03-Mining and Metallurgy of Ancient India-2018-P101

Khani Shastra
Mining and Metallurgy of Ancient India
By
Dr. Ashok S. Nene
Retd. Professor of Civil Engineering
V.N.I.T. Nagpur
Ishaan Publications Nagpur
Vijaya Dashami October 2018

DEDICATION
This book is dedicated to
Late K.V. Vaze (Nasik) and Late G.G. Joshi (Nagpur)
Ashok S. Nene
i Mining and Metallurgy of ancient India -Dr. Ashok Nene

CONTENTS
Topic Page
Dedication
List of Tables and Figures
1.Introduction 01
2.Geology & Geography 08
3.Techniques and Skills 18
4.Mining in ancient India 50
5. Non ferrous metals 58
6 -Iron and Steel in ancient India 65
7-Case Studies of Metal Casting 70
8-References 79
Appendixes
9A-Glossary of terms 84
9B-Admantine Glues or Binders 86
9C-Alchemy in ancient India 90
9D- Khani shastra and Indian Mythology 91
9E- Ancient Metallurgical Equipment 93
9F- Testing of metals 96
9G–Bruhad Viman shastra
List of Sanskrit Verses (SV)
Verse No Subject
SV 1.1 Vedic references
SV 2.1 Description of Ancient India
SV 2.2 Three land zones
SV2.3 Soumya region
SV2.4 Average land
SV 2.5 Land characteristics
SV 2.6 Description SadhaaraN land
ii Mining and Metallurgy of ancient India -Dr. Ashok Nene

SV 2.7 Kali Yug- present period
SV 3.1 Defects of diamond
SV 3.2 Precious stones-Diamond
SV 3.3 Genuine pearls
SV 3.4 Artificial gem
SV 3.5 Brick kilns
SV 3.6 Lime production
SV 3.7 Oil extraction
SV 3.8 Iron smelting technique
SV 3.9 Process of tempering
SV 5.1 Gold purification
SV 5.2 Availability of Gold
SV 6.1 Tempering of steel
SV 7.1 Making of alloys
List of Tables
Table No Subject
1.1 Chronology of References
2.1 Ancient 18 Kingdoms
3.1 Techniques and Skills
3.2 Planets, birth stone and Herbs
3.3 List of Nine Gems
3.4 List of Semi -precious stones
4.1 Glossary of Sanskrit Terms
4.2 Mineral Ores found in India
***.***
iii Mining and Metallurgy of ancient India -Dr. Ashok Nene

1 INTRODUCTION
The word Shilpa is an enigmatic term. Different persons assume different

meanings for same word, till the correct meaning is understood. “Shilpa”
is such enigmatic word. To most of the people, Shilpa means a carving in
wood stone or metal.
The word “Shilpa” is derived from a Sanskrit root – Sheel samadhau and
literally means anything that pleases your mind. Sage Bhrugu has defined
Shilpa as creation of different materials with the help of machines,
techniques and arts.
Shilpashastra is commonly interpreted as ancient Indian sciences. But
laws and principles of science change from time to time. Hence better
interpretation would be Engineering Philosophy of ancient India because
the knowledge contained in Shilpashastra is an eternal truth.
For proper understanding of Shilpashastra some technical terms must be
understood first. Such terms are explained below;
 Shilpashastra - The engineering Philosophy related to a particular
subject comprising different techniques skills or arts.
 Shilpa-samhita –A compilation of rules and procedure related to a
particular science.
 Vidya –A techniques related to creation or execution of a Shilpa.
 Kala - An art or skill acquired by practice and experience. Even a
blind of deaf person can master any particular skill.
As per sage Bhrugu, Shilpashastra covers 51 inter-related subjects, 10
Shastra or branches of engineering, 32 engineering techniques and 64
skills related to engineering.
Information related to Shilpashastra can be traced in Indian scriptures
such as Veda, Parana, Upanishads, Gruhya-sutra, Shulba-sutra,
Brahmana and Neeti shastra. There were more than 10,000 texts
exclusively devoted to Shilpashastra. But hardly 1000 texts are available
now.
The reasons for loss of this ancient technical literature of India may be
due to;
1 Mining and Metallurgy of ancient India -Dr. Ashok Nene
1. Natural- decay of writing materials-Birch tree bark (Bhurjapatra),
palm leafs (Talpatra) or paper etc.
2. Language- Most of literature is in Sanskrit. Modern the engineers do
not understand Sanskrit and Sanskrit scholars cannot interpret
engineering terms.
3. Secrecy- Most of books were preserved as part of worship material
and remained un-noticed.
4. Foreign aggression- Most of the aggressors destroyed the heritage
structures and libraries. Some aggressors took most of the original
texts to their countries
5. Neglect by modern engineers – Teachers who teach engineering
subjects are themselves ignorant about the heritage of engineering
knowledge. Indian authors do not mention a single word about
Shilpashastra in their books. Practicing engineers and architects,
therefore, do not include ancient Indian techniques in their works.
6. Religion barriers- There is a misconception that Shilpashastra is for
a particular religion or caste, and therefore its study lacks
government support.
7. Irrelevance- Applications of Shilpashastra may be irrelevant today
due to advent of modern materials (cement, plastic, fossil fuel etc)
and construction tools and techniques.
8. Improper interpretations- Translation of many Shilpashastra texts
were done by western scholars, without adequate knowledge of
Indian religions and culture.
9. Absence of technical data- Western books on engineering contains
technical data, calculation tables and codes. But Indian
Shilpashastra lacks such information.
The exact period of Shilpashastra related texts is difficult to ascertain.
Few authors had mentioned the date of completion of their work directly
or indirectly giving planetary positions on that particular date. A table
below gives the chronology of references.

Table 1.1-Chronology of References
Text (B.C.) Text (A.D.)
Vedas- 15000 to 10000 Hayashirsha pancharatra 301- 400
Puranas - 10000 to 5000 Samarangana Sutradhara -1001- 100
Brihat-Samhita- 5000 Aparajitprichha - 1101- 200
Mahabharata- 3000 Manasollas- 1131
Shatapathbramhana- 1500 Shusruta- 1101-1200
Krushiparashar- 1300 Ratnasamuchchya- 1201- 300
Shilpashashtra-800 to 200 Manasara- 1201- 300
Arthshashtra-300 Tantrasamuccaya-1428
Amarkosha-300. Shilpadipak- 1401-1500
Rajvallabha- 1433- 1468
From 17th to 19th centaury Shilpashastra was almost neglected. The

beginning 20th centaury brought new hopes of revival of Shilpashastra.
The time line given below shows the progress.
 1833- A thesis entitled as “Essay on architecture of the Hindus” by
Ramaraja, was submitted to Royal Asiatic Society of London.
 1876 - Rev. J.E. Kornas translated a Sanskrit text “Mayamat
Shilpashastra”.
 1920- Madras manuscript library was established. Shri Ramaraja, a
civil judge, was requested to compile information related to
Shilpashastra.
 1900- A.V.Tyagraj Ayyar compiled a book entitled “Indian
architecture of the Shilpashastra of India”
 1927- Dr Prasanna kumar Acharya compiled 3000 pages
encyclopedia named as “Manasara -an encyclopedia of Hindu
architecture. Six more books were added by him to the Manasara
series.
 1930-1950-Many ancient texts were edited and published and new
generation of research workers started working on this subject.

T.Ganapati Sthapati, Dr. Dixitar, Dr.Raghawan, Dr.Madayya,
Raosaheb K.V.Vaze and Shri G.G.Joshi are few prominent names.
 1950-2000- Many publishing houses such as Chaukhaba Series,
Motilal Banarasidas,Tanjore Saraswati Mahal library, Jagannath
Jaguste etc published low cost books in regional languages.
 2000 onwards- With the advent of computers, digital printers and
scanners, digitization of ancient texts was possible. Government of
India formed Digital libraries in different parts of the country.
Billions of pages are available for free downloading. Many
institutions hosted their own web sites for exchange of knowledge.
Rest of the world is again attracted towards this subject.
Sage Bhrugu divided the entire knowledge related to Shilpashashtra into

three Volumes. He further included three Shilpashashtra to each of these
volumes. The entire knowledge is further divided into thirty-two Vidyas
and sixty-four Kalas. The organization of Shilpashashtra is shown below.
Three Volumes (Khanda)
 Dhatu Khanda- Resources

 Sadhan Khanda-Transport
 Vastu Khand -Habitation
Ten –Engineering Sciences (Shastras)
1. Krishi -Biological Sciences

2. Jala shastra -Water Resources
3. Khani shastra -Mining & Metallurgy
4. Ratha shastra -Surface Transports
5. Nauka shastra -Water Transports
6. Vyomayan shastra -Air or Space Transport
7. Veshma shastra -Dwellings
8. Prakaara shastra -Forts& Castles
9. NagarRrachana shastra -Town planning

Yantra shastra (Machines) is common to all volumes and it is considered
as 10th Shastra.
Khani shastra is the Third science of Shilpashashtra and it is the main

subject of this book
Vidyas and Kalas: Four Techniques (Vidya) and twelve Arts or Skills
related to Khani shastra (Mining & Metallurgy) are as below;
Description of these four Techniques(T) and twelve(S) Skills is presented

in subsequent chapters.
T1- Druti Vidya- Gemology
S1- Ratnadisdyana- Cutting and polishing of gems
T2- Bhasmkaran Vidya- Calcinations
S2- Kshyariskashan- Slag removal

S3- Kshyarparikshya- Testing of chemicals
S4- Snehaniskashan-Removal of oils
S5- Ishtikabhajan- Brick making
T3- Sankaran Vidya- Alloy Making
S6- Dhatusanyog- Combination of metals with herbs

S7- Kachapatradikaran-Glass making
S8- Lohabhisar-Iron Smithy
S9- Bhanda kriya- Making metal pots
S10- Swarnadidarshan- Grading of gold
S11- Makarandadikruti- Powder making
4- Pruthhakaran Vidya- Separation of metals
S12- Sanyog dhatudyana- Metal alloys

Ancient Indian references on Khanishastra
Ancient Indian scripures and Shilpa shastra books contain lots of

information on Mining and Metallurgy. Only few references are quoated
below.
1-Sage Agastya, desirous of strength, used his pick-axe for the benefit of
men and vegetation.(Ref. Rig-Veda 1-170-6).Puranas mentions that
Sage Agastya explored water wells and mines.
2-An intelligent person acquires gold and lives long (Rig-Veda 8-7-16).
3-An experienced person sharpens a steel axe and uses for cutting. (Ref.
Rig-Veda 8-1-1).
4-Let (the tailor) stitch, (an armor) with unbreakable needle, for a
warrior,r who sustains hundred attacks. (Ref. Rig-Veda 2-32-4).
5-Tvastra made a steel spear for me. (Ref.Rig-Veda 10.48-3).
6-The spear was tempered and hardened, and also made it strong as
diamond. (Ref. Taitariya Samhita 2-4-12-2).
7-Rigveda mentions that Ashwini Kumars (Physicians of Gods) provided

an iron leg to Vishpala(RV 1.112,1.117 and 1.118) . This is probably first
references on Iron. Another references is about steel armor of Ayahshirsh
(RV 8.101.3).
1 अगस्त्य: खनमान: खनन्रै:। प्रजामप्यं बलनमच्छमान: ॥

उभौ वर्णौ ऋषिरुग्र: पुपोि। स्यादे वेष्वानिि आजगाम ॥
ऋग्वेद १-१७०-६
2 यो षवभानि दाक्षायर्णा हिरण्य सदे वेिु कृ र्णुिे दीर्घमायु: ॥
ऋग्वेद ८-७-१६
3 नििीिे नूनं परिुं स्तवायसं। येन वृश्चादे िसो ब्रम्िर्णस्तपनि: ॥
ऋग्वेद ८-१-१४-९
4 सीव्य्वप: सुच्या च्च्छद्यमानया । ददािु वीर ििदायमुक्थ्यं ।
ऋग्वेद २-३२-४

5 मह्यं ्वष्ट्रा वज्रमिक्षदायसं ॥ ऋग्वेद १०-४८-३
6 िस्तमै ्वष्ट्रा वज्रमानसंचि । िपौवै सवज्र आसीद । िैनिरीय
संहििा २-४-१२-२
7 प्रयो वां नमर वरूर्णा ऽच्जरोबूिो अद्रवि ्।
अय:िीिाघ मदे रर्ु:॥ ऋग्वेद ८.१०८.३
SV 1.1- Vedic references
Indian History Timeline: To understand the subject of Khani Shastra
the knowledge of timeline of history is necessary as the artifacts found
during archeological excavations reveal the time span of civilization also.
 Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka (9000 BC to 7000 BC)

 Mehrgarh Culture (7000 BC to 3300 BC)
 Indus Valley Civilization (3300 BC to 1700 BC)
 Early Harappa Phase (3300 BC to 2600 BC)
 Mature Harappa Phase I -(2600 BC to 1700 BC)
 Late Harappa Phase II -(1700 BC to 1300 BC)
 Vedic Period/Age (1700 BC to 500 BC)
 Early Vedic/Rig Vedic Period (1700 BC to 1000 BC)
 Later Vedic Age (1000 BC to 500 BC)
 Ancient India (500 BCE - 550 AD)
 Rise of Jainism and Buddhism( 550 AD -1500 A.D.)
 Medieval Period (550 AD to 1526 AD)
 Early Medieval Period (Up to 1300 AD)
 Late Medieval Period (1300 AD to 1500 AD)
 Post-Medieval Era (1526 AD to 1818 AD).
***.***

2. GEOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY
Vedic literature includes the Vedas, Upanishads, Brahmans, Aranyakas

Puranas, epics and Shilpasamhitas etc. It is now proved that these are
encyclopedias full of scientific and technical information.
India was called as Jambudweep (Iceland, shape of which is like a guava).
India has gigantic rivers such as Sindhu, Ganga and Bramhaputra in the
northern part and Arabian Sea, Bay of Bengal and Indian Ocean on other
sides.
Ancient Indian sages have described “Bharatavarsh or Bharatakhand” as
the land between Himalaya and Kanyakumari. The land of India was
formed in three different periods and under different geological
conditions.
हिमाहद्रकन्योरं िगघिो दे िस्तिु भारि:॥

सोऽषप दे िच्िधानभन्नस्तित्तदे िभवैगुर्णै:।
षरगुर्णं िच््रचक्रंच षरवर्णच क्रमािस्तमृिं ॥
निल्परत्न अ. १६
2.1-Description of Ancient India

Ancient text “Shilparatna” describes these three rock formations as shown
in Map 1.
Map 2.1 –Rock formations

The entire time span was divided into four Yugas namely Tretayuga,
Krutayuga, Dwaparyuga and Kaliyuga.

Modern geologists call these as Primary, Secondary, Tertiary and Recent
respectively.
This land can be classified into three types according to the three time
spans, three stages or three colors.
Due the different conditions of formation, the rocks, minerals, climate,
flora and fauna are also of three types.
1. Land between Himalaya and Vindhya mountains is formed by
sedimentation of soil particles.
2. Land between Vindhya Mountain and Tungabhandra River is formed
of igneous rocks as a result of cooling of molten magma.
3. Land to the south of Tungabhandra River is formed of metamorphic
rocks.
Ancient texts designate these three land zones as Saatwik, Raajas and
Taamas The texts describe these zones as below.
आग्नेयाषवंध्यस्य्याद-या: सौम्यो हिमनगरे स्तिि: ।
अिस्तिदोिधानन स्तयु: अनुरूपाच्र्ण िे िुनभ: ॥ भृगुसंहििा
हिमवच्व्दं ध्ययोमघध्यं साच््वकं भूिलं स्तमृिं।
षवंध्यिैलाहदकृ ष्र्णांिं रजस पररकीनिघिं ॥
पुन: कृ ष्र्णाहदकन्यांिं िामसं भूिलं भवेद ॥
नागरं साच््वके दे िे रजसे द्रषवडं भवेद्।
वेसरं िामसे दे िे क्रमेर्ण पररकीनिघिा:॥ निल्परत्न

अ.१६
SV-2.2 -three land zones
A-Saatwik land: The hilly area between Himalaya and Sahyadri mountains
comprises of igneous rocks. The climate in this area is hot or cold and
fruits are dry or juicy. The rocks do contain fossils. This land is suitable
for Nagar style of planning and Kashyapa type architecture.
B-Rajas Land: The area between Vindhya mountain to Krishna River is
termed as “Rajas” or “Raja sampanna” (which means made of fire and

ash). This land is suitable for Nagar style of planning and Bhrugu type
architecture.
C-Tamas land: The land below Krishna River is termed as “Tamas” (a
Shadow forming land).
This land is suitable for Nagar style of planning and Maya type
architecture.
Ancient Indian lexicon “Bruhan Nighantoo” also mentions the
characteristics of these zones.
Aagneya Zone:
The ground is plane, with little vegetation, terrain is Hilly with boulders,
common trees are Shami, Karir, Bel , Pilu, Ber etc. Common animals are
Deers, Bears, Tigers, and Bison etc. Fruits are sweet and juicy. Land is full
of forests, Windy area. It is full of oasis, dusty, dry lakes. Irrigation
mainly depends on well water. There is scarcity of grass hence scarcity of
milk. Rice is the main crop. People have angry mood etc.
Soumya region:
Land is full of rivers, lakes, hills. Lakes are full of lotus plants. Common
birds are swans, Saras, Karandav, Chakrawak etc. Common animals are
rabbits, pigs, buffalo etc. Trees are green and full of leaves, flowers and
fruits. Common crops are rice and sugarcane. Rivers are with abundant
water. People suffer from cough or acidity. Such land is a reclaimed
marshy land.
आकाििुभ्र उच्चश्चल्पपानायपादप:।
िमीकरररषबल्वाकघषपलुककघधुसंकुल:॥
िररर्णैक्षप
घ ि
ृ गोकर्णघखरसंकुल: ।
सुस्तवादफ
ु लवांदेिो वािलो जांगल स्तमृि: ॥
खरपुरुिषविाला: पवघिा: कंटकीर्णाघ: ।
हदनि हदनि मृगिृष्र्णा भूरूिा: िीर्णघपर्णाघ: ॥
अनिखररषवरच्ममपांसुसंपूर्णघभूनम: ।
सरनस रसषवहिन: कूपकारभकिघ: ॥१॥
िदनुषवरससस्तयािाररर्णो गोमहिष्य: ।

प्रभवनिरसमांसे रुक्षभावश्च सम्यक ॥
पुनषपघ हिमवाह्ं िानलसस्तयं न चेक्षु: ।
भवनि रुनधरषपत्तं कोिमािुदयुपनि ॥२॥
बृिननर्ंटु
SV2.3- Soumya region
Taamas or SadhaaraN land:
This land is of mixed properties, the soil is neither too wet nor too dry and
non-silty soil, and Trees are without thorns trees. There is adequate
ground water, Climate is neither to hot nor cold, Main crops are wheat,
black gram, Bengal gram and maize. The land is plain and comfortable.
Physicians term it as average land.
नदीपल्वलिैलाढ्य: फुल्लो्पल्कुलैयुक्त
घ : ।
िं ससारसकारं डचक्रवाकाहदसेषवि: ॥
ििवरािच्म्ििरुरुरोहिकुलाकुल: ।
SV2.4 - Average land
Some ancient Indian Sages have classified the land of India into five
types. The description is as below;
 North part: 1-Hilly (Tejas) and 2-Plain (Yayas)
 Central part: 3-Hilly (Aapya) and 4-Plain (Parthiv)
 South Part: 5-Common (Aakashy).
Land characteristics
North part
1- Parthiv-Muddy: Land where ground is sandy or gravelly, contains big
lakes, soil particles are square, it is full of yellow flowers. Animals are
yellow colored. Example of such land is Malawa.
2.Aagneya or Aapya: land where ground is full of gravels or gravels-It has

big rivers, soil particles are semi circular. Example of such land is
Himalaya foothills or West Bengal.
Central Part

3. Taijas land: where ground is full of red rocks Lateritic, soil particles are
triangular or crystals, trees grown are Khadir (Catechu) or Bamboo.
Example of such land is Belgaon or Konkan area.
4.Vayaveey land : where ground is full Black stones (Trap)/ black soil. soil
particles are hexagonal , trees grown are Babul /non juicy fruit trees.
Animals are -small dears. Examples of such land is –Dharwad, Bijapur,
Solapur.
South Part
5.Aakaashy or Antarikshya Land : where ground is with hills or

mountains or Delta region formed by rivers, soil particles are round or
flat, white. Examples of such land is Puri, Kathewad, Rajastan, Tamilnadu
(places of pilgrimage).
१ पानथघव प्रदे ि
पीिस्तफुरव्दलयिकघररलाममरम्यं। पीिं यदत्त
ु ममृगं चिुरिभूिं॥
पायश्च पीिकुसुमाच्न्निवीरुदाहद । ि्पानथघवं कहिनमुद
यदिेिििस्तिु ॥१॥
२ आग्नेय प्रदे ि
अधघचद्र
ं ाकृ निश्वेिकमलाभटटिच्च्चिं। नदीजलाकीर्णघआप्य
ि्क्षेरभुच्चिे ॥
३ िैजस प्रदे ि
खहदरहदद्रम
ु ाकीर्णघभुररनचरकवेर्णुकं । षरकोर्णरक्तपािार्णक्षेरं
िैजसमुच्चिे॥
४ वायवीय प्रदे ि
धूम्रस्तथलं धूम्रद्रि
ु ्परीिं । िटकोर्णकं िूर्णम
घ ग
ृ ावकीर्ण॥
िाकैस्तिृर्णैरंहकिरुवृक्षकं। प्रकारयेत्त्खलू वायवीयं ॥
५ आकामय प्रदे ि
नानावर्ण विुल
घ ं ि्प्रिस्तिं । प्राय: िुभ्र पवघिाकीर्णघमुच्च्यै : ॥
यच्च स्तथानं पावनं दे विानां । प्राि: क्षेरं षरक्षर्णं ्वांिररक्षं ॥
SV 2.5-Land characteristics
Description SadhaaraN land

उभयगुर्णयुिं वा नानिरुक्षं न च्स्तनग्धं।
न च खरबिुलं ना नानभि: कंटकाढयं ॥
भवनि जलषवकीर्णघ नानििीिं न चोष्र्णं।
समप्रकृ निसमेिं षवच्ध्द साधारर्णं िि ॥
यरव्दयोरषप च लक्षर्णयोननवघि: ।
गोधुममािचर्णनभधयावनालै:॥
यो राच्जि: समजलो जनसौख्यदायी ।
साधारर्ण: सा गहदिोऽच्खलवैद्यराजै: ॥१॥ बृिननर्ंटु
SV 2.6- Description SadhaaraN land
Comparison of ancient and modern geography

A-Kruta Yug is the period in which large geological transformations took
place. The southern part of India was formed in this period. It never went
under water.
B- Treta Yug was the period in which mountains and hills were formed
due volcanic eruptions. Land of Maharashtra and Vindhya region was
developed in this period.
C-Dwapar Yug was the periods in which sedimentary rocks were formed.
River basins of Sindhu, Ganges and Yamuna were formed in this period.
D- Kali Yug is the present period in which no major geological activities
are occurring.
कनल: ियनो भवनि संच्जिानस्तिु व्दापार:।

उषत्तष्ठिेिाभवनि कृ ि: संपदयर चरन ् ॥
SV 2.7- Kali Yug- present period
Geological terms
English Sanskrit term

Age Yuga
Primary or Kruta Yug
Arkian 1.Ratnachakra (Precious stone era)
2.Hem Chakra (Gold era)
3.Loh Chakra (Iron era)

Secondary Treta Yug
Iron Era
Tershry Dwapar Yug
Recent Kali Yug*
* This has no relation to Kaliyuga mentioned in the epic Mahabharata.
The growth of vegetation and animals depends upon the land and the
climate thereof. The customs of people also depend upon local conditions.
The construction practices too depend upon available building materials of
the land. Eighteen styles of architecture were evolved based on eighteen
regions of ancient India.
Eighteen States of Ancient India:
Puranas describe various features of the 18 Kingdoms (states) of ancient

India.Shri K.V.Vaze (1924), in his book "Prachin Hindi Shilpashastra",
compiled these features, such as mountains, rivers, trees, grains,
rainfalls, roof slopes / types, metal ores, tools etc. Ref. Table 2.1 and Map
2.1
Table 2.1- Various features of the ancient 18 Kingdoms

Sn State Mountain River Tree Ores
1 Yalhik Hemkut Vipasha Pipal Gold
2 Souvir Pariyatra Sindhu Shak Mercury
3 Kaikay Himalaya Shatadru Oudumbar Silver
4 Magadh Gandhamadan Ganga Vat Copper
5 Malav Chitrakut Kalindi Plaksha Lead
6 Anga Uday Gandaki Bilwa Tin
7 Vanga Malyawan Sarayu Tulsi Bairunt*
8 Kalinga Nishadh Shona Amalaksha Iron
9 Kamboj Lokalok Irawati Palash Karkut *
10 Vidarbha Vindhya Narmada Shirish Tin
11 Lat Satpuda Tapti Parijat Bell
metal

12 Surashtra Raiwatak Gomati Aamla Lead
13 Aarat Sahyadri Godawari Wood Lodhra *
apple
14 Ramsrush Asta Bhimarathi Ber Blue iron
ti
15 Vishwamit Shriparwat Krushna Bakul White
ra Srushti iron
16 Padya Nilgiri Kaveri Patli Gold
17 Chola Malay Tamraparni Chandan Red iron
18 Madra Trikut Dhrutmala Tamarind Gems
A Sanskrit text BruhaNighantu (Worlds first lexicon) describes theanimals,

trees and minerals found in these three lands. Subsequently the thee
lands were divided into five lands as below Thirty-one major rivers of
south Asia are mentioned in Nadi-stuti (praise of rivers) of Rig Veda. The
epic Mahabharata contains a separate chapter devoted to geography of
Indian subcontinent and adjacent countries in central India Purana means
old. One finds mention about Nile River in Skanda Purana. Puranas which
are historical accounts of traditions, personalities, and their
achievements, evolution of crafts, cosmology, cosmogony, cosmography,
regions and people living therein.
Geology: Kautilya’s Arthshastra is the earliest Indian text dealing with
the mineralogical characteristics of metallic ores and other mineral-
aggregate rocks. It recognizes ores in the earth, in rocks, or in liquid
form, with excessive color, heaviness and often-strong smell and taste.
The Arthshastra also mentions several subsidiary types of gems named
after their color, luster or place of origin i.e. Vimalaka, jyotirasaka,
lohitaksa, sasyaka etc. It is surprising that even in the first Millennium
BC; Indians had developed an elaborate terminology for different metals,
minerals and alloys.

Map 2.1- Eighteen states of ancient India
Earthquakes
Many ancient Indian texts contain references related to earthquakes. Most
of the references contain myths about the phenomenon of earthquake.
But Brihat Samhita of Varaha Mihira (5–6th century AD) and Adbhuta
Sagara of Ballala Sena (10–11th century AD) are the only texts which
contain some technical information on earthquakes.
Myths about earthquakes:
Some myths about earthquakes are listed below.
1. Kashyapa: The earth floats over a big ocean. It moves or shakes due to
the movements of big aquatic creatures.
2. Garga: There are four "Quarter-elephants (Dig-gajas) supporting the
earth on four sides. When these get exhausted, they heaive a heavy sigh
of relief. Hence the earthquakes and strong devastating winds blow over
the earth.
3. Vasistha: When two powerful atmospheric currents collide and dash
against the earth, there is earthquake.

4. Vrddha Garga: The earthquakes are due to some unseen (adrusta)
cause.
5. Parashar: Earthquakes are caused by the solar and lunar eclipses and
by the unnatural changes in plants.
Precursors of earthquakes:
Bhishnaparwa of epic Mahabharata contains information on Animal
behavior which may be precursors of earthquakes.
 Hawks and vultures, and crows and herons, together with cranes,
are alighting on the tops of trees and gathering in flocks.
 These birds, delighted at the prospect of battle, are looking down
(on the field) before them.
 Carnivorous beasts will feed on the flesh of elephants and steeds.
 Fierce herons, foreboding terror, and uttering merciless cries, are
wheeling across the centre towards the southern region
 Kokilas, wood-peckers, water-cocks, parrots, crows and peacocks
utter terrible cries.
 At sun-rise flights of insects by hundreds are seen.
 The animals are all weeping and their tears are falling fast.
The thirty-second chapter of Brihat Samhita is devoted to signs of

earthquakes and correlates earthquakes with cosmic and planetary
influences, underground water and undersea activities, unusual cloud
formations, and the abnormal behavior of animals. Varahmihir analyzed
and arranged the details about the earthquakes on the following points:
•Time of the day. (Muhurta)
•Presiding deity of that period (Devta)
•The asterism assigned to the deity (Nakshyatra)
•Prognostic symptoms of the quake (Yuti of planets)
Varahmihir categorizes earthquakes into different kinds and says that the
indications of one particular kind will appear in the form of unusual cloud
formations a week before its occurrence. Following are the, indications
appearing a week.

"Huge clouds resembling blue lily, bees and collyrium in color, rumbling
pleasantly, and shining with flashes of lightning, will pour down slender
lines of water resembling sharp clouds. An earthquake of this circle will
kill those that are dependent on the seas and rivers; and it will lead to
excessive rains."
Earthquake prediction using earthquake clouds:
Over the last ten years, Zhonghao Shou, a retired chemist based near
Caltech in California, has been using satellite imagery and other scientific
tools to fine-tune his theory of "earthquake clouds" as precursors to
earthquakes. According to Shou, earthquake clouds are formed when
underground water is converted into water vapors by the heat generated
in the epicenter area of a fault rock, which is undergoing constant stress
and friction.
Zhou says that earthquake prediction is possible by identifying such

clouds as "an earthquake generally occurs within 49 days of the first
appearance of the cloud.Details of Zhous work are available on web.
Ancient References –
 Adbhuta Sagara by Ballal Sen,

 Arthshastra by Kautilya, Eng.Translation
 Brihat Samhita (of Varah Mihir),
 BrihanNighantu (2011)
 Shilparatna (by Shivkumar ) part 1 and 2,
***.***

3. TECHNIQUES AND SKILLS
As mentioned in the Chapter 1, Khani shastra includes four (out of 32)

techniques and twelve (out of 64) skills, and are as shown in a table
below.
Table 3.1- Techniques and Skills

T -Technique- (Vidya) S -Skill-(Kala)
T7-Gemology (Druti Vidya) S23-Cutting and polishing-
(Ratnadisadasaddyan)
S24-Alkali extraction-
T8-Calcination- (BhasmikaraN (KshyaraNishkasan)
Vidya) S25-Testing of Alkali -(Kshyaraparisha)
S26-Oil extraction-(Snehanishkasan)
S27-Brick making-(Ishtikadibhajan)
S28- Combination of herbs in metal
smelting-(Dhatu Aushadhi sanyog)
S29- Glass making-(KachapartadikaraN)
S30-Iron smithy-(Lohabhisar)
T9-Mixing of metals - (Sankar S31- Making of metal pots-
Vidya) (Bhandakriya)
S32- Testing purity of gold-(SwarNadi
thadatma
darshan)
S33- Use of honey in making metal
powder-(Makarandikruti)
T10-Separation of Metals- S34-Alloy making-
(PruththakaraN Vidya) (SanyogeaDhatudnyan)
3.1 Gemology (Drutividya or Ratnaparikshya)
Astrology and gems are associated with each other from time
immemorial. Astrologers often recommend gems and associate them to
planets. Ancient texts such as Brihatjataka, Bruhat Shamita, Yukti
Kalpataru, Rajvallabha, Shushrut Shamita, Garud Purana , Ratna Parishya
etc refers to use of gems in certain conditions and they associate gems to
powerful magical properties.

Indian astrology recommends certain Gems to be worn by a person for
prosperity and protection against ill effects. Depending upon the ruling
planet in the horoscope a particular birth stone is recommended.
Table 3.2 – Planets, birth stone and

Herbs
Ruling Birth Herbs
Planets Stone
Sun Ruby Ark
Moon Pearl Dhaak
Mars Coral Kher Katha
Mercury Emerald Apamarga
Charchita
Jupiter Yellow Peepal
Sapphire
Venus Diamond Gular
Saturn Blue Shami
Sapphire
Rahu Hessonite Durya
Ketu Cats Eye Kusha Dharbha
A scripture Brihat Samhita written by Varahmihir still has a wide

recognition among the gemologists. It has a whole chapter, Ratnadhyay
devoted to the comprehensive description of the gemstones. Among
Puranas, Agnipurana contains exhaustive description about gemology.
Origin of jewels: Some of the jewels are produced in nature through the
reactions and combinations of different chemical compounds. Still some
jewels are obtained from specific vegetation, plants and rocks.
Gems are of two types,
Those explored from mines such as diamond, ruby, emerald, blue Safire
etc. These are ageless and are not affected by fire or acids. These are
formed by crystallization of molten magma in earth’s crust. These have a
specific crystal shape and hard and rare. The diamond is the hardest
mineral on earth.

Those made by insects such coral stones and formed by the body of
insects such as pearls. Pearls are generated in pearl oysters. As white
ants create ant-hills on ground in the same way insects create corals as
their colony. A pure pearl is hard enough to drill a hole in it. These decay
with time and are damaged by fire or acids.
According the great astrologer Varahmihir, jewels are of three kinds
 Jewels of the sky or heaven.

 Jewels of the earth.
 Jewels of the nether world.
According to mythology, three jewels found in heaven are-
1) Kaustubh Mani: It has a deep blue colour like a blue lotus and a
radiance equal to the sun. It was obtained during the churning of the sea.
According to Hindu mythology, Lord Vishnu wears Kaustubh Mani in a
garland on his chest. This is said to be a powerful jewel and bestows
fortune, luxuries as well as invincibility on to its wearer besides extremely
beautiful and imposing.
2) Chinta Mani: Name of this jewel is self-explicit. The wearer is freed

from all the worries and fretting. It is white in colour and has a brilliant
hue. It gives its wearer all kinds of wealth and comforts.
3) Syamantak Mani: It is a common belief that this jewel adorns the

necklace of Lord Surya (the sun god). It is said to have a brilliant blue
hue that instantaneously blinds the onlooker. If it is taken in darkness, it
fills the ambience with day-like light.
Innumerable kinds of gems and jewels are found on earth but according
to Puranas and other authentic sources following kinds of gems and
jewels are prominent:-
These texts mainly describe the ‘Navaratnas” or nine gems, their origin
and properties etc. This information is briefly presented below.

Table 3.3 -List of Nine Gems
Sn Sanskrit name English Ruling
Star/Planet
1 Vajra Diamond Venus
2 MaNikya Ruby Sun
3 Moutik or Mukta Pearl Moon
4 Praval or Munga Coral Mars
5 Gomed Zircon Rahu
6 Vaidurya Aquamarine Ketu
7 Neel or Neelam Safire Saturn
8 Pachu Emerald Neptune
9 Pukharaj Topaz Jupitar
List of Semi precious stones is shown in a table below.
Table 3.4-List of Semi -precious stones

Moon stone Chandrakant / Upalak
Opal Upalak
couch Shankh
Rock Crystal Sphatic
Rock Magnet Ayaskant
Cat's eye Lahsumiya
Turquoise Phiroza
As per Vishnudharmottar PuraN, names of precious stones are; diamond,

emerald, pearl, Indraneel, Mahaneel, Vaidurya, Gandhasandyak, Chandra
ant, Suryakant, Sphatik, Pulik, Karket, Pushparag and Jyoti.
But as per Tantrasaar, only 9 names pearl, Ruby, Vaidurya, Gomed,

diamond, Coral, Pushparag, emerald and Neel are mentioned.
Diamond, precious stones, pearls and corals are considered in order of

preference. Mineral gems (diamonds) are considered as masculine where
as pearls and corals are considered as feminine and neutral respectively.
Mineral gems are unaffected by age unlike organic gems like pearls,
corals or conch, which losses its luster with time.

Properties of Gemstones: The property of each gem is described below
briefly.
1-Diamond (Vajra)
This is the hardest mineral with hardness 10 on Mohr’s scale of hardness.

Diamonds are colorless or light pink or red. It derived from carbon
element. South Africa produces world major share of diamonds. In India
Panna mine of Madhya Pradesh was famous.
Diamond - Ratnapariksha mentions five defects of a diamond are, Ref.

Ratnaparikshya.
1. Opaqueness-Mala
2. Spot-Bindu,
3. streak or line-Rekha
4. Non uniform cuts-Tras
5. Marks-Kakapada
मलो षबंदस्त
ु िथा रे खा रास: काकापदस्तिथा।
एिे दोिा: समाख्यािा: पंच वज्रेिु कोषवदै : ॥ रत्नपररक्षा
SV 3.1-Defects of diamond
Higher the weight more is the cost of a precious stone. But in case of a
diamond it is reverse. Diamond should be bigger in size and smaller in
weight. This is the basic difference between diamond and other precious
stones. Other precious stones are some sort of stones but diamond is
made of carbon.A diamond may have six, eight or twelve faces. But bright
color, sharp edges and equal faces is the property of a diamond. Other
precious stones are some sort of stones but diamond is made of carbon.
Ref. Ratnaparikshya.
गुरुिा सवघरत्नानां गौरवाधानकारर्णं ॥
वज्रे िव्दै परी्येन सूरय: पररचक्षिे ॥ रत्नपररक्षा
SV 3.2 -Precious stones-Diamond

A diamond is tested in a procedure listed below;
Coat with salt (khaar) and heat it in a low fire or immerse in acid. An
artificial diamond fades out. When such diamond is rubbed on stone it
wears out.
A genuine diamond can be tested by coating it with borax and putting it in

a fire or it should be dipped in acid. A bad diamond gets damaged, looses
it weight and luster. But a genuine diamond remains unaffected.
Except diamond cost of all other gems depends upon its weight, but in
case of lighter diamond is more costly.
2-Ruby : The color of this gem varies from pink to dark red. It’s hardness
is 9. The element present in it is Aluminum Oxide.
Qualities of a pure ruby are heaviness, smooth surface, clarity, dark red
color and bigger size. A true ruby when placed in darkness glows like sun
rays. There can be eight defects of a ruby. These are; one which has two
colors or two shapes has a line, black spot, dull and opaque. A true ruby
when rubbed against shone shines more and does not lose in weight.
Ruby or blue sapphire can be scratched (except by diamond).
The rubies found in Ceylon are considered the best followed by those
found in Himalaya regions.
3-Pearl (Mukta)
The pearl is made by sea insects present in pearl oysters. It is composed

of Calcium carbonate. Pearl oysters are found gulf of Iran, seashores of
Shrilanka, Gujarat.

Depending upon the types of these worms seven types of pearls are
created in nature.
 Very small and brownish

 Yellowish and soft
 White and heavy
 Light and soft
 White and fat
 White Uniform in color and best
Ancient text "Yuktikalptaru" specifies a test to identify guanine pearls. The

pearls should be placed in a pot containing cow's urine and alkali
(papadkhar). The solution is boiled. The pearls should be taken out wiped
dry and rubbed with rice grains on the palm. Guanine pearls shine more
but impure one break. Ref. Yuktikalpataru
च्क्षपेग्दोमूरभांडे िु लवर्णक्षारसंयुक्ते ।
स्तवेदयेव्दच्न्िना वाषप िुष्कविेर्ण वेष्टिेि ्॥
िस्ति मौषत्तकमादाय व्रीहिनभश्चोपर्िघयेि ् ।
कृ षरमं भंगमान्पोनि सिजं चानिदीष्यिे ॥ युषक्तकल्पिरु
SV 3.3 -Genuine pearls
Ancient texts mention four major and six minor defects in pearls. These
are;
 Shuktilagna- Part of mother of pearl attached to it.

 Matsyaksha- Containing a fish’s eye like circle on it.
 Jarath – One which has lost its luster (old).
 Atirakta –Having blood red color.
 Trivrutta – Having folds like layers.
 Chipit –Narrow somewhere.
 Tryast- three edged.
 Kush – Elliptical.
 Krushaparshv – Flat on one side.

 Avrutta- Having bumps on the surface.
Artificial pearls are also available. These should be tested by following

process.
 Place the pearls in a pot containing cow’s urine in which salt is

added.
 Boil the solution or steam the pearls.
 Wash and dry the pearls with a cloth.
 Rub with grains of rice.
Real pearls become brighter but artificial one either break of lose their
luster. Real pearls also lose their luster with time. In such case the pearls
can be rejunivated by following procedure. Ancient text ‘Yuktikalpataru’
mentions many procedures to polish the pearls. The procedures include
Keeping pearls in rice grains for one month, boiling the pearls in milk or
juice of neem leaves or lime water etc. The price of a pearl is decided on
it weight.
Ancient text "Yuktikalptaru" specifies a test to identify guanine pearls. The

pearls should be placed in a pot containing cow's urine and alkali
(papadkhar). The solution is boiled. The pearls should be taken out wiped
dry and rubbed with rice grains on the palm. Guanine pearls shine more
but impure one break. Ref. Yuktikalpataru
The qualities of a good pearl are; Luster, Big in size, perfectly round,
smooth surface, solid and without any spot. A pearl having all such good
properties is rare and called Maha Ratna. Price of a pearl depends upon its
size and weight.
Pearls may have ten types of defects;
 Shaktilangna- pearl with part of oyster attached,

 Maysyaksha- pearl having small eye like circle on it,
 Jaratha- pearl which has lost its luster.
 Atirakta- reddish in color,
 Trivruta-Wavy surface

 Chipit- flat in shape
 Trasta- having three edges
 Krush – thin ,oval shape
 Krush parshv– with defect at bottom side
 Avrutt- With few bumps
Artificial pearls: Now cultured or artificial pearls are available in market.

But artificial pearls can be identified by a test mentioned below.
A doubtful pearl is placed in cow’s urine with salt added to it. The solution
is boiled till vapor is emitted. Then the pearl is taken out and dried by
placing on a cotton cloth. It is rubbed with pieces of rice. A genuine pearl
gets more luster while the artificial pearl turns yellowish.
Polishing of pearls: As per ancient text “ Yukikalpaturu” pearls are

polished by a procedure mentioned below. Pearls are placed in a vessel
filled with rice, for one month.Then the pearls are boiled in a juice of
Neem leaves for few minutes. This procedure is repeated using, milk,
then lime water and lastly in thick milk. By this process the micro thin
outer cover of pearl is removed and it gets original luster.
4-Coral stone ((Vidrum)
A sort of creeper grows in deep sea. It is called Coral creeper. It is

created by small creatures as white ants construct ant-hills on ground.
The color varies from light to dark red. It has a hardness of 3.Coral are
generated in deep sea by insects known as ‘Isis Novelists’.
Coral is a sort of sea creeper created by sea insects. The decoction of

coral can help in breaking stones. The coral should be hard, smooth
surface and dark color.
There are four varieties of Corals, First one is most superior
 Soft, easy to drill, and color red as rabbit’s blood.

 Hard, difficult to drill and color red as pomegranate.
 color light red as Palash flower (Flame of forest)

 Very soft and color light red as lotus flower
Qualities of a good coral are, bright color, smooth surface and heavy in
weight. The defects in Corals are ,line, ring ,band, spot, crack .
5-Gomed or Zircon
Gomed may be whitish , yellowish or reddish in color. It should be heavy

and of uniform color and smooth surface. It can be tested by rubbing on
test stone (Kasoti) or heating in a fire.
6-Cat’s Eye- or Aquamarine (Vaidurya)
This stone looks like an eye of a cat or a garlic bud. It should be bright
and un-fragmented. It should not have defects such as rough surface,
cracked, distorted in shape, blackish in color. Imitation stone may be
quartz or glass. But such stone can be identified by scratching.
7-Neel or Sapphire-A gem which displays different colors of rainbow is

called Indraneel (Blue Sapphire). This gem is precious due its scarcity.
The gem should be high in weight, smooth, bright. It should not contain
seven defects such as;
 Abhrak- opaque like mist

 Sharkara-with grains like sugar
 Tras- with a line
 Bhed-with broken corners.
 Chitrak-with spots
 Mrudgarbh-with soil particles
 Ashmagarbh-with a stone
 Ruksh- Rough in tough

The true gem should emit blue rays and should appear as blue gel.
8-Emerald (Pachu or Markat)
The green color of emerald is explained with examples such as color

similar to -throat of a parrot, flower of Shirish tree, back of a light bee,
green lawn, green algae, feather of a peacock.
The defects of an emerald are, rough in touch, with blisters, sand grains
in the body or with lines or spots.
9-Pushparj –Topaz-
There are two varieties of this stone. First one Padmarag is light yellow in
color, transparent and bright. These are found in a mine but other are
found inside a big stone.
Artificial emerald is made by mixing juice of marking nuts (Bhallatak) with

molten glass. Such artificial emerald can be identified by rubbing it with
cloth. Artificial gem produces static electricity but a true gem shines
more. Ref. Rasaratna samuchchyaya.
भल्लिपुषरकाकाचस्तिव््र्णमनुयोगि:।
मर्णेमक
घ घ िस्तयैव लक्षर्णीया षवजािय:।
क्षौमेर्ण वासासा र्ृष्टा दीप्त्सस्तयजनि पषरका ॥
SV 3.4- Artificial gem

Artificial emeralds can be identified by rubbing with a silk cloth. Static
electricity is produced by this action, where as genuine emerald gets more
luster.
10-Couch-Shankh-
Couches are found on seashore, in Kathewad and other places. The colors
of the couches vary from dark brown, light yellow or white. The size of
couch should be as big as possible. Depending upon the twist, these are
call right sided or left sided. It a couch is broken it should joined by gold
wire. Roundness, smoothness and whiteness are the three properties of a
couch.
11-Rock Magnet- Ayaskant-
A magnet (Ayaskant) attracts iron particles. Such stones are found in

rarely in sea bed. Magnets with blue color and smooth surface are
superior to magnets of red color and rough surface.
12-Rock Crystal/ Amethyst-Sphatik
Quartz is a natural glass. Its color is like clear sky or oil or water. The
reddish variety is called ‘Raajaavart’ and one with white fiber like crystal
is called ’Bramhamay’. More the transparency better is the quality of
quartz.
General information-

1-The gems are identified by its color eg. Indraneel-Blue color; Padmarag
–Red; Manavakamani –light blue;Kashayak- Light red; Pushparag –Light
yellow; Korandak –light red.
2-The essential qualities of a gem are,
 Swachcha- color, clean or uniform

 Guru –heavy in weight
 Snigdha –Smooth surface
 Arajaksk- Non dusty look
 Surag -Bright
3-Artificial gems are made from glass. But such gems can be identified by
rubbing on stone or emery paper or file. Experienced person can identify
artificial gem by the weight alone.
4-Each gemstone (obtained from mines) has a specific hardness, density

and brightness. The diamond is hardest but lightest in density.
5-Uniform color, density, smoothness, luster and size are the properties
by which the price of a gem is evaluated.
6-As per experts there are five defects (impurities) which reduces it’s
price. Normally the price of gem increases with its weight, but this is not
true in case of diamond. Lighter the diamond higher is its price.
7- Sphatik, ManiK, Chandrakant Surkant are the names of gems. They

can square, hexagonal or circular in shape. Their color should be dark,
base should be flat, heavy in weight, bright in luster and free from defects
such as broken corners, holes, distorted in shape etc.
9-Gems and precious stones are used for decoration only and therefore
their strength is not considers as it is considered in other building
materials.
List of Sanskrit books on Gemology
 Bhairavatantra
 Bruhatasamhita
 Lohapradeep,
 LohavarNav,
 Mahavajra
 Mahavajra,
 PaashaNavichaar
 Rasaprakashsudhakar
 Ratna Traya Pariksha
 Ratnapariksha
 Ratnapradip
3.2. Calcinations Technique or BhasmikaraN Vidya
As per Bhrugu Samhita there are four Skills (Kala) under this technique.
These are enlisted below. Only the last two skills are described in this
chapter as first two forms a part of Rasayan shastra (Chemical
Engineering)
1. Alkali extraction -KshyaraNishkasan

2. Testing of Alkali - Kshyaraparisha
3. Oil extraction -Snehanishkasan
4. Brick making- Ishtikadibhajan
Ancient Mining operations were breaking, calcination, mixtures and

separation. Calcination had two divisions—"once burnt" and "twice burnt".
"Once burnt" had three divisions, bricks, lime and glass. The "twice
burnt" metals were grouped as lead, tin, steel, iron and manganese.
A. Firing of clay bricks and tile, pottery products -Ishtikadibhajan-
During the archeological excavations at Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa sites,

many pottery products. Artifacts and fired bricks were found. The clay
bricks produced 5000 years ago are far superior to modern bricks. The
foundations of many houses were constructed on top of massive brick
platforms. The size of large bricks used for the construction of such
platforms was 10 x 20 x 40 cm.

Origin of Bricks: The Sanskrit word for brick is "Istika" meaning comfort
giving or well being. Shatapatha Brahman mentions the origin of brick..
On being burnt, the mud blocks of fire place (Yadnya kund) turned into a
baked brick. From the various Vedic texts it can be said that Sage Angirus
was an authority on brick making.
The process of making bricks is recorded in Shilparatna, (c14, v48-51).
Firing of bricks: In ancient times, bricks or tiles were baked in closed

Kilns. For baking, bricks were arranged in two ways. Smoke-pipes were
kept in the
Kiln with their mouth towards the air. Bricks or tiles were placed in the
Kiln at a distance from one another. In the space between the bricks were
placed the twigs of the trees like Pepal, Khadir etc. One layer of bricks or
tiles was covered with a layer of twigs of Palash trees and the like after
they laying the desired number of layers were covered with a thick layer
of mud. Fire was introduced in the Kiln through the smoke-pipes and the
bricks were allowed to bake for ten to fifteen days. After the fire died
down, bricks or tiles were taken out.
In the other method, the first layer was formed of the twigs of Tamarind
and like trees. The fuel spread on this layer was covered with the twigs of
trees.
This description is given in Shilparatna (c14.v51-54), Vastuvidya (c6.v20-

32) and Shilpadipak (c10v20) probably the first arrangement was for the
closed Kilns and the second for the open Kilns.
Ancient text "Shilpadipak” gives detailed information about brick kilns.
अथा िुष्के सुलग़्नादौ चुल्ली कृ ्यानुमारुिम।

िरेष्टका: सुसंदध्वा्सांनरं क्रमिच्श्चिा: ॥
काष्ठे: पलािभारद्यैरानचिा: स्तयुननरं िरम ्।
बहिराच्छादिे्समयग्मृ्स्तनया मृद ु लथपयेि ॥
िन्मुखेच्ष्व्ग्नमाधाय दिािं पक्षमेय वा ।

संस्तकृ ्य ज्वलनेिांिे समुद्ध्दध्द्ध्द्येष्टकास्तिि:
SV 3.5 - Brick kilns
B.Lime Calcination
There are two mains forms of lime; quick-lime and hydrated lime.
Quicklime is produced by heating any material containing carbonate to a
temperature of around 1000ºC for several hours. This process is known
as calcinations. The carbon dioxide in the calcium carbonate is driven off
leaving calcium oxide plus any impurities.
Bhrugu samhita (Chapter 5) describes in detail the process of preparation

of lime mortar. Lime stones are excavated from underground mines or
from lime stone boulders found on ground. These lime stones are
calcinated (burnt) using wood logs.
ककघरं वच्न्िना दग्धं चूच्र्णघिं सुजलेन च ।
वेनधिं नििऊना च ग्राह्यं षपष्टं सुसूक्ष्मकं ॥
साधे षरपादं हिगुर्णं हकंजल्कनसकिांषविं ।
करालं वाथ मुग्वी वा िेन मानेन योजयेद्॥
व्यासाधघधषघ रभागैनिीव्रामध्येपरे परे ।
पुटभेदेन चक्रेर्ण मदघ येज्जलानमनिकं ॥ भृगुसंहििा अ.५
SV 3.6 - Lime production
C.Glass making
Glass was used since Stone Age for making sharp cutting tools. It was a
natural product of volcanic eruptions. The earliest known glass objects, of
the mid third millennium BCE, were beads, perhaps initially created as
accidental by-products of metal-working.
Glass was invented accidentally. Phoenician traders used nitrum limps

instead of stone to prop up their pots, while preparing meal on the sea

shore. Nitrum lumps got fused and mixed with the sands of the shore,
and a new translucent liquid was formed. Thus was the origin of glass.
During the 1st century BCE glass blowing was discovered on the Syro-
Judean coast, revolutionizing the industry.
With the discovery of clear glass (through the introduction of manganese

dioxide), by glass blowers in Alexandria circa 100 CE, the Romans began
to use glass for architectural purposes.
Indigenous development of glass technology in South Asia may have

begun in 1730 BCE. Evidence of this culture includes a red-brown glass
bead along with a hoard of beads dating to that period, making it
the earliest attested glass from the Indus Valley locations.
Evidence of glass has been found in Hastinapur, India. Some of the texts
which mention glass in India are the Shatapatha Brahmana and Vinaya
Pitaka. However, the first unmistakable evidence in large quantities,
dating from the 3rd century BCE, has been uncovered from the
archaeological site in Takshashila, ancient India.
Indians artisans mastered several techniques of glass molding, decorating

and coloring by the succeeding centuries. The Satavahana period of India
also produced short cylinders of composite glass. According to foreign
travel accounts by Plimy,Perplus and Strabo , the quality of Indian glass
was of very high quality as it was made of pounded quartz.
Magnifying lens or spectacles -Upanetra
Adi Sankaracharya (509 – 477 BCE) has used ‘Upanetra‘, which were
eyeglasses used to achieve magnification effect.
In his work ‘Aparokshanubhuti‘ (Direct Experience), 81st verse, Sankara

states : ‘Just as all objects that are very small appear to be large when
viewed through lenses, so does one, etc’.

This means that either lenses or magnifying glasses were used in India to
magnify objects or letters.
One reference to the spectacles is to be found in a Gujarati poem

“Casimasabda-Satarthi-Svadh-yaya” composed by Somavimalasuri, a Jain
poet of Ahemdabad in about 1576 CE.
The word used here is chasima or chasma which is equivalent to Persian

word chashm meaning an eye.
Oil extraction-Snehanishkasan
Four types of oily liquids are mentioned in Kautilya Arthashasstra, These

are Ghee, Oil from mustard seeds, animal fat and bone-marrow. Oils were
also extracted from substances such as seeds of Neem, Mango stone,
wood apple, Tilkusumbha, Mahuo seeds. It is surprising that other oils
such as cottonseed oil, groundnut oil, coconut oil or linseed oil etc are
not mentioned.
सषपघस्तिैल्वसामज्जान: स्तनेिा:। कौहटल्य अथघिाि२-१५-१४

Kautilya mentions precise amount of clarified butter that be extracted
from various types of milks i.e. cow, buffalo, goats and sheep.
क्षीरद्रोर्णे गवा धृिप्रस्तथ: ॥

पंचभागानधको महििीर्णाम ् ॥
च्व्दभागानधकोऽजावीनाम॥
कौहटल्य अथघिाि २-२६-३४-३६
For preparation of wines, use of Yeast (KiNv) is essential. Chanakya had
mentioned the procedure to prepare yeast by use of flours of black gram,
rice, and herb like Morat. For flavored wines use of certain herbs such
cardamom, Saffron, black pepper etc is also mentioned.
मािकल्नीद्रोर्णमाम नसध्दं वा षरभागनधक िण्डु लं

मोरटादीना काषिघक भागयुक्त: हकण्व बध: ॥
कौहटल्य अथघिाि २-२५-२६

SV 3.7- Oil extraction
3.3. Sankar vidya – Mixture of two or more things
There are three methods to mix metals,
a) Balasankar – Mixing by force, such as hitting two metals.

b) Jalasanskar – mixing by adding water such as preparation of lime
mortar by adding lime, sand and water.
c) Agnisankar –Mixing by heating to melt metals and to form alloys.
The fourth method is mostly used under the Metallurgy.

Brass in ancient India
The Sanskrut names of brass are ‘arikuta, riti or ritika’. These names are
also found in texts Angavija (400 A.D.), Amarkosh (Lexcon of 450 A.D.)
In another text , Kansaputatantram, Nagarjuna mentioned an alloy triloha

of three metals, gold, silver and copper (5:8:6)
Nagarjuna boosted the tradition of brass which has originated in India as

early as the 2000 B.C. After Nagarjuna the brass trading flourished in
central India nad Gujarat. An inscribed brass statue of Buddha, 30 cm and
13.5 cm wide of sixth century was found at Fatehpur 32 K.M. west of
Kangra-Kot.
Pancha Datu (a five metal alloy) is very commonly used in India to make
idols of Gods or Goddess). The composition of alloy is Copper -84 %,Zinc
-14 %,Tin -2% ,traces of Gold and Silver.
Ashta Datu (an eight metal alloy) is common in India. It consists of
Copper, Zinc,Tin Iron, Lead, Mercury and traces of Gold and Silver.
Compositions depend on Family Secret Traditions passed on from
generation to generation.
Skills under Sankar Vidya
Six skills (Kala included under this technique are listed below,

 S1-Dhatu Aushadhi sanyog - Use of herbs in metal smelting
 S2-KachapartadikaraN - Glass making (Described in chapter 4)
 S3-Lohabhisar - Iron smithy
 S4-Bhandakriya - Making of metal pots
 S5-SwarNathamya darshan - Testing purity of gold
 S6-Makarandikruti - Use of honey in making metal powder
Skill 1- Dhatu Aushadhi sanyog - Use of herbs in metal smelting is an

ancient Indian art mastered by tribal iron smiths (known as Munda,
Karmars or Asura)
They do not know the theory of smelting. But they can convert iron into
steel by treating it with dried wood and green leaves (medicine).This
medicine , probably contains carbonated hydrogen in very different
proportions, such that iron passes into the state of steel quickly and with
a smaller bulk with particular kind of vegetable matter that with others.
The cassia auriculara is used for this purpose.”
A U.S. metallurgist Mushet suggested addition of small quantity of

Spiegel at the end of the operation (patent Sep22, 1856), so the wrought
iron is converted into steel.
As Mushet was then most conversant with the operations of Indian steel
making, this very valuable suggestion, he might have been able to render
to the art from his Indian experience.
The explanation by Mushet is “On elevating tempreture an abundant

evolution of carbonated hydrogen gas would take place from the
vegetable matter, and as its escape would be prevented it would be
retained in contact with iron , which at a high tempreture have a much
greater affinity for gaseous than for concrete carbon. This would shorten
the operation and probably at a much lower tempreture than were the
iron in contact with carcoal powder.
From the above quotations it can be understood how Indian black smiths
used to melt iron ore and by adding specific leaves and feathers of birds

and convert iron into steel. Even nomadic tribes like Mudas had perfected
the technique of steel making.
The Iron smelting technique of Munda blacksmiths (Karmar) is briefly

mentioned in Rig-Veda (RV 9.112.2).
जरनिनभ: औिधीनभ: पर्णेनभ: िकुनाना कमाघर:
अममनभ: च्द्ध्दय्भ: हिरण्यवंिनमच्छनि।ऋग्वेद ९.११२.२
SV 3.8- Iron smelting technique
 Riti -brass this is made by combination of copper and zinc. Rajariti

is black but Bramhariti is brown in color.
 Kansya is made of copper and tin. Compared to brass proportion of
tin is more.
Skill 3-Lohabhisar - Iron smithy
A Blacksmith makes many kinds of tools and other objects out of metal.
He heats the metal in the forge to make it soft, and then hammers it on
an Anvil to shape it. The first metals used were Bronze and Iron. Iron was
found to be more readily available and cheaper to produce. There are two
main methods of metalworking used to produce decorative and functional
items.....Forging and casting.
The role of the Black smith was very diverse not only was he the local
toolmaker and "engineer" he was sometimes called upon to act as
Dentist, Doctor, Undertaker, Veterinary surgeon and horse dealer.
Blacksmiths were once employed to mend carts and wagons, to make the
wheel bonds (metal tyres) that would be shrunk onto the wheels and
naves (hubs) of cartwheels, to provide the horse shoes and fit them, to
make countless designs of horse drawn implements

So Blacksmithing is a very old craft with a long tradition. There were once
Blacksmiths in every Village and town but there are now few left.
The hardening process consisted of heating the blade to a cherry red

temperature and quenching. Some blades were hardened in water or
brine and some were hardened using other mediums such as mineral oil,
whale oil, or peanut oil. The steel blade would be hardened in oil and then
the oily blade would be re-heated over the fire until the oil reached its
flashpoint. It would then be quenched again to give the correct temper.
Blacksmiths of India: In India, a nomadic community of blacksmiths

moves from one place to another on bullock carts (“Gadi” in
Hindi), making and selling iron tools and wares outside their makeshift
homes along roads and highways. The Gadiya Lohar community, originally
from Rajasthan, now lives and moves in Haryana and parts of Uttar
Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh.
According to legend, the Gadiya Lohars were weapon makers for the
Rajput princes in the 16th Century. But when Chittorgarh fell into the
hands of Mughals, the Gadiya Lohars pledged never to return to their
homeland till their king, Maharana Pratap returned to the throne. They
have been nomads since, moving from place to place, sometimes putting
shelter around their beautifully decorated carts, making tools and
implements for farmers, builders, masons and other craftsmen.
The Gadiya Lohars buy their raw material, iron, from local junk shops,
make mud hearths and use coal or cow dung cakes as fuel for
heating. Iron is heated on the hearth and beaten into the desired shape
with vice and hammer. Two craftsmen are required for the process, one
to hold the hot iron with tongs, called “chutki”, and another, to hammer
it.
If a piece needs to have a sharp edge or point, the area to be sharpened

is heated till it is red hot and then beaten with the hammer. This results
in accumulation of iron in a smaller area, thereby making the sharp tip
stronger as compared to a similar product mass produced in large scale
industries, where sharpness of the metal is achieved by removing away
material.
The craftsmen make holes in iron using “sumbi” or a bore and even make
grooves with the help of hexagonal bolts. Finishing of the product involves
filing to smooth the surface and sometimes attaching wooden or iron
handles with rivets.
From swords, spears and daggers, to ploughs, axes and saws and even
utensils like kadai and spatula, the innovative Gadiya Lohars learnt to
adapt to the local demand and use their skill to make a living off their
craft. True to their identity of Lohars, the expert blacksmiths even make
their own tools.
Tempering of steel by Indian herbs and salts
The ancient Indian texts on Warfare (Yuddhashastra) describe techniques

of wars and weapons. These texts were authored by Sage Jamadnya or
Vishamitra. These texts describe the techniques of tempering of steel.
Modern metallurgists should verify these techniques using modern
instruments.
Process of tempering recommended by Sage Jamadnya,
1. Grind Pimpali (Piper longum,Linn ), Saindhav (Rock salt-salt of

Sindh ) and Kusta ( Saussurea Lappa) in cow’s urine (Gomutra)
2. Coat the tiller with this mixture and heat it in a fire till the color of
steel turns yellow.
3. Immerse in oil till it cools down.
Process of tempering recommended by Sage Vishamitra
1. Grind five types of salts# (Panchlavan) to fine powder

2. Add mustard (Sasharp) seeds and honey.
3. Coat the tiller with this mixture and heat it in a fire till the color of
steel turns blue
4. Immerse in cold water.
निच्खग्रीवानुवर्णाघभं िप्तपीिं िथौिधं ।

ििस्तिु षवमले िोये पाययेि ् ििमुत्तमं ॥ जामदग्न्य धनुषवघद्या
षपप्पली सैधवी कुष्ठं गोमुरेर्ण च पेियेि ।
अनििीिमनाषवध्दं पीिं नष्टं िथोिधं॥
अनेन लेपये्फालं नलप्तं चाग्नौ प्रिापयेि ्।
ििो ननवाघषपिं िैले पानयिं िच्व्दनिष्यिे ॥
षवश्वानमर धनुषवघद्या
.पंचनभलघवर्णै: षपष्टं मधुनसक्तै: ससिघयै:।
एनभ: प्रलेपपेि ् ििं नलप्त चाग्मौ प्ररापयेि ् ॥ वनिष्ठधनुषवघद्या
SV 3.09- Process of tempering
# -Five salts are
1. Saindhav (Rock salt-salt of Sindh )

2. Sambar or Romaka (Salt from Sambar lake near Ajmer,India)
3. Vid (Artificially prepared salt prepared in dark red granules
containing sodium chloride and traces of sodium sulphate, traces of
alumina , magnecia, ferric oxide and sulphate of iron )
4. Samudra (Common salt prepared from sea water)
5. Sochar or Sauvarchalal (Dark colored salt made by dissolving
common salt in a solution of crude soda and evaporating it)
Skill 4-Bhandakriya - Making of metal pots
The art of metal work is known to Indians for almost 5000 years from
now. Traditionally, Indian craftsmen have been using different metals like
iron, copper, silver and alloys like bronze, bell metal, white metal etc to
produce items such as pots, pans, utensils, photo frames, sculptures of
deities, mythological figures and animals.
In the field of metal work a variety of styles are seen in different parts of
India. In the Ladakh area of Kashmir traditional vessels are made out of
iron and brass. Many richly engraved traditional household items like
bowls, samovars, plates and trays are also made in Kashmir. In "Naqasi",

elaborate floral and calligraphic designs are imprinted on copper and
silver items. These items are then oxidized, which makes the design to
stand out from the background.
Moradabad in Uttar Pradesh is renowned for its brass items. A wide range
of household items like pots, trays, bowls and ornamental pieces are
made here and are decorated with intricate etching. Benaras is well
known for cast sculptures of deities and household utensils.
Rajasthan too is known for its rich tradition of metal work. Here, Jaipur is
the main center for brass engraving and lacquering. The main items that
are produced here are photo frames, bowls, plates, boxes etc. Jaipur is
also known for its bronze sculptures. At Alwar the art of Koftagari or
damascening work is practiced. In many other states also the art of metal
work flourishes. They are Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa and
Tamil Nadu.
Skill 5-SwarNathamya darshan - Testing purity of gold or silver for

ornaments
Gold: Traditional Goldsmiths of India, test gold by ‘touch stone or Kasoti

stone. Two varieties of touch stone are a) natural and b) artificial. Use of
artificial stone results in loss of gold particles. Hence natural stone is
used. The natural stone is cleaned by rubbing with charcoal and then by
seed of Castor.
Standard specimen and test piece both are rubbed (with same pressure)
on the touch stone side by side and the streaks are compared.
In addition the test piece is heated and hammered on anvil. By this test
indicates true color of metal and hardness/softness is found out.
In another test piece is cut by a fine saw. The cross-section reveals

whether it is pure gold or other gold plated metal. Some goldsmiths pour
a drop of Nitric acid on the streak. Streak of impure gold vanishes.

Silver: There are many methods for testing silver. Few are described
below.
 A small piece of metal is dipped in Nitric acid in a test tube and the
test tube is heated on spirit lamp. After some time the metal gets
dissolved and color of solution indicates the metal, pink color
means pure silver, white means medium pure silver but light or
dark green color indicates presence o zinc.
 The test piece is lightly filed and a drop of Nitric acid is applied. The
color of filed portion gives in indication of purity ( as mentioned in
above test).
 The test piece is lightly filed and heated in goldsmith’s oven
(Vaikhari). The piece is taken out with tongue and cold water is
dropped on the filed portion. If the color is grey or black then silver
is impure but if the color is white then silver is pure.
 The test is similar to streak test used for testing gold.
 If the test piece contains more copper or zinc it melts in acid withot
heating and emits bubbles.
 German silver can be identified by pouring hydrochloric acid in an
acid solution in which silver piece is dissolved. Silver particles settle
down in the solution but not the German silver.
Skill 6-Makarandikruti - Use of honey in making metal powder
The industrial division that deals with NPs is defined as nanotechnology.

Nanoparticles (NP) in consumer products are made from Zinc or Titanium
oxide. Different products such as optoelectronic devices, sunscreens,
paint pigments, rubber components, cosmetics, food additives, and
medicines contain such Nanoparticles.
Recently scientists are working on nanotechnology to produce nano

particle of metals such as gold and silver on large scale. But use of honey
for such purposes was known to Ayurveda practitioners centuries ago.

The modern applications of metallic nano particles are catalysis, bio-
sensing, imaging, and antibacterial activity.
Green synthesis is an alternative method developed to produce metal

nano-particles by using natural compounds or plant components. In place
of honey modern scientists have successfully found new alternatives.
A- Aloe-vera plant extract
 Fine spherically shaped Silver nanoparticles (AgNP) were obtained

using Aloe-vera plant extract.
 The size of AgNPs were 50 to 250 nm as revealed using XRD and
SEM.
 The sizes of AgNPs can be varied through alteration of times and
temperatures used in their synthesis.
B- Azadirachta indica aqueous leaf (Neem tree leaf) extract
 The size of AgNPs were 34 nm. as revealed using XRD and SEM.
 Synthesis was found to be efficient in terms of reaction time as well
as stability of the synthesized nanoparticles which exclude external
stabilizers/reducing agents.
C-Honey Solution for Zinc sulphide
 A cost effective, eco-friendly green synthesis of zinc sulphide
nano/microstructures were prepared by chemical co-precipitation
method using honey as the stabilizing agent.
 The size of ZnONPs were 40 nm. as revealed using XRD and SEM.
3.4- Pruthhakaran Vidya- Separation of metals
S12- Sanyog dhatudyana- Metal alloys

Deposits of gold in ancient India
In the Atharvaveda, the earth has been referred to `hiranyavaksa', i.e.,

the one containing gold in her chest - (Atharvaveda, 12.1.6)
The earth does not denote merely the surface of the plain land, but it also
includes banks and beds of rivers, hills_ of mountains, together with the
interior of the earth.
In another reference in the Rig-Veda (8.2.18), it has been mentioned that
the path, i.e., both banks, of the river Sindhu contains gold —
In another Vedic text Satapatha Brahmana, it has been stated that gold is
found in water, apparently referring to alluvial placer gold found from
rivers Satapatha Brahmana, 2.1.1.5)
Extraction of gold
The Anguttara Nikaya 500-300 BC (3.10.10) has described the process for
the recovery of gold from the alluvial placer. According to this reference,
the process consisted of agitating the auriferous sand along with water in
a pan. The lighter sand particles were drained out along with water,
leaving behind heavier gold particles and some residual sand. This
rougher concentrate was further panned several times resulting into gold
dust having very little sand or other impurities. The persons engaged in

gold washing were called "pansudhavaka", and were different from
goldsmith.
Kautilya has stated that Impure gold should be melted with four times of
its weight of lead for its purification.
Kautilya further states that the gold obtained from mines should also be
purified in a similar manner
In ancient India there have been two important sources of gold, namely
banks and bed of rivers, and mountains, having alluvial placer deposits,
and vein deposits respectively. On the basis of literary evidences, it is
apparent that the Indians had recognized these deposits as early as Rig-
vedic period.
In addition, there was another interesting naturally occurring source of
gold, which was in liquid form, and can be considered as "Liquid" ore of
gold. Literary references are available in ancient Indian texts, which gives
the details of the special liquids flowing through the holes and fissures of
some mountains, which contained gold in dissolved form. Although
Kautilya has given a detailed description of such naturally occurring
special liquids containing gold, there is a mention of such liquids in sutra
(concise) style in the period as early as when Atharvaveda was
composed.
Gold Powder: Its preparation & application
Basically two techniques –a) mechanical communition and b)chemical

method, were used in India.
Manasollas and Shilparatna give full details of the technique for making
gold powder by mechanical commutation. Manasollas (Vol 2,1.3.171 -
174) mentions the following method.
Small pieces of pure gold should be slowly ground on a stone slab with a
pointed tip tool known as tunda, together with virana grass (Khus –
Andropogon Muricactus). The mixture thus produced, containing gold
powder is put into a bronze vessel. Enough water is poured into the
vessel and the mixture is stirred frequently. The smooth gold powder
remains inside due to its high density. The gold powder is dried and
mixed with a binder.

Shilparatna (46.124-128) mentioned another method for making fine gold
powder from gold leaves (foils) as follows:
Gold is turned into thin leaves by hammering and subsequently finely

fragmented. The fine fragments of gold were mixed with small quantity of
sand and water, and were ground in a mortar to convert the gold into
powder form. The mixture was transferred into a vessel containing water,
which was then thoroughly stirred. The water from the surface containing
sand particle was panned. This process was repeated severel times. In
this way gold powder free from sand particles was prepared and was used
as a color for painting after mixing with a suitable binder.
Muni Punyavijayaji recorded the procedure for making gold and

silver powder, one practiced in India. These were identical to that
mentioned in Manasollas and Shilparatna. Two different processes have
been described: one for large –scale production and the other for small-
scale production. Gold leaves are put into a hard stone mortar and
levigated along with ‘dhau’ gum solution. When the leaves have been
turned into powder, sugared water is added and the entire mixture is
thoroughly stirred in a pot. When the gold powder has settled down, the
water is slowly drained away. The decanting process is repeated several
times until no trace of ‘dhav’ gum remains. After drying the powder is
ready for use. A different process has been described for producing gold
powder in a small quantity. The ‘dhav gum is smeared onto the surface
of a glass dish and a gold leaf is placed on it. The leaf is turned into
powder by a quick motion of fingers over the suface of the dish. Thus the
dish acted as mortar and the fingers as a pestle. The subsequent
procedure being similar to that described above.
One of the earliest applications of gold powder in ancient India, as

mentioned in “Vishnu dharmottar PuraN” was in the manufacture of
colors for painting. The powder was mixed with binder solution to prepare

for it for painting. After painting the colors were allowed to dry and then
rubbed with a boar tusk repeatedly until the luster of gold was obtained.
***.***

4. MINING IN ANCIENT INDIA
Glossary of Sanskrit Terms
Table 4.1 - Glossary of Sanskrit Terms

Sanskrit English Sanskrit English
haritala arsenic kanchanika Gold ore
sasyaka opal gomedaka agate
khanyadhyakshah superintendent lohadhyakshah superintendent of
of mines metals
Vimalaka A type of gem Vajrakhanda Yam
vaikrintaka mercury rakta brass
kansa bronze tala Sulphurate of
arsenic
Manasheel Antimony Fenasham Arsenic
Navasagar Ammonium Paarad Mercury
Chloride
Kautilya’s Arthashashtra is a book on Political Science. The book was

written in 450 B.C. and it has been translated into almost all languages of
the world. The text contains ten books (volumes) and 150 chapters.
Chapter 12 and 13 of the book two is related to Mining and Metallurgy.
As per the text the superintendent of mines shall examine old and mines.
The richness of ore can be ascertained by weight, depth of colour,
piercing smell, and taste. Visual identification of few ores is described as
below;
 Sulphurate of arsenic (haritala) - Liquids which ooze out from pits

eaves, slopes, or deep excavations of well-known mountains; which
are as yellow as ripe turmeric.
 Ores of gold (kanchanika) - Color as that of petals of a lotus, or the
feathers of a parrot or a peacock; which are greasy , transparent ,
and very heavy. Color of ore indicates the metal or minerals in it.
 Vimalaka (a kind of precious stone - colour of a conch-shell,

camphor, alum, butter, a pigeon, turtle-dove.

 opal (sasyaka)- colour of that of the neck of a peacock.
 agate (gomedaka) - colour of that of granulated sugar
 Silver ores smell like raw meat, are disjoined gray or blackish white,
and are marked with lines or spots; and which, when roasted, do not
split, but emit much foam and smoke
 The heavier the ores, the greater will be the quantity of metal in
them .
 The impurities of ores, whether superficial or inseparably combined
with them can be got rid of. The ores are chemically treated with
concentrated urine and alkalis and are mixed or smeared over with
the mixture of the powder of Rajavriksha (Clitoria Ternatea), Vata
(Ficus Indica), and Pelu (Carnea Arborea), together with cow's bile
and the urine and dung of a buffalo, an ass and an elephant and then
melted.
 Metals are rendered soft when they are treated with the powder of
mushroom, and Yam together with the ashes of barley, black beans,
flowers of palasa (Butea Frondosa), and pelu (Carnea Arborea), or
with the milk of both the cow and the sheep.
 Whatever metal is split into a hundred thousand parts is rendered
soft when it is thrice soaked in the mixture made up of honey ,
madhuka (Bassia Latifolia), sheep's milk, sesame oil, clarified butter,
jiggery, kinva (ferment/ yeast) and mushroom.
 Permanent softness of metal is also attained when the metal is
treated with the powder of cow's teeth and horn.
 Those ores which are obtained from plains or slopes of mountains;
and which are heavy, greasy, soft, tawny, green, dark, bluish-yellow
(harita), pale-red, or red are ores of copper.
 Those ores which have the colour of pigeon, or cow’s bile, and which
are marked with white lines and smell like raw meat are the ores of
lead.

 Those ores which are as variegated in colour as saline soil or which
have the colour of a burnt lump of earth are the ores of tin.
 Those ores which are of orange colour, or pale-red, or of the colour of
the flower of sinduvara (Vitex Trifolia) are the ores of tikshna.
 Those ores which are of the colour of the leaf of kunda (Artemisia
Indica) or of the leaf of birch are the ores of vaikrintaka.
 Pure, smooth, effulgent, sounding (when struck), very hard , and of
little colour are precious stones.
 The superintendent of metals (lohadhyakshah) shall carry on the
manufacture of copper, lead, tin, mercury (vaikrintaka), rakta
(brass), vritta(?); kansa (bronze or bell-metal), tala (sulphurate of
arsenic), and lodhra (?), and also of metal pots from them.
 The superintendent of mines shall attend to the collection of conch-

shells, diamonds, precious stones, pearls, corals, and salt (kshara)
and also regulate the commerce in the above commodities.
 Gold may be obtained) either pure or amalgamated with mercury or

silver or alloyed with other impurities.
 Impure gold is of whitish colour. It shall be fused with lead of four

times the quantity of the impure gold. When gold is rendered brittle
owing to its contamination with lead, it shall be heated with dry
cow dung. When it splits into pieces owing to hardness, it shall be
drenched (after heating) into oil mixed with cow dung.
 Mineral gold which is brittle owing to its contamination with lead

shall be heated wound round with cloth and hammered on a
wooden anvil. Or it may be drenched in the mixture made of
mushroom and Yam (vajrakhanda).
 Silver which is white, glossy, and ductile is the best; and that
which is of the reverse quality is bad.

 Impure silver shall be heated with lead of one-fourth the quantity of
the impurity. When that becomes full of globules, white, glowing,
and gets the colour of curd, silver becomes pure.
 Touch-stone (Kasouti): A touch-stone with soft and shining splendor

is the best. The touch-stone of the Kalinga country (Orissa state)
with the colour of green beans is also the best. A touch-stone of
even or uniform colour is good for testing of gold.
Mineral Ores found in India
Following 16 ores are found and explored by Mineral Exploration

corporation of India.
Table 4.2 - Mineral Ores found in India

SN Name of Final product
Mineral
1 Coal electricity generation, steel
production, cement manufacturing
2 Cobalt It is widely used in cancer
treatment, as a tracer and for
radiotherapy.
3 Diamond in saw blades, drill bits and grinding
wheels for the purpose of cutting,
drilling or grinding hard materials.
4 Dolomite Glass &Ceramics
5 Fluorite a sintering agent and flux in metal
processing
6 iron ore To manufacture steel, used in civil
engineering (reinforced concrete,
girders etc) and in manufacturing.
7 Lime stone Lime stone for lime & Cement
8 magnetite Production of glass

9 lignite fuel for steam-electric power
generation
10 magnetite Iron and Steel
11 marble Building stones
12 pyrite Gold
13 quartz Oscillators in radios, watches, and
pressure gauges, and in the study
of optics.
14 sandstone Building stones
15 Bauxite Aluminum
16 Zinc Paints, rubber, cosmetics,
pharmaceuticals, plastics, inks,
soaps, batteries, textiles and
electrical equipment.
4.2 Mineralogy of ancient India
A mineral is defined as a naturally occurring chemical compound, usually

of crystalline form and not produced by life processes. A mineral has one
specific chemical composition, whereas a rock can be an aggregate of
different minerals. The study of minerals is called mineralogy.
Minerals are distinguished by various chemical and physical properties.

Differences in chemical composition and crystal structure distinguish the
various species, which were determined by the mineral's geological
environment when formed. Changes in the temperature, pressure, or bulk
composition of a rock mass cause, changes in its minerals.
Hardness
The hardness of a mineral defines how much it can resist scratching. This
physical property is controlled by the chemical composition and crystalline

structure of a mineral. Diamond is the hardest natural material, and has a
Mohr’s hardness of 10.
Minerals in ancient India
Minerals are naturally occurring, inorganic, crystalline solids having a

definite chemical composition and characteristic physical properties.
Diamond: It is a precious stone. Diamonds are found at Panna mine in

Madhya Pradesh and Kollur mine in Andrapradesh.
Classification of Minerals: Minerals can be grouped under three heads
a) Metallic, b) Non-metallic and c) Energy minerals. Metallic minerals are
further divided into three groups a) Ferrous, b) Non-ferrous and c)
Precious.
Metallic Minerals such as Gold, Silver, Copper etc. are precious and are
mixed with other metals and impurities.
Non Metallic minerals such as Nitrate, potash, coal are known as fuels as
these produce heat. Petroleum and Coal are Plant and animal remains
(fossil fuel)
Ferrous Minerals which have iron content are Cobalt, Nickel, Manganese.
Non-Ferrous Minerals which have no iron content, are Copper, Tin and
aluminum.
Minerals of India: Minerals found in India as described below.
..

..
The names for some minerals in European languages were derived from
Sanskrit. Corundum from Kuruvinda and Beryl from Vaidurya are
examples.
Kautilya’s Arthasastra of 4th century It contains a great deal of

information about mines and metals as well as gems .
Metal ores in the Arthashastra
Heavier the ore, more is the metal content.(KA 2/12/7). Ores of gold can
be identified by following symptoms; (KA 2/12/5)
 Color yellow or copper –red.

 Contains blue or green lines.
 Emits smoke or foam when heated.
Ores containing lead or Antimony smells like raw flesh and has variegated
white lines or spots. It emits smoke or foam when heated. The color may
be crow black. (KA 2/12/6).
Ores containing copper is heavy, unctuous and soft. The color is tawny,
green, reddish or red. . (KA 2/12/12).
Iron ore contains round stones, whitish red or Sinduvira.(KA 2/12/15).

Vikranta ore has a color of crow’s eggs or birch-leaf. .(KA 2/12/16).
Gem ore is smooth, produces sound, hard anf of light color. .(KA
2/12/17).
Softening of materials: Addition of bulbous roots of plaintain,and Yam

along with alkali ashes (made by burning barley , black masha. Sesame ,
plakshya ) and milk of goat make the ore soft. (KA 2/12/9).Honey, sugar
syrup , goats milk, sesame oil mixed with ghee, jiggery and yeast
together with plantain stem juce, when applied to leather three times
becomes soft. (KA 2/12/10).
Hardening of materials: Soft metals can be made hard by smearing

powder of teeth or horns of cow on red hot material and then
quenching in cold water. (KA 2/12/11).
Source and qualities of gold : The color of pure gold is like the color of
lotus flower filament, and produces sound but gold with redish color is of
lower quality. (KA 2/13/4)
Pale yellow gold is best and whitish gold is impure. (KA 2/13/5), If the
metal is brittle, due to lead impurities, it should be smelted in dry cow-
dung.
Best silver is white and smooth.(KA 2/13/11)
Purification of gold: Gold should ne repeatedly smelted with using lead

four times that of gold. Lead should be removed by smelting with dry cow
dung. The brittle gold should be annealed by quenching it in sesame oil
(KA 2/13/6to8)
Touchstone from Kalinga (Orissa) , greenish in color are supposed to be

best. The streak of pure gold is smooth, lusterous and has a filament.
KA2.13.20-21
***.***

5. NON FERROUS METALS
5.1-Brass: Fusion of zinc with copper increases the strength, hardness

and toughness of the latter. When this alloy, brass, is composed of 10-
18% zinc, it has a pleasing golden yellow colour. It can also take very
high polish and glitter like gold. It is this property of brass that has
caused it to be a popular material for covering temple roofs, fabricating
vessels, etc.
5.2-Bronze: Some of the most beautiful and well executed bronze
castings in the world are the icons of the Chola period and are from the
Tanjore area of south India (10th c. AD). But, what is probably more
fascinating is the bronze ´dancing girl´ statue from Mohenjo-Daro.
A large number of copper and bronze objects were produced in Harappa
and Mohenjo-daro. They also made a number of tools - razors, chisels,
arrowheads and fishhooks – which are among the best in the Ancient
World. But probably the best known find from this ancient civilization is
the statue of the ´Dancing Girl´.
It was the first sculpture in dancing gesture discovered in the Indian
subcontinent and is among the earliest bronze castings in the world. But
its most interesting aspect is that in casting it the Harappan metallurgists
used an advanced technique known as the lost-wax process (Described in
the next section). Though the figure’s height is only 10.8 cm. it tells us a
lot about the metal technology that was developed in the Indus Valley
Civilization, also called the Harappan Culture, which flourished during
2500-2000 B.C.
Bronze making is a technology involving alloying copper with tin, lead or
arsenic. In the bronzes of Mohenjo-daro, the presence of tin is 4.5 to 13
per cent. This indicates an amazing level of understanding of metallurgy
as good quality bronze, we know today, is obtained by alloying copper
with 8 to 11 per cent tin.
South Indian bronzes were mostly solid cast whereas images from
Southeast Asia are mostly hollow cast. The Nataraja bronze of the

dancing Hindu God Siva, has been hailed as a remarkable synthesis of art
and is coveted by museums around the world.
5.3 – Copper: Early copper artifacts of about the sixth millennium BC are
also reported from the pre-Indus Valley sites of Baluchistan in the
northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent close to the Iranian border.
There is also some evidence for smelting furnaces from the Harappa
civilizations of the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent. There is
fairly extensive evidence for the ancient mining of copper ores from the
Khetri region of Rajasthan in northwestern India dating to about the 3rd-
2nd millennium BC.
Copper the metal that the people of ancient India learned how to use
expertly. From as far back as 2000 BCE, people had made fine copper
axes with sharp cutting edges by casting the copper in molds. The capital
of this technology was around Ujjain, as well as the Nasik-Ahmednagar-
Pune and other districts. As explained further: A pure copper was also
used as a material for making instruments and vessels for medicinal
purposes. A copper probe for applying Antimony to the eye has been
found in the excavations of Bijnor and another in Bihar excavations. The
sage Sushruta mentions a copper needle in the operation of cataract. Tin
was also used as a material for blunt instruments. Sushruta mentions
plates to surround a tumor end to protect the healthy parts before the
actual surgery. Such plates are recommended to be made of tin / lead /
copper.
There is fairly extensive evidence for the ancient mining of copper ores
from the Khetri region of Rajasthan in northwestern India dating to about
the 3rd-2nd millennium B.C.
5.4-Gold and Silver: Early gold and silver ornaments from the Indian
subcontinent are found from Indus Valley sites such as Mohenjodaro (ca
3000 BC). These are on display in the National Museum, New Delhi.

In the first millenium BC, the Aravalli region of India was among the few
major silver producing sites and the Maski region of Karnataka had some
of the deepest gold mines.
आकारोग्दिं हिरण्य नससान्वयेन नभद्यमानं पाकपराच्र्ण कृ ्वा गंहडकासु कुट्टयेि।
कदलीबज्रकंदकल्के वा ननिेचयेि ्। कौहटल्य
SV 5.1 -Gold purification
The archeological finds of silver artifacts have helped clarify the antiquity
of the Vedic culture. Silver ornaments that had been found at Kunal,
another Sarasvati site, prove that copper purification (which releases
silver as a by-product) was known in India before 3000 BCE.
खनन: िोि: प्रकीर्णघकं िे मयोनय: कौहटल्य
SV 5.2 - Availability of Gold
Gold: a typical naturally occurring gold powder, is mentioned in the

Mahabharata (2.52.2-4) was known as Pipilika Gold.
Such gold powder was presented to the King Yudhisthira at the time of
the Rajasuya Yagna ceremony by various kings. Due to the high purity of
the Pipilika Gold, it was a novelty and suitable item for the presentation to
the royal families.
The noble metals, gold and silver, are found in the native state, and as is
well known, gold and silver were used to make jewelry and sheet metal
due to the great ductility and lustre of the pure metals.
In antiquity gold would usually have been collected by panning alluvial

sands from placer deposits. However India has the distinction that the
deepest ancient mines in the world for gold come from the Maski region of
Karnataka with carbon dates from the mid 1st millennium BC.

The interesting technique of granulation of gold in making jewelry was
developed Surface tension was used to turn melted gold filings into
spheres. The granulation technique was also used to make gold jewelry in
India in the late 1st millennium BC to early Christian era. Aravalli region
in north-west ranks best amongst the few major ancient silver producing
sites.
Early reference to gold is to be found in the Rig Veda Samhita. In all the
sacrificial rites golden vessels were said to have been used. The
Arthasastra refers to gold having “the colour of lotus, soft, lustrous and
not producing any type of sound”. The Harappan civilization had many
gold objects such as those found at Mohenjodaro.
It has been stated that the Indian conquest of South Asian regions
in the distant past was driven by the desire for gold. The tradition of
mining gold started at least as early as the first millennium BCE. The
Champion reef at the Kolar gold fields is believed to have been mined to
a depth of 50 m during the Gupta period in the fifth century. In antiquity
gold would usually have been collected by panning alluvial sands from
placer deposits. However India has the distinction that the deepest
ancient mines in the world for gold come from the Maski region of
Karnataka with carbon dates from the mid 1st millennium BCE. The metal
was continued to be mined by the eleventh century kings of South India,
the Vijayanagara emperors from 1336 to 1560 and later by Tipu Sultan.
Renewed interest in the Kolar Goldfields occurred towards the end of the
nineteenth century. The ancient gold workings, which may be 200 years
old and the workings of Tipu Sultan were located by Captain Warren in
1802 and started in 1864 by Michael F. Lavelle. John Taylor & Company
did much of the prospecting.
The Kolar and Hutti gold mines have been under continuous, if somewhat
chequered, development.
5.5-Lead

The mineral-rich Aravalli region of Rajasthan was one of the important
early lead mining regions in antiquity. The use of low melting lead-tin
eutectic as a solder became common in Europe by the late medieval
period
5.6-Mercury: The Sanskrit name for ‘chemistry’ is Rasayan shastra. Rasa

means a liquid or mercury, which is the only metal available in liquid
state. If powdered mica is mixed with mercury and rolled into a ball, it is
converted into solid form. Such material is sold in market as Paarada-
maNi or Paarada-shivaling.
Mercury is a volatile metal which is easily produced by heating cinnabar

followed by downward distillation of the mercury vapor. Some of the
earliest literary references to the use of mercury distillation come from
Indian treatises such as the Arthashastra of Kautilya dating from the late
first millennium BC onwards. Mercury was also main constituent in
alchemical transmutation experiments as mentioned in Indian alchemical
texts which were precursors to the development of chemistry.
In India, vermilion or cinnabar i.e. mercuric sulphide has had great ritual
significance, typically having been used to make the red bindi or dot on
the forehead usually associated with Hinduism
5.8-Tin: The earliest references to metal tin has been made in the Yajur
Vedic Rudra Camaka , as 'Trapu '. Name of its chief ore cassiterite, is
possibly derived from Sanskrit ‘ Kastira '. Vedic people were well aware of
its ore and its metallurgy.
As per recent report tin ore was found in Tosham, Hariyana. The Tosham
hill is constituted by potassic rhyolites and dacites with tin up to 180 ppm.
Significant economic concentration of the metal at depth is predicted.It
has been described as potential source of' copper and tin.

5.9 –Zinc: The Rasaratnakara, a text ascribed to the great Indian
scientist Nagarjuna, of the early Christian era describes this method of
production of zinc.
Rasa Rasaratnasamuccaya, a thirteenth century text gives details of the
distillation process by tiryak patina yantra (distillation by descending).
This ingenious method was devised of downward distillation of the zinc
vapor formed after smelting zinc ore using specifically designed retorts
with condensers and furnaces, so that the smelted zinc vapor could be
drastically cooled down to get a melt that could solidify to zinc metal.
India was the only country in the ancient and the medieval world to
produce pure zinc metal and alloys of zinc, particularly brass. The earliest
artifacts in the world (2200 B.C. – 1500 BC) containing an appreciable
amount of zinc were found in Lothal, Gujarat. In Europe, the production of
metallic zinc was virtually unknown until 1740.
In 1982, the Department of Archaeology, indentified a site at Zawar,

about 30 km southwest from Udaipur, where the ancient zinc mines
(earliest so far is 430 BC) were found.
Zinc is one of the most metal difficult to smelt since zinc volatilizes at
about the same temperature of around 1000oC that is needed to smelt
zinc ore. But it was distilled in India more than 2,000 years earlier
through the use of a highly sophisticated pyro-technology. Distillation of
this metal in India was brought to light through a series of nearly intact
structural remains of ancient Indian zinc distillation furnaces at Zawar
near Udaipur in Rajasthan. In India there is unique evidence for the
extensive and semi-industrial production of metallic zinc at the Zawar
area of Rajasthan. An ingenious method was devised of downward
distillation of the zinc vapor formed after smelting zinc ore using
specifically designed retorts with condensers and furnaces, so that the
smelted zinc vapor could be drastically cooled down to get a melt that
could solidify to zinc metal.

It was estimated that 100,000 tons of zinc were produced from the 13th
to the 18th century CE.
5.10-Bidriware: Bidriware, the sleek and smooth dark coloured

metalwork with intricate eye-catching designs in silver, brass or gold on
its glossy surface, is famous all over the world. This metalwork as well as
the technique to produce it is found in India alone. Bidri is an alloy which
contains 76% to 98% zinc, 2to 10 % copper, up to 8 %. lead, 1 to 5% tin
and a trace of iron.
bidri ware -Another remarkable artistic innovation by Indian metalworkers

of the past was the use of zinc in making highly elegant bidri ware, an
inlayed zinc alloy, which came into vogue under the Muslim rulers of the
Bidar province in the Hyderabad region from about the 14th century AD.
Several impressive vessels, ewers, pitchers, vessels, huqqa bases etc.
were made of bidri ware with patterns influenced by the fine geometric
and floral patterns.
Preparation of Metal Powder

Following ancient Sanskrit texts contain information about preparation of
metal powder , which was used in Ayurveda medicines or for preparation
of gold or silver paints.
 Rasa-ratna-samuccayah, Chapter 5, Slokah 106, Vagbhatah (12th
Century AD)
 Rasendra-sarasangrahah(9th century AD)
 Silpa-ratnarn, Chapter 46, Slokah 124-128 (11 th century AD).
***.***

6-IRON AND STEEL IN ANCIENT INDIA
The meaning of the Sanskrit word “ayas” has been debated for a long
time. Many have believed that iron did not exist during the Vedic Period,
so “ayas “means non ferrous alloys ( bronze, brass etc ). So far, there
was no evidence to prove that iron was known to the sages like Vyas,
Valmiki etc. It was also believed that iron was brought by the so called
Aryans into India, and the plains ( Ganga - Yamuna ) were inhabited after
the cutting off of the forests in the swamps by iron tools. Before this era,
the population of the India was first settled along the Indus River, and
then along the Indo- Nepal border.
Types of Iron: Unlike modern metallurgists, 14 different types of iron

were known to metallurgists of the subcontinent. According to Rasa Ratna
Samuchchaya (dated to the eighth to twelfth century AD), Iron was
classified into three basic categories, which are applicable even today –
1. Wrought iron (Kanta Loha)

2. Carbon steel (Tikshna Loha)
3. Cast iron (Munda Loha)
These are further subdivided into-
Kanta Loha
1. Bhramaka kanta loha (Soft magnetic iron)

2. Chumbaka kanta loha (Mild magnetic iron)
3. Karshaka kanta loha (Attracts iron objects)
4. Dravaka kanta loha (Very strong magnetic iron)
5. Ramaka kranta loha (Permanent magnet and very powerful)
Munda Loha
1. Mrudu munda loha (Soft brittle iron)

2. Kunda munda loha (Mottled grey iron)
3. Kadara munda loha (White cast iron)
Teekshna Loha

1. Khara teekshana loha (Brittle but develops good cutting edge)
2. Sara teekshana loha (Fibrous looking softer iron)
3. Hrunnala teekshana loha (Hard and tough fibrous structure)
4. Taravata teekshana loha (Has excellent cutting edge)
5. Vajra teekshana loha (hard and has excellent tampering property)
6. Kala teekshana loha (Develops very hard edge after tampering)
Each of these had their advantages and uses. Modern

metallurgists can explore these literature and make use
of this knowledge.
Panchaloha: Silpasastras prescribe the composition of the alloy to be

chosen for casting sacred icons. Archaeologists have excavated icons and
idols proving that for the last 3,000 years, panchaloha (literally meaning
an alloy of five metals) has been most widely used for making icons and
idols. This five-metal combination of Cu, Au, Ag, Pb, and Zn was
considered to be a highly auspicious composition and is still used for icons
cast for worship. The important sources of information on making
panchaloha are recorded in ancient Sanskrit and regional literature, with
artisans from South India perfecting the technology. Other compositions
of panchaloha cited include Au, Cu, Ag, Pb, Fe, and Sn as well as the
combination of Sn, Cu, Fe, Pb, and brass.16 However, because of their
high cost, gold and silver are no longer used in general-purpose icons. An
alloy made by mixing copper, brass, and lead in the ratio 29:2:1 is
commonly utilized for general-purpose icons. In some cases, tin is added
in an amount equal to the lead content. Lead is added to make the alloy
more malleable so that chiseling and engraving of the icon will be easy.
The artisans believe that if the icon is made with copper alone, it will not
have a lasting shine, whereas adding a little brass to copper results in a
lasting shine and a lower melting point. It may be noted that brass is
added as a master alloy to introduce zinc.
The icon of the child Krishna on a banyan tree leaf (Aal elai krishna in
Tamil) was made by Swamimalai artisans. Generally, they use 80%
copper, 20% brass, and 5% lead for general-purpose icons. However, for

icons to be installed in temples for worship, Panchaloha containing 50%
Cu, 16% Au, 8% Ag, 10% brass, and 16% Pb is used.
The composition is laid down in the Shilpa shastras, an ancient Sanskrit

text on idol making. It is traditionally described as an alloy of gold (Au),
silver(Ag), copper(Cu), iron(Fe) and lead(Pb) as the major constituent.
Instead of lead, some use tin (Sn) or zinc (Zn). It is widely believed that
wearing jewellery made of Panchaloha / Panchdhatu brings balance in life,
self-confidence, good health, fortune, prosperity, and peace of mind.
Forging of wrought iron seems to have reached its zenith in India in the
first millennium AD. Wootz is the anglicized version of ukku in the
languages of the states of Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh, a term
denoting steel. Literary accounts suggest that steel from the southern
part of the Indian subcontinent was exported to Europe, China, the Arab
world and the Middle East. In the 12th century the Arab Idrisi says ‘The
Hindus excel in the manufacture of iron. It is impossible to find anything
to surpass the edge from Indian steel’.
Wootz steel: Besides iron, India is also believed to be home to some of

the earliest reported finds of high-carbon steels in the world. The steel is
called ´wootz´ in western references, derived from the Kannada ´ukku´
and the Tamil ´ekku´, meaning crucible steel. This high carbon, wootz
steel from ancient India has a characteristic wavy pattern, with
alternating light and dark shades due to the large quantities of carbon
added to the iron.
By the late 1600s shipments running into tens of thousands of wootz
ingots were exported from the Coromandel coast to Persia. This indicates
that the production of wootz steel was almost on an industrial scale in
what was still an activity predating the Industrial Revolution in Europe. It
may interest you to know that the famous Damascus Sword and Prophet
Mohammed´s ‘Teling’ sword were manufactured using wootz steel.

A Steel has been known in India since Vedic age as as Ayas. It has been
deduced from archeological evidence that ancient Indians knew the art of
making steel.
The superior quality of Indian steel has long been known, and it is worthy
of record that the celebrated Damascus blades have been traced to the
workshops of Western India. Steel manufacturing in Kutch enjoys at the
present-day a reputation not inferior to that of the steel made at Glasgow
and Sheffield.
Indian ironsmiths had perfected the process of extracting iron from its
ores in such a way that iron of as high a quality as 99.7% could be
obtained. Their forge welding technique was equally remarkable, as
evidenced by the massive Iron Pillar (late 4th century A.D.) now standing
majestic and serene near Qutab Minar in Delhi, unrusted for over 1600
years. This technique was not short-lived either. There were larger iron
pillars and beams of high purity that speak volumes about the
metallurgical skills of ancient Indian ironsmiths.
The famous Mysore Palace in Mysore near Bangalore built by the

Wodeyars at the turn of the century was the first royal palace in India to
make use of cast iron in architectural construction.
Wootz steel also played an important role in the development of

metallurgy. Michael Faraday, the greatest experimenter of all times, tried
to duplicate the steel by alloying iron with a variety of metallic additions
including noble metals but failed. As he was the son of a blacksmith the
extraordinary properties of Wootz steel must have fascinated him. His
failure had an unexpected and fortunate outcome as it marked the
beginning of alloy steel making.
Imperial Gazetteer, Vol. 8 (old) contains following information “Kolas and

Mundas were nomadic tribes in Bastar (M.P). They used to call
themselves as Kings. “The Kolas generally understand the smelting of
iron. Their country is rich in that material; but it is the wilder clans,
Birhors, the Asuras and Agarias that chiefly utilize it.
Tempering of steel: For tempering of steel, Yukta (Ammonium Chloride))

is mixed with ash of plantain tree. The mixture is applied to a tool and
kept for a day. The tool is hardened by heating and quick cooling. Such
tool remains sharp for a long time and can break stone or iron. Ref. Brihat
Samhita Chp.59.
क्षारे कदल्या मनथिेन युक्ते हदनोषििे पानयिमायसं यि ्।

सम्यक् नििं नाममनन चैनि भंगं न चान्यलोिे ष्वषपिस्तय
कौियम ्॥ बृििसंहििा अ ५९ .
SV 6.1-Tempering of steel
***.***

7- CASE STUDIES OF METAL CASTINGS
Ancient Indian texts such as Atharvaveda, Shilpashastras, Yantra

Sarvasva texts mentions and explain the processing of metals and
manufacture of castings. Shilpa Shastras explicitly deal with sculpture -
forming statues, icons & stone murals. Rig Veda mentions casting
processes and tools used for Iron smelting. Ancient Indian text Dhatukalp
mentions alloy making for metal casting. Ref.SV 7.1
Metal Crafting art started in South India during the 6th – 9th Century
A.D, by the Pallava Dynasty.It attained its peak during the early Chola
Dynasty, from 9th – 13th Century A.D .Confluence of cultures and
abundant resources around Thanjavur-Cauvery Delta region Attained its
peak in terms of technological development by combining art with science
to create master pieces.
सप्तोपधािव: स्तवर्णघमाच्क्षकं िारमाच्क्षकम ्।

िु्थ कांस्तयं च रीनिश्च नसंदरु श्च निलाजि ्॥
िाम्ररपुजयाख्यािं कांस्तयं
स्तिाच््पत्तलानधकम ्।
रीनिरप्यपर्ि: स्तयात्ताम्र्य जसदस्तय च ॥
माच्क्षकव्दयिु्थानन औिधीषवियाच्र्णच ।
सीसोपधािु: नसंदरू ं िु्थं िाम्रमयूरवि ्॥
ननदार्े धमघस%िप्ता: धािुसारं धराधरा: ।
ननयाघसव्प्रमचंनि िि ् निलाजिु कीनिघिम॥
धािुकल्प अ २९
SV 7.1 - Making of alloys
7.1-Iron Pillar at Delhi

The famous Iron Pillar belongs to 4th century. It is enclosed in the Qutub
Minar complex of New Delhi. The Sanskrit inscription in Gupta script and
the peculiar style of its 'Amalaka' capital confirms the date. this pillar was
originally set up as a flag, or 'dhvaja', of Lord Vishnu on the hill known as
'Vishnupada'. It was a tribute to King Chandragupta II (375-413) of the
imperial Gupta dynasty. It is also suggested that a deep hole on the top

of the pillar was used to fit the image of 'Garuda' as the Vehicle of Lord
Vishnu. Iron Pillar is said to be brought to Delhi by Anangpal, the Tomar
king who founded Delhi.
The base of the pillar is tied to its foundations by small pieces of iron. It
rises to a height of 7.20 m, with 93 cm buried below the present floor
level. It is a wonder that iron has not rusted despite the sixteen centuries
that have passed since then. Thus, the pillar is an excellent example of
advanced metallurgy of those times and is a marvel in itself.
In a report published in the journal Current Science, R. Balasubramaniam

of the IIT Kanpur explains how the pillar's resistance to corrosion is due
to a passive protective film at the iron-rust interface. The presence of
second phase particles (slag and unreduced iron oxides) in the
microstructure of the iron, that of high amounts of phosphorus in the
metal, and the alternate wetting and drying existing under atmospheric
conditions, are the three main factors in the three-stages formation of
that protective passive film[11].
According to INTACH, further research has been proposed on the Iron

Pillar to study the ancient metallurgy of India. The ASI is reported to have
has concurred for the proposed studies that would make comparisons by

testing other ancient iron objects like the pillar at Dhar, the iron beams at
Konarak, and so forth.
7.2 -The iron pillar at Kodachadri in Karnataka
The historical iron pillars at Mehrauli, Delhi, and at Dhar, in Madhya

Pradesh, have attracted the attention of scientists for over a century and
have been the subject matter of many publications. However, a third iron
pillar located in Adi-Mookambika temple at Kodachadri village in a remote
forest area of the Western Ghats in Karnataka has not received much
scientific attention so far, partly because the concerned village is difficult
to reach and partly because the pillar itself is not as massive and
imposing as the Delhi. Mookambika is popularly referred to as the Dwaja-
Sthamba (flag-staff) of the Ambika temple or the Kodachadri iron mast
or pillar.
Kodachadri is 40 km away from Kollur. The iron flag-staff towers above

the small temple. This flag-staff is believed to be a top portion of the
Trishool (trident) The temple top has been recently renovated, and a
platform has been added ostensibly to stabilize the pillar, the iron pillar is
about 10 m above the ground level, with a rectangular cross-section of
8.5 cm x 5.8 cm .

The pillar displays evidence on top for local melting, flow of melt and
solidification, caused by lightning during the monsoon period. The weight
of this flag-staff can be estimated as about 500 kg.
7.3 -Dhar iron pillar
Dhar iron pillar, in its original condition, was larger than the Delhi iron
pillar. Dhar pillar monument with its total length of 13m’ is currently lying
in three broken pieces in front of the Lat Masjid at Dhar in Central India .
Dhar, situated near Indore in Madhya Pradesh, was founded as capital of

Malwa by Bhoja (1010–1053 AD). Local tradition holds that Bhoja
constructed the pillar.
In its original condition, the pillar, topped with a trishul (trident), was
located in front of a Shiva temple. This temple was located at the very
site where the present Lat Masjid stands. The masonry basement topped
with stone boulders, in front of the Lat Masjid, was the original erection
site of the Dhar iron pillar.
Bahadur Shah of Gujarat, in 1531 AD, captured the area and wished to
carry the pillar to Gujarat. In attempting to do so, the pillar fell down and
broke into two pieces of lengths 220 cm and 130 cm. The largest broken
piece remained in the same sloping position against the masonry terrace
in front of the mosque from the time of its fall in 1531 AD till the time it
was removed by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) around 1980 AD
and placed horizontally on a platform adjoining the mosque. The three

pieces of the 950-year old Dhar iron pillar lying horizontally on concrete
supports, outside the Lat Masjid at Dhar, Madhya Pradesh, India.
ASI set it up on the platform) and therefore, three surfaces of the largest
piece appear smoothly polished.
The pillar pieces were removed from the masonry basement in order to
determine its accurate dimensions. It was then placed in the museum at
Anand High School and, similar to the second piece, was shifted to its
current location. Therefore, this piece has also been shifted from one
location to another in Dhar, after being brought down from Mandu.
7.4-Huge Gun Metal Bells
For centauries Indians use metal bells during worshiping. These bells are
small in shape and weight. Temple bells are comparatively big and of
weight less than 20Kg. Only two big bells of India worth mentioning are
Naroshankar Bell at Nasik (MS) and other is a bell at MeNawali (MS),
installed by Nana Fadanavis in 16th century. But both these bells were
cast in Europe and brought to Maharashtra. Huge bells are available in the
churches of foreign countries or Pagodas in China and Japan.
Each bell has its sound. Western scientists have developed bell acoustics.
There is a competition of casting huge bells, lighter in weight and small in
thickness.
7.5- The metal mirrors of Aranmula

The few traditional bronze smith in Aranmula, Kerala, are the ‘custodians’
of the metallurgical secret of the Aranmula kannadi, the world-famous
metal mirrors. Making this mirror is a long process, and no more than one
mirror can be made in a day. The age-old lost wax technique is used to
make these mirrors too. Some undisclosed metals are alloyed with
bronze, copper and a high level of tin, which are melted on a furnace
fitted with a manual blower and poured into typical clay moulds. The
molded metal disc is mounted on a wooden plank and polished using a
jute cloth dipped in well-ground burnt clay powder and castor oil. The
polishing process can go on for two to three days. The mirror is then
mounted on bronze frames with exquisite carvings. The cost of Aranmula
mirror varies from Rs.1000/- to 20,000 , depending upon the size,
weight and art work.
7.6-The Dhokra Technique of Bastar and Bankura
The lost wax process is the only technique used by the tribal artist of
Bastar (M.P) and Bankura (W.B.) to create the Dhokra sculptures. All the
artwork is one of a kind and never reproduced on a large scale.

The first step in the process is to create a wax model. The wax model is
the exact replica of what the finished brass piece will look like. A
combination of 60% paraffin and 40% bees wax is used. This wax has to
be kept malleable at all times. The artisans make use of their hands and
some basic tools to shape this wax model. First a general shape of the
model is produced in wax. The details are etched or embossed on to this
model using a heated metal file to give it the required smoothness. For
larger models each part is finished separately and then the wax model is
assembled. Once completed the wax models are kept into water to assure
that they do not loose the shape in the heat of the sun. Most of the
artisans work in the natural light of the sun so the entire process depends
on the weather.
The wax model is then covered with clay to make the mold into which the
molten brass will be poured to make the final brass sculpture. The first
layer - the closest to the clay and wax sculpture is the river bed soil. A
paste is made by adding water and coal to this fine soil. It is applied to
the wax model using a paint brush so that it takes on the textures and
shapes of the original clay sculpture to the exact. The fine consistency of
this solution allows it to pick up the finer features of the wax model. Once
dry two more layers using the same paste are applied. once they are
completely dry, a red soil with rice husk is applied to solidify the soil layer
- it is a pasty solution which is applied on with hands. Once this paste is
dry two holes are made at the bottom of the mold and hollow wax rods
are passed through it and attached to the wax model inside. These serve
as a passageway for the molten brass to be poured in and for air bubbles
to pass out. A final coating of rice husk, sand and clay is applied to the
entire surface of the piece. This is the final coating of the mold which
increases the thickness of the mold and covers the wax rods too. Small
cups are made at the top of these rods to allow the molten brass to be
poured in without spilling it. These molds are then sun dried before
putting them into the kiln for the final stage.

The brass is heated in big containers called crucibles. Once the molds and
the brass containers are ready for firing they are placed in the kilns with
the molds on the top and the containers at the bottom. The molds are
positioned with the wax rods facing downward allowing the wax to burn
out as the oven is heated. Once the firing is completed the molds are
removed with the hollow of the wax rods facing upwards. Forceps are
used to pick the container with molten brass so that it can be poured in
through the hollows of the wax rod. The molds are allowed to cool for at
least two hours. The mold is then broken and the clay is chipped off the
brass sculpture.
Final finishing is done using metal files or by heating strips of metal and
filling holes that might have been left by air bubbles. After this the final
sculpture is finished and buffed to give it a shine. Sometimes they are
partially painted on if the design so demands.
A slight modification has been brought into the technique to make lighter
sculptures. The technique for the lighter pieces is as follows:
The process of production starts with preparing a mixture of clay and rice
husk, which is kneaded and sculpted into different figures. When the clay
model is dry its surface is smoothened by rubbing a broad bean leaf on
it. The clay model is finished and the final decorative accents are added
on by using wax threads which are pasted onto the clay object. The
jewelry and other decorative elements are added on in wax. This wax
threads are obtained by passing blocks of wax through a metal sieve.
The wax model is then treated with different kinds of soil to make the
final mold. The first layer - the closest to the clay and wax sculpture is the
river bed soil. This is the finest soil which when applied takes on the
textures and shapes of the original clay sculpture to the exact. The river
bed soil is mixed with coal and sieved to get the finest mixture and

applied in order to fuse the wax thread designs into the clay. After this, a
red soil with rice husk is applied to solidify the clay.
The next stage involves baking in Kiln. The clay and wax objects are put
in the kiln. The final clay mould has holes made at the bottom through
which the wax when melted can flow out; the melted brass is then poured
in. This is allowed to cool and the mould is broken to obtain the final
piece.
This technique makes hollow brass sculptures which are filled inside with
clay as opposed to the original process.
***.***

8 REFERENCES
Following are the references on mining and metallurgy in ancient India.
A-Ancient Sanskrit texts (Exact period of compilation is unknown)
 Adbhuta Sagara by Ballal Sen, edited by Murlidhar Sen,pub. By

Prabhakari & co. Benars.
 Arthshastra by Kautilya, Eng.Translation by R.P.Kangle, Pub. Motilal
Banarasi das , New Delhi.
 Brihat Samhita (of Varah Mihir),Pub. By Khemraj Shrikrishnadas
Mumbai (1945)
 Brihan Nighantu (2011) Ed.D.S.Mathur, Pub. By Khemraj
Shrikrishnadas Mumbai (1945)
 Dhatukalpa- Loharnava
 Rasa-ratna-samuccayah, Vagbhatah (12th Century AD)
 Rasendra-sarasangrahah (9th century AD)
 Ratnapariksha
 Mahavajra
 Lohapradeep
 Bhairavtantra
 PashaN vichar
 Shilparatna (11 th century AD). (by Shivkumar ) part 1 and 2,Pub.
By Gaikwad Oriental series, Baroda (1924)
B- Modern
 Ali, S.M. (1966),”The geography of India from Puranas”

 Banerjee, 1965, ”A Iron Age in India A, Munshiram Manoharlal, 54
Rani Jhansi Road, New Delhi, 55. India.
 Biswas, A.K., 1996" Minerals and Metals in India", D.K. Print World
Ltd., Shree Kunj , F-52 Bali Nagar, New Delhi-15.
 Bhagwat, R.N.(1933)” Knowledge of metals in ancient India”, ,Jr. of
Chemical education, vol.10 Nov.1933
 Bhagwat, R.N.,(1943-45)” Metals in ancient India, Published as
series of 11 articles in a Marathi magazine, ”Srustidyan, Oct.1943 to
Sept.1945.
 Coneri (1923),”Knowledge of precious stones and metals in ancient
India”, Vedic Magazine Lahore, Dec.1923.
 Dube, R.K.(1991), “Gold Powder: Its preparation & application as described in
ancient Sanskrit Texts”, Gold Bulletin Vol. 24(3), pages 95-102.

 Gurudas,”Ratnapariksha (Hindi)”, Pub.Vekatesh press Mumbai
1955.
 Iyengar, R.N (1999),”Earthquakes in ancient India”, Jr . History of
Sciences, New Delhi.
 Jaju, A.C.,”Ratnapariksha (Hindi)”, pub. BB Hatia, Banaras.
 Jain Gasiram,” Ratnaparikshak(Hindi)”, Sudarshan Press, Mathura
 James A. Fitzgerald , 2000 -Journal of the American Oriental
Society, 120.1 Jan-March ; pp 44-61.
 Joshi, N. R., 1998, A Tough Steel of Ancient India A Revisiting Indus
- Saraswati Age and Ancient India.
 Joshi,G.G.(1955) ,Khanishastra-Mining and Metallurgy, Weekly
Shilpasansar, Pune, April 1955, pp 379-382.
 Khambote, Y.L.,”Ratna pradeep “, Marathi book Pub. at Jalgaon
 Kosambi, D. D., 1965, A The Culture and Civilization of Ancient
India , Routledge and Kegan Paul, London, U.K.
 Leuva, K. K., 1963, " The Asur: A Study of Primitive Smelters “,
Bharatiya Adimjati Sevak Sangh, New Delhi,
 Madras Govt. oriental series, no 68.”Ratnadipika ratnashastram”,
 Possehl, Gregory L. and Gullapalli, Praveena, 1999 , The Early Iron
Age in South Asia A , University Museum Monograph 89,
 Ravi B. National Conference on Investment Casting , Central
Mechanical Engineering Research Institute, Durgapur, September
22-23, 2003, Investment Casting Development: Ancient and
Modern Approaches,
 Nene, A.S.(2011) “Geotechnical Engineering in ancient India, Pub.
Pune Vidyatrhi gruha prakashan, Pune.
 Pandit,” L.N. “Ratnadipak(Hindi)“, Pub. Vekatesh press Mumbai
 Satwalekar(1936),” Hindi book “Iron foundries in Vedic period”
 Paramsivam, S. “Metal working in prehistoric India and other three
papers”, Indian Indology conference, Vol. XI ,pp 185-209
 Sahastrabudhhe,B.N.(1921),Brass temple bells, (Marathi article), Jr.
Uddyam, Nov.1921.
 Sharan Anand M. The Existence of Iron in the Vedas, Ramayana,
and Mahabharata
 Sharada Srinivasan, Shiva as Cosmic Dancer: On pallava Origins for
the nataraja Bronze
 Sharada Srinivasan, Cosmic Dance, IIC Quarterly, 2009
 Sharada Srinivasan, The Art & Science of Chola Bronze,
Orientations, 37, 8 , 2009
 Sircar,(1960),”Studies in geography of ancient and medieval India”
Varanasi.

 Vaze, K.V. (1925),” Prachin Hindi Shilpashastra, part 1 (Marathi),
metals and gems pp 152-183.
 Vaze, K.V. (1929),” Prachin Hindi Shilpashastrasaar “,(Marathi),
chapter 7-Khanishastra.
 Vaze.K.V.(1953),”Prachin Hindi Shilpa Shastra (Marathi), Book
published by Varada prakashan, Pune.
 Wolpert, S. , 1993 , A New History of India , Oxford University
Press, New York, Fourth Edition .
Some useful links
1. The Iron Pillar at Delhi, T.R.Anantharaman, Iron and Steel Heritage

of India,http://eprints.nmlindia.org/5796/1/1-28.pdf
2. Indian Sword Revealed as Master-Crafted, NewHistorian
http://newhistorian.com/indian-sword-revealed-master-
crafted/2954/
3. Meeting the blacksmiths in bullcok carts of Rajasthan, N.W. India. -
A Dying culture,https://steemit.com/travel/@ganpati23/meeting-
the-blacksmiths-in-bullcok-carts-of-rajasthan-n-w-india-a-dying-
culture-part-1
4. Lost Nomads (National Geographic),
http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com /print/2010/02/nomads/
lancaster-text.
5. Agaria-(Social group)
http: // peoplegroupsindia. com/ profiles / agaria/
6. The Ethnographic Narration of Gadulia Lohar http://ancient-asia-
journal.com/articles/10.5334/aa.12321/
7. A note on ancient zinc-smelting in India
http://new1.dli.ernet.in/data1/upload/insa/INSA_1/20005b5f_275.p
df
8. Characterization of rust on ancient Indian iron,
http://home.iitk.ac.in/~bala/journalpaper/journal/journalpaper_41.
pdf
9. Aspects of Powder Technology in Ancient and Medieval India.
http://maneyonline.com/doi/abs/10.1179/pom.1990.33.2.119.
10. Ancient metal-mirror making in South India.
http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF03222791?LI=true
11. History of Metallurgy and Mining in India,
https://zum.de/whkmla/sp/0910/florida/florida1.html
12. History of metallurgy in South Asia (Wikipedia)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_metallurgy_in_South_Asia

13. Ancient Indian Metallurgy
http://ignca.nic.in/vedic_heritage_present_metallurgy.htm
14. The Metallurgical Heritage of India
http://materials.iisc.ernet.in/~wootz/heritage/Ind-heritage.html
15. History of metallurgy in the Indian subcontinent
https://revolvy.com/main/index.php?s=History%20of%20metallurg
y%20in %20the%20Indian%20subcontinent&item_type=topic
16. The Rise and Fall of Ancient India’s Iron and Steel Metallurgy
http://ghadar.in/gjh_html/?q=content/rise-and-fall-ancient-india
%E2 %80%99s-iron-and-steel-metallurgy
17. A Brief History of Materials: 1. Metallurgical Heritage of India
https://materialiaindica.wordpress.com/2009/02/16/a-brief-history-
of-materials1metallurgical-heritage-of-india/
18. A Model for Understanding Ancient Indian Iron Metallurgy,
https://jstor.org/stable/2800318
19. The origins of Iron-working in India,
http://archaeologyonline.net/artifacts/iron-ore
20. The Lost-Wax Casting of Icons, Utensils, Bells, and Other
Items in South India
http://tms.org/pubs/journals/JOM/0210/Pillai-0210.html
21. Archaeo-metallurgy of Indus civilisation (Book review, The
Hindu)
http://thehindu.com/books/archaeometallurgy-of-indus-
civilisation/article2913312.ece
22. Mystery behind the Iron Pillar of Qutab Minar
http://speakingtree.in/allslides/mystery-behind-the-iron-pillar-of-
qutab-minar
23. India’s Magical Ancient Pillar. The Delhi Pillar Is a Genuine
Out-of-Place Artifact
http://atlantisrisingmagazine.com/article/indias-magical-ancient-
pillar/
24. India’s legendary wootz steel—An advanced material of the
ancient world
http://orientblackswan.com/BookDescription?isbn=978-81-7371-
721-5&id=32&t=c
25. Metallurgy (Ancient Indians)
https://ancientindians.in/technology/ancient-indian-metallurgy/
26. Two thousand years of iron smelting in the Khasi hills, Pawel
Prokop and Ireneusz Suliga
http://cherrapunjee.com/cherrapunjee-rain/two-thousand-years-of-
iron-smelting-in-the-khasi-hills/

27. Ancient Gold Mining Activities in India - An Overview, A.K.
Grover and M.K. Pandit,
Iranian Journal of Earth Sciences
http://ijes.mshdiau.ac.ir/article_522929.html
28. Wootz crucible steel: a newly discovered production site in
South India,http://pia-journal.co.uk/article/download/pia.60/142/
29. Copper in Ancient India, ,
http://arxiv.iacs.res.in:8080/jspui/handle/10821/917
30. ANCIENT INDIAN IRON AND STEEL :
http://insa.nic.in/writereaddata/UpLoadedFiles/IJHS/Vol46_3_1_BPr
akash.pdf
31. The Primacy of India in ancient brass and zinc metallurgy,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vDG0FaQ9tkw
***.***

9 APPENDIXES
9A-Glossary of Sanskrit terms
Introduction – The word Khani is derived for a root Khan which means
to excavate. Sanskrit terms related to Khani shashtra are shown in a
Table below.
Minerals
Sanskrit Roman English
अभ्रक Abhrak Mica
अलक Alak Orpiment
गगन gagan Mica
क्षारराज Kshyar raj Borax
लवर्ण LavaN Salt
नवसार Navsar Salt of

ammonia
सुधा Sudha Lime
व्योम Vyoma Mica
Metals
Sanskrit Roma Engli Sanskr Rom English

n sh it an
अर Aar Brass अिी Ahi lead metal
metal
अयस Ayah Iron अयस्तकंि Ayask Load stone /
ant magnet
भानु Bhanu Copp चंद्र Chan silver
er dra
चंद्राकघ Chand Amal गैररक Gairik Red ochre
rark gam /
of Geru
gold
and
silver

कांस्तय / किोपल Gun Testing Hartal Orpiment
metal stone
कृ ष्र्ण
कनसस kasis / Ferro खपघर Kharp Zinc ore
Khag us ar
/खग
Suph
ate
हकट्ट Kitta Rust क्षार Kshya Alkali
of r
iron
टं क Tank Borax क्षेरज Kshye Variety of gold
traj
कुहटल / Kutil / Tin मंडूर Mand Rust of iron
Vang ur
वंग
मिारत्न Mahar nine िुल्ब Shulw Copper
atna precio a
us
stone
s
नाग Naag lead सौषवर Soubi Galena / Lead
metal r sulphide
पारद Parad Mercu िाम्र Tamr Copper
ry a
नसंदरू Sindur Lead िार tar silver
oxide
Properties of metals
Sanskrit Roman English

रज Saumaka Of the moon = Cool
पंचघ्न Panca=ghna Non-malleable
करालघ्न Carala-ghna Anti-toxin
उष्र्णिीन Usna-Iiana Heat-proof
भािीन Bhara-rhana Weight-proof
िीििीन Sita rhana Cold-proof
आम्लिीन Arnla-rhana Acid-proof = Alkaline
अच्ग्नहिघ न Agni rhin Fire-proof
घ्निन Ghna, han means to kill, quench.
उष्र्णिन U sna- hana Heat + bearing
षविम्भर Visam-bhara Poison + bearing Toxic

(weapon-grade)
उष्र्णपघ Usnarrr-pa Heat + protecting Heat
conducting
रज Raja Shining = White
षविल्यकृ ि Vi+salya+krt Surgical grade
िीज नमर Dvija-mitra Twice born = Wrought
metal
वारनमर Vara- mitra (wind-proof)
Botanical Terms
Sanskrit Roman Common Botanical

name name
निंदक
ु Tinduka Tendu Diospyros
paniculata
कषप्थ Kapitthaka Wood Feronia
apple elephantum
िाल्मली Shalmali Silk cotton Morus
acedosa
साल्लकी Sallaki Dhanvana Bosewellia
serrata
र्वर्णा Dhanvana Dhanvana Dhanvana
वचा Vaca Orris root Vaca
िीवसाका Shrivasaka Turpentine Myrrh
गुग्गुळ Guggula Dhanvana Commiphora

roxburghu
भल्लिक Bhallataka Marking Semecarpus
nut anacardium
कुंदरूक Kunduruka Jasmine Cunduru
सजघ Sarja Resin
अिसी Atasi Linseed Linum

usikatissimum
षवल्व Bilva Bilva
Aegle
marmelos
Flame of cassia
Palash
forest auriculara
9B -Adamantine Glues or Binders

The subject of preparation of adamantine glue is closely connected with
construction of temples, mansions etc. A bonding agent was very
essential for fixing idols, in wall construction, when cement and other
modern materials were unknown. Even now these glues are known as
Astabandha, are prepared in temple premises for fixing or re-fixing
images of gods. Four such glues are described below.
First formula: Explained in Shilparatnakar (See table below for glossary

of terms)
The ingredients are unripe fruits of Tinduka and Kapittaka, flowers of silk
cotton, seeds of Sallaki), barks of Dhanavana and Vaca. All these
ingredients are boiled 256 parts of water till the decoction reduces to an
eighth of its original volume (i.e.32 Parts). The sediments are mixed with
substances, such as. Shrivasaka (a secretion of tree used as incense,
Turpentine), Raktabola , Guggulu, Bhallataka, , extraction of Deodar tree
resin, Atasi oil and Bilva fruit.
The resulting paste is termed as adamantine glue. This glue is heated and
then used in construction of temple, mansions, windows, walls and wells
as well as fixing Siva’s emblems and idols of gods. It was expected to last
for Million years.
आमं निंदक
ु मांस कषप्थकं पुष्पमषप च िाल्मल्याः ।
बीजानन िल्ककीनां धन्वनवल्को वचा चेनि ॥२१०॥
एिैः सनलला द्रोर्णः क्थवाथनयिव्योऽष्टभागिेिश्च।
अविायोऽस्तय च कल्को द्रव्यैरेिैः समनुयोज्यः॥२११॥
िीवसकरसगुग्गुलुभल्लािककुंदरूकसजघरसैः ।
अिसीषबल्वैश्च युिः कल्कोऽयं वज्रकेपाख्यः ॥२१२॥
प्रासादिम्र्यवलभीनलंगप्रनिमासु कुड्यकूपेिु ।
संिप्तो दािव्यो विघसििाय िस्तयायु ॥२१३॥ बृििसहििा अ.५६

Brihat Samhita formula
Second formula
There is another adamantine glue of excellent qualities already mentioned

above, is also used for the same purpose. It is composed of Lac,
Kunduru,Guggulu, soot (collected from house), wood-apple Bilva kernel,
fruits of Naga ,Tinduka , and Madana , Madhuka, Manjiostha resin, myrrh
and Ambalaka .The method of preparation is same as mentioned above.
लाक्षागुलमधूच्च्छष्ट गुग्गुलूनां समांिकाः ॥६४॥
एिेिां हिगुर्ण भागं ग्राह्यं सजघरस िदा ।
गैररकचूर्णक
घ ं िस्तमादधिु र्नचूर्णक
घ म ्॥६५॥
सवेिामधिस्तिैलं ननच्क्षपेल्लोिभाजने।
लोिद्रव्या चं कुयाघि पाचयेन्मृदव

ु हिना ॥६६॥
अष्टबंधनमनि प्रोक्तम्ममवद् दृडबंधनम ्।
मयमि अ ६४
Mayamat formula
लाक्षकुंदरू
ु गुग्गुलुगि
ृ धुमकषप्थषबल्वमध्यानन ।
नागफलननम्बनिंदक
ु मदं फलमधुकमंच्जष्ठाः ॥५॥
सजघरसामलकाननचेनि कल्कः कृ िो च्व्दिीयोऽयम ्।
वज्राड्यः प्रथमगुर्णैरयमषप िेष्वेव कायेिु॥६॥
बृििसंहििा अ ५६
Brihat Samhita second formula
Third formula
This variety of glue known as Vajratala which is constituted by the horns

of cows, buffalo and goats, hairs of donkey, buffalo hide, cow hide, Neem

fruits, wood-apples and myrrh. This mixture too should be boiled and
reduced as mentioned before. In this glue some organic substances are
also included.
गोमहििार्णैः खररोम्र्णा महििचमघगव्येश्व ।
ननंबकषप्थरसै: सि वज्रिलोनाम कल्कोऽन्यः ॥७॥
Hide glue
Forth formula by Maya
A compound of eight parts lead, two of Bell metal, and one of iron rust,
has been mentioned by Maya and is to be known as Vajrasanghata (
Adamantine compound).
अष्टौ सीसकभागा: कांसस्तय्व्दौ िुरीनिका भागः ।
मयकनथिो योगोऽयं षवज्ञेयो वज्रसंर्ािः ॥८॥
Vajrasanghata
According to Utpala this compound includes other materials as well, but

they are to be used in equal quantities. Possibly he means to say that the
materials mentioned in the previous versions may also be added to this
mixture in equal quantities.)
संगह्य
ृ ाष्ठौ सीसभागाि ् व्दौ िथािकंम।
रीनिकायास्तिु संिप्तो वज्राख्यः पररकीनिघिः ॥

Utpala’s formula
Table below shows the ingredients for adamantine glue.

Table -Ingredients
Sn Sanskrit English/ Latin
1 Tinduka Fruits of Diospyros paniculata
2 Kapittaka Feronia elephantum
3 Shalmali Flowers of silk cotton
4 Sallaki Seeds of Boswellia serrata
5 Dhanavana Barks of Orris root
6 Vacha Barks of Orris root
7 Shrivasaka A tree resin used as incense
8 Raktabola Myrrh
9 Guggulu Commiphora roxburghii
10 Bhallataka Semecarpus anacardium
11 Kunduruka Deodar tree resin
12 Atasi Linum usikatissimum
13 Bilvaphal Fruits of Aegle marmelos
The Asoka Pillar is basically a sand-stone pillar coated with Vajra-

Sanghata to look like a metal pillar. Mauryan caves in Bihar also have a
coating that gives the surface the look of glass.
9C-Alchemy in ancient India
Ancient text ‘Manasollas’ by King Someshwara contains a full chapter (64)

on alchemy (Dhatuwad).The translation Sanskrit verses (377-394) is
given below.
 377 - With the help of alchemy wealth can be earned. Copper can
be converted into gold and Tin can be converted into silver.
 378 - Crush completely dried flowers of Palash (flame of forest),
mix with milk of she-goat and apply it for three days to complete
the process.
 379 - Smear the Tin surface with the powder (one-sixth in
proportion and the heat it till it becomes beautiful like silver.
 380 - Apply a juice of white lotus on Tin for thirty-two day.
 381 - Heat the smeared Tin or lead and heat it till the black color
and smell is removed and it becomes silver like.
 382 - Smear an oil (of seeds of white lotus) and sulphur seven
times to copper surface.
 383 - Copper is then heated. With such process copper becomes
gold and it can be heated and cut for further applications.
 384 - The oil (mentioned above) can be mixed with vermilion,
sulphur or mercury .The decoction can be used for rubbing the
metals.

 385 - The decoction should be applied on tin plates and should be
fired again and again for thirty-two days (by wise person).
 386 - The Tin becomes gold which is soft and can be further used
for different purposes.
 387 - Filter with fine cloth powdered resin of teak tree also the dry
powder of drumstick roots.
 388 - Coat a copper plate with such powder and heat it for five
times so that it becomes gold.
 389 - Mix the juice of teak tree with Manjisha.
 390 - Apply the mixture on copper and heat it till the copper
becomes gold.
 391 - Crush barks of teak to get juice of it and mix with juice of
roots of oleander (Karveer) and apply to copper plate.
 392 - The copper becomes silver by smearing of mixture and
becomes workable for other works.
 393 - Such are the processes mentioned in alchemy books to
increase the wealth with gold and silver
 394 - A king increases his wealth in treasury by gold, silver and
precious stone etc.
9 D–Khani shastra and Indian Mythology

Following information related to ancient Mining and Metallurgy is available
in mythological books (Puranas)
A. Origin of Metals
 Gold -Fire
 Silver -Moon
 Copper - Sun
 Iron - Yama / Lohasura
 Lead -Vaasuki naga
 Tin - Indra
B. Relation between Metals & Stars
 Copper-Sun
 Silver -Moon
 Brass -Mars
 Lead -Neptune
 Gold -Jupitor
 Tin -Venus
 Steel-Saturn
 Bronze -Raahu
 Load stone-Ketu
C. Color of Metals, their ashes and flames (during flame test)
SN Metal Color Color of Ash (Bhasma) Flame color
01 Gold Yellow Yellow Yellow
02 Silver White Black White

03 Copper Red Black like peacock’s Blue
feather
04 Iron Black Ripe gawa fruit Black
05 Lead Black Black Smokey
06 Tin White White Pigeon
07 Zinc White White ---
08 Brass Yellow Black ---
09 Bronze White Black ---
D. Sources of metal ores
SN Metal Synonyms Sanskrit Names Availability

01 Gold Hiranya, kanchana, manohara, In India Karnataka ,
haataka, kanaka, mangalyaka Bihar,
02 Silver Roupya, taara, chandraloha, Bihar, M.P.
chandrahaasa, shubhraka
03 Copper Shulba, suryaloha, raviloha, Bihar, Rajasthan in
bhaskara, arka, ravipriya, India
lohitayasa
04 Iron Ayas, shastraloha, saaraloha, South Bihar,
teekshnaka W.Bengal, Orissa,
Rajasthan, AP, MP.
05 Lead Seesaka, seesa, bhujanga, phani, Kashmir, Punjab,
kuranga, Aasheevisha, vabhra Rajasthan, TN,
Bihar.
06 Tin Rangaka, Shukraloha, Trapu, Bihar in India.
Kuroopya, Trapusha, Trapusa
07 Zinc Jasad, Yasad, Reetihetu, Kashmir, Punjab,
Kharparaja, Rangasankaasha Rajasthan, TN,
Bihar, MP, UP
08 Brass Reetika, Kapiloha, Kapila, Pingala, ----

Peetaka
09 Bronze Tamratrapuja, Ghosha, Ghoshaka, ----
Deeptaloha, Vahniloha, Kamsaka
10 Cast Panchaloha, Pancharasa, Bharta, ----
Iron Vartula
Apparatus for Smelting of Iron by Indian tribals
9E- Ancient Metallurgical Equipment
British records of the 18th century show that the country had 20,000
furnaces operating across the country indicating the geographical spread
of this knowledge.
These, along with hundreds of other beautiful sculptures and icons in

bronze and copper, belonging to periods earlier than 2000 BCE, bear
testimony to the technological excellence and consummate skill of early
Indians in producing and shaping metals.
A-Crucibles:In the melting methodology, of good, coarse, average and pig

metals, 407 varieties of crucibles are mentioned. Amongst these, the one
that is mentioned as the fifth named Antar-mukha (inward reflecting) is
said to be the best in the melting of base metals. Ref. Brhad-vimana-
shastra,
B-Tortoise Furnace: A square, circular or tortoise shaped pit of ten palms

may be prepared nicely in the earth. For the installation of the air-blower,
clear space may be marked on the front side. A tortoise like five-corned
structure may be constructed. Inside may be finished circular to take up
crucible and outside the furnace two coats of plaster shall be provided.
For charging coal, two parts on each side may be provided and on the
rear, metal pouring mechanism may be erected. Perfectly molten metals,

in fully molten state are viscous, the furnace described by the saints here
is to handle this in proper manner. Ref. Brhad-vimana-shastra.
C- Air Blowers (Bellows): For melting all types of metals, there are five
hundred and thirty two types of air blowers.
They are divided into eight classes. Sixteenth in the eighth class is called
Kurma-bhastrika (Tortoise air-blower) which is associated with Kurma-
vyasatika (Tortoise furnace).
Construction details of all air-blowers are provided in the book, Bhastrika-

nibandhana. Ref. Rasa-ratna-samuccayah.
9 F-Testing of metals
A rare text Bhrugu Shilpa Samhita has a separate chapter on Metallurgy

and mentions identification tests on metals: There are eight types of tests
for metals Cross-section, Color, Caste, Trade mark, Purity, Origin, Sound
and Section.
अंगं रुपं िथा जानिनेराररष्टे च भूनमका।

ध्वननमाघच्न्मनि प्रोक्तं धािुज्ञानाष्टकं िुभं ॥
भृगुसंहििा
Eight types of tests
1. Cross-section (Anga)- In the test the metal piece is cut or drilled.

The inspection of cross-section is first test.
2. Color (Roop): Every metal has its own color. The color can be
blue, black, red, yellow etc.
3. Caste (Jaatee):The metal has its own positive or negative
properties by which metal can be identified.
4. Trade mark (Netra): As humans can be identified by eyes,
similarly trade mark of manufacturer (in addition to the cross-
section) helps in identification. It has its own positive or negative
properties by which metal can be identified.

5. Purity (Arishtha): Few metals are marked (by experts) with its
percentage of purity.
6. Origin (Bhoomi): The mine from which the metal ore is excavated
is its origin.
7. Sound (Dhwani)-The sound emitted when a metal is struck by
metal, helps in the identification. The engineer should know the
different sounds of metals.
8. Section (Maan)- The metals are cast into different sections
(circular or square rods, angles, channels or beams etc) for end
users.
1 अनभन्ने दृमयिे कीदृग ् षवनभन्न र्टिे कथं ।
नभन्ने प्रदमयिे नचन्िं िदग संप्रच्क्षिे॥
2 नीलकृ ष्र्णाहदको वर्णो रूपनम्यनभधीयिे ॥
3 येनैव य्प्रिीिं स्तयात्तज्जानिररनि गद्यिे ॥
4 अंगानिररक्तं यज्जानिस्तिन्मािा्म्योपसूचकम ्।
िन्नेरनमनि जानीयाि स्तपष्टं धािुषविारद: ॥
5 अंगानिररक्तं यध्दािौ िच्छुध्द्योपसूचकम ् ।
िदररष्टनमनि प्रािुननघ्यं धािुषविारदा ॥
6 दे िस्तथानाहदकं भूनम:।
7 धािो यो आयिे िब्दोनखदं डाहदना ििे ।
स ध्वननररनि षवज्ञेय: निल्पिािषविारदै :॥
8 धािूनां षवषवधं मानं निल्पकमोनचिं भवेि ्।
नभन्नदे िखननभ्यश्च उन्माननमनि गद्यिे ॥
8-Section
Un-decisive test: Metals may be plated with gold or silver. Inspection of

metal by its cross-section and sound is the un-decisive methods of
identification.
पंचार ननपुर्णैधाघिौ संभाव्यंिे च कृ षरमा:।

व्दावेवाकृ षरमौ ज्ञेयौ यावर सिजो स्तमृिौ ॥
Un-decisive test

Sub-division of identification tests: Each identification test has many
subdivisions as mentioned below;
 Cross-section (Anga)- 100

 Color (Roop)- 4
 Caste (Jaatee)- 4
 Trade mark (Netra) – 30
 Purity (Arishtha) – 30
 Origin (Bhoomi) – 2
 Sound (Dhwani)- 8
 Section (Maan)- In-numerable.
ििभंगानन च्वारर रूपाच्र्ण जाियस्तिथा ।

षरंििेराच्र्ण जानीयादररष्टानन िथैव च ॥
भूनमस्तिु च्व्दषवधा ज्ञेया ध्वननरष्टषवधो मि: ।
मानं िु षवषवधं प्रोक्तं सवेिां संग्रिो मि: ॥
Sub-division of identification tests
***.***

About the Editor of this book
Professor A.S. Nene, did B.E. (Nagpur), M.E and Ph.D. (Roorkee) and
served Visvesvaraya National Institute of Technology, Nagpur during
1972-2002.
He has supervised around 150 Consultancy projects, in the states of

Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh and Orissa, involving Soil Investigations,
Quality Control Works, and Setting up of Laboratories etc.
He has more than 50 publications at National and International levels. For

his paper published in Journal of ASCE 1985, he received “Khosla
Memorial Award” (1987) by Roorkee University, for best Technical Paper.
He has supervised research work of three Doctoral and two Post Graduate
Candidates.
Dr. Nene has developed five interactive computer aided learning packages
on Geotechnical engineering and distributed to many institutions in India
and abroad.
He co-authored a book "Pride of India, Published by Sanskrit Bharati,

New Delhi (2006).He has also edited a Marathi book "Hindi Shilpa
Shastra", Published by Nachiket Prakashan, Nagpur (2010) and
“Geotechnical engineering in ancient India” published by Pune Vidyarthi
Gruha Pune (2011). This print book is included in the Time Capsule
installed at Paris.
In addition he has uploaded eleven E Books on web on a topic “Science

and Technology in Ancient India –Shilpashastra. This is 12th E Book.
His mission is “Review the past with modern perspective”.

03-Mining and Metallurgy of Ancient India-2018-P101

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

03-Mining and Metallurgy of Ancient India-2018-P101

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Khani Shastra

Mining and Metallurgy of Ancient India

Dr. Ashok S. Nene

Retd. Professor of Civil Engineering

Ishaan Publications Nagpur

Vijaya Dashami October 2018

This book is dedicated to

Late K.V. Vaze (Nasik) and Late G.G. Joshi (Nagpur)

i Mining and Metallurgy of ancient India -Dr. Ashok Nene

List of Sanskrit Verses (SV)

ii Mining and Metallurgy of ancient India -Dr. Ashok Nene

iii Mining and Metallurgy of ancient India -Dr. Ashok Nene

The word Shilpa is an enigmatic term. Different persons assume different

2 Mining and Metallurgy of ancient India -Dr. Ashok Nene

From 17th to 19th centaury Shilpashastra was almost neglected. The

3 Mining and Metallurgy of ancient India -Dr. Ashok Nene

Sage Bhrugu divided the entire knowledge related to Shilpashashtra into

Three Volumes (Khanda)

 Dhatu Khanda- Resources

Ten –Engineering Sciences (Shastras)

1. Krishi -Biological Sciences

4 Mining and Metallurgy of ancient India -Dr. Ashok Nene

Khani shastra is the Third science of Shilpashashtra and it is the main

Description of these four Techniques(T) and twelve(S) Skills is presented

T1- Druti Vidya- Gemology

S1- Ratnadisdyana- Cutting and polishing of gems

T2- Bhasmkaran Vidya- Calcinations

S2- Kshyariskashan- Slag removal

S6- Dhatusanyog- Combination of metals with herbs

4- Pruthhakaran Vidya- Separation of metals

S12- Sanyog dhatudyana- Metal alloys

5 Mining and Metallurgy of ancient India -Dr. Ashok Nene

Ancient Indian scripures and Shilpa shastra books contain lots of

5-Tvastra made a steel spear for me. (Ref.Rig-Veda 10.48-3).

7-Rigveda mentions that Ashwini Kumars (Physicians of Gods) provided

1 अगस्त्य: खनमान: खनन्रै:। प्रजामप्यं बलनमच्छमान: ॥

6 Mining and Metallurgy of ancient India -Dr. Ashok Nene

 Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka (9000 BC to 7000 BC)

7 Mining and Metallurgy of ancient India -Dr. Ashok Nene

Vedic literature includes the Vedas, Upanishads, Brahmans, Aranyakas

हिमाहद्रकन्योरं िगघिो दे िस्तिु भारि:॥

2.1-Description of Ancient India

Map 2.1 –Rock formations

8 Mining and Metallurgy of ancient India -Dr. Ashok Nene

आग्नेयाषवंध्यस्य्याद-या: सौम्यो हिमनगरे स्तिि: ।

अिस्तिदोिधानन स्तयु: अनुरूपाच्र्ण िे िुनभ: ॥ भृगुसंहििा

हिमवच्व्दं ध्ययोमघध्यं साच््वकं भूिलं स्तमृिं।

षवंध्यिैलाहदकृ ष्र्णांिं रजस पररकीनिघिं ॥

पुन: कृ ष्र्णाहदकन्यांिं िामसं भूिलं भवेद ॥

नागरं साच््वके दे िे रजसे द्रषवडं भवेद्।

वेसरं िामसे दे िे क्रमेर्ण पररकीनिघिा:॥ निल्परत्न

9 Mining and Metallurgy of ancient India -Dr. Ashok Nene

10 Mining and Metallurgy of ancient India -Dr. Ashok Nene

2.Aagneya or Aapya: land where ground is full of gravels or gravels-It has

11 Mining and Metallurgy of ancient India -Dr. Ashok Nene

5.Aakaashy or Antarikshya Land : where ground is with hills or

Description SadhaaraN land

12 Mining and Metallurgy of ancient India -Dr. Ashok Nene

Comparison of ancient and modern geography

कनल: ियनो भवनि संच्जिानस्तिु व्दापार:।

English Sanskrit term

13 Mining and Metallurgy of ancient India -Dr. Ashok Nene

Puranas describe various features of the 18 Kingdoms (states) of ancient