्यां वििेषश्चतुरस्त्राताः ॥

युवक्तकल्पतरु

SV5.4 - Properties of Doli

चतुष्पदां च ग्नव्दपदां विपदां बिुपादकां ।

चतुविधाशर्िोहद्दष्टां यानां भुशर्भुिाां र्तां ॥

गिाश्वाहद चतुष्पादां दोलाहद ग्नव्दपदां भिेत ।

नौकाद्येकपदां द्येयां रथहदबिुपादकां ॥

व्योर्यानां विर्ानां िा विपदां प्रोजयते बुधःै ।

युवक्तकल्पतरु

199
 SV5.5- Types of vehicles

रथां ये चक्रुः सुित

ृ ां सुचेतसो ।

विव्िरां तां र्नसग्नस्प्रध्यया ॥

तक्षत्रासत्सयाभ्याां पररजर्ानं सुिां रथां ।

तक्षांधेनुां कार्दध
ु ाां ॥ ऋ्िेद

SV5.6 -Chariots

ग्नस्थरा िः स तु नेर्या रथा अश्वास एषाां

सुसांस्कृ ता अर्ीििः ॥ ऋ्िेद

SV5.7 -Chariots

ग्नव्दचक्रबाह्ये विस्तारां ष्सप्ताष्टवितस्युक ।

चकनाशभव्दयांनाशर्च्छयार्ोक्षाांतरस्य च
॥

र्ध्यभारोपररतुलार्ध्यशनगवर्नाग्रतः ।

अक्षर्क्षोत्तरां चक्रर्दभ
ू ारोपयानकां ॥

पोशतकाकारसांयुक्तां अयप्टै दृवढीकृ तां ।

रथलक्षण

200
 SV5.8 - Description of a chariot

कुटिालाांतरे तस्य ककरीकृ तर्ागवकां ।

िात्सयाहदर्ुिभिाांगां सिावियिोशभतां ॥

पररतोर्ांडपां व्द्यिां भागेन ककरीपथन ् र्यर्त अ. २५

SV5.9 -Pitched roads

अशतपांथाः सुपांथाश्च सत्सपथश्चाशचवतेध्िशन ॥

SV5.10 - Paved roads

शगरे रारोिणां कुयावद िृक्षारोिीलतासर्ां ।

आयार्षोडिोभागाद िीनां स्याद उच्छयां सदा ॥

भृगुसांहिता अ १०

SV 5.11 – Slope of Hill roads

शगरोनेःसरणां कुयावदिरोिारोिणात्सर्क् ।

शगरे स्तटात्ससांसराग्नणः प्रस्त्रिणाांतररता भिेत ्

डर्योरां तरे स्तोतः प्रस्त्रिणाथव सदा भिेत ् । भृगु सांहिता

अ १०

SV 5.12 - Hill roads

201
 र्ध्यशनम्नः पुरे ग्रार्े िहिःस्त्रािी सर्े स्थले ।

अांतःस्तािी भिेतपांथा शगरएरारोिणे सदा ॥

शगरे रांतभेदीयः पांथास्तग्नव्दिरां स्र्ृतर् ्।

अांतिव व्यानुसारे ण तस्य बांधनशर्ष्यते ॥ भृगु

सांहिता अ १०

SV5.13 – Camber for Hill roads

शगरे यथ
व ािग्नव्दिरां नद्याां सेतुस्तथोच्चते ।

सर्ोिस्ितर्ः पांथा व्ययकारी सुिाशधकः ॥

भृगुसांहिता अ ११

SV 5.14 - Utility of a bridge

िे र्ांतग्रीष्र्तायावसु नदीषु नौकातरणतः सेतुबांधः श्रेयाां ।

पण्यर्ानेन सेतुर्ुपयुांिानो यात्रिेतनां दद्युः ॥ भृगुसांहिता अ ११

SV5.15 - Toll for bridge

सर्ुिाजिांपदां प्रिेष्टुां शनष्कशर्तु िा सेतुबांध नौकाश्रयाथवः।

सा च सरग्नणिद व्य्सनोदयेश्ववप नािाश्रयोपयुक्तः स्यात॥

SV 5.16- Jetties on sea

202
 ***.***

6 - AIR-SPACE TRANSPORTATION

6.0 Introduction - It is a common misconception

that Wright brothers of England invented an
aircraft in 1903. But in 1885 Mr. Shivkar Bapuji
Talpade gave a demonstration of an aircraft at sea
beach of Girgaon, Mumbai. Mr. Talpade was a
Sanskrit scholar who prepared a prototype based
on the information available in ancient Sanskrit
text of Sage Bharadwaj. The demonstration was
witnessed by hundreds of people including
representatives of Baroda King Gaikwad. Baroda
king had provided the necessary help to Mr.
Talpade. The British government did not
appreciate this venture and for security reasons
asked Mr. Talpade to provide relevant papers and
drawings of the aircraft. Mr. Talpade turned down
this request. The British government managed to
procure all the information from heirs of Talpade

203
after his death. One can read details of this story
on web sites or in a book “Bharatiya
Vimanshashtra“ by Capt. A.J Bodas, published in
2004.

Vimana is a Sanskrit word, generically used

for flying craft in modern times as well.
Derived from Vimana, Vi meaning 'bird' and
Mana meaning 'like', denotes a craft flying like
a bird. It underlines the fact that ancient
Indians had also derived inspiration from the
birds in conceiving flying craft.

Table 6.1 below indicates the Vidya-s & Kalas

related to Air Transport or Viman Shashtra.

Table 6.1 – Vidyas & Kalas

Vidyas (Techniques)

Shakunta Vidya 18.Training Birds

Viman Vidya 19.Aeronautics

Kalas (Skills)

Vayabandhan 44.Ballons

Shakuntashiksha 44.Birds training

204
 SwarNalepadikriya 46.Gold plating

6.1 Terminology: To understand the topic of

the chapter one must have some knowledge
about the Sanskrit terms explained below.
The Sanskrit terms are shown in italics.

Definition of Viman (Air craft) - Various

ancient definitions are given below,
A vehicle capable of traveling in air as
the birds fly- Narayan Muni
A vehicle capable of traveling from one
continent to other continent with its
own power – Acharya Vishwambhar
A vehicle capable of traveling from one
country to another country, one Loka
(Earth, Heaven and Space) to another
Loka – Lallacharya
Types of Vimanas
Mantra-viman: In Treatayuga (primary
age span) many persons (Yogis) had the
mental power to travel with speed of a
mind, from one place to another. There
were 32 names for such space travel.

205
 Some may remember such travels
shown in a TV serial “Star-Trek“ This
may be a futuristic idea Tantric-viman :
In Dwaparyuga (secondary age span)
Tantric-viman came into existence. In
addition to spiritual power physical
elements such as minerals and
vegetable herbs were used. 56 names
of such aircrafts are given in the ancient
texts.
Yantric-viman: In Kaliyuga (Tertiary age
span) Yantric-viman were developed.
These were based on machines and
physical elements such as metals,
minerals and herbs etc. 25 names of
such crafts are available in the ancient
texts. Their names were based on their
special capabilities. In modern aviation
names of aircrafts indicate their
properties (Sea Hack, Jumbo, Jaguar or
Trident)
6.2 Air-Space Transport in ancient India-
The only ancient reference partially available
today is Sage Bharadwaja’s Yantra Sarwasva

206
(Encyclopedia of Machines). It had 40
volumes. One of the volumes is Brihat
Vimanshashtra (Aeronautics in details).This
volume contains 8 chapters, 100 articles and
500 sutras (Stanzas). It can be seen that the
author has used 97 ancient references of 37
authorities (Shounak, Goubhil, Lallacharya,
Vyas Parashar etc) on the subject. This gives
an idea of knowledge of Sage Bharadwaja.

Rishi Bharadwaja belonged to both Treta and

Dwapara Yugas On this treatise, Bodhananda,
belonging to 10th Century, introduced
commentaries. After undergoing hibernation
for 10 centuries the treatise came in written
form through Pandit Anekal Subbaraya
Shastri during 1895 AD to 1918 AD along with
other Bhautika Shastras. The transcripts in
Sanskrit were sent to oriental research
libraries in Pune and Baroda. English
translation was done by Shri J R Joshi and
published as Vymanika Shastra in 1973.

6.3 Contents of Vymanika Shastra:

Contents of Vymanika Shastra are as below,
1. Definition of a plane.

207
2. The pilot

3. Concepts and techniques provided on board

4. Season-specific food prescriptions for pilots.

4. Specific operational clothing for pilots.

6. Knowledge of atmosphere for pilots.

7. Function-based parts of a plane.

8. Core metals and alloys for structural use.

9. Application-specific on board Yantras or

contrivances.

10 Property-specific materials, Darpanas or

mirrors (in Yantras)

11. Varieties of Vimanas under Kritaka

classification.

This text gives various definitions of an

aircraft and its three types, various names of
aircrafts in each type etc. Some interesting
information is presented below.

6.4 Varieties of Vimanas

The treatise deals with four types of Viman as

of Kritaha Category. In the absence of
detailed descriptions, it would be a difficult

208
exercise to understand all about them. Some
of the diagrams given in the work give a rough
idea even though diagrams themselves need
to be reviewed. Nevertheless, a few
deductions about these four aircraft are cited
below: Out of Twenty Five types listed only
four Vimanas, Shakuna, Sundara, Rukma and
Tripura are explained in brief.

Their constructional details include structural

parts, propulsion system, on board
accessories, electrical and solar energy
harnessing, flying control arrangements etc.,
aerodynamic streamlining of the structure
appears interesting. Special alloys like
Rajaloha and Trinetra loha, in structural
construction, are specified. Propulsion energy
systems include engine-driven propellers,
internal combustion, jet propulsion, mercury
and solar energy.

Shakuna Vimana: Apparently it is one

of the early conceptions under Kritaka
category. Propeller-driven; powered by
an internal combustion power deriving
its name from Shakuna (Bird), it has
flapping and feathering control surfaces

209
actuated by powered jacks. Out of 28
parts mentioned major ones are; floor
board, hollow mast, heaters, air suction
pipes, steam boiler, Vidyut Yantra etc.,
Sundara Vimana: Significant feature is
in the jet propulsion system. A Mixture
of three oils forms the Energy-
developing fuel. Ignition is by electric
energy. High energy gases are pushed
through flexible metal-impregnated
fabric hoses acting as jet nozzles.
Flexible jet pies also provide directional
control. Structural material specified is
Raja Loha. Main parts of this Vimana are
- five engines, base plate, electrical
generator, wind blower, heater.
Rukma Vimana: Appearance of a
hover Craft Rukma meaning Golden,
the Vimana has aesthetic golden
appearance. Structural material is Raja
Loha. Solar Energy harnessing is
mentioned. Retractable landing gear is
indicated. Directional control is from
three rudder arrangement.

210
 Tripura Vimana: It is a unique three-
in-one concept. It can operate under
water, on land and space. Propulsion
power is by solar energy. The
construction material is Trinetra Loha,
which makes the Vimanas an extremely
light vehicle. It has three-tier
construction, one for each flying
application. Each tier is functionally
equipped. On-board systems include
machines providing safety against air
currents and radiations.
6.5 Function Based Parts of Vimana

The Chapter on 'Parts of Vimana' strangely

discusses only special parts and features
meant for specific functions, locations
specified for these parts or fixtures seem to
have been aptly chosen. Some of the parts are
Yantras or contrivances, some are packages
or systems. Thirty two such parts are
enumerated. Only four systems are
mentioned below

211
 Antaral Rahasya- A system indicating
different space boundaries to avoid
damage to aircraft.
Drushya Rahasya- A system showing
objects invisible to human eye (a radar
of modern age)
Pralaya Rahasya- A system for artificial
rains
Vimukh Rahasya- A system for spraying
poisonous liquid or gas (Aerial spraying
insecticides)
6.6 Core Metals and Alloys for aircrafts

The treatise prescribes three core metals and

their alloys for constructional requirements of
Vimana. Basic requirements of these
materials are lightness, strength and heat
absorbent/resistant.

The three core metals are: Somaka,

Soundallka and Mourthwika; the ores being
obtained from specified layers of earths crust.
Even geological aspects relating to formation
of ores, the causative factors governing the
ore formation such as Temperature,
Humidity, centrifugal force of earth, pressure

212
inside earth's crust. While these features are
known in modem science, the treatise gives
additional factors such as intra-planetary
forces of attraction in specified ratios and the
gravitational force of the center of universe.
Elaborate metallurgical processes include
extraction, purification, melting and mixing
three core metals, alloying 16 types of alloys.
Metallurgical processes explain use of
varieties of crucibles, furnaces and bellows of
various shapes. These supporting tools
themselves reflect on the existence of a high
order of material practice. Use of acids,
decoctions, juices materials of organic and
inorganic origins in metallurgy system needs
to be noticed. Application - Specific Yantras By
far the most high end part of the treatise
Vimana Shastra is in 'Yantradhi Karanam' or
chapter on contrivances. One half of the
treatise dedicates to description of Yantras
explaining the arrangements to provide the
desired effect. Many researchers have focused
their study in this topic. Correct interpretation
of key words in the aphorisms has led them
to logical interpretations of intended
functional roles. However this needs deeper

213
study and experimentation. Property -Specific
Materials Many unique and property specific
materials typically needed for construction of
Yantras form interesting study for specialists
of material sciences. Having many
constituents in them, these materials are
metallic, non-metallic, acids (Drava), glues
(Lepa), Mirrors (Darpanas). The number of
ingredients in these materials is even up to
20. They are of organic and inorganic nature;
include pars from animals and birds, botanical
plants and substances of oceanic origins. It is
this aspect of natural science that has been
attracted many modem scientists in the last
decade. Reports received from some leading
laboratories in India confirm that some of the
materials, developed in their labs as per
formulas given in Vimana Shashtra and
related works Anshu Bodhinee, are unique in
nature. Given a fair chance to the research
activists, a new family of materials and
parallel generation of material technology
could evolve. With the advent of bio-
metallurgy in modem science, olden
metallurgical practices should get a fillip.
Some of the materials already developed are:

214
 Tamogarbha Loha
Panchadhara Loha
Arara Loha
Chumbaka Mani
Paragrendka Drava
Prakashasthanbhanabida Loha
The chapter “Lohadikaranam“ provides
information on three primary metals namely
Soumak, Soundalik and Mourtwik. 16 alloys
were made from these metals.

Purification - The chapter “Shuddhishodhan“

provides information on purification of metals
to be used in aircrafts.

There are other chapters on subjects such as

Alloys,
Crucibles for melting metals
Diet of flight crew
Flight kitchen
Uniform for the flight crew.

6.7 Types of Vimanas

Mantra-viman: In Treatayuga (primary age

span) many persons (Yogis) had the mental
power to travel with speed of a mind, from

215
one place to another. There were 32 names
for such space travel. Some may remember
such travels shown in a TV serial “Star-Trek“
This may be a futuristic idea Tantric viman.

In Dwaparyuga (secondary age span), Tantric-

viman came into existence. In addition to
spiritual power physical elements such as
minerals and vegetable herbs were used. 56
names of such aircrafts are given in the
ancient texts.

Yantric-viman: In Kaliyuga (Tertiary age span)

Yantric-viman were developed. These were
based on machines and physical elements
such as metals, minerals and herbs etc. 25
names of such crafts are available in the
ancient texts. Their names were based on
their special capabilities. In modern aviation
names of aircrafts indicate their properties
(Sea Hack, Jumbo, Jaguar or Trident)

6.8 Vidya(s) & Kala(s)

This includes 2 Vidyas and 3 Kala(s) under Air-

Space Transport are described below.

216
6.9 Shakunta Shiksha -Training of birds for
transport – Strong birds such as Swan or
Ostrich or Eagle were used for air travel.SV6.1

In ancient times strong birds like eagle, swan

or vultures were used for air transport. Names
of ancient aero planes were based on the
transporter bird (Garud-Vahan -Eagle craft,
Hansa-Vahan- Swan craft, Grudhru-vahan -
Vulture craft etc). Other birds are not strong
hence not used. SV 6.2

6.10 VimanVidya - Air/Space transport -

As a boat or ship is a means of water
transport, Plane is a means of air transport.
Functions, construction and use of both are
same. But air is much lighter than water
hence some changes are essential. SV 6.3

Rig-Veda mentions “I praise Mitra (positive

charge) who is clean, pure and error free. I
praise Varun (negative charge) who is
pollution eater.“ Both these are created when
ceramic pots are properly joined together.
Ref. SV 6.4. Such hundred pots are sufficient.
Copper plated with gold is called Shatakoti.
SV 6.5

217
Rigved describes aero planes as below;
powered by electricity (VadyuNmadrih)
powered by winds (Marutah)
powered by air bellows (Swarkah)
fitted with leaf like wings (Ashwaparna)
Wings like horses of chariot. (Rathebhih)
Floats like a silk cotton seed surrounded
by light weight cotton. SV 6.6
Swarnalepadi Kala is an art of preparation of
artificial gold or silver or plating of metals.
Gold plating was so popular that it was one of
the sixty-four arts mentioned in Shukaniti.
Invention of dry cells helped to develop aero
planes. Sage Vashishtha and Agastya used
the dry cells and were called Mitra-Varuni. SV
6.7

VimanVidya - Aeronautics or Aviation - Rig-

Veda mentions viman -plane) with such
words “A vehicle with balloons filled with
gas (created by Shatakumbhi -dry cells)
serves as horses. May thou travel with
such vehicle“ It can be interpreted that the
techniques of Air balloons and dry cells was
known in Vedic period. Such techniques

218
 mentioned in some ancient texts are
described briefly below.

Construction of dry cell has following

steps,
1. A copper plate is placed in a
ceramic pot (Ghruta kumbha )
2. The plate is covered with a layer
of copper sulphate (Mayur-griva)
3. Another layer of wet saw dust is
placed
4. A zinc block rubbed with mercury
is placed over it.
5. When the copper plate and zinc
block is connected an electric
current is produces.
When such 100 pots are connected it
produces current of adequate voltage. The
idea of dry cell may again be traced in Rig-
Veda in which it is mentioned that Mitra and
Varun (positive and negative charges) are
generated in a ceramic pot (Ghruta- kumbha).

Construction of air balloons has following

steps,

219
 1. A bag of silk cloth is used for
air balloons
2. The bag is coated with herbal
decoctions prepared from
barks of certain trees
3. Then the bag is coated with
paste of black cereal (udad)
4. A coat of lime and powered sea
shells is applied and dried

Swarnalepadikriya – The art of Gold plating

was used to coat silver or copper metal
articles for appearance and durability. In this
art a copper (or silver) article was placed in a
solution of gold nitrate. With the help of dry
cells gold was deposited on copper article.

Sanskrit Verses

गरुडत्सर्िां सैः कांकालैरजयैः पग्नक्षगणैरवप ।

आकािे िाियेद्यानां विर्ानशर्शत सग्नज्ञतर्॥ अग्न्नयान

SV6.2- Use of birds as aircraft

220
 यथा नौका िले यानां विर्ानां व्योग्नजन कीशतवतर् ॥
अग्न्नयान

SV6.3 - Ship & Plane

शर्त्रां िुिे पूतां दक्षां िरुणां च ररषादसां ।

शघया घृताचीां साधांतार्ां । ऋ्िेद

SV6.4 - Dry cells

एिां ितानाां कुांभानाां सांयोगः

कायवकृत्सस्र्ृतः ।

सुिणवशलप्तां तत्ताम्रां िातकुांभशर्शत स्र्ृतां ॥

SV6.5 - Gold plating

आविद्युजर्ग्नभ्दभवरुतः स्िकै रथेशभयावत िृवष्टर्ग्नभ्दश्वपणैः ॥

ऋ्िेद

SV 6.6 -Description of aero planes

कृ वत्रर्स्िणवरितकलहदलेपाहद सग्नत्सक्रया ।
िुक्रनीशत

SV 6.7 - Álceme

221
 ***.***

7 HABITATIONS
7.0 – Introduction

Vastu Shashtra or Construction engineering

has its origin in 4000BC. The most ancient and
well known texts on the subject are Manasar
(400BC) and Mayamat (500AD). Constructions
in north India were carried as per Manasar.
Structures in south India are as per Mayamat.

Vastu as per ancient text is one where Gods

and goddesses dwell and work together with
humans. Science of Vastu, as per Manasar, is
Vastushashtra. Initially this science had two
parts Vastu Vidya and Vastu Jyotishya. The
first part has scientific base while the second
part is non scientific and irrelevant in the
present era.

Most of the texts on the subject are organized

under following headings.

222
 1. Measurements (Length/width/ height
etc).
2. Site selection (Towns and Cities)
3. Site selection (Buildings all types)
4. Planning
5. Layout on ground with direction
lines(North-south or East-west)
6. Construction Rules (Height, clear
spacing, arrangement for drainage of
waste water etc)
7. Selection and testing of construction
materials.
8. Selection of construction tools (Plumb
bob, set square, water level)
9. Construction procedures and quality
control.
10. Auspicious date and time for
various activities (Muhurta) such as
ground breaking, laying foundations,
occupation etc).
11. Interior decorations, installations
of idols (Gods/Godesses)
This Shashtra includes four Vidyas and eleven
Kalas as Shown in Table 7.1 below,

223
 Table 7.1 – Vidyas & Kalas

4 Vidyas (Techniques)

20 Erecting Tents –Vaso Vidya

21 Hut construction – Kutti Vidya

22 Temple construction- Mandir Vidya

23 Palace construction – Prasad Vidya

11 Kalas (Skills)

47 Leather sheets for tent-

Charmapatbandhan
48 Soil preparation -Mrudkarma

49 Roofing with grass- TruNadyachhan

50 White Washing- ChurNopalep

51 Preparations of paint- VarN karma

52 Carpentry- Daru Karma

53 Soil Conditioning- Mrudkarma

54 Drawing and Painting-

Chitradyalekhan

224
 55 Sculpture -PratimakaraN

56 Foundations- Talakriya

57 Construction and decoration of

dome-- Shikharkarm

7.1 - Vasovidya – Tents

Animals' skin was called Krutti. Such skins

were first used as cloth for shelter and then
as clothing. Ref. SV7.1. Subsequently tree
barks were used as clothing. Silk, wool and
cotton was then used to prepare cloths. Vedas
do not mention cotton as cotton cloth was
invented later.

The peg should be of hard wood. It should be

straight smooth and sharp at one end and of
uniform size. The peg should be driven into
ground firmly. Ref. SV 7.2

Shilpadipak specifies rope to be used for tent

erection. Rope should be such that

Does not elongate on stretching or

shrink or releasing.
It should be new, smooth as hairs.

225
 It should be made of Kush or Munja
Grasses, jute or shoots of bamboo.
It should be thick as finger and with two
plies. Ref. SV 7.3
The pegs of a tent are driven in the direction
of south-east, south-west, north-west, and
north-east. This is done to prevent the wind
from entering into tent. Ref. SV 7.4

7.2 Kuttividya- Mud constructions

As per Shilparatna soils are grouped into for

classes according to their superiority as
described in Table 7.2 below, Ref. SV 7.5

Table 7.2- Classification of soils

Test Classification
Good Averag Poor Bad
e
Colo White Red Yello Black/
r w Blue
Sme Pleasa Like Foul /
blood
ll nt Food Fishy
Tast Sweet Punge Bitte Sour/Sal
e nt r ty

226
As per Shilpratna, the soil to be used for mud
plaster should be submerged in knee deep
water in a pit. Frequent kneading of the soil
should be done. Extracts of barks of milky
trees should be added to wet soil and kneaded
by expert potter daily for one month. Ref. Ref.
SV 7.6

Doors of bamboos should be used for low cost

house only. Ref. SV 7.7

For low cost houses wood of following trees

should be used as these trees are available in
all parts of country. Ref. SV 7.8

Table 7.3 -Wood for low cost houses

San Engl Latin Sans Engl Latin

skrit ish krit ish

Pishi Dat Phoeni Tindu Rox Diospyr

t e x k b os
pal Sylves Cab melano
m tris inet xylon
tree

227
Nim Nee Azadir Raaja Cha Buchan
ba m ahtata adan roli ania
Indica lanzan

Mad Butt Madhu Taal pal Borasu

huk er ka my s
tree longifo pal flavilife
li m r

Nari Coc Cocus Kram Are Areca

ker onut nucifer uk / ca catechu
tree a Poog Pal
m

VeN Bam Bambu Ketak Scr Pandan

u boo sa i ew us
bambo Pine odorati
s ssimus

As per Mayamat, hatched roof should be

provided for mud house and tiles should be
used for roofs of houses made of stone or
bricks. Ref. SV 7.9

7.3 - Mandir Vidya- Houses

The depth of foundation should be 60 cm 120

cm. Ref. SV 7.10.The height of plinth should

228
be equal to knee height (60 cm) to chest
height (90 cm) Ref. SV 7.11Steps should be
provided for houses, schools and palaces. Ref.
SV 7.12

The house should not be less than 16 hasta (3

m) in width. The size should be between 8
Danda to 32 Danda (8-32 m) at interval of 2
hasta. Ref. SV 7.13

The Doors, pillars or trusses etc should be odd

in number (1, 3, 5, 7 etc). Ref. SV 7.14

Mayamat specifies wood of certain trees,

suitable for construction. Ref. SV.7.15 .Details
of the trees are shown in a table Ref. SV 7.3
& Ref. SV 7.14

Table 7.4 - Wood for construction

Sans Engli Latin Sansk Eng Latin

krit sh rit lish

Kha Cate Acacia Pishit Wal Alcurit

dir chu catech nut ea
au tree moluo
cana

229
Kha Cate Acacia Tindu Ten
adir chu catech k du
au tree

Van Spru Prosopi Raaja Cha Bucha

hi ng s adan roli nania
tree. spyicig tree lanzan
ers

Nim Nee Azadira Homa

ba m htata
Indica

Saal Sal Shorea Madh Butt Madhu

tree robust uk er ka
a tree longifo
li

The house normally should have one to five

storied. Wall should rest on wall and pillar on
pillar but wall should not rest on pillar. Ref.
SV7.15

There should be separate staircases for

different floors. The three basic types of
staircase are,
1. Within a wall
2. Adjacent to a wall

230
 3. Without side walls
The four styles of staircase are
1. Trikhand - Dog legged
2. Shankhamandal- Spriral
3. Vallimandal - Helical
4. Gomutrasum - Straight Ref.
SV7.16

Roofing tiles, metal pieces are used to cover

the portion above the truss. The roof should
be non-leaking. Roof form an important part
of house. Ref. SV 7.17.As per Mayamat
external and internal plaster is necessary.
Inner walls should be decorated with the
pictures of gods or goddess or which pleases
mind and not or war, death etc. Erotic pictures
must not painted on walls. Ref. SV 7.18.

There should be uniformity of materials to be

used in building. Planning is necessary if
different materials are to be used in different
parts. Ref. SV 7.19.

7.4 Prasadvidya -Palaces

231
There should not be any defect in the
foundation level of palace. The foundation
should be laid on rock, hard soil or at level of
water table. Ref. SV 7.20.Vastu idol should be
buried in lined pit near the column's base.
Eight precious stones, eight types of grain
seeds, eight medicinal herb, cloth and
flowers, coins should also be buried in this pit.
Ref. SV 7.21

Plinth should be constructed below ground

floor. Plinth imparts height, safety and beauty
to the structure. The height of plinth is
decided on the type, height and construction
method of the structure. Ref. SV 7.22

Plinth should provide access to all parts of

house and may be cut for main entrance. Ref.
SV 23.4

The description of pillars is given below.

Height size, decorations and type of columns
is also described. Three main parts of columns
are,
Kumbhi
Khamb
Mand

232
Various shapes are given to these three parts.
Ref. SV 7.24

Mayamat specifies wood of certain trees

suitable for making wooden pillars (as the
wood is strong in compression). Ref. SV 7.25

Table 7.5 - Trees suitable for making

wooden pillars
San Eng Latin San Engli Latin
skri lish skri sh
t t
Pun Alst Alstonia Kha Catec Acacia
nag onia scholaris dir hu catec
. hau

Saal Sal Shorea Mad Butte Madh

tree robusta huk r tree uka
longif
oli
Sta Roy Shis Black Dalbe
bak al ham wood rgia
poin p latifoli
cian a
a

233
Arju Arju Teminali Sag Teak
n n a Arjun tree
tree
Ajak Pag Taberna Kshe Flueg Flueg
arNI oda emonta eraN gia gia
tree na i leuce
oppyr
us
Pad Ebo Pithecell Cha Sand Santal
ma ny obium nda alwoo um
tree flexicaul n d tree album
e
Pish Dat Phoenix Dha Waln Alcuri
it e Sylvestri nwa ut tea
pal s n Tree moluo
m cana

Pind Sag Cryota Sim Teak Tecto

i o alrenus ha tree na
Pal Grand
m is
Raja Cha Buchana Sha Spun Proso
dan roli nia mi g tree pis
lanzan spyici
gers
Tila
k

234
Mayamat specifies wood of certain trees
suitable for making wooden beams (as the
wood is strong in bending). Ref. SV7.26

Table 7.6 - Trees suitable for making

wooden beams
San Englis Latin Sansk Engli Latin
skri h rit sh
t
Nim Neem Azadir Prun Wild
b tree ahtata us Almo
Indica amy nd
gdalu tree
Shir Rain Albizzi Ek Acaci
ish tree a a
odorat Babu arebi
issima l ka
lebbek Acaci
a
Kaa Cabin Aasan Katph Myric Myric
k et al a a
wood escul
Tree enta

235
Timi Red Dalber Likun Lemo Citru
s Sandl gia ch n s
ewoo aojein tree lemo
d enaia n
Pan Jackfr Artoca Sapta Alsto Alsto
as uit rpus parN nia nia
tree Hetrro schol
phylla aris.

Bho Java Ziziph Gawa Myro Term

um plum us kshee balan inalia
Iuiuba beller
ica.

Wood, stones and bricks are used to construct

pillars, beams and roofs. Trees, whose wood
is durable, are described above. Ref. SV 7.27

As per Bhrugu Samhita, bricks and stones,

which are suitable for columns, are described
below. Ref. SV 7.28.

Mayamat describes properties of stones or

bricks to be used for masonry.

Stones -Of same color, smooth,

embedded in ground. Ref. SV 7.29,&.30
Bricks - Properly fired, sound and free
from voids.

236
Roof column should rest on beam or truss. The
space between beams should be covered with
wooden planks. The plank thickness should be
one eighth the width. Roof should be
constructed with rafters and tiles. Ref. SV 7.31

Partition walls are skillfully made of wood,

tone or bricks. The tree types of partion walls
are,
Jalak- Grilled partition
Falak - Wooden planks
Aistak- Brick wall Ref. SV 7.32
By proper interlocking of bricks laying of
bricks should be done. Depending upon the
position of joints in brick layers, six types of
bonds are created. These are,

1. Mallalila
2. Bramaraj
3. Venuparva
4. Pugaparwa
5. Deosandhi
6. Dandka Ref. SV 7.33
Five types of joints for columns are specified.
These are,
1. Meshyuddha- fight of lambs

237
 2. Trikhand - three legged
3. Soubhadra- four legged
4. Ardhapani-Hand in hand
5. Mahavrutta- Thumb
Western structures do not provide joints in
columns but Indian work allow joint at one
third height from bottom. Ref. SV.7.34

Five types of joints for beams are specified.

These are,
1. Shatshikha
2. Zashdant
3. Sukarghrana
4. Sakarnakil
5. Vajjrabh .Ref. SV 7.35
Different types of roofs are specified in
Mayamat. The roofs may be sloping in 2,
4,6,8,12,16 ways. The roofs may be lotus,
Gooseberry, garland or sphere shaped. Ref.
SV 7.36

Lime mortar is prepared by mixing lime and

sand of three sizes,
1. Karal
2. Muggdi
3. Gulmash

238
The first layer of lime mortar plaster should
be 19 mm thick. Second and third layer should
be 10 and 5 mm thick respectively. The
mortar should be cured for a period of six to
twelve months. Ref. SV 7.37

During final payment, gifts such as cow,

cloths, flag (to engineer) and gold ornaments
headgear, food etc. (to carpenter and mason)
should be given. Ref. SV 7.38

Sanskrit Verses

पिूनाअांगशनिावर: कृ वत्त कृ वत्तररत्सयुच्यते बुध:ै ।

िृक्षत्सिक्सांभिां िाक्षं तजज्ञेयां तु चतुविवधर् ् ॥

भ्ुगुसांहिता अ. १४

SV 7.1- Types of cloths

िांकुयवज्ञीयसारदारुघहटतो िस्ताघवर्ानोऽर्व्ण: ।

सूक्ष्र्ाग्र: सरलोदृढ: सर्तलो र्ूले पृथ:ु स्थावपत: ॥

भूर्ौय: ग्नस्थरतार्ुपैशतशनितो यो िावििेत्तादृिो ।

र्ुले सुक्ष्र्र्ुिोवप र्ूघशव न तथैिािो भिेत्ससदा ॥

शिल्पदीपक

239
 SV7.2- Pegs for tents

न जयाना न तथशधका भिशत या सांकृष्यर्ाणा न ।

िा श्लक्ष्णा रोर्िककविा कुिर्यो िेणुभ्दिा बाल्ििा॥

यव्दा र्ुांििणोभ्दिाांगुशलदलस्थुलोक्तयानाशधका ।

रजिु:पाियुगाांविता शनगहदता िा बालतूलोभ्दिा॥

शिल्पदीपक

SV 7.3- Qualities of a rope

अ्नौ राक्षसिायुिांकरहदशिस्थापया: क्रर्ात्सकीशलका:॥

शिल्पदीपक अ १

SV7.4 -Driving pegs of a tent

श्वेता ब्राम्िणभूशर्का सुघत

ृ ितगांधा िुभस्िाहदनी।

रक्ता िोग्नणतगांशधनी नृपशतभू: स्िादे कषाया च सा: ॥

स्िादे ऽम्ला शतलतैलगांशधरुहदता पीता च िैशया र्िी।

कृ ष्णा र्त्सस्यसुगांशधनी च कतुका िुिेशत भूलक्षण॥

शिल्परत्न

SV 7.5 - Soil classification

240
ताां प्रग्नक्षप्य िटे र्ृस्ना िानुदघ्रां िलां ग्नक्षपेन ।

आलोड्य पदां शभ: सांक्षो्य र्द्येत्ता पुन: पुन: ॥

तत:क्षीरगैरीष त्त्िक् क्िाथवत्रफलाांबुशभ: ।

र्दव येजर्ासर्ात्रां तु तत्सकर्व कुिलैनरै :॥ शिल्परत्न अ १४

SV7.6 - Soil for mud plasters

पषांड्यादीनाां िनानाां गूिे तद ।

िांश्व्दारां योिनीयां न दष्ू यर् ्॥ र्यर्त अ २५

SV7.7 - Doors of bamboos

वपशितग्नस्तांदकिृक्षो शनांबो रािादनो

र्धूक्श्च।

तालांच नाररकेरां क्रर्ुकां िेणुश्च केतकी चैि

॥

िीशलांि: स्तांभरुिा िैशयानाां चावप

िूिाणार्। र्यर्त अ २५

SV7.8 - Wood for low cost houses

241
तृणैस्तु र्ृण्र्यां छाद्यशर्ष्टकाशभरर्ृण्र्यय ॥ र्यर्त अ
२७

SV7.9 - Hatched roof

िानुर्ात्रां िनेद्भाशर्: पुरुषाधवप्रर्ाणत:

अध:पुरुषर्ात्रात्तु न िल्यां दोषदां गुिे॥ र्यर्त अ

२७

SV7.10 - Depth of foundation

सिेषार्वप िणावनाां पादोच्चाधं र्सूरकर् ्।

केशचत्सस्िभतुि
व क्षोरुनाम्युत्ससेघां िांदशत च॥ र्यर्त अ
२७

SV7.11 - Height of plinth

पदिीनां न कतवव्यां प्रासादर्ठर्ांहदरर् ॥

शिल्पदीपक

SV7.12 - Steps for Buildings

अष्टदां डात्ससर्ारभ्य ग्नव्दग्नव्दिस्तवििधवनात॥

व्दावत्रिद्दां डपयेतां गृिाणाां र्ानशभष्यते ।

242
 िीनां षोडििस्तेभ्यो गृियान कारयेत॥ र्यर्त अ २७

SV7.13 - Sizes of houses

िस्तस्तांभ तुलाहदकान्रगृिे युांजयादयु्भां सदा ॥ र्यर्त अ २७

SV7.14 - Odd number of doors

िहदर: िाहदरो िग्नजिशनांब: साल: शिलीांिक: वपशित:।

शतांदक
ु र्थरािादनिोर्र्धुकाश्च पादपादर्का:॥ र्यर्त अ
२५

SV 7.15 - Selection of trees for

construction

एकग्नव्दवत्रचतुभशूव र्युक्त
व ा िा पांचभूशर्का॥

शभत्तेरुपरर शभवत्त: स्यात्सपद: पादोपरर स्र्ृत:।

शभत्तेरुपरर पादो िा न पादोपरर शभवत्तका ॥ र्यर्त अ २१

SV7.16 -Pillars and walls

तले तले तु सोपानां प्रयुांिीत विचक्षण: ।

243
 विविधां तस्य र्ूलां तु चतुरां िृत्तर्ायतर् ् ॥ र्यर्त अ
२१
SV7.17- Types of Staircases

द्धैश्च र्ृण्र्यैश्चावप लोिलोष्ठैयथ

व ोशचतर् ्॥

गोपानस्योपररष्ठात्तु छदनीयां विचक्षणे: ।

शनग्नशछिशर्ष्तर्ानेन विधातव्यां दृढां तथा॥ र्यर्त अ १८

SV7.18 - Covering of roof

दे िानाां च ग्नव्दिानाां चािासे यो्यां सनातनर् ् ।

बहिरां तश्च सिेषाां छत्रां युांिीत बुग्नध्दर्ान ्॥

सुर्ांगलकथोपेतां श्रदाांनत्त
ृ हक्रयाांवितर् ् ।

सांग्रानां र्रणां द:ु िां तापसन्नलीलर् ् ॥ र्यर्त अ १८

SV7.19 - Plasters and paintings

244
 िजर्ाद्याशििराांतां च यैिवव्यैग्नव्दशनशर्वतर् ्।

तैरेिादो तथाांते च चजय्स्तव्याश्चेवष्टका: िुभा:॥

शर्श्रिव्यैश्च रोकीणैयेिवव्यैरुपररग्नस्थतर् ्।

तैरेि र्ूग्नजघव विजयासां रिस्यशर्दर्ीररतर् ्॥ र्यर्त

अ १८

SV7.20 - Building materials

िलांशतके ग्नस्थतां िल्यां प्रासादे दोषदां िदे त ्।

शभत्तेर्ल
ूव ां स्थापनीय पाषाणे िा सुग्नस्थरायाां धररत्र्यार् ्॥
शिल्प्दीपक

Fig.7.21 -Depth of foundation

स्तांभर्ूले यथायोगां गते गभं शनधापयेत ्।

सत्नौषशधयुक्त
व ां िस्त्रपुष्पाहदिोशभतर् ्॥ र्यर्त अ १२

Fig.7.22 – Vastupuja

अशधष्ठानस्य चाधस्तादप
ु पीठां प्रयोियेत ्।

रक्षाथ्र्ुज
व नताथे च िोभाथे तत्सप्रिक्ष्यते॥ र्यर्त अ १३

245
अशधष्ठानस्यचोजर्ानां िाशतभूशर्ििाद् ग्नव्दधा॥ र्यर्त
अ १४

Fig.7.23 -Purpose of plinth

प्रिेिां शनगवर्ां कुयावत्ससिोगानाां र्सूरके॥

व्दाराथव िाप्यशधष्ठनां छे दनीयां यथोशचतर् ्।

प्रशतच्छे दां न कतवव्यां सिवत्रि

ै ां विचक्षणै:॥ र्यर्त अ १४

Fig.7.24 - Plinth construction

पादायार्ां सविस्तारर्ाकारां
भूषणाहदकर् ्।

लक्षाांतरत: सम्यग ् िक्षे सांक्षेपत:

क्रर्ात ्॥ र्यर्त अ १५

Fig.7.25 - Description of Pillars

पुरूषः िहदरः सालो र्धुकः स्ततकस्तथा ।

शििांपािून
व ािकणी क्षीरणी पद्मचांदनौ ॥

वपशितोधांिनः वपांडी शसांिो रािादनः िर्ी ।

246
 शतलकश्च दृर्ा द्येते स्तांभिृक्सा: सर्ीररता: र्यर्त अ
२२

Fig.7.26 - Selection of trees for wood

शनम्बासनशिररषाश्च एकः काकश्च कटफलः

शतशर्सो शलकुांच पनसः सप्तपणवकः

भौर्ा चैि गिाक्षी चेत्सयादयःस्त्रीर्िीरुिः

र्यर्त अ १५

Fig.7.27- Female trees for beams

स्तांभोत्तराहदकाांगानाां िव्यां दृर्ोपलेष्टका: ॥ र्यर्त अ २५

Fig.7.27 - Building materials

इष्टकाशर्िर्
ु ा: सिाव: स्तांभा: प्रोक्ताग्नश्चरां तना:॥ भृगस
ु ांहिता
अ १५

Fig.7.28 - Building materials

एकिणाव: ग्नस्थरा: ग्नस्न्धा: सुिसांस्पिांविता: ।

पाचीना िाप्युदीचीना भूर््ना: िुभदा: शिला: ॥

Fig.7.29 -Selection of stones

247
सुघना: सर्द्धाश्च सुस्िराश्चेष्टका: िुभा: ।

स्त्रीशलांगाश्चावपपुग्नल्लांगा भांगशछिाहदिग्निवत:॥ र्यर्त अ

१५

Fig.7.30 -Selection of bricks

िािनोध्िे तुलोध्िे िा गोपानां योियेद् बुध:

पादानार्ांतरां छद्यां फलकै: सारदारुिै: ॥

अष्टाांिबिलां छजनफलका छद्यर्ूध्िवत: ।

गोपानस्योपररसटात्तु छदयेल्लोिलोष्टकै:॥ र्यर्त अ १६

Fig.7.31- Roofs

दृर्ोपलेष्टकािव्यैयक्त
ुव या युांग्नित शभवत्तका:।

िालकां फालकां कुड्यर्ैष्टकां वत्रधा र्तर् ्॥

Fig.7.32 - Types of partition walls

आधाराधेयनीत्सयैि िव्यसांधानर्ूह्यतार् ्।

र्ल्ललीलां तथा ब्रम्िराि िै

िेणपिवकर्।

248
 पूगपिे दे िसांशधदं हडका षग्नड्िधा:
स्र्ृता: ॥

Fig.7.33 - Masonry Bonds

र्ेषयुध्द वत्रिांडां च सौभिां चाधवपाग्नणकर् ्।

र्िािृत्तां च पांचत
ै े स्तांभानाां सांघय: स्र्ृता:॥

Fig.7.34 - Joints of Column

षटशिका झषदां तां सूकरघ्राणर्ेि च।

सांकीणवकीलां िज्राभांपचैि िशयतेष्िवप ॥

Fig.7.35 - Joints of beams

चतुरस्त्रां च िृतां च षडस्त्राष्टास्त्रर्ेि च ।

व्दादिास्त्रां ग्नव्दरष्टास्त्रां पद्मकुड्र्लसग्नजनभर् ्॥

तथार्लकपक्कभां र्ालाकारां च गोलकर् ्। र्यर्त अ १८

Fig.7.36 - Types of Roofs

करालर्ु्दीगुल्र्ाषिनर्ेकैकर्ांगुलर् ्।

कल्कर्ानां तदधेन तदधावधव च शचक्कणर् ्॥

249
िलस्थलप्रयुक्ते तु घनशर्ष्यते ।

षण्र्ासर्ुत्तर्ां प्रोक्तां चतुर्ावसां च र्ध्यर्र् ्॥

अधर्ां तु ग्नव्दर्ासां स्यहदषार्ुवषतशर्ष्यते । र्यर्त अ

१८

Fig.7.37 - Preparation of lime mortar

विर्ानस्थूवपकास्तांभर्ांडपालांकृताजयवप।

िस्त्रादीशन ध्ििां धेनु प्रीत्सया स्थपतये ददे त ्॥

िेषानवप तक्षाहदविवष्टसिावन ् स्िकर्वग्नण ।

सांतपवयेद हिरण्यैश्च िस्तैिाववप र्नोिरै : ॥र्यर्त अ १९

SV7.38 - Payment to artisans

***.***

8 FORTS AND CASTLES

This Shastra includes four vidya(s) and six
Kala(s) as mentioned in a table 8.1 below

Table 8.1 – Vidyas & Kalas

250
 4 Vidyas (Techniques)

24.Durgvidya Castles

24.Kootavidya Castles

26.Aakarvidya Moats

37.Yuddhavidya Warfare

6 Kala(s) –Skills

58 Mallayuddha .Wresling

59. Weapons
Shashtranipatan
60.Astranipatan Missiles

61.Vyuha rachana Military formation

62..Shalyadruti Surgery

63.Vrananirakaran Wound Dressing

8.1 Durgvidya – Castles

As per Yuddharnawa, true strength of a king

lies in his forts and not in his army. With these
forts a king with small army is strong and
stable. One soldier at a fort can fight hundred

251
soldiers outside the fort. Hundred soldiers are
enough to fight ten thousand soldiers of the
enemy. Hence the fort is useful and important.
Ref. SV 8.1

Seven types of forts mentioned in Mayamat

are as below;
1. Giridurg or Gada -Fort on/in or near
a mountain
2. Vanadurg- Fort surrounded by thick
forest, but without a source of water
3. Jaldurg- Fort situated in river water
or sea water
4. Pankadurg- Fort in swampy area or
land with can be flooded with water
5. Harindurg- Fort situated in a desert,
devoid of trees or water
6. Daivatadurg- Fort situated at
strategic point or difficult to
approach
7. Mishradurg- Fort having combination
of features mentioned above

The fort should have adequate storage of

things such as grocery, oils, Salt, medicines,

252
poisons, metals, men, animals, bamboos,
firewood, grass, wood, garrison and its
commander. Ref. SV 8.2

The fort should have following requisites,

Difficult to climb, approach or conquer
Prohibiting passage
Protector of nation and defeat of enemy
SV 8.3
8.2 Kootavidya-Castles

One can find references on Castles in Rig-Veda

(Ref.SV24.1).A verse praising sage Kashypa is
as below, Ref. SV 8.4

"O Kashypa your creation (Castle) is spacious,

well equipped and shines in sun light as a
rainbow. May such creation give shelter to
the king!"

An artificial castle is one which is protected by

wall, moats on thorny bushes and one which
is un-conquerable. Such castle can defend
from enemy. Ref. SV 8.5

An entry or exit from the castle should be

easy. Otherwise the owner gets imprisoned in

253
his castle. Such castle is not suitable for
shelter. Ref. SV.8.6

There are six types of castles as mentioned

below, Ref. SV 8.7

1. Dhanadurga- Well equipped with

arms, ammunition, water, food etc.
2. Mahidurga - Located at strategic
point
3. Giridurga - Constructed on
mountains/ Hills
4. Jaladurga- Surrounded by water
5. Manushyadurga- Under command of
important persons.
6. Sansurgawardurg- Near to many
castles for help.
Castles are provided with two main entrances
and four obstructions. The main gate is
fortified with pointed long nail (Indrakeel)
which can not be with an impact of elephants.
There are secret staircases and bridges for
crossing the trenches around castle. The
walls of the castle are 4 m wide and 7.5 m
high with 12 types constructions. Ref. SV 8.8

254
8.3 - Aakarvidya- Moats

Moat is defined as a deep wide ditch, usually

filled with water, typically surrounding a
fortified medieval town, fortress, or castle as
a protection against assault.

Yuktikalpataru (Ref. SV 8.9) states that if

there are no natural or artificial forts available
in a land, then moats (deep trenches) are
constructed for defense purposes.

Moat is a deep, well constructed, underground

passage with little water. Moats are difficult
for enemy to cross. Ref. SV 8.10

Some moats are full of water and such wide

that these cannot be crossed by elephants or
horses. The water in the moat may be infested
by animals (crocodiles). Such moats act as a
fort. Ref. SV 8.11

8.4 Yuddhavidya – Warfare

Jamadagnya Dhanurveda (Ref. SV 8.12)

mentions seven types of hand weapons.
These are,

255
 1. Dhanu -Bow & arrow
2. Chakra -Wheel
3. Kunt- Spear
4. Khyurika -Belt
5. Khadga -Sword
6. Gada - Maize
7. Bahu - Hands
Four types of warriors (Ref. SV 8.13) are
classified as under,
1. Acharya- One who can fight with any
of the above seven hand weapons.
2. Bhargava or Kavi - One who can fight
with four hand weapons.
3. Yoddha- One who can fight with two
hand weapons.
4. Ganak - One who can fight with only
one hand weapon.
Same text (Ref. SV 8.14) mentions four
methods of war. These types are,

1. Mayik- War using missiles, most

effective.
2. Naalik- War using guns and rifles
3. Shashtra- war with hand weapons

256
 4. Bahu - war with hands alone, least
effective.
Ancient text Shukraniti (Ref. SV8.15)
mentions one additional and most effective
method of war. This method is war with
Mantrashakti. The text describes effects of
each of the five methods.

Sanskrit Verses

राज्ञो बलां न हि दग
ु र्
व ेि बलां बलर्।

अत्सय्ल्पबलिान ् रािाग्नस्थरो दग
ु ब
व लाभ्दिेत ॥

एक्क ितां योधयशत प्राकारस्थो धनुधरव : ।

ितां दिसिस्त्राग्नण एिां दग

ु े विशिष्यते ॥ युध्द्धियाणवि

SV 8.1 True strength of a king

257
शगररिनिलपांकेररणदै ितशर्श्राग्नण सप्तदग
ु ावग्नण

धाजयैतैलै: क्षारै : सलिणभैषजयगांधविषर् ्॥

लोिाांगारस्नायुविषाणिेग्नष्िबांधनैयक्त
ुव र् ्

तृणचर्वकारयुक्तां सिल्कलां सादारुयुक्तर् ्॥

नृपभिनसर्ोपेतां ्स्त्सय श्वरथपदाशत बिुर्ुख्यर्।

र्यर्त अ १०

SV8.2- Types of forts

दग
ु द
ं ्ु र्वयुक्तां दल
ु घ्
व य दरु घगािां च।

रक्षथं च ियाथे ग्न्िशभरभेद्यां च दग

ु शव र्ष्टां
स्यात ॥

SV8.3 - Qualities of a good fort

यत्ते शिल्पां कशयप रोचनािद् इां हियाित्सपुष्कवलां शचत्रभानु

याग्नस्र्ांसूयाव अवपवता: सप्तसाकां तग्नस्र्ांजनरािानर्शधांविश्रते

॥ऋ्िेद

SV8.4- Vedic Forts

प्राकारपररिारण्यसांश्रयां यद्भिेहदिां ।

258
कृ वत्रर् नार् विदज्ञेयां लांघ्यालांघ्यां तु िैररणार् ्॥

युवक्तकल्पतरु

SV8.5 - Obstructions around fort

सप्रिेिापसरणां दग
ु र्
व ुत्तर्र्ुच्चते ।

अजयत्र िांहदिालेि न ता्ट्दग

ु र्
व ाश्रयेत ्॥

SV8.6 - Forts exit

धनदग
ु े र्िीदग
ु े शगररदग
ु े िल6 तथा।

र्नुष्यदग
ु े सांसगविरदग
ु े च ताशन षट्॥

SV8.7 - Six types of forts

ग्नव्दकिाटचतुष्पररघागवलिरतोजनतेकीलयुत ्।

सस्थूणर्ध्यर्ालयशर्ठां कसहितां सर्ूढसोपानर् ्॥

SV8.8 - Details of forts

यग्नस्र्जदे िे शगररनावग्नस्त नद्यो िा गिनोदका: ।

तस्य र्ध्ये र्िीपाल: कृ वत्रर्ां दग

ु र्
व ाचरे त ् ॥
युवक्तकल्पतरु

SV8.9 - Artificial Forts

259
 अधोऽधो बध्यर्ानोवप कांदरोल्पिलाांवित:

द्ु त्सिेन सर्ुहदष्ट: सुदल

ु घ्
े यो हि भूभुिार् ्॥
युवक्तकल्पतरु

SV8.10 - Fort surrounded by dry

moat

गिैरलांघ्या विग्नस्तणाव गांशभरा: पूणि

व ायव: ।

दग
ु त्सव िेन सर्ाहदष्ता: पररिा बिुयादस:॥ युवक्तकल्पतरु

SV8.11 - Fort surrounded by dry

moat

धनुश्चक्रां च कु6तां च िड्गश्च क्षुररका गदा ।

सप्तर्ां बािुयुध्दां स्यादे िां युध्दां तु सप्तधा ॥ धनुिद

े अ १

SV8.12 - Seven weapons of hand

war

आचायव: सप्तयुध्द: स्याच्चतुशभवभागवि: (कवि) स्र्ृत:।

व्दाभ्याां चैि भिेद्योध्दा एकेनां गणलो भिेत ्॥

िार्द्जय धनुिद
े अ १

SV8.13 -Four types of soldiers

260
उत्तर्ां र्ाशयकास्त्रेण नाशलकास्त्रेण
र्ध्यर्र् ्।

िस्त्रै: कशनष्ठां युध्दां च बािुयुध्दां

ततोऽधर्र् ् ॥िार्द्जय धनुिद
े अ ९

SV8.14 -Four types of wars

र्ांत्रेररतर्िािवक्तबाणाद्यै :ित्रुनािनर् ्।

र्ाशयकास्त्रेण तद्युध्दां सिवयुध्दोत्तर्

स्र्ृतर् ्॥

नालाग्न्नगोलसांयोगाल्लक्ष्ये
गोलशनपातनर् ्।

नाशलकास्त्रेण तद्युध्दां र्िा-िासकरां ररपो: ॥

कुांताहदिस्त्रसांपातैनाविनां ररपुणाच यत ्।

िस्त्रयुध्दां तु तजज्ञेयां नालास्त्राभित:

िुभर् ्॥

कष्णै: सांशधर्र्ावणाां प्रशतलोर्ानुलोर्त:।

बांधनैघावतनां ित्रोयुक्
व त्सया तब्दािुयुध्दकर् ्॥
िुक्रनीशत

261
 SV8.15 -Five types of wars

***.***

9. TOWN PLANNING

9.0 Introduction – A human body comprises

of different organs and five senses of
perception. Many humans living together form
a family. Many families make a town. Town
planning depends upon nine factors as
described below;
a. Water supply (Prapa)
b. Housing Colonies (Sarwajanwas)
c. Markets (AapaN)
d. Security (Nagar Rakshya)
e. Courts (Rajavaralaya)
f. Auditoriums, Stadiums, Free guest
house ( Mandap)
g. Educational Institurtes (Vanopawan)
h. Places of worship (Dewalaya)
i. Waste disposal area / crematoriums
(Smashan)

262
9.1 Aapanvidya – Markets- A market area
should have an outer ring road. Ref. SV 9.1.

The various sections of the market have to be

located in specific parts of the market. This is
illustrated in Table 9.1 and SV 9.2 to 9.8
below.

Table 9.1 Planning of a market

Part Shops
East to Meat, fish dry vegetable,
North
Catechu, beetle leafs.
east
East to Eatables
south
east

263
South Utensils
to south
east
South Cloth and German silver utensils
to south
west
South Grain shops
west to
north
west
North to Wool and woolen cloth
north
Oil and salts
west
North to Flowers and perfumes
north
east
Central Precious stones cloth with art
part work
All parts Honey, ghee, medicines, pepper,
kumkum etc

9.2 Rajalayavidya- Town halls - A public

hall is place with no side walls so that working
of meeting is visible from distance to all. Ref.
SV 9.9

264
The counseling room of a king should be long
with high walls and room should be oriented
along east-west direction. Ref.SV 9.10

Seating place, protected as a castle, should be

in a west part with facing towards east. The
place should have grilled wall separating the
seating arrangement. Seats of noble men
should be in a gallery. Ref. SV 9.11

South west side should have seats for

ministers, judges. North east side should have
seats for foreign ambassadors. Seat of army
commander should be on south side. All seats
should be properly arranged. Ref. SV 9.12

The central part should have seats for

pleader, witnesses, and chest high cages for
accused. The flooring of this area should be
paved. Ref. SV 9.13

Water tanks should be on the east and north

sides. These are to be used for washing hair
and faces of accused (to remove makeup).
South part should have cots for wounded
persons. Ref. SV 9.14

9.3 Sarwajanwas -Public buildings -

Kautilya has mentions certain guidelines while
265
planning of a town. These guidelines are
shown in Table 9.2 below,

Table 9.2 - Kautilya Rules of Town

planning
Part Shops / residences

North east Kings's advisers

Water supply
Sacrifical places
Priests
South east Workshops
Stables
Warehouse
Utencils
Cottage industries
East Flower markets
Grains

266
 Warriours
South west Brokers
Arms
Businessmen
Military persons
Wine and meat shops
South Traders
Prostitutes
South west Prisons
Camps for camels
North west Cotton, wool or skins
Hospitals
Sheds for cows
Metals and precious
stones
West Unskilled labours
Central Palaces
part

Bhrugu's guidelines (Ref. SV 9.20), are

applicable to central part, are shown in Table
9.3 below,

Table 9.3 - Bhrugu's Rules of Town

planning
Part Shops / residences

267
North Gardens
South Prostitutes
West Unskilled labours
East Traders
North east Potters Washermen
Central part Palaces, Markets
All parts Water wells
Maya's guidelines (Ref. SV 9.21) are
applicable to southern part, are shown in a
table below,

Table 9.4 - Maya's Rules of Town

planning
Part Shops / residences

North Gardens, trades of oil

South Milkmen
West Holy men
East Gardens
North west Fish or meat eaters

268
According to Maya waste disposal grounds
should be on east or north side of the town.
Tanneries, cremation places or residences of
scavengers should be far away from water
bodies. Ref. SV 9.22

Women of scavenger class should work only

in the morning. For protection against
diseases they should wear copper or lead
ornaments. Ref. SV 9.23

9.4 - Vanopawanvidya- Gardens - While

planning of a garden certain trees are to
planted in appropriate parts as mentioned
below, Ref. SV 9.24

Central part- Trees with hard core inside

- Jack fruit, Mango etc.

269
 Outskirt part- Trees with hard core
outside - Coconut, areca palm etc.
Remaining parts - Trees with hard core
outside and outside - Tamarind tree,
Sandal wood tree, ebony tree etc.
Trees without any hard core -Country
fig, Banyan tree, Holy fig etc.
The garden should be protected by a fencing
wall (mud, stone or brick wall) and gate. If this
is not possible then a high fence of thorny
trees should be provided. Ref. SV 9.25

A sub burn of a town is an area separating

town and places reserved for educational
institutes (Vana). The sub burn part may have
farms, gardens or mining areas. Ref. SV 9.26.

Manusmriti mentions that a teacher should

teach his pupils following things, Ref. SV 9.27

Shouch - Cleanliness of body and

surroundings
Aachar - Day to day behavior
Agnikarya - Properties and uses of fire
Sandyopasan - Neutral ness ( during
debates or fights)

270
9.5 Dewalayavidya - Temples - According
to Mayamat temples are constructed in
appropriate directions as shown in a table
below. Ref. SV 9.28

Table 9.5 Orientation of Temples

Direction Deity
East Sun
South east Kali
South Kartikswamy
South west Varun
West Vishnu
North west Vishnu
North Ganesh
North east Shankar

Temples of some deities such as

Chandeshwar, Kartikswamy, Kuber, Kali
Putana, Bhairav and Virbhadra should be on
the eastern outskirts of town. Ref. SV 9.29.

271
As per Vastu Vidya temples of some (angry
faced) deities such as Narsimha should be
facing west and some (smiley faced) deities
such as Vishnu should be facing east. Ref. SV
9.30

Manushyalayachandrika recommends that the

residential buildings should not be taller than
temple. The height of temple should be
increased first if the height of a building is to
be raised. Ref. SV 9.31

Shilparatna recommends following sites for

construction of temples, Ref. SV 9.32

Near a religious place

Near a river, tank or sea or junction of
rivers
On hills
In forests
On any place where pleasing mind.

Bhrugu Samhita (Ref. SV 9.33) defines a

drawing as, one which displays the anything
or material present in water, air or on earth.
According to Chitrakarma a drawing is one
gives the feelings of all parts of an object.

272
Different types of drawing are mentioned
below,
Engraving on stone
Engraving on wood
Engraving on metals
Engraving on clay or lime
All such things are called Chitralekhana.

Plane drawings are drawing made on a plane

surface. Such drawings show top, bottom or
side views of an object. Chisel and hammer
are required for carving on hard surfaces. Ref.
SV 9.35

Chitrabhas or image is an illusion of a thing as

seen in a mirror. This art is called Chitralekhan
or painting.

The two types of painting are,

1. Powder painting - using different dry
things, powders, flowers. Rangoli or
carpets paintings on water or floor
are of this type.
2. Color or Oil painting - using colors or
oil paints. Such paintings are made
on paper, walls, cloth or boards.

273
9.6 Building Bye-laws: Following rules are
mentioned in ancient texts;
Height of structure- height as per
Manasara should not exceed that
of a 12 storied building. Brihat
Samhita recommends 45 meters
as limit.
The spacing between two
buildings should be twice the
height of taller building.
A narrow lane should be at the
rear of a building ( for sewage
lines)
The front open space should be
one-third the length of plot so
that road widening is possible.
World oldest planned city is Banaras (Kashi).

Sanskrit Verses

ब्रम्िािृतपथर्ेकां तत्राांतरापण: कुयावत ्॥

SV9.1- Outer ring road

274
 ईिानाहदर्िें िव्दारां त्तां चाांतरापणकर् ्॥

ताांबुलाहदफलां च प्रोक्तां साराांवितां

िव्यर् ्।

तत्रैि र्त्सस्यार्ाांसां िुष्कां िाकां च

विज्ञेयर् ्॥

SV9.2- East to North-east part

र्ािे िाद्य्जयांतां भक्ष्यां भोजयां च शनहदव ष्टर् ्

अ्जयाहदक्षतगृिपयेतां तत्र भाांडाशन ॥

SV9.3- South to South-east part

तास्र्ाग्नजनऋशतपग्नद्धत कांसाहदकर्त्र विज्ञेयर् ्।

स्यात्सपुष्पदां तभागाांतां वपतृभागाहदिस्त्रां स्यात॥

SV9.4- South to South-west part

तस्र्ात्ससर्ीरणाांतां तांदल
ु धाजयाहदकां च कटर् ्।

स्याद् भल्लटपदाांतां िा्िाहदकां बलादीनार् ्॥

SV9.5- North-west to North part

तत्रैि लािणाहद िव्यां तैलाहदकां ज्ञेयर् ्।

275
 तस्र्ादीिपदाांतां गांधां पुष्पाहदकां ज्ञेयर् ्॥

SV9.6- East to North-east part

अभ्यांतरगतर्ागेष्िथ रत्नां िाटकां िस्त्रर् ् ।

SV9.7- East to North-east part

र्ाांग्निष्ठां च र्ररचां वपप्पलकां चावप िाररिर् ्।

र्धुघत
ृ तैलाहदकर्थ भैषजयां सिवत: कायवर् ्॥

SV9.8-Types of shops in all parts

सभा च सायािृत्तकुड्यिीना ऽशतदरू त: प्रेक्षणकर्वयो्या ।

SV9.9- A public hall

उत्तुां्कुड्या नृपर्ांत्रिाला पूिावपरव्यार्युता र्नोज्ञा॥

SV9.10 - A Meeting hall

कूटाकारां िा तग्नस्र्न ् तत: पग्नश्चर्तो हदशि ।

राज्ञाां शसांिासनां स्थप्यां कायव प्राां्र्ुिां सिवदाबुध:ै ॥

बहििावलककुड्यां स्यात्तव्दाह्ये च प्रभा भिेत।

SV9.11 - Throne and seating gallery

276
 तत्सपूिद
व ग्नक्षणे भागे र्ांवत्रणाां चासनां भिेत ्।

दत
ू स्य प्रागुद्भागे प्रिशतासनशर्ष्यते ॥

सेनापतेदवग्नक्षणेन सिव नाशलसर्ाांतरर् ्।

SV9.12 - Seating arrangement

र्ध्येगणां तदा िृत्तां स्तनर्ात्रोच्चशभवत्तकर् ्।

िृतोपलां िाहदनाां िा साग्नक्षणा दोवषणाां कृ ते॥

SV9.13 - Seats for accused persons

िृत्तोपलां तु कोणेषु प्रागुद्िलपात्रकर् ्।

केिक्षालनपयंकां तदृग्नक्षणगतां भिेत८॥

SV9.14 - water tanks in the hall

नगरस्य पूिोत्तरां भागां आचायवपुरोहितेजयातोयस्थानां

र्ांवत्रणश्चाियेसु:

SV9.15 - North-east part

पूिद
व ग्नक्षणभागां र्िानसां िग्नस्तिाला कोष्ठागारां च
तत:परर् ्।

277
गांधर्ाल्यधाजयरसपण्या: प्रधानकारि: क्षवत्रयाश्च पूिो
हदिनशधिसेयु: ॥

SV9.16 - South-east part

दग्नक्षणपूिं भागां भाांडागारां अक्षपटलां कर्वशनषधाश्व।

दग्नक्षणपग्नश्चर्ां भागां कुप्यगृिां आयुधागारां च ॥

तत:परां नगरधाजयव्याििाररककार्ाशतवकबलाध्याक्ष: ।

पक्िाजनसुरार्ाांसपण्यारुपािीिा: तालापचारा िैशयाश्च

दग्नक्षणणाां हदिाां अशधिसेयु: ॥

SV9.17 - South-west part

पग्नश्चर्दग्नक्षणभागां िरोष्टगुशप्तस्थानां कर्वगि

ृ ां च ।

पग्नश्चर्ोत्तर भागां यानरथिाला: ।

तत:परां उणावसूत्रिेणुचर्विर्विस्त्रािरणकारि: ।

िूिाश्च पग्नश्चर्ाां हदिर्शधिसेयुां ।

SV9.18 - South-west part

278
उत्तरपग्नश्चर्ां भागां पण्यभैिजयगृिां । उत्तरपूिं भागां
कोिागिाश्वां ।

तत: परां नगररािदे ितालोिर्ाग्नणकारिो ब्राम्िणाश्चोत्तराां

हदिर्शधक्सेयुां ।

SV9.19 - South-west part

िस्तां सिवत्र िाप्याहद ह्यत्तरे पुष्पिाहटका ।

दग्नक्षणे गविकािाटां पररत: िूििजर्नार् ॥

िैशयानाां िग्नणिाां प्राच्याां र्ध्ये रािग़्रुिां भिेत ।

प्रागुदीच्याां कुलालानाां िापकानाां हि तत्र च ॥

भृगुसांहिता

SV9.20 -Bhrugu's method

गोिाला दग्नक्षणोत्तदे िे तु पुष्पिाटी स्यात ्।

पूव्व्दावरोपांते पग्नश्चर्तस्तापसािासर् ्॥

र्त्सस्योपिीविनाां स्यादिासो िायव्ये दे िेस्तु।

पग्नश्चर्दे िे र्ाांसैरुपिृत्तीनाां शनिास: स्यात ्

तैलोपिीविनाां चैिोत्तरदे िे गृिश्रेग्नण: ॥ र्यर्त

279
SV9.21 - Profession wise residential
areas

क्रोिव्दयेिा तस्याधे
बहिश्चाांडालपक्क्णर् ्।

प्रागौत्तरे ण तु क्रोिाब्दहि: वपतृिनां

भिेत ्।

चाांडालचर्वकारस्र्िानतोयाियापर्ानां
स्यात ्।

SV9.22 - Waste disposal sites

चाांडालयोशितस्ताम्राय: सीसभूषणा: सिव: ।

पूिावण्िे र्ल्लर्ोक्षहक्रयोशचता ग्रार्र् ्

िेशया:॥

SV9.23 - Lead ornaments for women

अांतसारा िृक्षा यहदसांशत ि6तरे िसांतु च ते।

ये सांशत बहि:सारासतेऽवप सांत्सिेि सिवदा बाह्ये॥

सकल:सारो येषाां ते िृक्षा: सग्नव्दव क्सु युजयांतार् ्।

िृक्षा शन:साराये तेषा क्षेत्रष

े ु ितवनां नेष्टर् ् ॥

280
 SV9.24- Tree plantation

ित्र च िप्रां कुयावत्तुयस्त्र

व ांव्दारगरिसदृिर्वप ।

यव्दा पशलघां कुयावत्सपाषाणैबग्नव ध्द्भव वत्तसर्चतुरर् ् ॥

कांटकिािाशभिाव िृवत्तर्थ करभेक्षणाक्षांर् कुयावत।

SV9.25 - Compound wall

िने िा नगरोपाांते नागरै स्तु िनैित

व ृ र् ् ।
क्षेत्रारार्ाकरोवपतां िािानगरर्ुच्चते ॥
SV9.26- Suburb town

उपनीय गुर: शिष्यां शिक्षयेत ् िौचर्ाहदत:

आचारां अग्न्नकायं च सांध्योपासनर्ेिच:

॥र्नुस्र्ुती

SV9.27 - Duties of a teacher

सुयप
व दे सौरां स्यादग्न्नपदे काशलकािेशर् ।

भृषभागे विष्णुगि
ृ ां याम्यायाां षर्ुिस्थनर् ।

सुग्रीिाांिेगणाध्यक्ष: शनऋतो िरुणो भिेत ्॥ र्यर्त

SV9.28 - Orientation of temples

281
 चांडेश्वर: कुर्ारो धनदां काली च पूतना चैि ।

कालीसुतश्च िड्गी चैते दौिाररका: प्रोक्ता: ॥ र्यर्त

SV9.29 - Temples on east

उग्रा: पराङर्ुिा: िस्ता नृणाां सौम्यास्तु सांर्ुिा: ॥

िास्तुविद्या

SV9.30 - Facing of Temples deities

दे िागाराजनराणार्शतिुभदशर्दां हकांशचदन
ू सर्ां िा ॥
र्नुष्यालयचांहिका

SV9.31 – Height of temple

तीथावते तहटनीतटे िलशनधेस्तीरे सररत्ससांगर्े ।

िैलाग्रेऽहितटे िनोपिनयोरुद्यानदे िेऽथिा॥

शसध्दाद्यायतनेषु िा गुरुिरग्रार्े पुरे पत्तने।

िाजयत्रावप र्नोरर्े सुरसशर्जिाये ग्नक्षशतां कल्पयेत ् ॥

शिल्परत्न

SV9.32 - Sites for temples

िांगर्ा: स्थािरा िावप ये सांशत भुिनत्रये ।

282
तत्तत्सस्िभािततेषाां करणां शचत्रर्ुच्चते ॥ भ्ुगुसांहिता अ.
२५

सिांगदृशयकरणां शचत्रशर्त्सयशभधीते: ॥ शचत्रकर्व

SV9.33 - Definition of Drawing

शिलया दारुणा िावप लोिै र्वृ त्तकायावप िा ।

तत्तिव्यै: प्रकुिीत यथा दृष्टां यथा श्रुतर् ्॥

यथायुवक्त यथािोभां नानािणैश्च भूषयवततर् ्। शचत्रकर्व

SV9.34 - Various types of Drawing

शभत्सयादौ ल्नभािेन चाधं यत्र प्रदृशयते ।

तदधवशचत्रशर्त्सयुक्तां यत्ततेषा विलेिनर् ्॥

ऋजिाहदपरतस्त्सस्र्ात्सपरािृतां चतुविवधर् ्॥ शचत्रकर्व

SV9.35 - Plane drawing

सादृशयां दृशयते यग्नस्र्ांदपवणे प्रशतवबांबित ्।

शचत्राभासशर्शत प्रोक्तां आलेख्यां शचत्रलेपनां ॥ शचत्रकर्व

SV9.36 – Painting

283
 रसशचत्रां धूशलशचत्रां लेपनां ग्नव्दविधां स्र्ृतर् ्।

नानचूणै: स्थांहडलादौ क्षग्नणकाशन विलेपयेत ्॥

धूशलशचत्रशर्शत प्रोक्तां शचत्रकारै : पुरातनै: ।

िृांगाराहदरसो यत्र दिवनादिगम्यते ॥ शचत्रकर्व

नानािणैलप
े नेने रसशचत्र तदच्ु चते:

SV9.37- two types of Painting

***.***

10 MACHINES
10.0 Machines & Mechanism -Yantra
shashtra is the tenth Shashtra and it is
common to all other nine shashtra(s). This
shashtra does not contain any technique or
Skill (Vidya or Kala). Very few ancient
references are available on this subject.

10.1 Definition of Yantra (Machine) – Earth

(Pruthwi) is naturally inert and has no
tendency of motion. Samarangan Sutradhar
gives a definition of a Yantra (Machine).
SV10.1

284
All machines or mechanical contrivances
which create a motion by artificial means are
called or Yantra.

10.2 Five basic elements: Yantra is

contrivance consisting of five elements. These
mechanical contrivances also have a
sequence suited to the five elements as
under, SV10.2

1. Lever (Danda) is especially useful for

Uchhatan or breaking or stirring of the
ground (Pruthwi).
2. Pulley (Chakra) is specially designed for
controlling (Vashikaran) the motion of
water (Aap).
3. Gear (Danta) - toothed wheel is
particularly useful for sthambhan-
stopping of air (Vayu).
4. Inclined plane (SaraNi) - for bringing
together (Jaran) of light (tej).
5. Screw (BhramaN) –mainly useful for
killing or annihilation (mAraN) of time
space (Aakash).
Thus the two principal elements have the five
mechanical contrivances for producing

285
particular kind of motion. The orientation or
properties of these elements require a
particular sort of machinery and is capable of
a particular sort of motion only. For example
rays of Tej can only be converged or diffused
& no other kind of motion is possible in them
and this can be done by means of inclined
plane only
10.3 Three parts of a machine

A mechanical contrivance Yantra consists of

three parts, viz
Prime mover or producer of motion
(Beej).
Fulcrum or the pin joining power and
work (Kilak).
Energy or the power for doing the work
(Shakti).

The power by means of which the work is

done is generally less in quantity or more
suitably available than the work beejak is the
point or axis at which beej and shakti meet
each other and shakti is the ability to achieve
the desired end or the moment to moment, is
only a chakra having projecting teeth to afford

286
better hold for the power. In a chakra, only
frictional part of power is available for work
and sometimes this is not sufficient to
produce the necessary motion and slipping
occurs. The teeth are intended for any such
contingency. Teeth afford a better hold and a
more accurate attachment than friction. Sarni
is only an angular lever in which instead of
shifting of lever beej and shakti slide along
with it. In this case the Aksha is fixed and not
movable as in chakra and this is the point or
rather a line at which the two planes formed
by the two arms of the lever meet. Bhram is
nothing more than a sarani wound round an
axis like a creeper winding round a tree. as all
the five elements are only different isometric
states of Aakash all mechanical contrivances
Yantra are different manipulations of Danda
to suit the particular circumstances of the
constitutions of the elements forming
universe. SV10.3

10.3 Functions of a machine -The various

objects for which machines are designed are
enumerated as under,
In some machines some particular
action has to be achieved continuously

287
 for any length of time. Work actually
executed. Danda lever requires the kilak
to be continuously shifted in order to
produce continuous work and in order
to avoid this frequent changing chakra
comes in use, In Chakra the Aksha axis
is the focus of all the points at which
kilak is required to be moved from.
In some machines a particular action
has to be done at a particular moment
at regular intervals or in a fixed
sequence with certain other actions.
In some, a particular sound has to be
produced or magnified in certain ratio or
way.
In some machines the form or feeling
has to be similarly developed or
magnified to suit particular effects.
In short various kinds of motion have to
be produced for attaining various
objects. As the objects to be attained
are innumerable the motions to be
produced are also innumerable.
The various kinds of motion may however be
classified as,

288
“ Tiryak or slant

“ Urdwa or upward

“ Adho – downwards

“ Prushtha- Bacward

“ Purat- Forward

“ Parshwatha – Sideways

These six are sorts are named as

1. Gaman –motions backward or forward

2. Saran- Motion left or right sideways

3. Patan –Motion upward or downward

A machine must be able to produce any of

these motions at any desired moment. A
machine is considered better as it is more able
to give satisfaction in these acts. The chief
qualities which a machine should posses are
discussed below.

10.4 Desirable qualities of a machine

1. Application for force suited to the work

and time
2. Proper contact

289
3. Smoothness
4. Requiring no attention
5. Continuous action
6. Lighness or requirement of as little force
as possible
7. Silence
8. Loud sound when that is the object to
be gained
9. No looseness
10. No sticking fast or clogging
11. Proper attachments of all the
parts particularly bolts used for
transmitting motion
12. No intermittence or break in
action
13. Perfect attachment of the desired
object
14. Adjustment as to time in
simultaneous actions
15. Doing desired action exactly at
the desired moment
16. Return to the normal condition at
other times
17. No peeling off
18. proper form and shape
19. Strength
20. Softness and elasticity
290
 21. Long life
These are the twenty-one chief qualities which
every machine must possess. The more the
qualities a machine possesses the better it is.
SV10.4

10.5 Machines of a factory - In designing

and constructing machines the objects should
always be kept in view, In a mill or factory
many things have to be done simultaneously
and the production of one thing is
interdependent on the other, the various parts
have ,therefore, to be designed to keep pace
with one another for any length of time
continuously. SV10.5

10.6 Construction of Dry cells - Mitra is

pure (Poot) and Careful (Daksha) or
intelligent, Varun is eater or consumer of bad
things. The earth is hot in the interior and cold
on the outside. It is hot on the part towards
Sun and cold on the part away from it. It is
hot at equator and cold at the poles. On this
account the earth is surrounded by an electric
current and it is a magnet, its hotter part is
Mitra and cooler part Varun. The North Pole is
Mitra and South Pole Varun. The power of this

291
force was investigated by two ancient sages
Vashisht and Agashthi and hence they are
called Maitravarni or Electrical engineers.
Electricity and Magnetism have very close
connection with each other and, they are very
easily convertible one into other, By the
passing of this electric force through many
substances they are decomposed into their
component parts and like things are attracted
to the like poles. Mitraalways collects together
the higher things and Varun the lower ones in
the scale. It was Angarup who first
decomposed parts of Oxygen (Pran) and
Hydrogen (Udan) gases. He was inventor of
electroplating process and for this purpose he
used hundreds of copper and zinc battery
which is described in Agasta samhita as
under: SV10.6

10.7. Hydraulic machines- Many ancient

Indian texts contain references about
hydraulic machines. These machines are
described in a separate chapter on machines
(Yantrashashtra) by Vaze in his book. The
Sanskrit quotations on water mills. from
ancient texts such are mentioned below.
SV10.7

292
 "Rules of Vastushashtra cannot be
applied to hydraulic machines"-
VastuJyotishya
"A watermill rotates continuously as the
sky moves"- Bhaskaracharya
"There are people with big tummies
similar to watermills"- Rajratna
"Water fountains, watermills and
artificial rains are the wonders of
water"- Rajgruhanirman
Pots of moving watermill are empty,
partially filled or full, similar as Destiny!"
Nitishashtra

10.8 Water lifting devices - The Persian wheel

is a mechanical water lifting device operated
usually by draught animals like bullocks, buffaloes
or camels. It is used to lift water from water
sources typically open wells. In Sanskrit the word
Araghatta has been used in the ancient texts to
describe the Persian Wheel. The word ‘ara-ghatta’
comes from the combination of the words ‘ara’
meaning spoke and ‘ghatta’ meaning pot. There
is evidence to argue that this system of lifting

293
water from open wells was probably invented in
the India of the past.

Persian Wheel’s use was widespread in the ninth

and tenth century particularly in Rajasthan. As
late as 1920 there were 600 Persian Wheels in
Haryana.

Golconda fort near Hyderabad in Andhra Pradesh

state and Jodhpur fort in the state of Rajasthan
are but two examples of forts where the Persian
wheel was used to obtain water from wells. Even
here the systems have been removed and now it
cannot be seen as to how the ancients used the
system. In Pedgaon of Ahmednagar district of
Maharashtra a large Persian wheel brought water
to the fort and the township from the river Bhima
till the 1850’s.

The Persian Wheel is perhaps actually the Indian

Wheel. The ‘ara-ghatta’ was a leap in the
hydraulics of agriculture and represented
technological progress in the voluminous use of
water. Extensive irrigation must have become
possible through the use of animal power and this
technological development would have helped

294
extend irrigation to larger tracts of land. But
falling water tables have made the Persian wheel
redundant as well as the arrival of the electric
pumps, their greater yield and cost efficiencies.

Water mill (PaNachakk)i is a major attraction

of Aurangabad and its literal meaning is water
mill. This mill receives its share of water that
travels through an underground channel from
a source which is 6 km away in the mountains.
The water is then discharged on to the wheel
creating a fascinating waterfall. There is also
a garden and fountains with fish-filled tanks
adding to the charm of the entire area.

Sanskrit Verses

स्ियांिािकां स्याद्धसकृ त्सप्रेथं परां १

अजयदां तररतां िाध्यां िात्सध्यर्जयददरू त: ॥

सर्राांगण सूत्रधार अ ३१

SV10.1 - Definition of a Machine

दां डैश्चक्रैश्च दां तैश्च सरग्नणभ्र्णाहदशभ: |

िकेरुत्सपादनां हकांिा चालनां यांत्रर्ुच्चते ॥यत्राणवि

295
 SV10.2 - Five basic elements

कस्यशचत्सका हक्रया सध्या काल: साध्यस्तु कस्यशचद्|

िब्द: कस्यावप चोच्छयो रुपस्पिौ च कस्यशचद्॥

हक्रयास्तु कायवस्य ििादनांता: पररकीशतवता:|

शतयवगुध्िवर्ध: पृष्ठे पुरत: पाश्ववयोरवप: ॥

गर्ां सरणां पात: इशत भेदा: हक्रयोद्भिा: | सर्राांगण

सूत्रधार अ ३१

SV10.3- Functions of a machine

यथािव्दीिसांयोग:सौग्नश्लष्यां श्लक्षणतावप च ।

अलक्षता शनिविणां लघुत्सिां िब्दिीनता ॥

िब्दे साध्ये तदाशधक्यां अिैशथल्यां अगाढता।

ििनीषु सर्स्तासु सौग्नश्लष्टयां चास्सलांदशत:|

यथाशर्ष्टाथवकाररत्सिां लयतालागुगशर्ता ॥

इष्टकालेथद
व शत्सिं पुन: सम्यकत्सि सांिशृ त:।

अनुल्िणत्सिां तादृप्यां दाढ्यं असृणता तथा ।

296
शचरकालसित्सिां च यांत्रस्यैते र्िागुणा: ॥ सर्राांगण
सूत्रधार अ ३१

SV10.4 –Desired Qualities of a machine

यद्दच्छया प्रर्व्ुत्ताशन भूताशन स्िेनित्सर्वना ।

शनयम्याजयग्नस्र्जनयशत तद्धद्यांत्रशर्शतकीशतवतां ॥

तस्य बीिां चतुधावस्यात ् ग्नक्षशतरापो नलोशनल:।

आश्रयत्सिेन चैतेषाां वियदप्युपयुजिते ॥ सर्राांगण

सूत्रधार अ ३१

SV10.5 Machines in a factory

सांस्थाप्य र्ृण्र्ये पात्रे ताम्रपत्रां सुसांस्कृ तांर् ्।

छ्रादयेग्नच्छग्निग्रीिेन चादावशभ: काष्टपांसुशभ: ॥

दस्तालोष्टोशनधातव्य: पारदाच्छ्राहददस्तत: ।

सांयोगाजिायते तेिो शर्त्रिरुण सांग्नज्ञतां॥

अनेन िलभांगोशसत प्राणो दानेषु िायुषु।

एकां ितानाां कुांभानाां काय्कृव त्सस्भुत: ॥अगस्त्सय सांहिता

SV10.6 - Electroplating process

297
 िलयांत्रायोये जयेतेषाांग्नस्तिुभािुभां । िास्तुजयोशतष्य

"Rules of Vastushashtra cannot be

applied to hydraulic machines"

भ्र्दचक्र िलयांत्र िध्दनां – भास्कराचायव

"A watermill rotates continuously as the

sky moves"

विशलप्तगात्रा िलयांत्रिस्ताः – रािरत्न

"There are people with big tummies

similar to watermills"

शचत्रां िलयांत्र र्ांहदरां – रािग्रुिशनर्ावण

"Water fountains, watermills and

artificial rains are the wonders of water"

एतान न पशयशसकथां िलयांत्र चक्रे –नीशतिास्त्र

"Pots of moving watermill are empty,

partially filled or full, similar as
Destiny!"

SV.10.7 – Quotations about Watermills

298
 SV10. – Persian Wheel

11 REFERENCES
A -Ancient references

Many edited Indian and English versions of

the ancient Indian references are available.
Hence the publishers' details are indicated
here. One can refer catalogues of publishers
mentioned in Appendix. Names of libraries are
shown in brackets

299
1. Agasta Samhita- Pub. By
Gaikwad oriental series No.
2. Bhaskaracharya -Pub. by
Bhandarkar Oriental research
Institute , Pune)
3. Bruhatsamhita or Varahsamhita-
Pub. by Bhandarkar Oriental
research Institute , Pune)
4. Bhumaujalapariksha- Pub. By
Khemraj Shrikrishnadas,
Mumbai.
5. Kautilya Arthashatra, by R P
Kangle Pub. by Motilal
Banarasidas ,Allahabad
6. Kshiranava- Pub. by Bhandarkar
Oriental research Institute ,
Pune)
7. Kundaratnavali - Sanskrit
Library, Mysore (Karnataka)
8. Kundark - Sanskrit Library,
Mysore (Karnataka)

300
9. Kupadijalalaksthan Lakshana -
) Pub. By Tanjore Saraswati
Mahal Library , Tanjore
10. Mandapkunda Siddhi- -)
Pub. By Tanjore Saraswati
Mahal Library , Tanjore
11. Mantrashashtra-) Pub. By
Tanjore Saraswati Mahal
Library , Tanjore
12. Narad Shilpashashtra -
(Tirupati)
13. Naradniti – Marathi book,
Pub. Jagadishwar Press,
Mumbai,
14.Nitishashtra by Kautilya, Pub. by
Bhandarkar Oriental research
Institute , Pune)
15. Rajgruha Niraman-) Pub.
By Tanjore Saraswati Mahal
Library , Tanjore
16.Rajratana- Pub. by Bhandarkar
Oriental research Institute ,
Pune)

301
 17. Tadagpratishta- (Vishwa
Bramhavruta Library Pune)
18.Vastu Jyotishya- Pub. by
Bhandarkar Oriental research
Institute , Pune)

B-Modern references

1. Abal Fazl "Aina – Aktari", 5 Vols. Pub.

By Asiatic Society of Bengal)
Calcutta.
2. Agrawal, Anil & Sunita Narain. 1997.
Dying Wisdom: Rise, fall and
potential of India's traditional water
harvesting systems. Report, No. 4),
Centre for Science & Environment
(CSE), New Delhi.
3. Banerjee,. . K.C. "Indian Water
works Practice" Chap. I – Early
4. Basham, A.L. 1967. The Wonder that
Was India, Fontana, London, and
Rupa & Co., Calcutta.

302
5. Bisht R.S. Articles on Dholavira (–
New Horizons of the Indus
Civilization', Puratattva, 20, pp.71-
82, 1991;
6. C.W. & P.C "Water transport in India.
New Delhi, This book is translated
into Hindi under the title“ Bharatme
Jalayatayat.
7. CBIP (1951), Irrigation in India
through ages. Popular Series Leaflet
No. 7 (Central Board of Irrigation)
1951.
8. Central Board of Irrigation and Power
.1964. Irrigation in India through the
Ages, Central Board of Irrigation and
Power, New Delhi.
9. Chatterji, Bhimchandra "Hydro
Electric Practice in India", Vol. I
10.CPWD (1922), Triennial review of
irrigation in India 1918-21 (P.W.D.
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184)

303
11.Deakin A., (1893), "Irrigation in
India – An Australian view" Pub. W.
Thacker & Co. London
12.Dhavalikar, M.K. 1988. First Farmers
of the Deccan, Ravish Pub., Pune;
1997. 'Harappan Harvests', In
Agrawal & Narain (Eds.) Dying
Wisdom, p.19.
13.Dhavalikar, M.K., H.D. Sankalia & Z.
Ansari. 1988. Excavations at
Inamgaon. Deccan College, Pune.
14.Eck, D. 1981. 'India's Tirtha's:
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History of Religion, vol.20, no.4,
pp.323-44.
15.Gadgil, Dattatraya Vinayak an article
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Divya Jeevan, November and
December 1919.
16.Gore, Vitthal Narayan, "Water
divining – with Marathi

304
 interpretations" Published by
Nirnaysagar press Mumbai
17.Goud, Veniprasad Sharma
“Vedvidyan Meemansa“ Published by
Ms Bhargava Pustakalaya, Banaras),
18.Habib, I. 1963. Agrarian System of
Mughal India. Asia Pub H., Bombay.
19.Haridas Mitra, “Contribution to a
Bibliography of Indian Art and
Aesthetics “.
20.Haten, J.J. "History and description
of Government canals in the Punjab,
Punjab Govt. Press).
21.Hegewald, J.A.B. 2001. 'Water
Architecture in Rajasthan', in G.
Tillotson (Ed.) Stones in the Sand,
Marg, Bombay, pp.78-89.
22.Hegewald, J.A.B 'Diversity and
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23.ICAR-Indian Council for Agricultural
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Agricultural Research, New Delhi,
pp.113-133.
24.Iyyar, A.K.Yadnyanarayan,
'Agriculture and allied arts in Vedic
India’ Chapter 9
25.Jain-Neubauer, Jutta. 'Water
Pavilions', Agrawal and Narain (Eds.)
Dying Wisdom, CSE, 1997, pp.144-
145; Also, her book on step wells.
26.Kangle, R.P. 1963. The Kautilya
Arthasastra, Bombay (Mumbai).
27. Kanani P. R. (1996)
"Validation of Traditional
Meteorological Principles in
Saurashtra, India.
28.Lal, B.B. 1993. Sringaverapura
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Sringaverapura',. CSE, New Delhi,
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29.Livingston, M. 1994. 'The Stepwells
and Stepped-Ponds of Western
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19.
30.Mahalingum T.V. (1946) “Irrigation
under the Vijayanagara Kings“.
Published in a book Page 160
31.Malhotra and Ahuja (1951), "Ancient
irrigation" Transactions Vol 1 page
23- 26).,First Congress on Irrigation
and Drainage 1951, Delhi,.
32.Misra S.K." Jaigarh water-tanks &
structures".
33.Montague, A.M.E,(946) "Irrigation in
the Punjab a historical review"
C.B.I. Journal April 1946 P. 100
34.Mu Thau- Gujarati- Published by
Jagushte booksellers, Ahmedabad.
35.Murty K.S.( 1987) "Varahmihir, the
earliest hydrologist, "Proc.
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307
 Hydrology in Perspective Rome,
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36.Naradniti – Marathi book, Pub.
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37.Ojha , Madhusudan,(1999)
"Kadambini" by Pradymna Sarma
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39.Pognon Major C.A. (1923.) "Water
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40.Possehl G. L. "Harappan Civilization:
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42.Prasannakumar Acharya, “Elements
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43.Priyan, V.B. "The fundamental
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Contrivances in ancient India,"
published .by Institute of Culture,
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45.Rajgopalachari, C (1051), Inaugural
address at First Congress on
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46.Raman, B. V. (1960). Praksh Marg,
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47.Ramswami Shastralu, "Water
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Chennai
48.Rao, S.R. 1979 Lothal – A Harappan
Port Town, 2 volumes, Delhi.
49.Remesh Dutt "The Economic History
of India under Early British Rule"
C.I.E., Page. 197 to 199 of 3rd
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The Bruhatsamhita of Varahamihira.
Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi.
52.Subramaniam, C.N. 'Aspects of the
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53.Thatte, P.V. "History of Vedic Dates"
–a Marathi book

310
54.Thatte. Parashuram Hari, "Well –
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Published inMarathi Magazine Udyam
during February 1922 to December
1926.
55.Tofkhane (1919) an article published
in a Marathi magazine “Purushartha“
56.Tofkhane (1915) article published
in a Marathi magazine “Manoranjan
57.Varahmir in his book Bruhatsamhita,
chapter 59
58.Vasturajvallabh – Hindi Edition-
Published by Bhargava Pustakalaya,
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59.Vasturatnakar- Published by
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311
61.Vaze K.V. (1955). "Ancient Indian
Hydraulics" “Shilpa Sansar“ 19th
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Shilpashashtra chapter 9 pages 27-
29
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Yantrashashtra chapter II
64.Vaze, K.V. Prachin Hindi
Shilpashashtra chapter 9 pages 27-
29
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Journal of Central Board of
Irrigation March 1950.

***.***

312
 ANNEXURE A

Sthapati and Six Commandments of

Engineering

Here are some verses from Samarangana

Sutradhara, which describes characteristics a
"sthapati" (in charge of construction).

The Sthapati should be well-versed in the

science involving the significance of objects
to be created and their specifications. He
should know the theory and the practice;
he should have the insight and the skill
accompanied with procedure.

That person is said to be an expert in

workmanship who knows how to sketch
the ground plan, draftsmanship, the
horizontal and vertical measurements,
the details of ground work of the plot,
the 14 kinds of sketch lines, the cutting

313
 of the logs and stones etc., and seven
kinds of circular sections; well finished
joining of the joints and proper
demarcation of upper, lower and outer
lines.

A sthapati should know eight-fold

workmanship, the draftsmanship and
sketches of various kinds, and variety of
carpentry, stone-masonry and gold-
smithy. The engineer equipped with
these merits invokes respect. One who
knows the fourfold engineering with its
eight constituents and who is pure in his
mind gets status in the assembly of
engineers, and is endowed with a long
life.

Six Commandments of Engineering

Works #
There are six main principles which an
engineer should keep in view in carrying out
any engineering work. These six principles are
quoted and explained below.

314
1. The first principle means that "Happiness
is proportional to the price one pays for
it." Everyone needs same means of
happiness but the capacity to spend for
getting these means is not the same. It is
therefore the duty of an engineer to provide
same means of happiness but to change the
materials to be used according to the capacity
of the person to pay.

१- भोगो यज्ञानुसारी स्याद् ।

Engineer should therefore find out the

capacity of the owner to pay and the means
of happiness required by him, and then
provide them, so that they may be within his
capacity. An engineer is not required to get
things which are easily available but it is the
work of an engineer to make a difficult matter
easy and to obtain anything which is difficult
to obtain ordinarily.

There are four ways of fulfilling the need of

anything that is required,

315
 i. Yadnya means to obtain anything
you want by giving something in
return.
ii. Dana means to obtain it as a gift or
on loan.
iii. Tapa means to put up with the
incontinences and trouble involved in
the absence of the thing that you
want
iv. Karma means to try or to make the
want by physical effort or body
exertion.
In Tapa and Karma there is nothing left to
give or take but in Yadnya and Dana there is
a kind of debt created. If one uses the
collection made by others, then it becomes his
duty to make another collection for others.
People who have self-respect and are Virakta
(detached) follow the course of Tapa and
Karma.

2. The second principle means that

"circumstances are always changing".
Any engineering work should be designed to
withstand the changing circumstances. The
engineer's work should therefore be such that

316
it would be convenient in all situations and
circumstances In addition to this there are
variations in prosperity of the people.

२- कालस्य कुहटला गशत: ।

िजर्ाद्यिसानाांतां र्नसा शनग्नश्चत्सय कारयेत ् शिल्पां ॥

भृगुसांहिता अ ३

The financial position of owner sometimes is

such that it is difficult for him to maintain the
house due to the poverty. The engineering
work must be such that it should last for such
a period that it can be renewed again after
that period. Bhrugu has stated that houses
should be built to last 200 years and palaces
to last for 600 years. In other words we should
take into consideration the various
circumstances from the time an engineering
work is constructed till the time it will be
completely destroyed.

3. The third principle means that "Everything

should be used according to its natural
form." Because everything that is created,
and which comes through various situations is

317
adoptable only to those situations and is
formed accordingly.

३-धाता यथा पूिर्

व कल्पयेत ्।

A laminated stone should be used with the

laminations placed horizontally and not
vertically. Our old caves are an excellent
example of this principle. The stones that are
at the bottom remain bottom and the stones
that at the top remain at the top. Most of the
engineering works are more or less a copy of
what is found in nature. A house is similar to
tree. The roots of correspond to the
foundation, the trunks of the tree are the
posts, the different branches the beams and
the leaves correspond to our tile roof.

4. The fourth principle means "Learn by past

experience". Know the defects in works and
the effects of these defects. Construct future
works avoiding those defects and try to
improve on the past.

४-िुभािुभ पररग्रि।

318
Make full use of experience gained by our
predecessors and the results noted down by
them. Choose suitable and auspicious time
(Muhurt) for carrying out particular works so
that they were successful.

4. The fifth principal means that "take into

consideration the existing structure
before planning any improvement or
addition and alteration in the existing
work".

५-सांिधवनांच िास्तुनाां तथा सांिरणशनच र्ानहिनां च

कतवव्यां र्ानिधवनां॥ शिल्पदीपक अ.६

Estimate the effect of proposed additions and

alterations on the existing structure. See that
the appearance of the structure is not be
spoilt by the alterations proposed.

6. The sixth principle means that "there is

nothing which is absolutely free of any
defects". Some defects are bound to exist,

319
but one should avoid them as far as possible
and leave the rest to posterity. Though many
different rules are described but in many
cases it is not possible to follow these rules
due to various unavoidable circumstances. An
engineer has to take things as they are and
find out a way out of those.

६-अल्पदोषां बिुगुणां कायं कर्ं प्रयत्नत: ।भृगुसांहिता अ १

It is, therefore, his duty to see the existing

circumstances. He should try to abide by the
rules as far as possible and avoid defects. An
engineer should try to make the best use of
the available materials and take precaution to
avoid mistakes.

# This article is edited translation of Marathi

article published by late K.V.Vaze in his book
“Prachin Hindi Shilpasar“published in 1924.

Annexure B

List of Indian Trees

mentioned in ancient
texts

320
 SN Sanskrit English
1 Aamalaki Aamla

2 Aamra Mango tree

3 Aasan Asana tree

Aasav or
4 Asava tree
Arwak
Pagoda
5 Ajkarni
tree
Cork Oak
6 Aksha
Tree
Hog plum,
7 Amratak
Wild plum
8 Anjan Aljana
9 Ankol Ankol tree
10 Arishta Soapnut
.

White
11 Arjun
marudaha
12 Arka or rui Mandar
13 Ashmantak arboria

321
 14 Ashok Ashoka tree
Ashwatha
15 Pipal
or Pipal
16 Badarika Jujube
17 Bala Munj grass
18 Bhallatak Marking tree
19 Bhoum Jamoon tree
20 Bibhitak Behda
.

21 Bilwa Holy fruit tree

22 Chaityadrum
Temple tree
23 Champak
Pagoda tree
24 Chandan Sandalwood tree
25 Chatri Umbrella tree
26 Chinchini Tamarind

27 Dadim Pomegranate.

28 Devnal Unknown
Dhanwai or
29 Walnut tree
Akshit

322
 30 Dhawa Arjun Dhavda
.

41 Kadali Plantain
42 Kadamb Kadamb tree
43 Kakoudumbar Fir wood tree
44 Kampillak Kamala tree
45 Kanchan Kachnar
46 Kapittha Wood Apple
47 Karanj Poonga Oil Tree
48 Karnikar Pangara
Karwir or
49 Oleander
Karir
50 Kataphal Myrica esculenta
51-80

51 Keshar Saffron.

52 Ketaki Screw Pine

53 Khadir Catechu

54 Kikunch Lemon tree.

55 Kowidar Kowidar tree

323
 56 Kshirini Rubber tree
Kutaj or
57 Coneru
Kutaki
58 Lodha Tilak Tree
59 Madhuk Butter tree
60 Maleyak Cork tree oak
.

61 Nadwat Bamboo
62 Nagkeshar Unknown
63 Naglata Beetle leaf
64 Nariker or Ker Coconut tree
65 Nilini Indigo
66 Nirgundi Nirgudi
Nyagrodha or
67 Bunyan
Vata
68 Padma Ebony
Palash or
69 Flame of the forest
Kinshuk
70 Panus Jackfruit
71 Parijatak

324
 72 Pilu Pilu tree
73 Pindar Pindara tree
Pishit or
74 Date palm
Kharjur
75 Pluksha Black fir tree
Poog or
76 Areca Palm
Karamuk
77 Punnag Alexandrain Laurel
78 Purushak Falsa

79 Rajadan Pylchar.

80 Saptaparna Alstonia
81-90

81 Shak Babul
82 Shal Sal tree
Thorny capar
83 Shama
brush
Shami or Spung tree.
84
Wanhi
85 Shigru Drumstick
86 Shirish Rain tree Siris

325
 87 Shishamp Black wood
88 Shlemantak Bhokar tree
89 Shriparni Kayfal tree

90 Stathak Royal Poinciana.

91-100

91 Suradruma Pine
Surja or
92 Teak tree
simha
93 Suwarnamra Bauhinia tree

94 Syonak Shonak-Tetu

95 Tala Palmyra Palm

96 Tilak Tilak
97 Tinduk Roxb Cabinet tree
98 Tishris Red Sandalwood
99 Twakpatra Cinamum
100 Udambar Country Fig
101-105

101 Varun Garlic-Pear Tree

102 Vetus Rattan (Cane)

326
103 Visha
Vyadhighra or
104 Indian laburnum
Suwarnak
Thorny
105 Vyaghrapada
Caparbrush
..

Shatapatha Brahman (3.6-12)

Names of wood workers

Rathakar - Maker of chariots

Badai - Carpenter
Vidalkari - Women bamboo worker

***.***

Annexure- C

List of Libraries Sources in India

1. Lalbhai Dalpatbhai Indology Institute
Ahmadabad (Gujarat)
2. Sampurnanand Sanskrit University
Library, Banaras (U.P.)

327
3. Banaras Sanskrit Vidyalaya Library,
Banaras (U.P.)
4. Orient Research Institute Library,
Bangalore, (Karnataka)
5. Bikaner Maharaja Library, Bikaner
6. Manuscript Library, Addyar, Chennai
(Tamilnadu)
7. Kameshwarsingh Darbhanga
University Library, Darbhanga
(Bihar)
8. Krushnakant Handika Gohati
University Library, Gohati
9. Rajasthan Orient Research Institute
Library, Jodhpur (Rajasthan)
10. Manuscript Library, Kolkata
University, Kolkata (W.Bengal)
11. Kurukshetra University Library ,
Kurukshetra (Hariyana)
12. Royal Asiatic Society Library,
Mumbai
13. Sanskrit Library, Mysore
(Karnataka)
14. Khudabaksh Public Library, Patna
(Bihar)

328
15. French Institute Library
,Pondchary (U.T)
16. Bhandarkar Research Institute
Library, Pune (MS)
17. Vishwa Bramhavruta Library Pune
18. Rampur Raza Library, Rampur
(U.P.)
19. Tanjore Maharaja Saraswati
Mahal Library, Tanjore, (Tamilnadu)
20. Orient Research Institute Library,
Kerala University, Tiruanantpurum
(Kerala)
21. Pandit Vijay Raghav Library
Tirupati
22. Sindia Orient Research Institute
Library, Vikram University, Ujjain
(M.P.)
23. Orient Institute Library ,Maharaja
Sayajirao University ,
Vadodara,(Gujarat)

List of Book Sellers in India

1. Trivendrum Sanskrit Series
,Government Press, Tiruanantpurum
(Kerala)

329
2. Orient Research Institute Mysore
(Karnataka)
3. Tamilnadu Government Oriental
Series, Chennai, (Tamilnadu)
4. Kolkata Oriental Book Series , 8
Pancham Ghosh Lane, Kolkata (W.B.)
5. V. Ramaswamy Sashtralu & Sons,
Vallil press, Chennai, (Tamilnadu)
6. Nagari Prasarini Sabha, Banaras
(U.P.)
7. G.A.Natrajan & Company Enplaned,
Chennai, (Tamilnadu)
8. Bhargawa Pustakalaya, Gayghat,
Banaras (U.P.)
9. Nirnaysagar Press 26 Kolbhat
Street,Mumbai (MS)
10. Chaukhabha Sanskrit Series 36-
108 Gopal Mandir , Banaras (U.P.)
11. Gaiwad Oriental Series Vadodara
(Gujarat)
12. Mahadeo Ramchandra Jagushte
Bookseller, Tran Darwaja,
Ahmadabad, (Gujarat)

330
13. Motilal Banarasidas Publishers
Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.
***.***

331
 Annexure- D

Eighteen States of Ancient India

Roof
Sn Name River Slope *

1 Aarat Godawari 2:3

2 Anga Gandaki 9:11

3 Balhik Bipasha 13:15

4 Chola Tamraparni 6:5

5 Kaikay Shatadru 3:5

6 Kaling Shona 1:2

7 Kamboj Erawati 1:3

8 Lat Tapti 1:6

9 Madra Gruatmala 1:1

10 Magadh Janvhi 5:7

11 Malav Kalindi 7:9

12 Pandav Kaveri 5:4

13 Ramsrusruhti Bhimrathi 3:2

14 Saurashtra Gomati 1:8

332
15 Sauvir Sindhu 1:12

16 Vang Sharayu 11:13

17 Vidarbha Narmada 1:4

18 Vishwamitra Rushna 4:3

Srushti
Source- Prachin Hindi Shilpa Shashtra (1928)
by K.V.Vaze

* Slope of roofs indicates intensity of rainfall

333
Eighteen States of Ancient India

***.***

334
Rivers of ancient India
***.***

335
 Annexure E
Ancient India had an elaborate system of
measurement for time, length, angle and
mass. With these basic units other units such
as area, volume, speed, acceleration etc were
developed.

TIME: Unit of measurement of time was

devised first. The smallest units were

Nimish- time to close or open the eyes

Matra- time to pronounce an vowel
Truti- time to create sound with thumb
and middle finger
The highest unit was “Kalpa“ (unimaginable).
Three systems of time measurement are
available in ancient texts and are shown in a
table below.

Units of Time
Kashyapa Bhrugu Maya
Nimish Matra Truti
Kashta = 18 Akshar =2 lava= 2 Truti
Nimish Matra
Kala = 30 Lava =2 Nimisha =
Kashta Akshar 2Lava

336
Kshyan = 30 Kshyan = 2 Kashta = 5
Kala lava Nimish
Muhurta = 12 Vipul = 30 Kala = 30
Kshyan Kshyan Kashta
Ghat I = Pala = 60 Nadik a = 40
12Muhurta Vipal Kala
Ahoratraa = Ghatika = Muhurta = 2
24 Ghati 50Pala Nadika
Pakshya = 15 Ahoratra = Ahoratra =
Ahoratra 60Ghatika 30 Muhurta
Maas = 30 Maas = 30 Maas = 30
Ahoratra Ahoratra Ahoratra
Vatsar= 12 Abda = 12 Vatsar = 12
Maas Maas Maas

LENGTH: Units of measurement of length are

more or less same in al the three samhita .
Yawa- yawa means a barley seed. Width at its
middle portion is one yawa. Angula is length
of middle portion of middle finger of a
engineer or architect in-charge (Hence this
varies from 15 to 20 mm). The ancient units
of length are described below.

Units of Length
N Unit Equival N Unit Equival
o ent to o ent to

337
1 Yawa 2.5 mm 7 Danda= 2m
4 Hatsa
2 Angul 20 mm 8 Velu = 10 2.5 m
a = 6 Hasta
to 8
Yawa
3 Graha 8 cm 9 Rajju(Ch 20 m
= 4 ain) =10
Angul Danda
a
4 Mushti 16 cm 1 Krosh 4 km
=2 0 =200
Graha Rajju
5 Vitarit 25 cm 1 Yojan=4 16 km
=12 1 Krosh
Angul
a
6 Hatsa 50 cm
= 2
Vitarit

AREA: The smallest unit of area is Aasan

which is an area of a square of length of one
Hasta. The biggest unit was Rajjya. The
various units of area are shown below.

Units of Area

338
N Unit Equival N Unit Equival
o ent to o ent to
1 Aasan 0.25 6 Vati = 20
sq.m 5 sq.km.
Vartan
ika
2 Gochar 4 sq.m 7 Kutum 80
ma = ba = 4 sq.km.
16 Vati
Aasana
3 Kakni = 256 8 Gram One
64 sq.m = 100 town
Gochar Kutum
ma ba
4 Masha 1024 9 Janap One city
= 4 sq.m ad =
Kakni 100
Gram
5 Vartani 4096 1 Rajjya One
ka = 4 sq.m 0 = 100 state
Masha Janap
ad

VOLUME: Different units are mentioned in the

ancient texts for liquid and solids. The
smallest units for solid and liquid

339
measurements are “Chimoot“ and Aachamna“
These units are described below.

Units of Volume
Solids Liquids
Chimoot Aachamna ~ 2.5 cc
Panchamul = 4 Pali= 12 Aachamna “
Chimoot 30 cc
Mushthi = 4 Drona = 80 Pali “ 2.4
Panchamul Litre
Kudav = 4 Mushthi Kumbha =20 Drona
“50 Litre
Prashtha = 4 Kudav Waha = 10 Kumbha
“ 500 litre
Adhak = 4 Prashtha
Drona = 8 Adhak
Shoorpa =2 Drona
Khari = 1.5 Shoorpa
Waha=8 Khari

MASS: Grains of rice, black gram, Gunja or

linseed were used as weights of small things.
These weights were called Tandul, Mash, Gunj
(Ratti, the seeds of Abrus precatorius) and

340
Sasharp respectively. The internal relation
was as below;

15 Sasharp = 5 Gunj =8Tandul =1 Mash

Units of weight

Unit Equivalent Unit Equivalent

Gunja 200 mg Mash 1 gm
Karsh 16 gm Pala 64 gm
Tula 6.4 kg Bhar 128 Kg
Uchit 1280 kg Gunja/ Ratti

ANGLE: Measurements of angles was used in

astronomical calculations. These are
explained below. The smallest unit was Vikala.

Units of Angle

Unit Equivalent
Vikala 1 minute
Kala= 60 Vikala 1 Degree
Rashi= 30 Kala 30 Degrees
Valay = 12 Rashi 1 Circle= 360 Degrees

CURRENCY: Following Sanskrit terms were

used for currency; Artha - useful

341
Ancient Currency
Kawdi- the smallest unit

Ganda= 4 Kawdi Damdi = 4

Ganda
Paisa = 4 Damdi Anna =4 Paisa
Pawli = 4 Anna Rupayya= 4
Pawli
Hona= 4 Nishka = 4 Hona
Rupayya
Tamrapana =1 Roupyapana= 1
Paisa Rupayya

Suwarnapana= 16 Gold was 16 times

Roupyapana costlier than

Silver (100 times at

present)

Dhana - thing which increases

Dravya- Fluid, which changes from hand to

hand
Laxmi - Wealth (currency- notes or coins)

342
The table below indicates ancient currency.
Kawdi was smallest currency.

Annexure- F

Glossary of
Terms
Referred in
ShilpashtraSa
nskrit English Sanskrit English
YaapramaaNi Advancin Aadhaar Base
g front

Paatikaa Batten Tula Beam

Kutika Block / Graava Boulder
Plot
Setu Bund Strot Canal
Nadeemaatruk Canal- TaxaNakala Carpentry
Desh fed land
Poora City Mugdee Coarse
sand
Aakunchan Contracti Potika Corbel
on
Geabha Core/ Mantrashaala Council
main Hall
body
Sabha Court DharaN Dam
Bandhan
Dwaar Door SamharaN Drainage
Palika Eave Karwand Emery
stone
Shilpadravya Engineeri PrasaraN Expansio
ng n
Materials
Karaal Fine Gulmaash Fine sand
gravel

343
Praakaar shastra Fortificati Koot Fortified
ons town
Praakaar Fortress, Prabha Gallery
rampart
Dahanaastra Gas Drushad Gravel
weapon
ChikkaN/ Kalk Ground Guardroo
stone Rakshyabhaa m
g
Kharwat Hamlet Pattan Harbor
Mekhalaa Header Vijay Headquar
stone ters
Ugraayudh Heavy Durga Hill-fort
weapon
Vasant Rhutu Hot PaashaaN Igneous
weather Rock
season
Sanchetan Irrigation Sandhi Joint
Karkar Kankar Sharad Kharif
Rhutu season
Goppa Kingpost Patraputi Laminate
d
Bhudurg Land- Nagar Large
fort Town
Machines AapaN Market
Yantrashaashtra
Anup Marshy Aaditij Meteoric
land rock
Astra Missile Parikhaa Moat
Varm Out-turn Jalayantra Persian
wheel
Falak Plank Rakshyakh / Police
Ugra
Paad Post Hemant Rabi
Rhutu season
Dewamaatruk Rain-fed Aaramh/ Recreatio
Desh land Viaar n ground

344
 Sarvajanwas Residenti KapaaT Revolving
al area gate
Jaladurg Sea-fort Prastar Sediment
ary rock
Swayudh Sharp Patra Sheet
weapon
Kukshyapaati side Gawakshy Skylight
sliding
Shilaa Slab, Arar Sliding
Flag gate
Maayik Sainik Soldier
Smokele
ss
DroNamukh Squadro Pratima Statue
n
PaaraN Strut Dewalaya Temple
Gulm Tower Dhaam Town
Aakar/ Gavhar Trench Vaataayan Ventilator
Urdwapaati Vertically KheT Village
sliding
Nirmaay Vissible Jalaastra Water
missile
Prapaa Water Prapaat Water-fall
supply
Aayudh Weapon Khataki Window
Pakshya Wing Kaary Work
Istaka Brick Upala/KhanD Brickbat
Senamukh Brigade Adamaa Broken
stone
ChurN /Sudha Lime Putabhedakac Lime mill
hakra
Kat /Kantak Ridge Sikata Sand

..

345
Reprint of an article published in a weekly
“Shilpasansar“, Vol.1-4, Pp, 51-52, dated 22-
1-1955

Annexure- C

List of Libraries Sources in India

Lalbhai Dalpatbhai Indology Institute

Ahmadabad (Gujarat)
Sampurnanand Sanskrit University Library,
Banaras (U.P.)
Banaras Sanskrit Vidyalaya Library,
Banaras (U.P.)
Orient Research Institute Library,
Bangalore, (Karnataka)
Bikaner Maharaja Library, Bikaner
Manuscript Library, Addyar, Chennai
(Tamilnadu)
Kameshwarsingh Darbhanga University
Library, Darbhanga (Bihar)
Krushnakant Handika Gohati University
Library, Gohati
Rajasthan Orient Research Institute
Library, Jodhpur (Rajasthan)

346
Manuscript Library, Kolkata University,
Kolkata (W.Bengal)
Kurukshetra University Library ,
Kurukshetra (Hariyana)
Royal Asiatic Society Library, Mumbai
Sanskrit Library, Mysore (Karnataka)
Khudabaksh Public Library, Patna (Bihar)
French Institute Library ,Pondchary (U.T)
Bhandarkar Research Institute Library,
Pune (MS)
Vishwa Bramhavruta Library Pune
Rampur Raza Library, Rampur (U.P.)
Tanjore Maharaja Saraswati Mahal Library,
Tanjore, (Tamilnadu)
Orient Research Institute Library,
Kerala University, Tiruanantpurum
(Kerala)
Pandit Vijay Raghav Library Tirupati
Sindia Orient Research Institute Library,
Vikram University, Ujjain (M.P.)
Orient Institute Library ,Maharaja Sayajirao
University , Vadodara,(Gujarat)
***.***

347
 List of Book Sellers in India
Trivendrum Sanskrit Series ,Government
Press, Tiruanantpurum (Kerala)
Orient Research Institute Mysore
(Karnataka)
Tamilnadu Government Oriental Series,
Chennai, (Tamilnadu)
Kolkata Oriental Book Series , 8 Pancham
Ghosh Lane, Kolkata (W.B.)
V. Ramaswamy Sashtralu & Sons, Vallil
press, Chennai, (Tamilnadu)
Nagari Prasarini Sabha, Banaras (U.P.)
G.A.Natrajan & Company Enplaned,
Chennai, (Tamilnadu)
Bhargawa Pustakalaya, Gayghat, Banaras
(U.P.)
Nirnaysagar Press 26 Kolbhat
Street,Mumbai (MS)
Chaukhabha Sanskrit Series 36-108 Gopal
Mandir , Banaras (U.P.)
Gaiwad Oriental Series Vadodara (Gujarat)
Mahadeo Ramchandra Jagushte Bookseller,
Tran Darwaja, Ahmadabad, (Gujarat)

348
Motilal Banarasidas Publishers Pvt. Ltd., New
Delhi.

***.***

349
 Additional Books on
Science & Technology of ancient India

1. Civil Engineering applications of Ancient

Indian Botany
2. Modern Relevance of Indian Vastushastra
3. Building Sciences of Ancient India
4. Bhrugu Samhita- A Rare Vastu Shastra

Book
5. G.G. Joshi Memorial Volume

6. Thirty-two Engineering Techniques

E mail – prof.ashok.nene@gmail.com

350