Iron pillar of Delhi

The iron pillar of Delhi is a st ruct ure 23 feet 8 inches (7.2 met res) high wit h 16 inches (40.64
cm) diamet er t hat was const ruct ed by Chandragupt a II (reigned c. 375–415 CE), and now st ands
in t he Qut b complex at Mehrauli in Delhi, India.[1][2] It is famous for t he rust -resist ant composit ion
of t he met als used in it s const ruct ion. The pillar weighs over t hree t onnes (6,614 lb) and is
t hought t o have been erect ed elsewhere, perhaps out side t he Udayagiri Caves,[3] and moved t o
it s present locat ion by Anangpal Tomar in 11t h cent ury.
 Iron pillar of Delhi

The Iron pillar of Delhi

Location in India

Coordinates 28°31′28.76″N 77°11′6.25″E (https://geohack.tool

forge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Iron_ pillar_ of
_ Delhi&params=28_ 31_ 28.76_ N_ 77_ 11_ 6.25_ E_ t
ype:landmark_ region:IN)

Location Qutb complex at Mehrauli in Delhi, India

Designer Chandragupta II

Material Rust-resistant Iron

Height 7.21 m (23 ft 8 in)

Completion date 5th century

 Dedicated to Vishnu

Physical description

The iron pillar stands within the courtyard of Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque

The height of t he pillar, from t he t op t o t he bot t om of it s base, is 7.21 m (23 ft 8 in), 1.12 m (3 ft
8 in) of which is below ground. It s bell pat t ern capit al is 306 mm (12 in). It is est imat ed t o weigh
more t han t hree t onnes (6,614 lb).[4]
The pillar has at t ract ed t he at t ent ion of archaeologist s and
mat erials scient ist s because of it s high resist ance t o corrosion and has been called a "t est imony
t o t he high level of skill achieved by t he ancient Indian iron smit hs in t he ext ract ion and
processing of iron".[5][6] The corrosion resist ance result s from an even layer of cryst alline iron(III)
hydrogen phosphat e hydrat e forming on t he high-phosphorus-cont ent iron, which serves t o
prot ect it from t he effect s of t he Delhi climat e.[5]

Inscriptions

The pillar carries a number of inscript ions of different dat es, some of which have not been
st udied syst emat ically despit e t he pillar's prominent locat ion and easy access.

Inscription of King Chandra or Chandragupta II

Detail showing the inscription of King Chandragupta II

The oldest inscript ion on t he pillar is t hat of a king named Chandra (IAST: Candra), generally
ident ified as t he Gupt a emperor Chandragupt a II.[7]

Orthography

The inscript ion covers an area of 2′9.5″ × 10.5″. The ancient writ ing is preserved well because of
t he corrosion-resist ant iron on which it is engraved. However, during t he engraving process, iron
appears t o have closed up over some of t he st rokes, making some of t he let t ers imperfect .[8]

It cont ains verses composed in Sanskrit language, in shardulvikridita met re.[9] It is writ t en in t he
east ern variet y of t he Gupt a script . The let t ers vary from 0.3125″ t o 0.5″ in size, and resemble
closely t o t he let t ers on t he Allahabad Pillar inscript ion of Samudragupt a. However, it had
dist inct ive mātrās (diacrit ics), similar t o t he ones in t he Bilsad inscript ion of Kumaragupt a I.[10]
While t he edges of t he charact ers on t he Allahabad inscript ion are more curved, t he ones on t he
Delhi inscript ion have more st raight edges. This can be at t ribut ed t o t he fact t hat t he Allahabad
inscript ion was inscribed on soft er sandst one, while t he Delhi inscript ion is engraved on t he
harder mat erial (iron).[11]
The t ext has some unusual deviat ions from t he st andard Sanskrit
spelling, such as:[10]

pranśu inst ead of praṃśu: t he use of dent al nasal inst ead of anusvāra

mūrtyā inst ead of mūrttyā: omission of t he second t

 kīrtyā inst ead of kīrttyā: omission of t he second t

śattru inst ead of śatru (enemy): an ext ra t

Studies

In 1831, t he East India Company officer William Elliot t made a facsimile of t he inscript ion. Based
on t his facsimile, in 1834, James Prinsep published a lit hograph in t he Journal of the Royal Asiatic
Society of Great Britain and Ireland. However, t his lit hograph did not represent every single word
of t he inscript ion correct ly.[12] Some years lat er, Brit ish engineer T. S. Burt made an ink impression
of t he inscript ion. Based on t his, in 1838, Prinsep published an improved lit hograph in t he same
journal, wit h his reading of t he script and t ranslat ion of t he t ext . [12][13]

Decades lat er, Bhagwan Lal Indraji made anot her copy of t he inscript ion on a clot h. Based on t his
copy, Bhau Daji Lad published a revised t ext and t ranslat ion in 1875, in Journal of the Bombay
Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society. This reading was t he first one t o correct ly ment ion t he king's
name as Chandra. In 1888, John Fait hfull Fleet published a crit ical edit ion of t he t ext in Corpus
Inscriptionum Indicarum.[13]

In 1945, Govardhan Rai Sharma dat ed t he inscript ion t o t he first half of t he 5t h cent ury CE, on
paleographic grounds.[14] He observed t hat it s script was similar t o t he writ ing on ot her Gupt a-Era
inscript ions, including t he ones discovered at Bilsad (415 CE), Baigram (449 CE), and Kahanum
(449 CE).[11] R. Balasubramaniam (2005) not ed t hat t he charact ers of t he Delhi inscript ion closely
resembled t he dat ed inscript ions of Chandragupt a II, found at Udayagiri in Madhya Pradesh.[15]

Issuance

The name “Candra” ( ) on the iron pillar of Delhi, thought to represent Chandragupta II. Gupta script: letter “Ca” ,
[16][17]
followed by the conjunct consonant “ndra” formed of the vertical combination of the three letters n d and r .
The inscript ion is undat ed, and cont ains a eulogy of a king named Candra, whose dynast y it does
not ment ion.[10] The ident it y of t his king, and t hus t he dat e of t he pillar, has been t he subject of
much debat e. The various viewpoint s about t he ident it y of t he issuer were assembled and
analyzed in a volume edit ed by M. C. Joshi and published in 1989.[18]

The king is now generally ident ified wit h t he Gupt a King Chandragupt a II.[19] This ident ificat ion is
based on several point s:

The script and t he poet ic st yle of t he inscript ion, which point t o a dat e in t he lat e fourt h or
early fift h cent ury CE: t he Gupt a period.[18]

The inscript ion describes t he king as a devot ee of t he God Vishnu, and records t he erect ion of
a dhvaja ("st andard", or pillar) of Vishnu, on a hill called Viṣṇupada ("hill of t he foot print of
Viṣṇu").[20] Ot her Gupt a inscript ions also describe Chandragupt a II as a Bhagavat a (devot ee of
Vishnu).[10] The names of t he places ment ioned in t he inscript ion are also charact erist ic of t he
Gupt a Era. For example, Dakṣiṇa Jalanidhi (t he Indian Ocean) and Vaṅga (t he Bengal region).[20]

The short name ‘Candra’ is inscribed on t he archer-t ype gold coins of Chandragupt a II, while his
full name and t it les appear in a separat e, circular legend on t he coin.[15]

A royal seal of Chandragupt a's wife Dhruvadevi cont ains t he phrase Śrī Viṣṇupada-svāmī
Nārāyaṇa (“Nārāyaṇa, t he lord of t he illust rious Viṣṇupada”).[21]

As t he inscript ion is a eulogy and st at es t hat t he king has abandoned t he eart h, t here has been
some discussion as t o whet her it is post humous, i.e. whet her King Chandra was dead when t he
record was creat ed. Dasharat ha Sharma (1938) argued t hat it was non-post humous.[22] According
t o B. Chhabra and G. S. Gai, t he inscript ion st at es t hat t he king's mind is “fixed upon Vishnu wit h
devot ion”, and t herefore, indicat es t hat t he king was alive at t he t ime. They t heorize t hat it may
have been recorded when Chandragupt a II abdicat ed his t hrone, and set t led down as a
vanaprast ha (ret iree) in Viṣṇupada.[10]

Text
Bankelal's 1903 tablets

Following is t he Roman script t ranslit erat ion of t he t ext :[23]

Yasy odvarttayah-pratīpamurasā śattrun sametyāgatan Vańgeshvāhava

varttinosbhilikhitā khadgena kīrttir bhuje
Tirtvā sapta mukhāni yena samare sindhor jjitā Vāhlikāyasyādya
pyadhivāsyate jalanidhir vviryyānilair ddakshinah

Khinnasy eva visrijya gām narapater ggāmāśritasyaetrām mūr(t)yā

karmma-jitāvanim gatavatah kīrt(t)yā sthitasyakshitau
Śāntasyeva mahāvane hutabhujo yasya pratāpo mahānnadhayā
pyutsrijati pranāśista-ripor Yyatnasya śesahkshitim

Prāptena sva bhuj ārjitan cha suchiran ch aikādhirājayam kshitau

chandrāhvena samagra chandra sadriśīm vaktra-śriyam bibhratā

Tenāyam pranidhāya bhūmipatinā bhāveva vishno (shnau) matim

prānśurvisnupade girau bhagavato Vishnuordhidhvajah sthāpitah

J. F. Fleet 's 1888 t ranslat ion is as follows:[24]

(Verse 1) He, on whose arm fame was inscribed by the sword, when,
in battle in the Vanga countries (Bengal), he kneaded (and turned)
back with (his) breast the enemies who, uniting together, came
against (him); – he, by whom, having crossed in warfare the seven
mouths of the (river) Sindhu, the Vahlikas were conquered; – he, by
the breezes of whose prowess the southern ocean is even still
perfumed; –
(Verse 2) He, the remnant of the great zeal of whose energy, which
utterly destroyed (his) enemies, like (the remnant of the great
glowing heat) of a burned-out fire in a great forest, even now leaves
not the earth; though he, the king, as if wearied, has quit this earth,
and has gone to the other world, moving in (bodily) from to the land
 (of paradise) won by (the merit of his) actions, (but) remaining on
(this) earth by (the memory of his) fame; –

(Verse 3) By him, the king, attained sole supreme sovereignty in the

world, acquired by his own arm and (enjoyed) for a very long time;
(and) who, having the name of Chandra, carried a beauty of
countenance like (the beauty of) the full-moon,-having in faith fixed
his mind upon (the god) Vishnu, this lofty standard of the divine
Vishnu was set up on the hill (called) Vishnupada.

Due t o t he t ablet s inst alled on t he building in 1903 by Pandit Banke Rai, t he reading provided by
him enjoys wide currency. However, Bankelal's reading and int erpret at ion have been challenged by
more recent scholarship. The inscript ion has been revisit ed by Michael Willis in his book
Archaeology of Hindu Ritual, his special concern being t he nat ure of t he king's spirit ual ident it y
aft er deat h. His reading and t ranslat ion of verse 2 is as follows:[25]

[khi]nnasyeva visṛjya gāṃ narapater ggām āśritasyetarāṃ mūrtyā

karrmajitāvaniṃ gatavataḥ kīrtyā sthitasya kṣitau [*|]
śāntasyeva mahāvane hutabhujo yasya pratāpo mahān nādyāpy utsṛjati
praṇāśitaripor yyatnasya śeṣaḥ kṣitim [||*]

The Sanskrit port ion given above can be t ranslat ed as follows:[25]

The residue of the king's effort – a burning splendour which utterly

destroyed his enemies – leaves not the earth even now, just like (the
residual heat of) a burned-out conflagration in a great forest.

He, as if wearied, has abandoned this world, and resorted in actual

form to the other world – a place won by the merit of his deeds –
(and although) he has departed, he remains on earth through (the
memory of his) fame (kīrti).

Willis concludes:
 Candragupta may have passed away but the legacy of his
achievement is so great that he seems to remain on earth by virtue
of his fame. Emphasis is placed on Candragupta's conquest of
enemies and the merit of his deeds, ideas which are also found in
coin legends: kṣitim avajitya sucaritair divaṃ jayati vikramādityaḥ, i.e.
"Having conquered the earth with good conduct, Vikramāditya
conquered heaven".[26] The king's conquest of heaven combined with
the description of him resorting to the other world in bodily form
(gām āśritasyetarāṃ mūrtyā), confirms our understanding of the
worthy dead as autonomous theomorphic entities.[25]

Samvat 1109 inscription

One short inscript ion on t he pillar is associat ed wit h t he Tomara king Anangpal, alt hough it is hard
t o decipher. Alexander Cunningham (1862–63) read t he inscript ion as follows:[27]

Samvat Dihali 1109 Ang Pāl bahi

[Translation:] In Samvat 1109 [1052
CE], Ang [Anang] Pāl peopled Dilli

Based on t his reading, Cunningham t heorized t hat Anangpal had moved t he pillar t o it s current
locat ion while est ablishing t he cit y of Delhi. However, his reading has been cont est ed by t he
lat er scholars. Buddha Rashmi Mani (1997) read it as follows:[27]

Samvat Kinllī 1109 Aṅgapāla bādi

[Translation:] Anangpal tightened
the nail [iron pillar] in Samvat 1109

Original location

While t he pillar was cert ainly used as a t rophy in building t he Quwwat -ul-Islam mosque and t he
Qut b complex, it s original locat ion, whet her on t he sit e it self or from elsewhere, is debat ed.[28][29]

According t o t he inscript ion of king Chandra, t he pillar was erect ed at Vishnupadagiri

(Vishnupada). J. F. Fleet (1898) ident ified t his place wit h Mat hura, because of it s proximit y t o
Delhi (t he find spot of t he inscript ion) and t he cit y's reput at ion as a Vaishnavit e pilgrimage
cent re. However, archaeological evidence indicat es t hat during t he Gupt a period, Mat hura was a
major cent re of Buddhism, alt hough Vaishnavism may have exist ed t here. Moreover, Mat hura lies
in plains, and only cont ains some small hillocks and mounds: t here is no t rue giri (hill) in
Mat hura.[30]

Based on paleographic similarit y t o t he dat ed inscript ions from Udayagiri, t he Gupt a-era
iconography, analysis of met allurgy and ot her evidence, Meera Dass and R. Balasubramaniam
(2004) t heorized t hat t he iron pillar was originally erect ed at Udayagiri.[15][31] According t o t hem,
t he pillar, wit h a wheel or discus at t he t op, was originally locat ed at t he Udayagiri Caves.[32] This
conclusion was part ly based on t he fact t hat t he inscript ion ment ions Vishnupada-giri (IAST:
Viṣṇupadagiri, meaning "hill wit h foot print of Viṣṇu"). This conclusion was endorsed and
elaborat ed by Michael Willis in his Archaeology of Hindu Ritual, published in 2009.[33]

The key point in favour of placing t he iron pillar at Udayagiri is t hat t his sit e was closely
associat ed wit h Chandragupt a and t he worship of Vishnu in t he Gupt a period. In addit ion, t here
are well-est ablished t radit ions of mining and working iron in cent ral India, document ed part icularly
by t he iron pillar at Dhar and local place names like Lohapura and Lohangī Pīr (see Vidisha). The
king of Delhi, Ilt ut mish, is known t o have at t acked and sacked Vidisha in t he t hirt eent h cent ury
and t his would have given him an opport unit y t o remove t he pillar as a t rophy t o Delhi, just as t he
Tughluq rulers brought Asokan pillars t o Delhi in t he 1300s.

Relocation

It is not cert ain when t he pillar was moved t o Delhi from it s original locat ion. Alexander
Cunningham at t ribut ed t he relocat ion t o t he Tomara king Anangpal, based on t he short pillar
inscript ion ascribed t o t his king.[27] Pasanaha Chariu, an 1132 CE Jain Apabhramsha t ext
composed by Vibudh Shridhar, st at es t hat "t he weight of his pillar caused t he Lord of t he Snakes
t o t remble". The ident ificat ion of t his pillar wit h t he iron pillar lends support t o t he t heory t hat
t he pillar was already in Delhi during Anangpal's reign.[34]

Anot her t heory is t hat t he relocat ion happened during t he Muslim rule in Delhi. Some scholars
have assumed t hat it happened around 1200 CE, when Qut b al-Din Aibak commenced t he
const ruct ion of t he Qut b complex as a general of Muhammad of Ghor.[35]

Finbarr Barry Flood (2009) t heorizes t hat it was Qut b al-Din's successor Ilt ut mish (r. 1210–1236
CE), who moved t he pillar t o Delhi.[27] According t o t his t heory, t he pillar was originally erect ed in
Vidisha and t hat t he pillar was moved t o t he Qut b complex, by Ilt ut mish when he at t acked and
sacked Vidisha in t he t hirt eent h cent ury. [36]

Scientific analysis
Details of the top of iron pillar, Qutb Minar, Delhi.

The iron pillar in India was manufact ured by t he forge welding of pieces of wrought iron. In a
report published in t he journal Current Science, R. Balasubramaniam of t he IIT Kanpur explains how
t he pillar's resist ance t o corrosion is due t o a passive prot ect ive film at t he iron-rust int erface.
The presence of second-phase part icles (slag and unreduced iron oxides) in t he microst ruct ure
of t he iron, t hat of high amount s of phosphorus in t he met al, and t he alt ernat e wet t ing and drying
exist ing under at mospheric condit ions are t he t hree main fact ors in t he t hree-st age format ion of
t hat prot ect ive passive film.[37]

Lepidocrocit e and goet hit e are t he first amorphous iron oxyhydroxides t hat appear upon
oxidat ion of iron. High corrosion rat es are init ially observed. Then, an essent ial chemical react ion
int ervenes: slag and unreduced iron oxides (second phase part icles) in t he iron microst ruct ure
alt er t he polarisat ion charact erist ics and enrich t he met al–scale int erface wit h phosphorus, t hus
indirect ly promot ing passivat ion of t he iron[38] (cessat ion of rust ing act ivit y).

The second-phase part icles act as a cat hode, and t he met al it self serves as anode, for a mini-
galvanic corrosion react ion during environment exposure. Part of t he init ial iron oxyhydroxides is
also t ransformed int o magnet it e, which somewhat slows down t he process of corrosion. The
ongoing reduct ion of lepidocrocit e and t he diffusion of oxygen and complement ary corrosion
t hrough t he cracks and pores in t he rust st ill cont ribut e t o t he corrosion mechanism from
at mospheric condit ions.

The iron pillar in Qutb Minar, c. 1905

The next main agent t o int ervene in prot ect ion from oxidat ion is phosphorus, enhanced at t he
met al–scale int erface by t he same chemical int eract ion previously described bet ween t he slags
and t he met al. The ancient Indian smit hs did not add lime t o t heir furnaces. The use of limest one
as in modern blast furnaces yields pig iron t hat is lat er convert ed int o st eel; in t he process, most
phosphorus is carried away by t he slag.[39]

The absence of lime in t he slag and t he use of specific quant it ies of wood wit h high phosphorus
cont ent (for example, Cassia auriculata) during t he smelt ing induces a higher phosphorus cont ent
(> 0.1%, average 0.25%) t han in modern iron produced in blast furnaces (usually less t han 0.05%).
This high phosphorus cont ent and part icular repart it ion are essent ial cat alyst s in t he format ion
of a passive prot ect ive film of misawit e (d-FeOOH), an amorphous iron oxyhydroxide t hat forms a
barrier by adhering next t o t he int erface bet ween met al and rust . Misawit e, t he init ial corrosion-
resist ance agent , was t hus named because of t he pioneering st udies of Misawa and co-workers
on t he effect s of phosphorus and copper and t hose of alt ernat ing at mospheric condit ions in rust
format ion.[40]

The most crit ical corrosion-resist ance agent is iron hydrogen phosphat e hydrat e (FePO4-H3PO4-
4H2O) under it s cryst alline form and building up as a t hin layer next t o t he int erface bet ween
met al and rust . Rust init ially cont ains iron oxide/oxyhydroxides in t heir amorphous forms. Due t o
t he init ial corrosion of met al, t here is more phosphorus at t he met al–scale int erface t han in t he
bulk of t he met al. Alt ernat e environment al wet t ing and drying cycles provide t he moist ure for
phosphoric-acid format ion. Over t ime, t he amorphous phosphat e is precipit at ed int o it s
cryst alline form (t he lat t er being t herefore an indicat or of old age, as t his precipit at ion is a rat her
slow happening). The cryst alline phosphat e event ually forms a cont inuous layer next t o t he
met al, which result s in an excellent corrosion resist ance layer.[5] In 1,600 years, t he film has grown
just one-t went iet h of a millimet re t hick.[38]

In 1969, in his first book, Chariots of the Gods?, Erich von Däniken cit ed t he absence of corrosion
on t he Delhi pillar and t he unknown nat ure of it s creat ion as evidence of ext rat errest rial
visit at ion.[41][42] When informed by an int erviewer, in 1974, t hat t he column was not in fact rust -
free, and t hat it s met hod of const ruct ion was well-underst ood, von Däniken responded t hat he
no longer considered t he pillar or it s creat ion t o be a myst ery.[43][44]
Balasubramaniam st at es t hat
t he pillar is "a living t est imony t o t he skill of met allurgist s of ancient India". An int erview wit h
Balasubramaniam and his work can be seen in t he 2005 art icle by t he writ er and edit or Mat t hew
Veazey.[45] Furt her research published in 2009 showed t hat corrosion has developed evenly over
t he surface of t he pillar.[46]

It was claimed in t he 1920s t hat iron manufact ured in Mirjat i near Jamshedpur is similar t o t he
iron of t he Delhi pillar.[47] Furt her work on Adivasi (t ribal) iron by t he Nat ional Met allurgical
Laborat ory in t he 1960s did not verify t his claim.[48]

Evidence of a cannonball strike

Upper half of pillar, demonstrating horizontal fissuring thought to be caused by cannonball strike
A significant indent at ion on t he middle sect ion of t he pillar, approximat ely 4 m (13 ft ) from t he
current court yard ground level, has been shown t o be t he result of a cannonball fired at close
range.[49] The impact caused horizont al fissuring of t he column in t he area diamet rically opposit e
t o t he indent at ion sit e, but t he column it self remained int act . While no cont emporaneous
records, inscript ions, or document s describing t he event are known t o exist , hist orians generally
agree t hat Nadir Shah is likely t o have ordered t he pillar's dest ruct ion during his invasion of Delhi
in 1739, as he would have considered a Hindu t emple monument undesirable wit hin an Islamic
mosque complex.[50] Alt ernat ively, he may have sought t o dislodge t he decorat ive t op port ion of
t he pillar in search of hidden precious st ones or ot her it ems of value.[51]

No addit ional damage at t ribut able t o cannon fire has been found on t he pillar, suggest ing t hat no
furt her shot s were t aken. Hist orians have speculat ed t hat ricochet ing fragment s of t he
cannonball may have damaged t he nearby Quwwat -ul-Islam mosque, which is known t o have
suffered damage t o it s sout hwest ern port ion during t he same period, and t he assault on t he
pillar might have been abandoned as a result .[52]

See also

Relat ed t opics Ot her pillars of India

Ancient iron product ion Ashoka's Major Rock Edict s

Hist ory of met allurgy in Sout h Asia Dhar iron pillar

Parkerizing List of Edict s of Ashoka

Serpent Column Pillars of Ashoka

Woot z st eel Heliodorus pillar

St ambha
 Ot her similar t opics
Early Indian epigraphy

Hindu t emple archit ect ure

Hist ory of India

Indian copper plat e inscript ions

Indian rock-cut archit ect ure

List of rock-cut t emples in India

Out line of ancient India

Sout h Indian Inscript ions

Tagundaing

References

1. Finbarr Barry Flood, 2003, "Pillar, palimpsets, and princely practices" (https://www.nyu.edu/gsas/dept/fi
neart/people/faculty/flood_PDFs/Pillars%20Palimpsests.pdf) , Res, Xliii, New York University, pp97.

2. "IIT team solves the pillar mystery" (https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/IIT-team-solves-the-pillar-

mystery/articleshow/1058320.cms) . Times of India. 2005.

3. R. Balasubramaniam 2005, p. 1.

4. Joshi, M.C. (2007). "The Mehrauli Iron Pillar". Delhi: Ancient History. Berghahn Books. ISBN 978-81-
87358-29-9.

5. On the Corrosion Resistance of the Delhi Iron Pillar (http://home.iitk.ac.in/%7Ebala/journalpaper/journa

l/journalpaper_17.pdf) , R. Balasubramaniam, Corrosion Science, Volume 42 (2000) pp. 2103 to 2129.
Corrosion Science is a publication specialized in corrosion science and engineering.

6. Yoshio Waseda; Shigeru Suzuki (2006). Characterization of corrosion products on steel surfaces (http
s://books.google.com/books?id=E_clmVK12YsC&q=iron+pillar+not+corrosive&pg=PR7) . Springer.
p. vii. ISBN 978-3-540-35177-1.

7. Agrawal, Ashvini (1 January 1989). Rise and fall of the imperial Guptas (https://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=hRjC5IaJ2zcC&q=Iron+Pillar&pg=PA177) . p. 177. ISBN 978-81-208-0592-7.

8. B. Chhabra & G. S. Gai 2006, pp. 179-180.

9. B. Chhabra & G. S. Gai 2006, p. 181.

10. B. Chhabra & G. S. Gai 2006, p. 180.

11. R. Balasubramaniam 2005, p. 11.

12. Prinsep, James (1838). The Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. Ed. by James Prinsep, Volume 7 (h
ttps://books.google.com/books?id=ChUrNPHDeHcC&q=James+Prinsep+delhi+pillar+inscription+1834&
pg=PA629) . p. 629. Retrieved 16 December 2019.

13. B. Chhabra & G. S. Gai 2006, p. 179.

14. G. R. Sharma. "Chandra of the Mehrauli Pillar Inscription". Indian Historical Quarterly. XXI: 202–212.

15. R. Balasubramaniam 2005, p. 13.

16. Bandela, Prasanna Rao (2003). Coin Splendour: A Journey Into the Past (https://books.google.com/bo
oks?id=_mUg2BBJr7kC&pg=PA11) . Abhinav Publications. p. 11. ISBN 9788170174271.

17. Allen, John (1914). Catalogue of the coins of the Gupta dynasties (https://archive.org/details/in.gov.ign
ca.47214) . p. 24 (https://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.47214/page/n166) .

18. M. C. Joshi, ed. King Chandra and the Mehrauli Pillar (Meerut, 1989).

19. Delhi Iron Pillar: New Insights. R. Balasubramaniam, Aryan Books International, Delhi, and Indian
Institute of Advanced Study, Shimla, 2002, Hardbound, ISBN 81-7305-223-9. [1] (http://www.infinityfoun
dation.com/mandala/t_rv/t_rv_agraw_delhi_frameset.htm) [2] (http://home.iitk.ac.in/~bala/journalpa
per/journal/index.htm)

20. R. Balasubramaniam 2005, p. 8.

21. R. Balasubramaniam 2005, p. 16.

22. Dasharatha Sharma. "The Non-Posthumous Character of the Mehrauli Iron Pillar Inscription" (http://ww
w.southasiaarchive.com/Content/sarf.120020/205205/011) . Indian Culture. 5 (2): 206–208.

23. R. Balasubramaniam 2005, p. 7.

24. R. Balasubramaniam 2005, pp. 7–8.

25. Michael D. Willis, The Archaeology of Hindu Ritual (Cambridge, 2009): chapter 3.

26. James Allan, Catalogue of the Coins of the Gupta Dynasties, pp. 34–35.

27. Cynthia Talbot 2015, p. 79.

28. M.C. Joshi, S. K. Gupta and Shankar Goyal, eds., King Chandra and the Mehrauli Pillar (Meerut, 1989).

29. Javid, Ali; Javeed, Tabassum (2007). World Heritage Monuments and Related Edifices in India Vol 1 (htt
ps://books.google.com/books?id=iFILG_V4hOMC&q=Qutub+Minar+Jain+temples&pg=RA1-PA107) .
Pg.107. Algora Publishing. ISBN 978-0-87586-482-2. Retrieved 29 October 2012.

30. R. Balasubramaniam 2005, pp. 13-14.

31. Identity of Chandra and Vishnupadagiri of the Delhi Iron Pillar Inscription: Numismatic, Archaeological
and Literary Evidence, R Balasubramaniam, Bulletin of Metals Museum, 32 (2000) 42–64.
32. On the Astronomical Significance of the Delhi Iron Pillar, R Balasubramaniam and Meera I Dass, Current
Science, volume 86 (2004) pp. 1134–1142.[3] (http://www.iisc.ernet.in/~currsci/apr252004/1134.pd
f)

33. Michael D. Willis, The Archaeology of Hindu Ritual (Cambridge, 2009). Partly available online, see
http://www.cambridge.org/gb/knowledge/isbn/item2427416/?site_locale=en_GB

34. Cynthia Talbot 2015, p. 80.

35. Cynthia Talbot 2015, pp. 77-78.

36. "Iron Pillar of Delhi: Solving the Mystery" (https://www.livehistoryindia.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/0

5/Iron_Pillar_Painting_BL.jpg) . Live History India. Retrieved 2 July 2021.

37. On the Corrosion Resistance of the Delhi Iron Pillar (http://home.iitk.ac.in/%7Ebala/journalpaper/journa

l/journalpaper_17.pdf) , R. Balasubramaniam, Corrosion Science, Volume 42 (2000) pp. 2103–2129.

38. On the growth kinetics of the protective passive film of the Delhi Iron Pillar (http://www.iisc.ernet.in/curr
sci/jun102002/1357.pdf) , R. Balasubramaniam, Department of Materials and Metallurgical
Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur 208 016, India. Current Science, vol. 82, no. 11, 10
June 2002.

39. On the Origin of High Phosphorus Content in Ancient Indian Iron (http://home.iitk.ac.in/~bala/journalp
aper/journal/index.htm) , Vikas Kumar and R. Balasubramaniam, International Journal of Metals,
Materials and Processes, vol. 14, pp. 1–14. 2002

40. The mechanism of atmospheric rusting and the effect of Cu and P on the rust formation of low alloy
steels, T. Misawa, T. Kyuno, W. Suetaka, S. Shimodaira, Corrosion Science 11 (1971) 35–48.

41. Epstein, Stephen M. "Scholars Will Call It Nonsense: The Structure of Erich von Däniken's Argument" (htt
ps://www.penn.museum/documents/publications/expedition/PDFs/29-2/Scholars.pdf) (PDF).
University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology. p. 12-18. Retrieved 1 July 2021.

42. Däniken, Erich von: Chariots of the Gods?, p. 94.

43. "Playboy Interview: Erich von Däniken" (https://web.archive.org/web/20120807080216/http://wutwouldy

oudo.proboards.com/index.cgi?board=general&action=display&thread=244) . Playboy. August 1974.
p. 64. Archived from the original (http://wutwouldyoudo.proboards.com/index.cgi?board=general&actio
n=display&thread=244) on 7 August 2012.

44. Story, R. The Space Gods Revealed: A Close Look at the Theories of Erich von Däniken. New York:
Harper & Row (1976), pp. 88-9. ISBN 0060141417

45. 1600 Years Young, Materials Performance, July, 2005. (http://www.iupac.org/publications/ci/2005/270

6/3_veazey.html)
46. Kamachi Mudali, U.; Baldev Raj (February 2009). "Insitu corrosion investigations on Delhi iron pillar".
Transactions of the Indian Institute of Metals. 62 (1): 25–33. doi:10.1007/s12666-009-0004-2 (https://
doi.org/10.1007%2Fs12666-009-0004-2) . S2CID 137223437 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusI
D:137223437) .

47. Andrew McWilliam 1920, cited in Chakrabarti 1992

48. Some Observations on Corrosion-Resistance of Ancient Delhi Iron Pillar and Present-time Adivasi Iron
Made by Primitive Methods, A.K. Lahiri, T. Banerjee and B.R. Nijhawan. NML Tech. J., 5 (1963) 46-5.
Cited in On the corrosion resistance of the Delhi iron pillar, R. Balasubramaniam. (https://web.archive.or
g/web/20081205031835/http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6TWS-416C25
N-6&_user=10&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVer
sion=0&_userid=10&md5=e6bad486cf7b00486fd8ee8fb2f99125)

49. Prasad KK, Ray HS. The Making of (and attempts at breaking) the Iron Pillar of Delhi. Steel World, No. 1
(2001) pp. 51–56. Retrieved February 3, 2015.

50. Hearne, G. R. The Seven Cities of Delhi. Nabu Press (2010), p. 62. ISBN 114954399X. Retrieved
February 3, 2015.

51. Balasubramaniam R. Decorative Bell Capital of the Delhi Iron Pillar. Journal of Operations Management,
50(3) (1998), pp. 40–47. Retrieved February 3, 2015.

52. Balasubramaniam R, Prabhakar VN, Shankar M. " On Technical Analysis of Cannon Shot Crater on Delhi
Iron Pillar (http://www.insa.nic.in/writereaddata/UpLoadedFiles/IJHS/Vol44_1_3_RBalasubramaniam.
pdf) ". Indian Journal of History of Science, 44.1 (2009), pp. 29–46. Retrieved February 3, 2015.

Bibliography
B. Chhabra; G. S. Gai (2006). "Mehrauli Iron Pillar Inscript ion of Chandra" (ht t ps://books.google.co
m/books?id=KkpdLnZpm78C&pg=PA179) . In Upinder Singh (ed.). Delhi: Ancient History.
Berghahn Books. ISBN 978-81-87358-29-9.

Rene Noorbergen (2001). Secrets of the Lost Races: New Discoveries of Advanced Technology
in Ancient Civilizations (ht t ps://books.google.com/books?id=kUy8RIr2MMAC&q=iron+pillar+de
lhi+ashoka&pg=PA57) . TEACH Services. p. 57. ISBN 978-1572581982.

Cynt hia Talbot (2015). The Last Hindu Emperor: Prithviraj Cauhan and the Indian Past, 1200–
2000 (ht t ps://books.google.com/books?id=m3DjCgAAQBAJ) . Cambridge Universit y Press.
ISBN 9781107118560.

R. Balasubramaniam (2005). Story of the Delhi Iron Pillar (ht t ps://books.google.com/books?id=Fr

uHOlKlbJAC) . Foundat ion Books. ISBN 978-81-7596-278-1.

King Chandra and the Mehrauli Pillar, M.C. Joshi, S.K. Gupt a and Shankar Goyal, Eds., Kusumanjali
Publicat ions, Meerut , 1989.
The Rustless Wonder – A Study of the Iron Pillar at Delhi, T.R. Anant haraman, Vigyan Prasar New
Delhi, 1996.

Delhi Iron Pillar: New Insights. R. Balasubramaniam, Aryan Books Int ernat ional, Delhi, and Indian
Inst it ut e of Advanced St udy, Shimla, 2002, Hardbound, ISBN 81-7305-223-9. [4] (ht t p://www.in
finit yfoundat ion.com/mandala/t _ rv/t _ rv_ agraw_ delhi_ frameset .ht m) [5] (ht t p://home.iit k.ac.i
n/~bala/journalpaper/journal/index.ht m)

The Delhi Iron Pillar: Its Art, Metallurgy and Inscriptions, M.C. Joshi, S.K. Gupt a and Shankar
Goyal, Eds., Kusumanjali Publicat ions, Meerut , 1996.

The World Heritage Complex of the Qutub, R. Balasubramaniam, Aryan Books Int ernat ional, New
Delhi, 2005, Hardbound, ISBN 81-7305-293-X.

"Delhi Iron Pillar" (in t wo part s), R. Balasubramaniam, IIM Metal News Volume 7, No. 2, April 2004,
pp. 11–17 and IIM Metal News Volume 7, No. 3, June 2004, pp. 5–13. [6] (ht t p://home.iit k.ac.i
n/%7Ebala/journalpaper/popart _ 6_ 7/met alnews_ 2004.pdf)

New Insights on the 1600-Year Old Corrosion Resistant Delhi Iron Pillar (ht t p://home.iit k.ac.in/%
7Ebala/journalpaper/journal/journalpaper_ 20.pdf) , R. Balasubramaniam, Indian Journal of
History of Science 36 (2001) 1–49.

The Early use of Iron in India, Dilip K. Chakrabart i, Oxford Universit y Press, New Delhi, 1992,
ISBN 0195629922.

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media relat ed t o iron pillar.

Wikiquot e has quot at ions relat ed t o: Iron pillar of Delhi

Det ailed list of Publicat ions on Delhi Iron Pillar by Balasubramaniam, IIT Kanpur (ht t p://home.iit
k.ac.in/%7Ebala/journalpaper/journal/index.ht m#journal_ pub)

IIT t eam solves t he pillar myst ery (ht t ps://t imesofindia.indiat imes.com/india/IIT-t eam-solves-t
he-pillar-myst ery/art icleshow/1058320.cms)

Corrosion resist ance of Delhi iron pillar (ht t ps://web.archive.org/web/20040106152921/ht t p://

www.hindu.com/t hehindu/set a/2002/09/12/st ories/2002091200090200.ht m)

Nondest ruct ive evaluat ion of t he Delhi iron pillar (ht t p://www.ias.ac.in/currsci/jun252005/194
8.pdf) Current Science, Indian Academy of Sciences, Vol. 88, No. 12, 25 June 2005 (PDF)
 The Delhi Iron Pillar (ht t ps://web.archive.org/web/20060718064654/ht t p://www.iit k.ac.in/infoc
ell/Archive/dirnov1/iron_ pillar.ht ml)

IIT t eam solves t he pillar myst ery, 21 Mar 2005, Times of India (About Nondest ruct ive
evaluat ion of t he Delhi iron pillar) (ht t ps://web.archive.org/web/20121018060427/ht t p://art icl
es.t imesofindia.indiat imes.com/2005-03-21/india/27850444_ 1_ corrosion-iron-iit )

[ht t p://eprint s.nmlindia.org/5806/1/104-133.PDF "New Insight s on t he Corrosion Resist ant

Delhi Iron Pillar" by R. Balasubramaniam

Retrieved from
"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=Iron_pillar_of_Delhi&oldid=1041803924"

Last edited 15 hours ago by 2405:204:5003:C8F7:54FD:7B6B:15F1:7B67

Content is available under CC BY-SA 3.0 unless

otherwise noted.