Professional Documents
Culture Documents
by
Russell C. Walker
Department of Mathematics
Carnegie-Mellon University-
August, 1972
The Stone-(5ech Compactification
by
Russell C. Walker
Carnegie-Mellon University
ABSTRACT
in a categorical context.
INTRODUCTION
Only a very few of the results here are new. Theorem 10.46
i
the best of my knowledge, the proof given here is the first
| -
concepts. i
and parts of the chapter will be repetitive for the reader already
below.
ii
Chapter 1
Chapter 8 Chapter 9
Chapter 2
Chapter 10
V
Chapter 3
Corollaries 4.30,6.16
Chapter 7
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would also like to thank Greg Naber and Barbara Thomas for
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
2. Boolean Algebras 76
6. Mappings of pX to X* 245
7. p IN Revisited 281
Bibliography 445
Index 474
:-•••• CHAPTER ONE:
the way and at the same time to introduce material that will
be useful later.
Only a very few results which rely on the more algebraic approach
2
1.2. For the most part, notation will be as in [GJ]. The ring
illustrates C-embedding:
e
easily see that two sets are completely separated if and only
embedded.
4
separated in X.
r = (SL) (l)n
that If
1 I < 3r . Define
n1 ~n
f f S
n + l= n-^J -
Since If
i n \(s) - g
-'n(s)1I < 2rn for every s in S, it is clear
3 anc
that | f n + 1 l & n +i> ^ the induction step is complete. The
1.3. The next result is [GJ, 1.18] and tells when a C -embedded
THEOREM:
Z (h) from S.
zero-set
Z = {XGX : |g(x) I 2 f}
sion of f to all of X. |
6
of compactification.
THEOREM: (Tychonoff)
interval I.
EMBEDDING LEMMA:
distinguishes points.
such that f (x) i c-t f[x\u]. Then the set of all z in e [X]
THEOREM;
F = n p(f ) (F )
a a
= P ( far (Fa)) = n f ( F a )
closed. |
1.7. The proof of Theorem 1.6 reveals the form of the closed
PROPOSITION:
of zero-sets of the space form a base for the closed sets (or
open subsets).
COROLLARY:
so that
REGULAR.
THEOREM: (Stone-Cech)
1.10. COROLLARY:
the two previous results with Theorem 1.4. The similarity between
the following proof and the proof of Corollary 1.8 will be investi-
categorical context.
by
because K is compact.
The uniqueness of the extension h is immediate since
16
of j8x. 1
1.12. COROLLARY:
1.13. COROLLARY:
fixed and f = g . |
THEOREM: (£ech)
COROLLARY:
closures.
\
1938 paper and from P. Samuel's 1948 paper and are formulated
in 1964.
PROPOSITION:
Hfcl Z : Ze3} .
Observe that the definition of convergence of a filter is
filters for rings other than the power set is usually defined
Section 1.27.
Ul)
simply write uu( Q ) . For Z in 3 , let Z denote the
m
members of Q ) which contain z. Taking {z : ZeQ } as a
has a base for the open sets composed of clopen sets, then X
will see that when X is, normal, uu( 3 ) .is j8x. The definition
uu .
of Z shows that disjoint closed sets of X have disjoint
later chapters.
rings C (X) and C(X) which were developed from Stone*s work
the set of maximal ideals of a Boolean ring and show that the
cl 3* = {Metn(A) : H TT C M} .
For this reason, the Stone topology is often called the hull-
family {C(a) : aeA] is a base for the closed sets of tTi(A) since
cl H = n{C(a) : ae n H)
PROPOSITION:
=fo('A)\C(aa*).
aoc in A such that Foc = C(aoc ). The result will follow from
be written 1 = E
r.a for some finite family aa . But
•LSiS" 1 a i i
then the ideal generated by {a } contains the identity and
a
i
hence is all of A. Thus, the finite subfamily {a^ } generates
i
A so that n C(a ) = 0. Hence, tU(A) is compact. Q
a
i
the maximal ideals of' C* (X) . One need only consider a compact
are given by
for p a point of Y.
This is a contradiction. |
NC(Y)) .
THEOREM:
space Hi (Y) .
M ^ although
•
x* their product fg belongs to every
-X- maximal ideal
of C (Y) . Proposition 1.21 thus shows that to (Y) is a compact
maximal ideals,
cl{T* [S]) = n{C(f) : f[S] = {0}},
COROLLARY:
•x*
fix .is homeomorphic with the maximal ideal space ttv (X) .
•X- "X-
X and Y, then to* (X) and in* (Y) are homeomorphic. The
to within homeomorphism.
COROLLARY: (M. H. Stone)
C(X) in terms of the points of #X. Once this has been achieved,
and this step will be similar to that for ft (X). In the case
in terms of (8x.
PROPOSITION:
A
Z = {x : f(x) ^ i) = Z((f - *§) 0)
1.28. PROPOSITION:
Z : C(X)—> Z[X]
result is [GJ, 2.3] and shows that the image of an ideal under Z
PROPOSITION:
is a. z- filter on X.
is an ideal in C(X).
Proof: (a) Since a proper ideal can contain no unit and the
units of C(X) are those maps which have void zero-sets, all
1939 paper.
M P = {feC(X) : p e c ^ Z j f ) } .
for p in j8x.
31
M = MP. I
1.31. COROLLARY:
Corollary 1.23. |
32
dence between the points of j8x and the maximal ideals of C(X) .
to p.
but that C(3N) and C(j8IN) are not isomorphic. Thus, C(X)
in Corollary 1.25.
SPACES OF S-ULTRAFILTERS
zero-sets of X.
is compact.
PROPOSITION:
PROPOSITION:
ring of sets.
35
ultrafilter. |
<p : 3)
{Z^3 : ZG 31
(Jl)
where Z = {UGUO(3 ) : ZeU}. Since 3 is a base for the closed
uu
sets of X and Z fl X = Z, <p is an embedding.
of all the basic closed sets containing the given set. The
X to u>( 3 ) .
36
PROPOSITION:
UU
If Z is. jLn 3 , then Z JLS the closure of Z in oo( Q ) .
c uo UU
Proof: Since Z Z , it is clear that cl Z c Z . Now suppose
0) (D
that Z Q is a basic set containing Z. Then ZQ = Z Q n x => Z
(JU (JO (JU . '«
so that Z c Z Q . Thus, Z c: c£ Z. |
nza)"-.B;n«»
Similarly, we have
can
The basic open sets of 3) identified by taking
m
«»( a ) \Z = 8 ) : ZjzfU}
uu
U = { Ueuu( S ) : Z* c: u for some Z*eU}.
THEOREM:
into u)( Q ) .
are
(X\AX) n (X\A 2 ) = 0. But then (xV^) and (X\&2) disjoint
belongs to PI G00.
is a subset of
m
U, then the image under H
cp of a point of Z
belongs to U fl <p[X]. |
{ U} = nCz^ : Z€ U} .
COROLLARY:
X form a normal base and then show that the resulting compacti-
fication is fix.
40
PROPOSITION:
unions and is a base for the closed sets of X. Let [Z(f ) : n >
of g is n Z(f )'.
a point.
COROLLARY: (Frink)
a normal base.
under mappings.
#
It is clear that f i s a z-filter. Since the zero-set
4.13, 10.17].
[GJ, ex. 4H], let X be [0,1] with the discrete topology and
not a z-ultrafilter.
#-
However, f does preserve the prime z-filters, and we
PROPOSITION:
PROPOSITION:
(2) 3 converges to x.
(3) n a? = {x}.
CHARACTERIZATIONS OF j8x
THEOREM:
uniquely to fix.
ultrafilter on X.
C Z 0 C
V 1 V 2 = C^X<Z1 0 Z
2>'
in fix.
closures in fix.
compactifications of X.
45
That fix satisfies (1), (2), (6), and (7) seems to be clearest
(3)=>(2):
separated.
(5)SS5=#*(4) 2
ol Z n Z C cl
It is clear that ^l 2^ fixZl n cl
fixZ2m 0n the
pe cyz^nzjj).
(4)=»(3):
(7)=»(1):
Tychonoff (1929)
Theorem 1,4 characterizing
complete regularity
Frink (1964)
Normal base characterization
of complete regularity
Corollary 1.43
Figure 1.1
49
PROPOSITION:
embedded.
1.48. PROPOSITION;
verified the
PROPOSITION:
1. 50. The work of Wallman and Frink make it clear that the
PROPOSITION:
(1) X is compact.
form
52
A P = {ZeZ[X] : p e cl
pxZ}
c ^ x Z = {pejSx : ZeAP}.
PROPOSITION:
in C*(X). Thus,
oo -,
Z(j8(f)) = n {pejSx : |/3(f)(p)| £ .
n=l
oo -,
Z(/3(f) ) = 11 c W x € X : | f (x) |
n=l H
for each n. jj
belong to Ap if p is in Z(j8(f)) .
diagram:
53
j8(£)
T7y
categorical context.
GENERALIZATIONS OF COMPACTNESS
compactification.
at which fa will take the value oo. For each map f in C(X)
define
U f = fix\{pefix : f a (p) = 0 0 } .
only points which are real points for every f in C(X) are
z-ultrafiIters.
THEOREM: (Hewitt)
(1) X is realcompact.
£x which misses X.
Proof:
(2)^(3) :
z-ultrafiIter.
( 3)=^(2) :
1.54. EXAMPLES:
diagram commutes:
V,
57
f 0(f)
T).
y ^ # 1 g a o 18(f) = (g.f)a
.a
g
4
IR> -»aR
v
X
V(f)
Y >
following result:
PROPOSITION:
uniform structure.
THEOREM: (Hewitt)
The theorem follows from the fact that the property of being
1.57. A space X
is pseudocompact if every real-valued mapping
•x-
on X is bounded, i.e. if C (X) is equal to C(X) .
60
THEOREM: (Hewitt)
(1) X is pseudocompact.
property.
Proof:
(1)=>(2) :
(2)=3>(1):
X.
(2)4=^ (3) :
The zero-sets containing a point p of the growth of X
p meets X.
(3)4=^(4) is clear. 1
61
z-ultrafilters on X.
COROLLARY:
compact.
characterization. s-
THEOREM:
c
Sufficiency follows from the fact that an open subspace of a
THEOREM:
separated.
Proof:
(1)=>(2):
separates U from V.
(2)==*(3) :
neg(f) = Cz(f A o) .
(3)=>(4)s.
Define f on X by
f0 on x\Cz (h)
f(x) =
1
I k(x) | h(x) | on X n Cz(h) .
F-space.
(4)«=Hl):
1.61. COROLLARY:
is also an F-space.
PROPOSITION:
F-space.
and will not be included here. The proof given in [GJ, 14.27]
of IR.
COROLLARY:
PROPOSITION:
two sequences and each time choosing the neighborhood to miss the
•X-
are completely separated in X and N is C -embedded in X
by Theorem 1.2.
spaces. The class was first defined in their 1954 paper and
But while Proposition 1.62 indicates that there are many compact
PROPOSITION:
Negrepontis.
PROPOSITION:
a. P-space.
the following example which lays to rest the tempting, but false,
EXAMPLE:
1.65.
on the power set of the set in which related sets are thought
bounded will extend. Here the term Frechet space is not used
metric.
71
EXERCISES
if X is a zero-set m fix.
72
containing S.
2. uX is the real-closure of X in
compactification.
Mrowka, 1957.
intersection.
integer.
2 |X|
1. Any space X admits 2 filters.
as the diagonal in X K .]
CC oc
author by B. Banaschewski.
compact set.
of X.
is compact.
similar result using the family of open sets such that either
sets.]
CHAPTER TWOs
BOOLEAN ALGEBRAS
context of projectives.
following the chapter. The reader who would like a more detailed
x £ z
x = y.
bound for the set A is an upper bound x such that for any
EXAMPLES:
The rings c*(X) and C(X) for any space X are lattices
every point x of X.
the partial order is defined by set inclusion and meets and joins
78
section.
x A (y V z ) = (x A y) V (x A z)
and
X v (y A z) = (X v y) A (x V z) .
suffices to show only that every family has a supremum because the
taking complements.
79
G = int(c£ G).
PROPOSITION:
(2)
v V A = cl{
K U int A )
' a a a a
(3)
v A A = d ( i n t (x n A ) )
' a a V a a
t
(4) a = c^(X\A) .
B = c£(U^int A a ) c c-C(int E) = E.
is contained in int(fl
v A ). Therefore,
3
a a'
E = c<t(int
\ E) —
c ct(int(fl
\ \ a Aa/ ))
/ = F
Take the empty set and X to be the zero element and the
c i ( G n s) = c-t(G n T) .
= (A A B) U (A A c)
= (A A B) V (A A C) . |
81
easy to see that the clopen subsets form a Boolean algebra with
sets are X itself and the empty set. We now consider three
Note that this is not the same definition adopted by [GJ], who
but not conversely. [GJ, 16.17] shows that the two definitions
sNOiJiisoaoHa
SuTMOiiog:
E ST £1 u l^qq os
( n\X)n U
T pauieq-uoo ST n\X uaqq. q.ng
TTO
= T : n\x} n {N} JAAODQNS aq.TUIG: E ST ajuaqq. 'q.oeduioo ST X
# TO F
asrusoag x 50 JSAOO uado UG ST {VSTO 2 n\x) T) {n} aouaH
TO
sassTUi QOTT[A!L n auios ST aaaqq. FX oq. FBTIba q.ou A q.uiod AJCAAA
TO
JCOTF #
x 6uTUTBq.U00 sq.as uadojo 50 ATIUREG: aqq. si : fl}
:
AJAQM {V3T0 ^ILJU = {*} S ^ T ^ A^ Fpaq.oauuoos-pp AI-[EQ.OQ.
ST X asneoaq MON #
[Z.T'9T 'TO] q.uiod aqq. 6uiuieq.uoo sq.as
q.uauoduioo aqj, #
X JO X q.uiod E 3:0 pooqjcoqqBiau uado UB aq n Q.AI
•paq.oauuoosip Axi^q-oq.
#
•arurq. si ASAAAUOO aqq. /q.oeduioo OS-[E SI aoeds E 31 paq.Dauuoosip
Z8
83
cl H = cl({j A ) £ cl V = V.
satisfying:
to <4.
belong to
to 3.
(1) a V b = (a* A b» )i
and
(2) a A b = (a* V bt )t .
PROPOSITION:
is all of L.
PROPOSITION:
of clopen subsets of X.
87
is totally disconnected.
PROPOSITION:
b a, and therefore a = b. B
2.9. The following proposition shows that the set of all maximal
in Sikorski*s book.
89
PROPOSITION:
If S (L) is. the set of maximal filters of a Boolean algebra
of h,
is in
fore an isomorphism. |
90
field £.
g(a) = h M « f ® h L (a) .
M
g
CO (S (L) ) CO(S (M) )
A
h.
L
# h,
M
f
L M
family
Note that the process of obtaining the mapping <p from the
L ^ M
S (L) ^ S (M) .
the definition
g[u] = <p*~(U)
93
TWO EXAMPLES
2. 12. PROPOSITION:
be a. K-point of
(c) h n (p) = 0,
(f) g(p) = 0
(g) g(z) > o if z ^ p,
95
<h> g(xn) = \
that l[{ g(x 2 k )}] = {0} and I f{g(x 2k+1 )} ] = {1}. Put
sets.
PROPOSITION:
W = U{V : V n F = 0}
n n
and K is contained in W. |
result in the
2 2
show that any automorphism of Y must send Q into Q .
The fact that each #(y) has only c points while each
that;
(1) (P n ,q n ) € G* X G ^
os 2
(2) l£ (p,q) and (p,q) are any points of Q , then for all
m,
i,n = 1,2,... with m < n, (Pn,q) t (Pn^) ^ >
misses ^ g ^ P ^ ) •
Now suppose that p^ and q^^ have been chosen for all
U
W <W ^ ' V . <'V Q # <fV<J>> J V Q * ( P n > q ) '
(c)
v If x belongs to A U B for some m < n, then
' m m
(A n U B n ) n $(x) = 0, and
(e) A point y of Y
has a countable neighborhood base if
2
and only if y belongs to Q : It is clear from Proposition 2.12
2
that no point outside of Q can have a countable neighborhood
W fl Q . Now we have
example.
(c) h [Y] = Y.
Ai——^ A
tation is defined by
A* = c^ x (x\A) .
PROPOSITION:
= cl ^ [X*\[cl(X\fr)•]*•]
X
*
= [c^Cint^)]
= A
(A V B)* = (A U B)* = A* U B* = A* V B*
with the algebra of clopen sets of S(L) which can be seen from
PROPOSITION:
that f *h = k and cr o k = h.
2.18. THEOREM:
A V
< W <W = a,0(Aa A
V-/-V
f(A)
v < f(V F ). Let (A a) be the family of all clopen subsets
-cc a oc, p
of int F and write
a
A== A n F = v a (A n F a ) = v a ( A n (v^j).
A = V «(A fl F „)
a, p a,P
to b.
PROPOSITION:
point. |
if whenever
a
then there exists an element c such that n < c < b for
whenever
empty interior.
PROPOSITION:
YXV^ c . . . c Y\V n c . . . c y
there exists a clopen set C such that Y\V n c: C <- Y for all n.
PROPOSITION:
satisfy:
all points having even indices and excludes all points having
PROPOSITION:
A c c c: b
n
/ /
PROPOSITION:
/
112
A., c . . . c A C . . c B^ C . . . c B.. .
1 n n i
separable. jj
are highly technical in nature and the reader may wish to omit
LEMMA:
required.
we have
a n a -i, c : . . . c a n a n c: . . . c a.
2.25. LEMMA:
Proof: Let a^ < ... < a^ < ... be the sequence cofinal with
j
b. = A e. .
3
i=i 1
Then {b^} is a decreasing sequence such that c^ is not less
than or equal to b_. for all j ;> i. Further, a i < b_. for
in the definitions.
DUAL LEMMA:
is drawn from the 1963 paper (in which the proof of the lemma
a homeomorphism.
116
the element can also be chosen so that the principal ideal and
LEMMA:
of L satisfy:
(b) cn £
(c)
v b £ c .
' m ^ n
Then there exists d in L such that:
also make use of the density to show that the Stone space has
and a dual ideal to which we can apply the previous lemma and its
b
m
dual. Let A = and F = U vnL . Then A is an ideal
countable set. The lemma and its dual show that there exist
h h
A c L, , F c L , and {c.} £ L\(L, U L ) .
0 i nQ
t
A c L. and F c l .
{c } C L\(L. U L L) .
0
{c i } c" L\(L d U L d ).
2.20) .
(a) (b)
(c) (C3)
Figure 2.1
120
cn and c!n
Because both meet t-At^,
1 0 we will be able to
make one further assumption about the family { c n )• Choose a
(iii)
v ci fi d-, : Each c* meets tn but the only points
n 1 n 1 0
which
of t^Xto belong to d1 belong to every cn. Thus, there
121
is a point of c! outside of d
n r
Unfortunately, it is quite possible that d1 is contained
points from each c^ while at the same time being careful not
obtain a clopen set which contained all points of odd index and
to .d1 and show that this yields the required set. The situation
Figure 2.2
122
t t v w V
Put r = 1\( 0 Q • Then r is a clopen subset
anc
of t^VtQ ^ the definition of d.^ shows that r contains
c for ever n#
n ^ ^ i V y We' will define sequences {p n } and
(n w 2 ) n (n u 2 ) n ((ex u f ^ t ) n (t 1 \t Q )
for each i.
p q
l < < Pm-1 < m-l < < *V
577)
are included.
Figure 2.3
125
Pl < • • • < P m - 1 < p m < <*m < V l < ' ' ' < q
l'
the density of the algebra for the finite case, there exists a
d
.f : ' Pm < 2 < %
a 1 .< ... < a t < ... < c n < ... < b m < ... < b,
EXERCISES
expressions exist:
1. x A x = x, x V x = x.
2. x A y = y A x, x V y = y V x.
3. x A (y A z) = (X A y) A z, X V (y V z) = (x V y) V z.
.4<, X A (X v y) = X v (X A y) = x.
2B o LATTICE INEQUALITIES
(a) x £ y
(b) x A y = x
(c) X v y = y.
x V z y V z.
(X A y) V (x A z) £ X A (y V z)
x v
(x V y) A (x V z ) ^ (Y A z).
128
x, y, and z:
(a) X A (y V Z) = (X A y) V (x A z)
(b) X V (y A z) = (X V y) A (x V z ) .
arbitrary elements of L.
1. (xi)1 = x.
Y1 £ xJ [2B.2.]
(X v y ) t =-x» A y« and (x A y) 1 = x» V y* .
[Proposition 2.5.]
[2.14(e) . ]
conversely.
2G. A i—>A*
their complements.
130
Reymond separable.
n
A Boolean ring is a ring with identity in which x = x
for every x.
x + y = (x A y* ) V ( x * A y)
xy = x A y.
x A y = xy and x V y = x + y + xy.
CHAPTER THREE:
this has been done will be seen in Theorem 5.8 which can be
\fiD\ 2. I 1 I = C2 = 2 . :
3.3. COROLLARY:
2 0
The cardinality OF jSlN JLS 2 = 2 .
that of S. Mrowka.
THEOREM:
is 2°.
have cardinality 2 . g
COROLLARY:
PROPOSITION:
THEOREM:
for y in N,
COROLLARY: (Cech)
of ft IN.
is totally disconnected,
PROPOSITION:
dimensional.
(Proposition 2.4). j|
is a copy of fi IN.
PROPOSITION:
COROLLARY:
c
Every open set of jS3N which meets M has cardinality 2 .
PROPOSITION:
3.14. PROPOSITION:
Then:
B* = N A) U C^M(B\A) ) ^ = clpm(B N A) \B
3. 15. COROLLARY:
of the form A* constitute a base for both the open and the
closed sets of IN .
PROPOSITION:
COROLLARY:
in the chapter.
PROPOSITION:
onto B* by continuity. j]
3.20. Since the sets A form a base for the open sets of IN ,
COROLLARY:
ex. 6S]. The cited exercise in [GJ] has its origin in the 1956
-X-
3.21, The orbit of a point inIN under automorphisms
-X"
of jS IN is a dense subset of IN of cardinality c. As an
•x- -x-
application of properties of the basic sets A of IN , we
finite.
PROPOSITION:
E = [<p*~( q h ) )
THEOREM:
The c e l l u l a n t y of IN JLS c.
e, c^JJE n eipmF n M = 0
of
{E* E: EG£}
H F which is just
is a family of E cfl pairwise
F since disjoint
E fl F is finite. open
non-void Thus,
*
subsets of I . •
cardinality c. |
-X-
Thus, any dense subset of IN must contain at least c points.
COROLLARY:
the same statement fails for arbitrary open sets by showing that
PROPOSITION:
partitioned as required.
COROLLARY:
•X-
The Boolean algebra of clopen subsets of IN j-S DuBois*-
Reymond separable.
3.26. The next result will ultimately lead to a proof that the
PROPOSITION:
•x-
JEf ci sequence of clopen subsets of IN has the finite
1 z n
A A
and therefore that the cardinality of n + ]_\ n fi-nite f° r
3.27. COROLLARY:
* . .
Every non-empty G^ in IN has non-empty interior.
3.28. COROLLARY:
COROLLARY:
-x-
separable.
and IR which have been obtained with the aid of the Continuum
Continuum
•x- Hypothesis arises naturally in considerations involving
indicated by [CH].)
148
PROPOSITION [CH] :
•X- "X-
Proof:
-X-
By Proposition
-X-
1.49, it is"X- sufficient to show that -X*
contains p in
-X-
its closure. Thus, there exists a two-valued-X-
that cozero sets Aa and Ba have been defined for all cr < a
such that
p/A y U B r and Ay 0 Br = 0
U A c: A1 and U B ^ B* .
a
cr<a cr<a a a
A = U A and B = U B .
a<uu1 a a<uux a .
•Z„
oc of p misses q so that q is in A a U Ba by construction.
-x-
Hence, A U B = IN \{p} . Since each basic neighborhood Z^ of
A CHARACTERIZATION OF IN*
is the least cardinal number of a basis for the space, and thus
compactifications of IN.
points and such that CO (Y) jls both Cantor and DuBois-Reymond
Continuum Hypothesis.
and that a is the least ordinal for which u has not been
A x C: . . . G.A h C= . . . c XJ c . . . c Bn c . . . c Bl,
152
( J ( A 1 ) c= . . . c a ( A n J cz . . . c or(B n ) c . . . c a(Bx)
non-empty intersection in IN .
of x such that
xeV c: cl V c: u.
THEOREM [CH] :
3.33. EXAMPLES:
(b) Let
•X*
D be the
-X-
discrete space of cardinality 2° and
be an F-space.
-X-
It remains to show either that the zero-sets
of M x IN"X- are regular closed or, from the point of view
•
•X" "X*
"X* "X"
A basic open set of IN x' IN is a rectangle R = U X V
*
B = U R. ,
l ^ n
an = u (an n R.) . 1
•X-
is a sequence of clopen sets of IN . The properties of the
IN such that
A n cc c R ]
V n v j,i V i
to tTj [Ri] for any n, then the density of the algebra of clopen
T A n R ] C C C lr
jf n i j,i j [Ri]
make it impossible that the final case can occur for every
(e) Note that (a), (c) , and (d) show that no two of the
separable imply the third. Also note that (d) shows that the
separable.
one zero-set and missing the other. Any discrete space is clearly
strongly zero-dimensional.
PROPOSITION:
connected) .
by a partition. |
PROPOSITION:
subspaces of IR:
PROPOSITION:
if it contains no intervals.
•Xr
3.37. Parovitfenko*s characterization of IN now enables us to
PROPOSITION [CH]:
If X
jLs a strongly zero-dimensional space for which the
•x*
cardinality of C (X) j-s c, then any zero-set of fix which
' . *
But then
.' {p}
. is* a zero-set and
. Theorem
c 3.7 shows that a zero-set
3.38. EXAMPLES:
Note that we have also verified and used this fact in Example
2.15 and that we have shown there that the space Y of Example
dimensional.
EXAMPLE:
is not zero-dimensional.
M = U ({ y} x S ) , M = U M , and M + = M U ({U) } x I) .
a Y a
Y^a a<oo1
that
F.1 fl (M+\JYL ) c u.
a I
' • • v
open sets of M+.
for
to and we can assume that ou < fi^ < each i.
which is impossible.
M is normal. Further,
normal. +
Finally, since M is dense and C -embedded in M , we
chapter.
sets.
164
THEOREM:
filters. J r
to X.
PROPOSITION:
is a copy of £ IN.
EXAMPLE:
. „ -x-
There exists a mapping f o_f p IN into IN such that
2
f [ IN] is. discrete and f [IN] a. singleton which does not
EXAMPLE:
Let { x n } a
sequence of isolated points converging to
a point xQ. Call the point xQ the level 0 point and the
n
U Lfy
J : m > s J}.
v m ^ n
n>r
the union
U{JYL : x eP) .
n
n
level 2 points.
U{M x : xeP a }
UfM
1
x : xeP a }, then
• R is in x for each ultrafilter x in Pa
since
PROPOSITION: .
{M x : xeX}
PROPOSITION:
of ft M .
PROPOSITION:
such that xn and yn are of the same type for each n, then
2
px and 2
pY are of the same type for any ultrafilter p on
IN".
Proof: For each n, let a be a permutation of IN such that
Define
T = <r*~ v(a v (R ) fl S )H \f cJ }
n n n n n' n
= U{ a (M n T ) : x GP} .
n
n
172
3.48. The main tool which will be used to relate types of ultra-
• v = 2 L{t •J}'
p n
of the neighborhoods of p on X.
PROPOSITION:
If p is
in X , then p = 2
x and ^ v (p) produces ' (p) .
A P
X .
Conversely, if y jls any free ultrafilter on X, then the sum
x
q = i-yX and y = q x .
•x-
n
Proof: If p is in X , then X f 0 for all Z in p.
PROPOSITION:
t * . ,
The , set of relative types of a #^point p ojf IN is the
THEOREM: (Frolik)
produces 2c types.
M = R s a
show this, write n n ^ n* disjoint union with R^ in
Then we have
€ c C c U R
P W * n > W n}-
2C types.
types.
•X"
a homeomorphism of IN*. j}
•X-
3.52. The orbits of two points p and q of IN under auto-
•X-
carries
•X-
p to q. Thus, the set of a 11 such orbits decomposes
IN into a union of disjoint sets. Since any two points belonging
to the same orbit have the same set of at most c relative types,
c
there must be 2 distinct orbits. We have verified the
COROLLARY:
* c
For any point p of, M , there are 2 points of
*
which cannot be mapped to p b Z automorphisms of IN .
178
EXERCISES
I 0x| 2 2 c .
3. The cardinalities of ftlR, /SQ, and j8ip are all 2C.
3B. S2 AS GROWTH
CHAPTER FOUR:
NON-HOMOGENEITY OF GROWTHS
class of spaces/ we will first follow the outline of [GJ, ex. 9K]
is written
T - + 1) X ( 0)o + 1) \{ ( ^ q ) }
where U)Q is the first infinite ordinal and uU^' is the first
0T = (uo1 + l) x (U) + 1) .
chosen so that
X Y) = + 1) x Y.
This result can then be used to show that any space can be
following
PROPOSITION:
x Y) = (ur + 1) x Y.
4.3. We can now show that every space is the growth of some
Stone-Cech compactification.
PROPOSITION:
' + 1) X Y:
PROPOSITION:
+ 1) x (u)Q .+ 1 ) \ { ( ^ 1 ^ Q ) ) ) = + 1) x (U)0 + 1) .
class of pseudocompact
[
spaces was first investigated by E. Hewitt
in 1948 and the next two results appear in [GJ, 1.20, 1.21].
LEMMA:
is closed in X.
spaces is immediate.
COROLLARY: (Hewitt);
growths.
TYPES OF POINTS IN X*
to C-embedded copies of IN in X.
LEMMA:
ctsfeJN. |
185
4.9. COROLLARY:
C M n C Y C C ( Y n c
V V V ^xM)-
to c ^ x ( Y n cipxm). 1
COROLLARY:
in Y fl c l p x M .
PROPOSITION:
*
Proof: Let t be the ideal type of a point p of IN with
-x-
respect to some Y contained in X • By the preceding corollary,
most c types. |
THEOREM: (Frolik)
The growth of non-pseudocompact space fails to be homogeneous.
N
having type t with respect to M will do, |
paper.
EXAMPLE:
growths, the P-points and the remote points, and showing their
M P = (feC(X) : p e c ^ x Z ( f ) }
and
tn(X) and pi—*M*P of fix with -to* (X) are denoted by r and
* .
T , respectively. The above descriptions of the maximal ideals
anc z
of the two rings enable
•X-
us to express ^ ($(f)) i n
-x-
4.16. A point p of X is called a C-point if
true.
PROPOSITION:
"X* "X*
A point in X is a. C -point if and only if it is a
P-point of X .
Proof: We have just seen that any P-point of X must be a
* ^
C -point.
* . ^
is a zero-set Z^ m X such that q lies in d ^Z, . Because
x
*
Z1 is a in the subspace X , there is a S of fix
•x-
such that • z^ = X fl s. But now there also exists a zero-set
qeZ2 ci s.
•X* "X-
Since q is in the X -interior of Z^ and Z2 H x is contained
PROPOSITION:
In a. locally compact space in which every non-empty Gg
more than dense open sets is dense. If the space also has
2° points.
open sets and let G be any non-empty open set in such a space
satisfying:
com
(a) P a c t f°r fi <
•.(c) n v . ^ 0.
0<a
Then H is a Gc and thus has a non-void interior which
: /3<a :. 6
must meet U since U is dense. Since U is also open,
cc a a ^ 9
there is an open set V^ with compact closure such that
ci V C U n ( n vQ) c U n G.
Y a a ^ a
Thus, { VCC : a < uu ) is defined inductively so that {clJL VOC : a < uJ-u }
J—
Therefore,
0 ^ n CTYVA C (n n G,
points, then at each step of the induction, there are two disjoint
K
choices for v. , so that | 2 . |
4.19. The next sequence of results will conclude with the proof
appears in the 1962 paper of Fine and Gillman and will be employed
LEMMA:
satisfies:
that Z(g) = U Z . 1
n .
COROLLARY:
U Z n , respectively. |
194
4.21. Note that the next proposition shows that every non-
PROPOSITION:
i.e.
^ peZ(h) c: z.
EXAMPLE:
COROLLARY [CH]:
is c.
non-separable spaces.
EXAMPLE:
•X"
Let X be a non-closed cozero-set in IN . Such a cozero-
•X- -)£
set must exist in I because IN is not a P-space (Proposition
M P = C feC(X) : p € c ^ x z ( f ) } .
and
PROPOSITION: I
4.28. EXAMPLE:
P-POINTS IN X* '
COROLLARY [CH] :
by W. Rudin in 1956.
COROLLARY [CH]:
of Corollary 4.29.
also P-points of X .
LEMMA:
x* n cz(p(-t)) c z(f)
•X-
so that f vanishes on a X -neighborhood of p. |
P-points in the growth of the space. The next lemma shows that
LEMMA:
_a copy of p IN.
Proof: Since pX
is completely regular, we can assume that a
•X"
neighborhood of a point p of X is a zero-set neighborhood, Z .
P
Since p is in px\ux, there is a zero-set Z(f) such that
normal. The proofs of the next two theorems follow the outline
THEOREM [CH]:
discrete space.
in C(X) ,
chosen f.
•X- "X*
By Lemma 4.32, every P-point of UST is a P-point of Y .
•X*
Further, cp|Y is a homeomorphism onto its range, so that
•X- -X- -X*
EXAMPLE:
Since Q is clearly not pseudocompact, the theorem shows
•X- -X-
REMOTE POINTS IN X*
that any remote point must lie in X . Remote points are related
in C(X) for which ct< Cz(f) is compact [GJ, 8.20]. Denote this
if X is realcompact.
LEMMA:
i n t
px(cV(f))i n x
* c int
*X ( c V ( z ( f > ) n x
*}
pepx\(K U c ^ x Z ( g ) ) cc-tpxz'(f),
general than the one cited for realcompact spaces. However, the
Set Theory.
LEMMA:
5
d(x,y) 2 \ (x) + j 6(y)
to this property.
the inequality
x • • •
d(x
n^xn+l) 6
<*n> +
i 6(x
n+l} >
Then we have
which yields
210
THEOREM:
(a) p is a. C-point of X ,
(c) M P = 0P.
Conditions (a), (b), and (c) are equivalent and are implied by (d) .
All four conditions are equivalent i_f the set of isolated points
and we must then have p in c£^ x (Z(f) fl Z(g)) = c£p x d x (Z(f) ) .....
The equivalence of (b) and (d) was shown in 1962 by Fine and
Gillman and the proof that (b) implies (c) was contributed by
PROPOSITION:
subspace of X*.
induction argument.
THEOREM [CH]:
base of open sets [D, p. 187] and therefore under the assumption
realcompact*
i.e. f&
L : tt) < a < } in such a wayx that each F is
a 0 1J 9 • a
contained in the corresponding U .
z C= T n... n T v n E n u .
nk O k n^ a
it contains Z
and hence meets int F . Thus, the collection
a
k
{int Fg : P £ a} has the finite intersection property. Note that
each u
is contained in V fl x and that by definition, F is
a
contained in Ua for w Q £ a < u^. Finally, 3 has the finite
c
2 remote points. On the other hand, since X is separable,
4.43. EXAMPLE:
* c
Theorem 4.42 shows that Q contains a dense set of 2
remote points of PQ. Note that Lemma 4.33 shows that Q •x-
c
also contains a_ dense set of 2 points which fail to be remote
isolated points such that one of the points is not the limit of
point of p IR.
217
EXERCISES
* *
1.64. ]
CHAPTER FIVE:
CE LLULARITY OF GROWTHS
THEOREM: (Tarski)
infinite subsets.
assignment E»—>• S„
E is one-to-one from £ into the set of
o
countably infinite subsets of D, and m n
of £ is n |
of X is aj: least n
compact open sets. We first show that the members of 3" can
c
a e int U c: u c: int Y Y T .
a a a a a'
V a = U_a \U{
L int Y,
b : beA, b ? a} ,
w E = $x\cl (x\ U v ) .
aeE
showing that
{wE H X* : Ee£}
written
a aGE
a€E1 aeE2 aeE± 2
w n w n ( PX\k) =0
E
i 2
FE = {X6X : fE(x) = 1}
c
and note that E Fg. <= x. Since F^ is the union of a locally
is in W E n x*. fl
5.4. EXAMPLES:
More generally, this will be the case for any space X for
-x-
which X contains at most one point.
compact space.
PROPOSITION:
since••f is unbounded.
since c = .
COROLLARY:
below will show that c is also an upper bound for the cellularity
of c.
closure.
226
P in v and an
rY
u au, ° P e n subset v a Qf 3X such that W aD x* = V .a
Z a = {xex : f a (x)
X for which
in w a n Wp n X - V a n Vp = 0, which is a contradiction.
Z be a non-compact
r zero-set contained in U . Since pX is
a .. a
normal and disjoint zero-sets of X have disjoint closures in
that 0 ^ Z
^ ' a c v a n x* so that V
a fl X* is non-empty. Now
p / c ^ x ( x \ U a ) U c4 px (x\u^) .
C/C/
Hence, p is in px^Ua ^ Up^ SO that p
belongs to X since
5.9. EXAMPLES:
IR has a countable base for the open sets, Theorem 5.8 shows
and a cozero-set and the only compact subsets are finite, the
COROLLARY:
5.11. COROLLARY:
If D
is the discrete space of cardinality c, the
*
cellularity of D is c.
that the density and cellularity are equal was obtained in 1965
by W. W. Comfort.
229
THEOREM: (Comfort)
cardinality n JLS n .
of pD.
THEOREM:
If D
is the infinite discrete space of cardinality n,
2n
uD has cardinality 2
uD since uD is closed. |
PROPOSITION:
LEMMA:
| {AeG : I Z n A| = n} I = |G I .
number and that in this case, the theorem shows the existence
THEOREM: (Sierpinski)
n n
1*1 - W ^ ' = »
complete. Q
5.17. The preceding two results show that for some cardinal
theorem shows that the open sets may be chosen so that each
THEOREM: (Hindman)
2m n £or
all m < n, there is a 2n point in uD.
in a set of cardinality n.
such that |z
1
cr H A crI1 - n and A V A
cr y for all y < a. Now
u
r ~ (UCc-tpDXra : a < 2 n }) n UD.
p in its closure.
6 c 0 = C X 0
* W a a C
^D X
TY "W a a V '
belongs to uD.
e c 0 c uD C c
« W a W r a ° W a ° c *0D U T n
^
n H
Hence, p is a 2 -point of uD. §
•X-
COROLLARY:
There is a c-point in IN* .
5.19. In the case of the countable discrete space IN, Lemma 5.15
of IN .
237
x e (X n Z )\ U X .
k a a
k j<k a j
and only if disjoint open sets of the space have disjoint closures,
of p and q and F fl (V U W) = 0 .
a 2-point. jj
COROLLARY:
of IN.
5.22. EXAMPLE:
of I by
I n-1 if n is even
or(n) = <
[ n+1 if n is odd.
2
Then a = 1 and if P(a) is the homeomorphism of p IN which
241
THEOREM:
fibers, i.e.
subspace of X.
s
is dense in IN , there exists a point p in \(un ^ v
n)
an(
3
c
{•p'i : i < U = U U±
and
24 3
EXERCISE
5A. n-POINTS
1. A is a limit ordinal.
W. = UfP
L : a < A and a = i(mod i) }. Then x € cl W. . ]
i a i
3. Assume the Continuum Hypothesis. Any P-point of IN is
a n-point.
CHAPTER SIX:
MAPPINGS OF PX TO X*
of discrete spaces.
C*-EMBEDDING OF IMAGES
PROPOSITION:
in'. X.
246
that:
lying in the fiber and show that g(x) = g(y) for any other
Then.
f(r(x)) = g(x) .
the proof. |
COROLLARY:
C - embedded in L.
in L by Proposition 1.47. j
is required to be one-to-one.
COROLLARY:
RETRACTIVE SPACES
COROLLARY:
*
If r is, a. retraction of pX onto X and Y is a
•X"
of Lemma 4.32.
250
LEMMA:
-X-
If IN .is closed and C -embedded in ai locally compact
as in Lemma 4.32. 1
6.7. THEOREM [CH]: (Comfort)
copy of IN. I
6.8. However, there are retractive spaces which do contain
•x-
non-closed C -embedded copies of IN.
252
EXAMPLE:
corollary is immediate.
COROLLARY [CH] :
COROLLARY [CH]:
6.11. EXAMPLE:
GROWTHS OF COMPACTIFICATIONS
PROPOSITION:
COROLLARY:
THEOREM: (Magill)
fg(p) = P if peX
jg(p) = f(p) if peX*.
of X is homeomorphic to Y.
is homeomorphic to Y.
256
Since a continuous image of a compact space is compact,
of x1 and x2 in K.
cp [X ] such that
for each value of i [D, p. 86]. Since the closed sets cp** (v^
such that
W i n x* = (int
open sets of pX and their images under <p are the required
257
-X-
yields the
COROLLARY:
F c u q ,c cl U Q c . . . c u r c cl U r c= u s c . . . c x\H =
y 3N\lN is homeomorphic to uo +
continuous, note that intervals of the form [0, P) and (P, u^]
is continuous. |
to be paracompact.
261
EXAMPLE:
not paracompact. ,
the two sequences have the same supremum which must then belong
to both R and S.
is open since only isolated points have been added and is also
6.18. EXAMPLE:
growth homeomorphic to •w + 1.
MAPPINGS OF pD
THEOREM: (Comfort)
D is dense in D*. |
263
6.20. EXAMPLES:
COROLLARY:
image of pD.
and its corollary are taken from the 1967 paper of M. KatStov.
PROPOSITION:
If X jus _a non-empty set and f jLs a. function of X
into X which has no fixed point, then X ij3 the union of dis-
R(z). For each y in R(z), let m(y) denote the least non-
We will use the integer m(y) + n(y) to define the sets XQ, X 1
This follows from the definitions of m(x) and n(x) and the
equations
and
fm(x) ( a ) = fn(f(x))(f(x))>
x = f°(x) = f m ( x ) ( a ) .
m(f(d)) < m(d) and f(d) = f k (a) for some k < m(d). Thus,
and m(x) + n(x) cannot both be odd or both be even. Let Xj^
266
of X. I
6.23. COROLLARY:
0 (f) of, 0D into itself coincides with the closure of the set
of fixed points of f.
of p(f).
as a disjoint union
D\F = XQ U X 1 u x2
jaded V896T Q^R uiojg ua^eq. ST sq^nsaa go soijas qxau aqj, 'f?Z'9
L9Z
268
set
X x = {deZ : f(d) i cl Z}
Now by the same argument as given for z\X-|_j the set z\(X 1 U X 2 )
put
X ri = {d€z\Q( f(d) e cl P }
a
269
i
. /
rW = {deW : f(d) e cl W}
z
o = U{x p :: P is a limit ordinal}
Z
1 = U{X P :: P is odd}
Z
2 = U{X p :: P is even and non-limit}
D = Y U Z Q U Z]_ U Z 2 U (D\Z) .
f[Z±] C ct [(D\Z) U Z Q U Z 2 ]
f [Z2] c ct Zr
Example 3.43 except for modifications which assure that the map
271
is one-to-one on 3N.
EXAMPLE:
cl z ^ n h [D] = h[X 3 ].
such that
cl z2 n h [D] =.h[Z1]\c.-t x 3 .
such that
Z n + 1 ^ Y \ ( X 3 U(U{z i : i £ n}))
and
274
cl Z n + 1 n h[D] = h[Zn]\c-t X 3 .
Now put
h[X3J c d Z]_ c cl X±
f [X±] c cl{X^ U X 3 ).
COROLLARY:
The type of a. point of IN•X- _is not also a_ relative type
of the pointy i.e. no type produces itself.
•x-
Proof: Suppose that p in • IN- is of type t and that the
•x*
type of p relative to a discrete sequence X contained in IN
a fixed point. jj
6.28. COROLLARY:
EXERCISES
•X-
6B. RETRACTIONS OF 3D
for every d in D.
space is retractive.
277
2. X contains a copy of IN .
dense in K.
[h(x) = (x,f(x)),]
and f is continuous.]
is extremally disconnected.
of X.
280
CHAPTER SEVEN:
PI REVISITED
THEOREM [CH] :
•x-
IN \{p] is not normal if p jls P-point.
284
partitions W , and
of Wa onto a x + 1) and. g a + 1 | W a = g a -
ordinals.
A U
1 = f V iO : 1 = U(V
i0 :
such that
Now suppose that for some P < ou^, v has been defined
a
for all y < p. We define our sequences nd {B n } somewhat
which g
maps to points with second coordinate at most p.
a
n
B n will exclude those points which are mapped by g to points
n
having second coordinate greater than p. Thus, define
U
An = C V ij ; i £ CCn, j £ P}
and
B = v(W \W ) U A .
n a cc ' n
n
1 c. . . C A n
A, . . c: B
n c. . . C B1n
*
as discussed in Chapter 3. There we defined two points of IN
Continuum Hypothesis.
PROPOSITION: (Frolik)
2C distinct sets.
showed that all P-points are of the same IN -type. The proof
the second.
Hypothesis, let the families {S a : a < u^} and {T^ : a < u^} of
290
so that <J[fS
LL }] = fT }. Note that it is sufficient to define a
or va
for the family {S^} since the requirement that cr preserve the
so that
any °"(B ) Since G0( IN*) is dense in itself and Cantor and
a
and Ta is unrelated by inclusion to any ( c n )- Define
cr(S
. a) = T a and a( ]N*\S a) = M * \T a. Let C" be the field
PROPOSITION:
CHAPTER EIGHT:
PRODUCT THEOREMS
compact.
Glicksberg Theorem.
PROPOSITION:
•x-
If X is. finite, then X x Y is. C - embedded in X x pY,
pseudocompact spaces.
LEMMA:
to be pseudocompact.
EXAMPLE:
pseudocompact.
8.5. The preceding example shows that we must require more than
PROPOSITION:
cluster point.
which is a contradiction.
introduced before stating the theorem and we will also take this
result will be Theorem 8.8 below. Condition (1) has also been
used in the 1968 and 1969 papers of Stephenson and in the 1967
are defined by
=
f (x) f(x,y) for each y in Y,
and
f(y) = f(x,y) for each x in X,
x
assignment
#(f) (x) = xf
and z in X:
299
(1) <p(x,x) = 0 ,
U^ x U 2 of ( x 1 , x 2 ) , we have
can be added to the nine which are described here. These conditions
of the definition:
y(x 1 ,x 2 ) = sup{|f(x x ,y)-f(x 2 ,y)| : yeY}.
defined by
belongs to C (X).
(5), and (7) are satisfied. He also showed that those members
then we put
=
osCg( f) sup{ I f (s)-f (t) I : s,teS} .
THEOREM:
equivalent:
(1) The
• projection map 7rxv from X x Y onto X is
z-closed.
by
defined by
is a continuous pseudometric on X.
eguicontinuous family on X.
(x,y) jLs in U x Y.
f
(9) If. belongs to C* (X x Y) and e > 0, then there
but 7r
Xv[Z-nL] misses xU
n. Applying (1) gives a contradiction
since
of X x Y, then
Each (Z.)
x can be viewed as a zero-set of Y so that if Z1
i x 1
C/t/ Z
and Z2 are disjoint, (5) of Theorem 1.46 shows that ( 2.)x
are
and ct(z 2 ) x disjoint for each x. Hence, Z^ and Z2
is just y(x 1 ,x 2 ) .
304
of
V
(6)<=J>(7): This equivalence is clear because both conditions
|f(x,y)-f(x0,y)| <e
U of xQ such that
I f(x,y)-g(y) | < §
Hence, putting
f(x,y) = |g(x,y)/g(x0,y)j A l
•Xr
pX x PY, X and Y are called a proper C -pair. They presented
EXAMPLE:
f l
0
if n = m
otherwise
THEOREM: (Tamano)
to choose a sequence {( x n ^Y n )} of
points of Z, and neighborhoods
^(Un X V
n^ and
£(Wn x V
n)^ of (x
n^ Y n J and (x
0^Yn^ respectively,
such that:
W U U C U
n+1 n+1 n'
which is a contradiction.
there to N. J. Fine.
LEMMA:
COROLLARY:
COROLLARY:
. * .
in Exercises.
THEOREM: (Glicksberg)
embedded in pX x PY.
pseudocompact. |
Partial results along the lines of the preceding theorem had been
converse direction.
311
would imply that the pair is not proper. Combining these facts
COROLLARY:
If x and Y are a proper C*-pair, then both X and Y
are P-spaces.
to be products of cozero-sets.
THEOREM:
V. are Cozero-sets and such that osc. (f) < € for each" i.
312
V? = $Y\clp Y (Y\v ± ) .
PY\U V? = n clpY(Y\V±) = 0
8.15. COROLLARY:
of the form
h(x,y) = 2 f i (x)g i (y)
THEOREM: (Hager)
of C* (X) ® C* (Y) in C* (X X Y) .
Hence,3 fix
1 x Y is the uniform limit of ^{ fni
1 x x Y}
J and fn1 | X x Y
COROLLARY: (Tamano)
The example is taken from the 1959 paper of Gillman and Jerison.
EXAMPLE:
E X E ^ (P IN © IN) X ( P IN © IN)
^ PIN X P I N © 1 X P IN © P IN X IN © IN X IN
» P IN X P IN © M X P M © IN X P I N © IN.
p(E X E) « p m X P IN © P I N © P I N © P IN
= PM X (PIN © 3)
» P 3N X P IN
« PE X PE.
equala
COROLLARY:
P(X x Y) and
11 pX x pY are homeomorphic if and only if
j X x Y
. \
is pseudocompact.
PROPOSITION:
(y) = g y
7rx : X X Y—> X
COROLLARY [CH]:
retractive.
1955. Since the example will be both locally compact and pseudo-
false,
EXAMPLE:
of u) X w is E U F u { (UU1,UJ1) }.
(iw-j x ^-j) . Choose x 1 < u^. Then the point (W-^x^ = r(uo1,x]L)
and we can therefore find x2 such that x 1 < x 2 < tt)^ and
r ( x 2 , x j belongs to F.
320
(x2,U)1)
(0,0) (V 0 )
Figure 8.1
lim(x 2 k ,x 2 k _ 1 ) = l i m ( x 2 k , x 2 k + 1 ) = (a,a).
leads to a contradiction.
321
The proof of both the lemma and the necessity portion of the
LEMMA:
"If""1 the
1,1 m product space x {XH/ : aeC2} JLS pseudocompact, f is
same way obtain two points x2 and y2 such that their coordinates
322
E n (U F ± ) c U{F i : 1 £ i £ n}.
over a finite index set. We can then apply the theorem for
THEOREM: (Glicksberg)
a net fx.}
o in x Xa converging to a point p in x (PXa ) such
that
XX PY = X X P(X X„ ) = X X (X (PX ) ) .
i i
a-e < \ f ( K 5 ^ Y 5 ^ ) - \
= LX g(y 6 ) - x
X
g(y 6 )l + ]g(x6 >y6 ) - g(x* 5y5 )l
§ 1 °1 61 2 °1 2 2 2
< 2e.
write X = x {X
L : aeB} and Y = x [X„ : aeA\B} . Then if y^
a a 0
is any point of Y, X x {y Q } is homeomorphic with X and is
PROPOSITION:
must be pseudocompact.
are basic open sets. Therefore, each set restricts only finitely
PROPOSITION:
J
Now assume that the theorem has been demonstrated for all integers
x e U
n = tV = k
8.28. EXAMPLE:
function on X is well-defined:
fk if xeA,
k
f(x) = I
[o if x i U Ak .
328
the set
W = (ttJ-(U) n tt^- (V) ) \U{ Ak : 1 £ k £ m}
must cluster. Thus, in the proof we will see that the technique
i
of obtaining a family of open sets!which must have a cluster point
by sequences in 2-products.
THEOREM: (Glicksberg) j
PS = X xa.
x x s
Proof: S is clearly dense in the compact space a-
therefore belongs to S. |
such that | f (x^) - f (y^) | > e/2 and x^ and y^ differ only in
E n (U F ± ) £ U{F ± : 1 £ n} .
We choose € > 0 such that 0 < 3e < a and obtain the finite
a ^ a-L an
Y ^ ^ a s e point is the restriction of the
compact, pY = Y = x {X : 1 ^ i ^ n} • Because S = X x Y is
a
i
countably compact and therefore pseudocompact, the proof can now
j
be completed exactly as in Theorem 8.25. |
i •
8. 30. Some of the more interesting applications of the previous
i '
result occur when each X is a compact topological group. Then
CC
EXAMPLE:
all homogeneous.
EXAMPLE:
group and using the continuity of the group operations/ one can
groups and PS = G.
normal.
a
i
a single point x
Now suppose
J L
-- that x n and U n have been obtained so that n
belongs to B 1 , U"n is a basic neighborhood of x^ contained in
fk ij
.f a = ou for some k, 1 k m
n+1
'^
I 1 otherwise.
o1
F(U n + 1 )\F(U n ) =
-k
.yk if
a a = ou for some k ^ 1
ct i K
Y
I2 >therwise.
o1
Finally, define z in H^ by
fk if a = ak for some k, k ^ mn
V. 2 otherwise.
which is a contradiction. |
any T^-space such that every power of the space is normal must
compact.
compact. |
THEOREM: (Tamano)
The following are equivalent for any space X:
(2) X is paracompact.
•X-
U{U?
X : 1 i <1 n X } [D, p. 228]. Repeating this for each point
and X x K is paracompact.
that
satisfies c^xUa n F = 0.
(4) (2) : Let V = {V a : aeA} be an open cover of X.
For every V , choose an open set Wa of PX such that
8.37. EXAMPLE:
characterization of P-spaces:
THEOREM: (Negrepontis)
UIR x u IR = IR x ]R = ]R x IR).
EXERCISES
then Y is pseudocompact.
2. X x Y is C*-embedded in X x 0Y.
c c
1. Let S X PS and suppose that X and Y are a proper
-X-
Corollary 8.13.]
344
[Proposition 1.65.]
Reference: Comfort and Negrepontis, 1966.
e*~(S).
2. If X is not an F-space, then P(X x Y) contains no copy
of PX x PY.
in I x PI.
[8.18(a) .]
8G. C-EMBEDDING OF X X Y IN UX X UY
X x Y is Gg-dense in S X T.
closed in F.
compact.
metric spaces:
CHAPTER NINE:
there does not exist a continuous mapping of the space onto the
is connected.
Stone-Cech compactifications.
of each F
is also open and the characteristic function x^ i
well behaved.
•X-
will be useful.
EXAMPLE:
sequences taken with the sup norm is not well behaved. This
THEOREM:
the family
of
well behaved.
have seen that Ioo is not well behaved. C (X) cannot be well
9.4. EXAMPLES:
PROPOSITION:
9.6. COROLLARY:
THEOREM:
from (3). |
and Isbell*s 1957 paper. The first one was established for
LEMMA:
X H u is, connected.
positive s.
u = ({ci v) /n u) u ( ( d w) n u)
354
not connected. J
of first countability.
COROLLARY:
connected.
355
PROPOSITION:
9. 11. EXAMPLES:
of continua are the closed unit interval I and the circle S1.
PROPOSITION:
continuum.
z e n K C U' U V,
9
a
end of IR. It is easy to see that the two pieces are the growths
of the rays A = [l,oo ) and B = (-oo , -1] . The next result shows
1971 paper.
A* = H
pIR n
•x*
such that
q k , and s^ have been chosen for all k < n such that for
each k,
(1) p k GU,
ro if r £ q1
for k odd
(1) f (r) = Jo if re ^k-l^k-*
V1 if re [s k _ 1 ,q k ] for k even
/ \ 1 /
/ \ % . '
/ \
/ \ v . /
/
/
" \ /
. . A . /• ••;•
. . / ••••• . x - / • : •
\ / \ /
N
> „ ^ '| 1 — 1 \»= —< - - J 1
ir
s P q S p q s p q s
2m-l 2m 2m 2m 2m+l 2m+l 2m+l 2m+2 2m+2 2m+2
Figure 9.1
f*~(0,l) = U{ (q k ,s k ) : k = 1,2,. . .} c V
paper.
361
CHAPTER TEN:
pX IN CATEGORICAL PERSPECTIVE
dech compactifications.
mappings.
of H. Herrlich.
together with the following axioms which link the two classes:
are defined.
that f = f o ix and f = l y o f.
EXAMPLESz
discussion will center around the category where the spaces are
Hausdorff.
EXAMPLES:
homomorphism.
topological groups.
I = I• = I ° (f * r) = (I * f) o r = 1 o r = r.
B A
examples of isomorphisms.
EXAMPLES:
bijective homomorphisms.
EXAMPLES:
complete.
equal to F ( f * g) .
EXAMPLES:
spaces.
functor.
regular spaces. We will see that these three functors have much
EXAMPLES:
(a) Our discussion in Section 2.10 shows that the assignment
Then for any function f : X—>Y between two sets, define P(f)
PROPOSITION:
is such a property.
PROPOSITION:
immediate:
COROLLARY:
its reflection.
morphisms
regular.
PROPOSITION:
l y o e = 1 © e o l x = e o (I o e) = (e o I) o e .
a monomorphism.
DUAL PROPOSITION:
respectively.
the product and its dual, the coproduct. Let {A^ : aeO] be any
For example, we have seen that the compact spaces form a reflective
easy to see that the disjoint topological sum will be the coproduct
for completely regular spaces, but not for compact spaces. How-
PROPOSITION:
^ R
r(l)
r(©R
v )
a7
many singletons.
PROPOSITION:
r (IT ) O 7] = 7T o 1 ^ .
a ' a x Ra
10.14). I
with dense range, and closed embeddings. We first show that the
PROPOSITION:
that m o g = m o f.
379
m is a monomorphism.
Note that the preceding proof does not use the Hausdorff hypothesis
and so we have actually shown that the one-to-one maps are also
spaces.
range.
PROPOSITION:
Proof: We have already seen that the maps with dense range are
c-C(f [X]) .
381
f q
X * Z
Y2
split the point f(x) in two and the map q joins the halves
q eijO h^ ^ q o i 2 o h 2 .
would complete the proof except that we have not shown that the
Hausdorff.
p and r.
given sets containing the points are already disjoint open sets.
some y e cl( f [X]) : Note that the subscript does not matter
and these sets are disjoint. But they are also both open since
i-^o h^[U] and i^h^fv) U i 2 © h 2 (V) are both open and saturated
in © Y2-
changed.
Hence, Z is Hausdorff. |
38 3
PROPOSITION:
of its range;
384
i oh 1 o e — h®e=ioa
lv = o h») o e.
PROPOSITION:
Epi-reflective subcategories are closed under extremal
. JL
But r?x is therefore an isomorphism because m is an extremal
monomorphism. jj
THEOREM:
spaces are those subcategories which are closed under products and
closed subspaces.
XA< — ^rX
x *
#
\ b l
77
#
f
Y
A« ~ — X
a
The mapping b exists and is unique from the definition of a
#
product. The maps J] and m are obtained by factoring b
that rX is in G.
product, we have
# #
n o i a 77 o b = n o i <=> f ,
a a
n*o i o f = n^o e = f.
a
epimorphism. H
spaces are compact, the preceding theorem shows that the category
spaces. We must reconcile this fact with the fact that we have
regular spaces.
Exercise 10A.
PCP(f))
Xf
K
spaces further. Recall that the compact spaces are just the
THEOREM: (Hewitt)
of copies of IR.
PROPOSITION:
spaces and the objects of this subcategory are the closed sub-
Mrowka„ The 1966 and 1968 papers of Mrowka continue the investi-
are related to the E-compact spaces in the same way that the
EXAMPLES:
regular spaces and the I-compact spaces are the compact spaces.
spaces.
functor is called C.
his 1962 and 1968 papers to show that small inductive dimension
and Lebesgue covering dimension are not the same in metric spaces.
containments:
of Q.
395
A -^X
Y
Y
397
diagram, q denotes the quotient map and P-^ and p2 are the
PROPOSITION:
A >x
V
Y
LEMMA:
PROPOSITION:
A : >X
• f ..
Y
Y
Proof: Let r be the reflective functor associated with ft.
of ft, <p will factor through 77 yielding the map r(<p) such
in ft. |
p(XUfY).
LEMMA: ^
A» > X
v
Y
402
-X-
Proof: Let k belong to C (X) and let I be the extension
show that 771 p 2 [X] is a one-to-one open map onto its range and
hence is an embedding.
Recall from Theorem 1.6 that for any space S, the map 77
•X*
separated by members of C (S) . We will show that every distinct
But then we have the mapping <p such that k = <p o p 2 # Therefore,
p(X U f Y). 1
THEOREM:
regular spaces;
A» >X
I
%
PA
EXAMPLE;:
that is p(\\f U
PD) , the pushout of the following diagram
D
in the category of completely regular spaces:
Dy » > ^
if
PD
fails to be Hausdorff.
10.31. EXAMPLE:
:
Nv» >X
"H
i
PN
PERFECT MAPPINGS
[D, p. 227] and has fibers which are homeomorphic to the compact
product mapping,
X f : x x Y
a a a
f x f x is
defined by (x a)(( a))a = a( a) easily seen to be perfect.
in a category C p
PROPOSITION:
of f and g. 1
PROPOSITION:
(1) f is perfect.
410
to some x in (y) ) .
(3) p(f) takes growth to growth, i.e. P (f)'[X* ]. is contained
*
m Y .
(4)
0(f)
is at pullback.
closed.
verified the
COROLLARY:
perfect.
EXAMPLES:
fitting.
fitting.
right-fitting.
PROPOSITION:
f : X—>A.
e : X — X .PX
f x lp x : X x Ax PX
range.,
to an ob ject of G. J
PROPOSITION:
that G is left-fitting. |
10.39. EXAMPLES:
left-fitting.
whose products with metric spaces are normal. He showed that this
M-spaces.
result.
PROPOSITION:
belongs to ft.
418
to .R. |
PROPOSITION:
X> ^ y
THEOREM: (Franklin)
The key to the proof will lie in the fact that any mapping
COROLLARY:
realcompact spaces and contain IR. Thus, they have the real-
THEOREM:
(a) and (b) such that any subspace Y of pX that also satisfies
Z by
have
Y = ax. I
PROJECTIVES
connected.
onto map.
424
P
V
X — — =>Y
C.
of C.
PROPOSITION: (Gleason)
disconnected.
defined by
diagram commutes:
PROPOSITION:
because cl V is open.
completely separated in X.
427
disconnected. |
LEMMA:
10.49. LEMMA:
open subset of X,
428
spaces.
LEMMA:
and Y\f [X\V] are disjoint open sets, and since Y is extremely
THEOREM: (Gleason)
If p is in P, then
430
COROLLARY:
is extremely disconnected.
0(f)
431
EXAMPLE:
We will show the compact case first, and then establish the
THEOREM: (Gleason)
to S(R(X)).
which contain it. We will use this assignment to show that the
of $ since (cl U)« does not contain g(3) and hence cannot
belong to 2F.
c
g (<?) c V c: cl V U.
W = h(cl V ) = { Q € S ( R ( X ) ) : cl V G Q } .
g(Q) e n Q c ci v c u.
closed sets. But this is clear since the set of regular closed
such that
g is irreducible.
disconnected. |
PROPOSITION:
10.59. Now we will borrow again from module theory and briefly
homomorphisms:
N
CO [P)
V
cocx)^ CO (Y) X -> Y
4 38
EXERCISES
extremal monomorphism.
hereditary subcategories.
category.
separated.
C
C sC
ft
s(f)l
sets.
as illustrated z
h /
/ *
:/;V'X''. ^ — »> Y
connected neighborhoods.
compact. [8.21.]
compact. [8.5.]
[Modify 8.21.]
5. P is finitely productive.
f(x) for x€ X
cc(f) (x) =
• { 00 for x = oo
is continuous.
spaces.
X.
444
spaces and mappings which contains the discrete spaces are just
445
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Alexandroff, P.
TT
1939 Bikompakte Erweiterungen topologische Raiime" ,
Mat. Sbornik J5(19 39, 403-423. (Russian. German
summary.) MR 1, p. 318.
Alexandroff, P. and.Hopf, H.
Alo, R. A.
Arens, R.
Arhangel* skii, A. V.
Aull, C. E.
Banaschewski, B.
n
1955 Uber nulldimensioriale Raume", Math. Nachr.
13(1955), 129-140.
Baron, S.
Bellamy, D. P.
Birkhoff, G.
Blass, A. R.
Blefko
Booth, D. D.
Bourbaki, N.
Brooks, R. M.
Cartan, H.
Cech, E.
Chandler, R. E.
Chew, Kim-Peu
Choquet, G.
Comfort, W. W.
Corson, H. H.
1959 "Normality in subsets of product spaces", Amer.
J. Math. 8^1(1959), 785-796. MR 21#5947.
Dowker, C. H.
Dugundji, J.
Dwinger, P. H.
Efremovitf, V. A.
EngeIking, R.
Flachsmeyer, J.
Franklin, S. P.
Freyd, P.
Frink, 0.
Frolik, Z.
11
1959 Generalizations of compact and Lindelof spaces",
Czech. Math. J. 9(1959), 172-217. (Russian.
English Summary.)
Gait, J.
Giuman, L.
Gleason, A. M.
Glicksberg, I.
Gould, G. G.
Hager, A. W.
Hahn, H.
Halmos, P. R.
Hausdorff, F.
Henriksen, M.
Herrlich, H.
Hewitt, E.
Hindman, N.
Hu, S. T.
HuSek, M.
Isbell, J. R.
Isiwata, T.
Jerison, M.
Johnson, D. R.
Juhasz, I
Kakutani, S.
Kamke, E.
KatStov, M.
Keesling, James
Kelley, J.
Kennison, J. F
Kunen, K.
McMaster, N. C.
Mandelker, M. , .
Marczewski, E.
Mazurkiewicz, S.
McArthur, William G.
McAuley, L. F.
McDowell, R. H.
Michael, E.
Misra, A. K.
Mitchell, B.
Morita, K.
Mrowka, S.
Nachbin, L.
Nagata, j.
Negrepontis,
Njastad, 0.
Noble, N.
Novak, J.
Nyikos, P.
Onuchic, N.
Parovi£enko, I. I.
Pfeifer, G. L.
Pierce, R. S.
Plank, D.
Pondiczery, E. S.
PospiSil, B.
Raimi, R.
Rainwater, J.
Rajagopalan, M.
Richardson, G. D.
Robinson, S. M.
Rogers, J. W.
Roy, P.
Rudin, M. E.
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Shirota, T.
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Smirnov, Yu M.
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Steiner, E. F.
Stephenson, R. M Jr.
Stone, A. H.
Stone, M. H.
Strauss, D. P.
Tamano, H.
Tarski, A.
Terasaka, H.
Tong, H .
Tychonoff, A.
Urysohn, P.
Wallace, A. D.
Wallman, H.
Warner, S.
Weil, A.
Weir, M.
Willard, S.
Woods, R. G.
Wulbert, D. E.
Zenor, P.
AUTHOR INDEX
LIST OF SYMBOLS
y
M maximal ideal of C (X), 1.22
cl S closure of S
int S interior of S
Ss boundary of S
w
X Y homeomorphic, 8.18
^(P) tyP e of
ultrafilter, 3.41
ff
xv(p) relative type, 3.42
Ap z-ultrafilter, 1.32
ux Hewitt-Nachbin realcompactification, 1. 53
INDEX
PD:
as Stone space, 2.10
cellularity of D*, 5.10
density of D"*, 5.11
maps onto D*, 6.19
n-points of uD, 5.17
retractions of, 6B
uniform ultrafilters, 5.13-15
(3 IN:
as projective cover, 10.53
as Stone space, 2.10, 10.55
automorphisms of, 3.18-19
cardinality of, 3.2-7, 3.11
clopen sets of, 3.9-17
c
contains 2 disjoint copies of itself, 3.50, 8F
P-space, 1.60
not homogeneous, 3.18
pseudocompact subspaces of 8.3-4, 8J
unique extremally disconnected compactification, 5.21
weight of, 3.17
PQ, 2.14, 4.43, 9.4, 9.11
P3R, 1.54, 9.4, 9.11
P(X x Y) , 1.67, 8.12, 8.25
Baire Category Theorem, 4,18
base for closed sets, 1.7
Boolean algebra, 2.2.
complete, 2.2, 10.4, 10.59
generating set of, 2.17
injective, 10*59
475
C -pair, 8.7
proper C -pair, 8.7, 8.13, 8C
C-point, 4.16, 4.27
existence of, 4.23-24
C*-point, 4.16, 4.27
vs. P-point, 4.16
existence of, 4.23-24
Cantor separable, 2.20, 2.22, 2.24-26
category, 10.2
cellularity, 3.22, 5.1
of D*, 5. 10-11
of IN* , 3. 22
of X*, 5. 3, 5. 6-8
cluster point of filter, 1.18
compactification, 1.1, 6FG
as graph closures, 6H
maximal, 1.12, IE
one-point, 1.41, 1.59, IF, 10F
Stone-Cech, 1.1
Wallman, 1.19(b)
Wallman-type, 1.41
compact mapping, 10.32, 10.48, 101
completely regular spaces, 1.4
and normal base, 1.43
as subspaces of compact, 1*4
categorical context, 10.22, 10.24
projective, 10.52
476
YIN, 6. 16-17
growths as graph closures, 6H
growths of locally compact spaces, 6.14
ideal, 2.6
determined by a point, 2.7
maximal, 2.6
principal, 2.6
ideal type, 4.7-8, 4.10-11
irreducible mapping, 10.48-50, 101
isomorphism, 10.5
in Boolean algebras, 2.8
A, 6. 11, 6.18
IGO *, 9 . 2
lattice, 2.2
complete, 2.2
complemented, 2.2
distributive, 2.2, 2C
identities, 2A
inequalities, 2B
well-behaved, 9. 2
left-fitting hull, 10.37, 10.44-45, 10G
left-fitting subcategory, 10.36, 10.38
characterization, 10.38
epi-reflective hull of, 10.42-45
examples, 10.36, 10.39, 10.44
Lindelof space, ID, 2.13
closed projection, 8B
left-fitting, 10.39
479
IN:
C-embedded copy of, 4.5, 4.20, 4.32, 4.33
closed C-embedded copy of, 6.6
family of almost disjoint subsets of, 3.21, 10.30
growths of, 6.15, 6.16
IN-compact spaces, 10.24
480
0 P , 4.26-27
0* P , 4.26-28 |
one point compactification, 1.41, 1J59, 10F
and Stone spaces, 2h
Wallman-type, IF
P-pbint, 1.65
vs. C -point, 4.16
existence of, 4.29-31
and locally compact, 4.32
and non-homogeneity, 4.35
of IN*, 4A
P-spades, 1.65, 8.11
characterization, 8. 38
closed .projection, ' 8B
coreflective, 10B
vs. F-space, 1.66, 8.38
vs. Lindelof space, 8B
proper C -pair, 8.13
pseudocompact, 1.65
z-closed projection and, 8.9
paracompact space, 6.17
characterization, 8.36 |
not implied by separable normal, 6.17
left-fitting, 10. 39
partially ordered set, 2.2
perfect mapping, 10.32, 10.34-35
prime z-filter, 1.44, 1.45
producing relation, 3.48-3.50, 6.27^ 7.7
product, 10.15
in epireflective subcategories, 10.16
projective cover, 10.53-58
projective object, 10.46, 10.51-52, 10HJ
proximity, 1.68
482
regular space, 2F
relatively compact subset, 5.2
remote point, 4.37
characterization of, 4.40
existence of, 4.41, 4.42, 4.43
retraction, 6.5
retractive space, 6.5, 6.7-11
not productive, 8.23
product with compact, 8.22
subspace of, 6C
rigid space, 2.11, 2.14-15
ring of sets, 1.16, 1.35
ultrafilter, 1.18
uniform ultrafilter, 5.13-14
upper bound, 2.2
Urysohn* s Extension Theorem., 1.2
485
U) , 3. 39, 4. 1, 5.4
normal, 6.17
not paracompact, 6.17
uu x 8.23 :
.U) x (u)t + 1) , 7.4, 8. 37 ;
weight, 3.31 i
well behaved normed linear lattice, 9.2
• ••. i
•''"'••.. • i
X* = px\x, 1.53
any space can be a, 4.1, 4.3
and growths of locally compact spaces, 6.14
homeomorphic to X, 8.30
homogeneity of, 3.40
maximal growth, 6.13, 6FG
non-homogeneity of, 3.51, 4.12, 4.35
P-points of, 4.34
regular closed sets of, 2.16
zero-sets of, 4/21