Minerals: Industrial Vertical Stirred Mills Screw Liner Wear Profile Compared To Discrete Element Method Simulations

minerals
Article
Industrial Vertical Stirred Mills Screw Liner Wear Profile
Compared to Discrete Element Method Simulations
Priscila M. Esteves 1, *, Douglas B. Mazzinghy 1 , Roberto Galéry 1 and Luís C. R. Machado 2
1 Programa de Pós-Graduação em Engenharia Metalúrgica, Materiais e de Minas (PPGEM), Universidade

Federal de Minas Gerais (UFMG), Belo Horizonte 31270-901, Brazil; dmazzinghy@demin.ufmg.br (D.B.M.);
rgalery@demin.ufmg.br (R.G.)
2 Anglo American-Minas-Rio Project, Minas Gerais 35860-000, Brazil; luis.machado@angloamerican.com
* Correspondence: pmxesteves@gmail.com
Abstract: Vertical stirred mills have been widely applied in the minerals industry, due to its greater
efficiency in comparison with conventional tumbling mills. In this context, the agitator liner wear
plays an important role in maintenance planning and operational costs. In this paper, we use the
discrete element method (DEM) wear simulation to evaluate the screw liner wear. Three different
mill rotational velocities are evaluated in the simulation, according to different scale-up procedures.
The wear profile, wear measurement, power consumption, and particle contact information are used
for obtaining a better understanding of the wear behavior and its effects on grinding mechanisms.
Data from a vertical stirred mill screw liner wear measurement obtained in a full-scale mill are
used to correlate with simulation results. The results indicate a relative agreement with industrial
measurement in most of the liner lifecycle, when using a proper mill velocity scale-up.
Keywords: Vertimill; Tower Mill; liner wear; fine grinding; discrete element method

Citation: Esteves, P.M.; Mazzinghy,

D.B.; Galéry, R.; Machado, L.C.R.
Industrial Vertical Stirred Mills Screw 1. Introduction
Liner Wear Profile Compared to
The reduction of mineral deposits created the necessity for extracting more complex
Discrete Element Method Simulations.
minerals with reduced ore grades and grindability [1]. Consequently, there is an arising
Minerals 2021, 11, 397. https://
doi.org/10.3390/min11040397
need for processing reduced particle size that can propitiate the liberation of valuable
minerals for post concentration stages. In this context, additional power is required to
Academic Editor: Luís Marcelo achieve a finer grain size. Therefore, grinding and regrinding applications are increasing in
M. Tavares importance.
Received: 5 August 2020 At the same time, grinding is energy inefficient, and this is the main reason why
Accepted: 21 September 2020 it is pointed as responsible for around 34% to 44% of the energy required in a mineral
Published: 10 April 2021 processing plant [2,3]. The numbers are even more alarming if we consider the situation in
a global context. In the 1980s, grinding was responsible for around 3% to 4% of total world
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neu- electrical energy consumption [2], and more recently, this number was indicated as close
tral with regard to jurisdictional clai- to 1.8% [4]. In fact, Napier-Munn went beyond and argued that real energy consumption
ms in published maps and institutio- in grinding is even greater than those numbers, once consumption of liners and grinding
nal affiliations. media represents a large amount of extra energy. Regardless of which is the correct number,
it is conclusive that the grinding process is responsible for a significant portion of the
world’s power consumption.
Copyright: © 2021 by the authors. Li-
Given the rising importance of the representative energy consumption of grinding
censee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
equipment, it is very important to develop the process of improved energy efficiency.
This article is an open access article
In relation to this issue, Shi (2009) [5] demonstrated that the application of vertical stirred
distributed under the terms and con- mills presents the energy saving around 30% when compared to tumbling ball mills used
ditions of the Creative Commons At- for coarse grinding. By applying various methodologies, other researches confirmed the
tribution (CC BY) license (https:// obtained results and reinforced this better energy efficiency behavior for fine-grinding and
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ ultra-fine grinding applications. This behavior is the main reason why vertical stirred mills
4.0/). are pointing as trend equipment for fine-grinding and ultra-fine-grinding applications.
Minerals 2021, 11, 397. https://doi.org/10.3390/min11040397 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/minerals

Minerals 2021, 11, 397 2 of 20
Several approaches for vertical stirred mills modeling can be found in literature,
among which stand out the mechanistic approach, Discrete Element Method (DEM),
empirical models, and finally, the Population Balance Model (PBM). However, the un-
derstanding of the screw liner wear is not well developed yet.
As indicated by Esteves et al. [6], operational costs of vertical stirred mills are di-
vided into electrical energy (50%), balls (40%), and liners (10%). Liner wear intensifies
grinding media consumption, increases mill filling, and consequently, affects electrical
power consumption. Consequently, liner wear affects all operational costs components,
such as maintenance practices and equipment reliability. As highlighted by Allen and
Noriega [7], the understanding of liner wear life can also provide information that allows
best practices for maintenance schedules that can minimize spare parts and labor costs.
Consequently, a better understanding of wear behavior, such as monitoring methods can
precisely provide its measurement and/or prediction is a topic of great need in the mineral
processing industry. In this paper, DEM simulations are used to predict the screw liner
wear behavior of a vertical stirred mill.
Computational simulations based on DEM made many contributions to the science
of comminution since its first application by Mishra and Rajamani [8], for the simulation
and modeling of tumbling ball mills. According to Weerasekara et al. [9], since the last two
decades, the DEM became an essential tool to help design, optimization, and modeling of
comminution devices. More recently, there is also an increasing interest in applying the
method for the prediction of liners and lifters wear, such as its effects on load behavior.
As there is no available information about how to determine and quantify wear
for vertical stirred mills, the approach is based on what is presented for other grinding
equipment. The understanding of liner and lifters wear, especially in tumbling mills, is not
a new subject in the area, and several papers are found addressing this issue.
In the specific case of wear evaluation, Cleary [10] proposed a method that used
DEM to predict liner wear rates and distribution in a 5.0 m diameter ball mill. With
a similar approach, Cleary and Owen [11] evaluated wear in a 3D slice of a SAG mill,
and finally, Cleary, Sinnott, and Morrison [12] performed an evaluation and comparison
between wear in tower and pin mills. Kalala and Moys [13] used DEM to estimate adhesion,
abrasion, and impact wear in dry ball mills with further validation with industrial wear
measurement. Later, Kalala, Bwalya, and Moys [14] validated the use of DEM for wear
prediction in mill liners by comparing normal and tangential forces between experimental
data and DEM simulations. More recently, Cleary and Owen [15] simulated liner wear
evolution in a Hicom Mill and was able to convert DEM abrasion measurements in a wear
rate measurement that was calibrated with experimental data. Boemer and Ponthot [16]
established a generic wear prediction procedure applying DEM to a 3D ball mill and
validated the results with experimental data obtained in a 5.8 m diameter industrial cement
ball. Finally, Xu et al. [17] obtained a numerical prediction of wear in SAG mills using
DEM simulations that were quantitatively validated by experiment data available in other
researches. In fact, the use of DEM for wear prediction in SAG mills reached such a high
level that has recently been used to evaluate operational strategies to account for liner wear.
For the specific case of vertical stirred mills, DEM was first applied by Cleary, Sinnott,
and Morrison [12] to investigate the relative performance of stirred mills with two different
agitator designs. The paper analysis media flow, energy absorption, flow structures,
wear, mixing, and transport efficiency, and allows a good and wide understanding of the
performance of vertical stirred mills. For the case of the screw agitator, it can be seen that
media motion is a simultaneously lifting and circulating movement inside the equipment.
The simulations indicate that the collisional energy associated with media motion is mostly
dominated by shear. In relation to media-media and media-liner interactions, shear energy
represents more than three times the impact energy. Based on shear energy absorptions, the
author infers that the equipment wear is dominated by abrasion and is more intensive on
the outer radial edge of the screw. In a slightly different approach, Morrison, Cleary, and
Sinnott [18] used DEM to compare the energy efficiency between the ball and vertical stirred
Minerals 2021, 11, 397 3 of 20
mills in pilot-scale and proposed that the higher efficiency associated with the stirred mill
can be explained by analyzing energy spectra associated with collisions frequencies inside
the mill. Therefore, the higher energy efficiency of the vertical mill can be explained by
the presence of a great number of contacts of low energy. Sinott, Cleary, and Morrison [19]
applied DEM to understand how flow and energy are affected by media shape in stirred
mills, concluding that grinding performance tends to significantly deteriorate when using
non-spherical media. By analyzing rates of shear power absorption, the author also
proposes that the increase in non-sphericity of the media can significantly intensify the
screws’ wear.
In a different approach, Sinott, Cleary, and Morrison [20] evaluated slurry transport
inside the mill using the SPH (Smoothed Particle Hydrodynamics) method and based
on DEM simulations. Allen and Noriega [7] applied DEM with SPH to understand the
screw liner wear. The results demonstrate that shear power is more intensive at the screw
outside edges and at the bottom of the mill. This explains why the screw wears from the
outside to inside and from the bottom to the top, such as have been seen in the industry.
In addition, results indicate that shear power is exponentially related to screw diameter,
and consequently, worn screws tend to wear slower as they present smaller diameters.
Based on this description, it is possible to note that although DEM is widely applied in the
understanding and evaluation of vertical stirred mills performance, the liner wear topic is
still superficially approached.
To summarize, the use of DEM to evaluate liner wear in tumbling mills came from
a quantitative evaluation and evolved another level. Nowadays, DEM can predict and
quantify the wear in SAG and Ball mills, being used in the optimization of materials and
operational parameters. Unfortunately, for the case of the vertical stirred mills, the studies
are still preliminary and qualitative. Solving this issue requires more in-depth studies and
validation with experimental data.
In this paper, the simulation results were compared with industrial measurements
performed in Minas Rio Project, an iron ore beneficiation plant of Anglo American, which
is in Minas Gerais State, in Brazil. An empirical evaluation of wear is an important
tool for validation and calibration of modeling techniques, such as performed by some
researches [13,15–17,21,22] for several types of grinding equipment. However, there are
few available information about how to determine and quantify wear for vertical stirred
mills. Based on that, the approach is based on what is presented for other mills.
The understanding of liner and lifters wear in tumbling mills is not a new subject in the
area, and several papers are found addressing this topic. In the case of tumbling mills, the
wear profile is commonly estimated in two-dimensional methods, taking the assumption
that wear has a uniform profile. More recently, with the advent of new technologies, it is
easier to perform three-dimensional measurements, and there are also highly sophisticated
devices available [16]. Three-dimensional measurements are being widely used to calculate
wear on the surface of liners in grinding equipment, and the technique was successfully
used for SAG mills [17,23], and also for a Hicom Mill [15].
2. Gravity Induced Stirred Mill

Vertical stirred mills are grinding equipment applied for comminution, especially for
fine grinding in regrinding applications where feed material is under 1mm. The main
parts of the equipment are the grinding chamber, internal liner, screw impeller, screw liner,
motor engine, ball feeder, slurry feeder, and the discharge, as shown in Figure 1.
Minerals 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 21
Minerals 2021, 11, 397 4 of 20

Figure 1. Vertical stirred mill components [24].
Figure 2 emphasizes the screw impeller, such as its liner parts. As the screw impeller is
Figure 1.Figure 1. Vertical
Vertical stirred stirred mill components
mill components [24]. [24].
responsible for media motion and
Figure is currently
1. Vertical in contact
stirred mill componentswith media and slurry, it suffers intensive
[24].
wear. Due to Figure
the wear, liner parts
2 emphasizes required
the
Figure screw periodic such
impeller,
2 emphasizes replacement.
the The
as itsimpeller,
screw liner liner
parts.
such Asis divided
asthe liner into
its screw several
impeller
parts. As isthe screw impeller
Figure 2 emphasizes
responsible for the
media
parts, allowing the substitution screw
motion impeller,
and is
to be performed such
currentlyas its
in liner
contact
differently,parts.
with As
media
according the
andscrew impeller
slurry, it is
suffers intensive
is responsible for media motion and is currentlyto in the wear
contact pattern.
with media The
and slurry, it suffers
responsible for media tomotion andliner
number wear.
of Due
parts dependsthe wear,
on theisequipment
currently
intensive parts
wear.
in contact
required
supplier
Due to
with media
periodic
theand on the
wear,
and slurry,
replacement.
linerequipment
parts
itliner
Therequiredsuffers
size. intensive
is divided
The into
liner
periodic several
parts are
replacement. The liner is
wear. Dueparts,
to theallowing
wear, liner
the parts required
substitution toperiodic
be replacement.
performed The
differently, liner is
accordingdivided to into
the several
wear pattern. The
attached to the screw and protect divided it from wear. parts, allowing the substitution to be performed differently, according
into several
parts, allowing
number the
of substitution
parts depends to be theperformed differently, according
on the to the wear pattern. The parts are
to theonwear equipment
pattern. The supplier and
number of partsequipment
depends size. on the The liner
equipment supplier and on the
number ofattached
parts depends on the equipment supplier
to the screw and protect it from wear. and on the equipment size. The liner parts are
equipment
attached to the screw and protect it from wear.
size. The liner parts are attached to the screw and protect it from wear.
Figure 2. Vertical stirred mill screw liner parts [24].

Figure
Figure 2.
2. Vertical
Vertical stirred
stirred mill
mill screw
screw liner
liner parts
parts [24].
[24].
Figure 2. Vertical stirred mill screw liner parts [24].
Figure 3 shows the expected wear shape of the base liner part. From that, it is possible to note
Figure33shows
Figure showsthethe expected
expected wear
Figure
wear 3shape
shape of theofthe
shows theexpected
base basepart.
liner liner part.
wear
From From
shape of that,
it isthe it isliner
base possible
part. to notethat, it is possible
From
that the liner does not suffer homogeneous wear. In this sense, itthat,
is expected possible to
that the note
bottom part of
that the liner
that the liner does
the does not
not suffer
liner suffers
to
suffer note
homogeneous
more
that
homogeneous
intensive wear
the liner
wear.wear. does
In
In this
at the
not
this suffer
sense, homogeneous
it is expected wear.
that the
sense, it is expected that the bottom part of
edges.
In this
bottom sense,
part it is expected that
of
the linersuffers
the liner suffersmore
more the
intensive
intensive bottom
wear
wear part of
at edges.
at the the
the edges. liner suffers more intensive wear at the edges.
Figure 3. Wear pattern for the bottom liner [25].

Figure 3. Wear pattern for the bottom liner [25].
Figure3.3.Wear
Figure Wearpattern
patternfor
forthe
thebottom
bottomliner
liner[25].
[25].
Minerals 2021, 11, 397 5 of 20
As the liner wears, the total surface area decreases, and consequently, both media motion and
As the liner wears, the total surface area decreases, and consequently, both media
power draw decrease.motionIn and
thepower
operational context,
draw decrease. In thethe liner wear
operational compensation
context, is performed by
the liner wear compensation
adding additional grinding
is performed media to keep
by adding constant
additional grinding power draw.
media to In this power
keep constant sense,draw. the Inliner
this wear
sense, the liner wear measurement can be estimated and accomplished
measurement can be estimated and accomplished by measuring mill filling. Although this provides by measuring mill
filling. Although this provides an idea about wear conditions, visual inspections of the
an idea about wear liner
conditions, visual
are necessary. inspections
For this inspection,of the liner are to
it is necessary necessary.
completelyForempty thistheinspection,
mill, in a it is
necessary to completely empty
very effort andthe mill, in a very
time-consuming effort and time-consuming inspection.
inspection.
Figure 4 shows the screw
Figure 4 shows the screw liner after completely liner afteremptying
completely the
emptying
mill. Itthecan
mill.be
It seen
can bethe
seendifference
the
difference between a new and an old liner of the VTM-1500. The figure on the left side
between a new andshowsan old liner of the VTM-1500. The figure on the left side shows a liner with
a liner with intensive wear, and the right side shows the replaced liner. From the
intensive wear, andfigure,
the right
it canside showsthat
be inferred thewear
replaced liner. From
predominates at the the figure,
bottom it canofbetheinferred
and edges screw, that
wear predominates at the bottom and edges of the screw, causing a great decrease in the screw area.
causing a great decrease in the screw area.
Figure
Figure 4. Left: Screw 4. Left:
liner withScrew liner with
intensive intensive
wear at thewear at the bottom.
bottom. Right: screw
Right: New New screw
linerliner
[6].[6].
Based on what was presented, the aim of this paper is to gather what has already been
Based on what was presented,
discussed the aim
on the subject andof this
also paper isthe
to propose touse
gather what
of DEM has already
for evaluating the been discussed
liner wear
on the subject and also to apropose
during complete the
lineruse of DEM for evaluating the liner wear during a complete
lifecycle.
liner lifecycle. 3. Methodology
3.1. Dem Model Setup
3. Methodology DEM simulations were performed using the Rocky 4.2.2 software (ESSS, Florianópolis,
Brazil). A 1:10 scale version of the Metso Vertimill VTM-1500 (Metso, Helsinki, Finland)
3.1. Dem Model Setupwas simulated. Table 1 and Figure 5 shows geometry dimensions and screw design.
DEM simulations Tablewere performed
1. Dimensions using parameters
and operation the Rocky 4.2.2 software
of VTM-1500 (ESSS, Florianópolis,
and its scaled-down Brazil).
version considered
in the discrete element method (DEM) simulations.
A 1:10 scale version of the Metso Vertimill VTM-1500 (Metso, Helsinki, Finland) was simulated. Table
1 and Figure 5 shows geometryMill dimensions and screw design.
VTM-1500 Scaled Down (Simulated)
Scale 1/1 1/10
Screwoperation
Table 1. Dimensions and Diameter (mm) 3300 and its scaled-down version
parameters of VTM-1500 330 considered
Ball load (kg) 80,000 80
in the discrete element method (DEM) simulations.
Mill filling 80% 80%
Mill VTM-1500 Scaled Down (Simulated)

Scale 1/1 1/10
Screw Diameter (mm) 3300 330
Ball load (kg) 80,000 80
Mill filling 80% 80%
Minerals 2021, 11, 397 6 of 20
Figure 5. Vertimill 1:10 scale of the VTM-1500.

Figure 5. Vertimill 1:10 scale of the VTM-1500.
The contact models used in the simulations were Linear Hysteresis for normal forces
The contact models usedandinElastic
the simulations
Coulomb were Linear Hysteresis
for tangential for normal
forces [26]. Table 2forces and Elastic
summarizes the contact model
Coulomb for tangential forces [26]. Table 2 summarizes the contact model parameters and
parameters and materials properties setup used for the simulation.materials
properties setup used for the simulation.
Table 2. Material and contact parameters used in the DEM simulations.
Table 2. Material and contact parameters used in the DEM simulations.
Variable Value
Variable Value
Young’s Modulus (Pa) 1 × 1011
Young’s Modulus
Density (kg/m (Pa)
3) 1 × 1011 7850
Density (kg/m
Poisson’s 3 )
Ratio 7850 0.3
CoefficientPoisson’s
of Static Friction
Ratio (particle-particle) 0.3 0.7
Coefficient
Coefficient of of Dynamic
Static Friction Friction
(particle-particle) 0.7 0.7
(particle-particle)
Coefficient of Dynamic Friction
Coefficient of Static(particle-particle)
Friction 0.7
Coefficient of Static(particle-geometry)
Friction (particle-geometry) 0.3 0.3
Coefficient of Dynamic
CoefficientFriction (particle-geometry)
of Dynamic Friction 0.3 0.3
(particle-geometry)
Restitution coefficient 0.3
Restitution coefficient 0.3
The simulation was performed only considering grinding media in the grinding environments,
in the absence of slurry and ore Theparticles.
simulation was
This canperformed only for
be acceptable considering
the process grinding
where media
the orein the grinding
contributions for breakageenvironments,
are negligible,insuchthe absence
as in theofvertical
slurry and
stirredoremills,
particles.
where This
thecan be acceptable for the
breakage
mechanisms are mainly created by the energy involved in grinding media collisions. However, it as
process where the ore contributions for breakage are negligible, such is in the vertical
stirred mills, where the breakage mechanisms are mainly
also known that grinding media interaction is affected by ore and slurry properties. Consequently, created by the energy involved in
grinding media collisions. However, it is also known that grinding media interaction is
both solids concentration and particle size distribution can affect power consumption and grinding
affected by ore and slurry properties. Consequently, both solids concentration and particle
performance. To approximate the slurry effect in the grinding environment, the shear modulus was
size distribution can affect power consumption and grinding performance. To approximate
reduced, thus making contact between balls softer, in comparison to steel-steel contact (Steel: 200
the slurry effect in the grinding environment, the shear modulus was reduced, thus making
Gpa). This approximates tocontact
the orebetween
and slurry interactions
balls softer, in behavior.
comparison to steel-steel contact (Steel: 200 Gpa). This
In relation to the millapproximates
rotational speed, three
to the ore and different
slurryvelocities
interactions were simulated: 87 rpm, 130
behavior.
rpm, and 190 rpm. The 87 rpm In wasrelation
obtained based on a model for velocity scale-up,
to the mill rotational speed, three different as proposed
velocitiesby
were simulated:
Mazzinghy et al. [27] and adapted
87 rpm, by130Esteves
rpm, and et al.
190[28]. TheThe
rpm. model is based
87 rpm was on an equipment
obtained based on dataset
a model for velocity
and consists of a more recent approach
scale-up, for velocity
as proposed by scale-up.
Mazzinghy Theet190al. rpm is obtained
[27] and adapted considering
by Estevesaet al. [28]. The
model
fixed tip speed of 3.5 m/s for is based
the mill on anThis
agitator. equipment dataset
is the usual and consists
method of a more
for velocity recent
scale-up and approach
was for velocity
scale-up. The 190 rpm is obtained considering a fixed
widely applied for reduced scale equipment test work and simulation. The 130 rpm was obtained as tip speed of 3.5 m/s for the mill
an intermediary velocity inagitator.
between This
theistwo
thescale-up
usual method for velocity scale-up and was widely applied for reduced
approaches.
scale equipment test work and simulation. The 130 rpm was obtained as an intermediary
3.2. Dem Outputs velocity in between the two scale-up approaches.
During the simulation, the interaction between particles and geometry is individually described
by first physical principles, according to the contact model defined. This information is saved during
each simulation step and is further used to generate the simulation outputs, such as: particle energy
Minerals 2021, 11, 397 7 of 20
3.2. Dem Outputs

During the simulation, the interaction between particles and geometry is individually
described by first physical principles, according to the contact model defined. This infor-
mation is saved during each simulation step and is further used to generate the simulation
outputs, such as: particle energy spectra, particle trajectory, particle absolute translational
velocity,
spectra, particle power
trajectory, consumption,
particle and wear design.
absolute translational velocity, power consumption, and wear
design.
3.3. Wear Model
3.3. Wear Model The Archard’s wear law, together with the DEM outputs, were used to quantify liner
boundary wear. The wear quantification is realized step by step, and this information is
The Archard’s wear law, together with the DEM outputs, were used to quantify liner boundary
used to currently update the liner shape during the simulation. The Archard’s wear law is
wear. The wear quantification is realized step by step, and this information is used to currently
presented by Equation (1) [26]:
update the liner shape during the simulation. The Archard’s wear law is presented by equation (1)
[26]: A. dh = K. dw (1)
where A is the surface area of 2
𝐴.a𝑑ℎboundary
= 𝐾. 𝑑𝑤 element (m ), h is the loss in depth(1) (m), w is the
shear work (J), and K is the wear rate (m /J). 3
where A is the surface
The area of a boundary
incremental loss element
in depth (m²), h is theofloss
consists theinamount
depth (m),
of w is the
wear shear workin the liner
generated
(J), and K is the wear rate (m3/J).
surface. This information is used to currently update the liner shape and volume. The
The incremental loss in depth consists of the amount of wear generated in the liner surface. This
shear work consists of the DEM shear outputs. In this sense, the DEM shear stress results
information is used to currently update the liner shape and volume. The shear work consists of the
for the interaction between the liner and grinding media are used to continuously quantify
DEM shear outputs. In this sense, the DEM shear stress results for the interaction between the liner
the boundary wear. The wear factor is defined as the relationship between the contact
and grinding media are used to continuously quantify the boundary wear. The wear factor is defined
energy and the amount of lost surface. A wear factor of 1 × 10−6 m3 /J was established for
as the relationship between the contact energy and the amount of lost surface. A wear factor of 1 ×
the simulation. This indicated the amount of volume that is lost according to the energy
10−6 m3/J was established for the simulation. This indicated the amount of volume that is lost
amount involved at each contact between grinding media and liner. The increase of these
according to the energy amount involved at each contact between grinding media and liner. The
parameters
increase of these parameters cancan
extremely
extremely accelerate
acceleratethe
thewear
wear ratio. Althoughthe
ratio. Although theuse
useof of greater values
greater
can accelerate
values can accelerate the obtaining
the obtaining of a wearofsurface,
a wearitsurface,
can also it can also
generate generatedamages
unwanted unwanted damages on
on the
the surface that are not in accordance with reality. Whereas the use
surface that are not in accordance with reality. Whereas the use of very small factors can bring the of very small factors
can bring the need for a very long simulation to obtain representatives
need for a very long simulation to obtain representatives wear information. In the present case, wear information.
several values In were
the present case, the
tested, until several values
obtaining of were tested,
a feasible until
shape forthe
theobtaining
wear. As aofresult,
a feasible
it is shape for
the wear. As a result, it is necessary
necessary to adapt to the simulation and real time. to adapt to the simulation and real time.
3.4. Boundary3.4. Boundary Definition

Definition
The boundary definition of the geometrical mesh directly affects the computational
The boundary definition of the geometrical mesh directly affects the computational cost to run
cost to run the wear simulation, such as the wear results. Figure 6 shows the effect of
the wear simulation, such as the wear results. Figure 6 shows the effect of triangle size in mesh
refinement. triangle size in mesh refinement.
Figure 6. Boundary
Figure definition
6. Boundary forfor
definition the
thegeometrical
geometrical mesh ofthe
mesh of thewear
wearparts
parts [29]
[29]
The defining The defining

of greater of greater
triangle triangle sizes
sizes decreases decreases
the total number the
oftotal number
triangles and of triangles
creates a badand creates
refinement fora bad refinement
the mesh, for the
decreasing themesh, decreasing
computational the computational
simulation simulation
cost. Contrastingly, the cost. Contrastingly,
existence
the existence
of smaller triangle of smaller
sizes highly triangle
increases sizes of
the number highly increases
triangles, thethe
refining number of triangles,
geometrical mesh and refining the
causing a representative increase in the computational simulation cost. Figure 7 shows the effect of
mesh refinement in the wear simulation results.
Minerals 2021, 11, 397 8 of 20
geometrical mesh and causing a representative increase in the computational simulation

cost. Figure 7 shows the effect of mesh refinement in the wear simulation 8results.
Minerals 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW of 21
Figure 7. Effect of boundary

Figure 7. Effect definition
of boundaryanddefinition
mesh refinement inrefinement
and mesh the obtained
in wear pattern wear
the obtained [29]. pattern [29].
It is possible to note the

It isfinal wearto
possible shape
note is affected
the by ashape
final wear refinement degree.
is affected by aInrefinement
this sense,degree.
the In this
existence of a more refined
sense,mesh brings a better
the existence of a more wearrefined
resolution
mesh inbrings
the final geometry
a better wearofresolution
the object.in the final
Figure 7. Effect of boundary definition and mesh refinement in the obtained wear pattern [29].
However, as finer meshesgeometry of the object. However,
representatively as finer meshescost,
increase computational representatively increase computational
it is very important to
cost, it is
investigate the sensitivity of mesh very important
refinement
It is possible to investigate
to notedegree, the
to obtain
the final wear shape asensitivity
is reasonable of mesh refinement
balance between
affected by a refinement degree,
degree. In wear to the
this sense, obtain
a reasonable
resolution and feasibility ofexistence balance between
of a more refined
computational wear resolution and feasibility of computational cost
mesh brings a better wear resolution in the final geometry of the object.
cost [26]. [26].
However, as finer meshes representatively increase computational cost, it is very important to
3.5. Industrial
investigate Wear Measurement
the sensitivity of mesh refinement degree, to obtain a reasonable balance between wear
3.5. Industrial Wear Measurement
resolution and feasibility of computational cost [26].
The industrial measurements presented were obtained by Silva [30] from the regrind-
The industrial measurements
ing circuit of presented
theWear
Minas-Riowere obtained
project, which by is
Silva [30] ore
an iron from thefrom
plant regrinding circuit
Anglo American located
3.5. Industrial Measurement
of the Minas-Rio project, which
in the is an iron
southeast region oreofplant
Brazil. from
TheAnglo American
regrinding circuitlocated in the southeast
is composed of two parallel lines,
The industrial measurements presented were obtained by Silva [30] from the regrinding circuit
region of Brazil. The regrinding
eachofone circuit
with is composed
eight VTM-1500. ofThe
tworegrinding
parallel lines, each one
product with eight
is specified withVTM-
a P80 of 36 µm,
the Minas-Rio project, which is an iron ore plant from Anglo American located in the southeast
1500. The regrinding product is
mill capacity specified
as 190 with
t/h pera P
region of Brazil. The regrinding circuit is composed of two parallel lines, each one withand
mill,
80 of 36
and µm, mill
finally, capacity
specific as
energy 190ist/h per mill,
established as 5.9 kWh/t.
eight VTM-
The Theprocess
finally, specific energy is established
1500. as flowsheet
productisisindicated
5.9 kWh/t.
regrinding in Figure
specified with 8 µm,
a P80 of 36 andmill
shows thatasthe
capacity 190 regrinding
t/h per mill, andcircuit
is located
The process flowsheet finally, downstream
specific energy
is indicated isofestablished
in Figure the flotation
8 and as plant
that[27].
5.9 kWh/t.
shows Thus, the regrinding
the regrinding plant is fed with
circuit is located
concentrate The process flowsheet is indicated
tends toinpresent
Figure 8 greater
and shows that the regrinding circuit is located and
downstream of the flotation plant material,
[27]. Thus, which
the regrinding plant is fed with stability in relation
concentrate to density
material,
downstream of the flotation plant [27]. Thus, the regrinding plant is fed with concentrate material,
which tends to presentsolids
greaterconcentrate.
whichstability inThis createsdensity
relation
tends to present greaterto
the perfect space to
and solids
stability in relation
use this data
concentrate.
to density
ascreates
This input for
and solids concentrate. Thisthe
simulation
creates the
validation.
perfect space to use this data as input
perfect for
space to usesimulation validation.
this data as input for simulation validation.
Figure 8. Minas-Rio process flowsheet [27].


Minerals 2021, 11, 397 9 of 20
The wear measurements

The wear measurements were performed
were performed for the basefor the
andbase and intermediate
intermediate lineratparts
liner parts at
three
three different liner lifetimes: 0 h, 1000 h, 2000 h and 3000 h. The measurement
different liner lifetimes: 0 h, 1000 h, 2000 h and 3000 h. The measurement was performed using a was per-
formedlaser
three-dimensional usingscanning
a three-dimensional laser scanning
technique. Performing technique. Performing
the measurement required the measurement
to complete stop
required to complete stop
and unload the mill, as shown in Figure 9. and unload the mill, as shown in Figure 9.
Figure
Figure9.9.Scanning
Scanningprocedure
procedureto
toobtain
obtainaathree-dimensional
three-dimensionalmeasurement
measurement of
of liner
liner parts
parts [30].
[30].
After unloading
After the mill, a laser
unloading device
the mill, anddevice
a laser a reception sensor are
and a reception usedare
sensor to capture data that
used to capture is
data
that is used to generate a three-dimensional geometry of the worn parts.
used to generate a three-dimensional geometry of the worn parts. The generated geometry is then The generated
geometry
compared with the newis then
linercompared
model, in with the newsystem.
a coordinate liner model, in a coordinate system.
The gapswith
The gaps associated associated with geometrical
geometrical positions arepositions are usedato
used to generate generate a dimensional
dimensional report and a
deviation map, which are later converted into wear quantification. The wear measurements The
report and a deviation map, which are later converted into wear quantification. wear
obtained
measurements obtained on the VTM-1500 will be presented and used
on the VTM-1500 will be presented and used for the comparison to DEM wear simulations. for the comparison
to DEM wear simulations.
3.6. Wear Model
3.6. Wear Model
The industrialThewear measurements
industrial were compared
wear measurements were with the DEM
compared withsimulation results. For
the DEM simulation that,
results.
three-dimensional
For that,geometries of the agitator
three-dimensional screw were
geometries exported
of the agitatoratscrew
different
weresimulation
exported times. Each
at different
geometry was simulation
sliced intimes. Each
different geometry
liner wasas
parts, such sliced in different
the industrial liner parts,
VTM-1500 such The
design. as the indus-
Meshlab
software was trial VTM-1500
used design.
to calculate The Meshlab
the volume software
of base was used to
and intermediate calculate
worn liners,the
thusvolume of base
generating a
and intermediate worn liners, thus
relationship between liner volume and simulation time. generating a relationship between liner volume and
simulation
This result was thentime.
compared with industrial wear measurement of the full scale VTM-1500. A
liner fitting was established was
This result then compared
to correlate with industrial
DEM simulation time (inwear measurement
seconds) of the full
and operational timescale
(in
VTM-1500. A liner fitting was established to correlate DEM simulation time (in seconds)
hours). This scale-up factor was obtained for each simulation, at different agitator velocities. Finally,
and operational time (in hours). This scale-up factor was obtained for each simulation,
the scale-up factor and wear simulation are combined, to predict base and intermediate liners wear.
at different agitator velocities. Finally, the scale-up factor and wear simulation are com-
The prediction can then be compared with industrial measurement. The explained process is shown
bined, to predict base and intermediate liners wear. The prediction can then be compared
in Figure 10.with industrial measurement. The explained process is shown in Figure 10.
Minerals 2021, 11, 397 10 of 20
Figure 10. A flowchart Figure A flowchart

10. the
explaining explaining
wear model the wear
development model
based on thedevelopment
DEM model based on the DEM model and
and VTM-
1500 equipment. VTM-1500 equipment.
4. Results
4. Results
Results are divided into four sections: Steady-state simulation results, wear simulation
results,
Results are divided into fourVTM-1500 wear measurements,
sections: Steady-state simulation andresults,
finally,wear
the DEM wear model
simulation prediction. The
results,
VTM-1500 wear measurements, steady-state
andsimulation
finally, the results
DEMarewearshown in theprediction.
model initial section,
Theassteady-state
well as the present results
simulation results are shownthatinwere obtained
the initial at the
section, as beginning
well as the of the simulation,
present results thatafter
wereaobtained
minimum at of three mill
the beginning of the simulation, after a minimum of three mill revolutions and before the beginningas steady-state
revolutions and before the beginning of the wear simulation. This is defined
of the wear simulation. Thissimulation andasaims
is defined to understand
steady-state the mill
simulation andbehavior before wear.theThe
aims to understand millsecond section
presents results obtained during the wear simulation, after wear parameters were settled.
behavior before wear. The second section presents results obtained during the wear simulation, after
This comprises of evaluating the simulation outputs, such as wear quantification. The
wear parameters were settled. This comprises of evaluating the simulation outputs, such as wear
VTM-1500 wear measurement consists of the next stage and is focused on presenting and
quantification. The VTM-1500 wear measurement consists of the next stage and is focused on
adapting industrial wear measurements presented by Silva [30]. Finally, the last section
presenting and adaptingcomprises
industrial the
wear measurements
correlation between presented
industrialbyandSilva [30]. Finally,
simulated wear the last such as the
patterns,
section comprises the correlation between industrial and simulated wear patterns,
presentation of the wear model prediction. This is performed for the three such as the different mill
presentation of the wear agitator
model prediction.
velocities. This is performed for the three different mill agitator
velocities.
4.1. Steady-State Simulation
4.1. Steady-State Simulation4.1.1. Particle Trajectory
Figure 11 shows the particle trajectory colored as a function of particle absolute
4.1.1. Particle Trajectory translational velocity, for the three agitator velocities. A red box was constructed in the
Figure 11 shows thesurrounding area ofcolored
particle trajectory the particle
as a trajectory,
function of forparticle
the 190 absolute
rpm condition. By placing the same
translational
box over the particle trajectory of the mills operating at 130 rpm and 87 rpm, it noticeable
velocity, for the three agitator velocities. A red box was constructed in the surrounding area of the
that the top part of the box is not filled with trajectory streaming lines. This means that
particle trajectory, for the 190 rpm condition. By placing the same box over the particle trajectory of
the media motion height range is reduced when reducing mill velocity. In other words,
the mills operating at 130itrpm and 87that
indicates rpm,byitincreasing
noticeablemillthatvelocity,
the top the
partupper
of theparts
box isofnot
thefilled with activated.
mill were
trajectory streaming lines. This means that the media motion height range is reduced when reducing
mill velocity. In other words, it indicates that by increasing mill velocity, the upper parts of the mill
were activated.
Minerals 2021, 11, 397

mill velocity. In other words, it indicates that by increasing mill velocity, the upper parts of the 11mill
of 20
were activated.
Figure 11. Particle trajectory at different mill rotational velocities.
A dashed red line is placed at the bottom part of the mill. It is visible that streaming lines are
also reduced in this bottom area. Because of the reduced motion, this area is identified as “dead zone”.
Figure Figure
11. Particle trajectory
11. Particle at at
trajectory different
different mill rotational
mill rotational velocities.
velocities.
The velocity reduction, and thus, the dead zone effect is intensified for reduced mill velocities. This
is in accordance with the velocity
A dashed behavior
red line isatplaced
the mill
at thetop zone.
bottom partBased on that,
of the mill. it wasthat
It is visible verified
streamingthat
A dashed red line is placed
lines at
are the
also bottom
reduced part
in this of the
bottom mill.
area. It is visible
Because of that
the streaming
reduced motion,lines
this are
area
agitator rotational velocity has a direct effect on the particle trajectory distribution, over the complete
also reduced in this bottom isarea. Because
identified of thezone”.
as “dead reduced Themotion, this area is
velocity reduction, andidentified
thus, the as “dead
dead zonezone”.
effect is
height of the mill.
The velocity reduction, and thus, the dead zone effect is intensified for reduced mill velocities. Thisat
intensified for reduced mill velocities. This is in accordance with the velocity behavior
the mill top zone. Based on that, it was verified that agitator rotational velocity has a direct
is in accordance with the velocity behavior at the mill top zone. Based on that, it was verified that
4.1.2. Particle Velocity and Power
effect on the particle trajectory distribution, over the complete height of the mill.
agitator rotational velocity has a direct effect on the particle trajectory distribution, over the complete
height ofFigure 12 shows the4.1.2.
the mill. Particle
particle Velocitytranslational
average and Power velocity and simulation power as a function
of mill rotational speed. It isFigure 12 showsthat
conclusive the particle average translational
both particle velocity and velocity
powerand increases
simulation power as
with mill
a function of mill rotational speed. It is conclusive that both particle velocity and power
speed.
4.1.2. ThisVelocity
Particle demonstrates that the
and increases
Power agitator rotational velocity influences the overall mill power and
with mill speed. This demonstrates that the agitator rotational velocity influences
grinding media kinetic energy, thus
the overall millhaving
power and a direct relation
grinding mediain the energy
kinetic thathaving
energy, thus can be transferred
relationinto
Figure 12 shows the particle average translational velocity and simulation powera direct
as a function in
breakage mechanisms. the energy that can be transferred into breakage mechanisms.
of mill rotational speed. It is conclusive that both particle velocity and power increases with mill
speed. This demonstrates
1 that the agitator rotational velocity 1500 influences the overall mill power and
y = 6.130x
Translational Velocity (m/s)
grinding media kinetic energy, thus having a direct relation in the energy that can be transferred into
0.8
breakage mechanisms. y = 0.0045x 1200 R² = 0.917
R² = 0.7637
Power (W)
10.6 1500900
y = 6.130x
Translational Velocity (m/s)
0.80.4 y = 0.0045x 1200600 R² = 0.917

R² = 0.7637
Power (W)
0.60.2 900300
0.4 0 600 0
0 50 100 150 200 0 50 100 150 200 250
0.2 Rotational Speed (rpm) 300 Rotational Speed (rpm)
Figure 12.0 Left: The relationship between agitator speed and particle
0 average translational velocity (m/s). Right: The
Figure 12. Left: The relationship between agitator speed and particle average translational velocity
0
relationship between 50
agitator 100 150
speed and 200power (W).
simulation 0 50 100 150 200 250
(m/s). Right: The relationship between agitator speed and simulation power (W).
Rotational Speed (rpm) Rotational Speed (rpm)
4.1.3. Particle Spectrum
The collision
Figure 12. Left: The relationship betweenfrequency
agitator distribution
speed and of particleaverage
particle specific energy was plotted
translational for normal
velocity
TheRight:
collision and tangential
frequencybetween particle
distribution contact
ofspeed in
particle Figure 13. This
specific energyrepresents the collisions statistics for
(m/s). The relationship agitator and simulation power was
(W). plotted for normal and
specific energy that are applied to particles per time unit. The x axis indicates the specific
tangential particle contact in Figure 13. This represents the collisions statistics for specific energy that
energy of contact, which means the amount of energy that is transferred per mass of
areParticle
4.1.3. appliedSpectrum
to particles per time unit.
grinding media.TheThex yaxis
axisindicates thenumber
indicates the specificofenergy
contactsofper
contact,
unit of which
time, atmeans
each
the amount of energy that specific energy level.
is transferred per mass of grinding media. The y axis indicates the number
The collision frequency distribution of particle specific energy was plotted for normal and
of contacts per unit of time, at each specific energy level.
tangential particle contact in Figure 13. This represents the collisions statistics for specific energy that
are applied to particles per time unit. The x axis indicates the specific energy of contact, which means
the amount of energy that is transferred per mass of grinding media. The y axis indicates the number
of contacts per unit of time, at each specific energy level.
Minerals 2021, 11, 397 12 of 20
Figure 13. Particle collision spectra for normal (left) and shear (right) contact at different operational velocities.
Figure 13. Particle collision spectra for normal (left) and shear (right) contact at different operational
velocities. The wider specific energy distribution is observed for normal contact, in comparison
to the shear contact distribution. This means that normal contacts can have a higher specific
The wider specificenergy
energy distribution
value than shearis observed
contacts. In forrelation
normaltocontact, in comparison
the agitator to the shear
rotational velocity, higher
velocities are associated with a small increase in both collisions’
contact distribution. This means that normal contacts can have a higher specific energy value than frequency and specific
energy
shear contacts. In relation to range. This canrotational
the agitator be observed for bothhigher
velocity, normalvelocities
and tangential contacts. with a
are associated
By looking at the relationship between energy levels and collision frequency, it is also
small increase in both collisions’ frequency and specific energy range. This can be observed for both
possible to correlate with breakage behavior. In this sense, contacts with greater values of
normal and tangentialspecific
contacts. energy have a higher tendency to overcome the minimum specific energy required
By looking at the for
relationship between
a certain particle energy
to break. levels
This meansandthat
collision
contactsfrequency, it is also
of higher specific possible
energy values
to correlate with breakage
havebehavior. In this sense,
a higher probability contacts
of causing with greater
breakage values
in a single of specific
or fewer contacts.energy havethis
However,
can also lead
a higher tendency to overcome thetominimum
a non-energy efficient
specific behavior
energy once this
required increases
for theparticle
a certain chance totoapply more
break.
energy than necessary to cause particle breakage. In contrast, smaller values of specific
This means that contacts of higher specific energy values have a higher probability of causing
energy might initially lead to particle weakness, instead of direct breakage. Because of that,
breakage in a single oritfewer contacts. However, this can also lead to a non-energy efficient behavior
can be necessary for a larger amount of low specific energy collisions cause breakage. At
once this increases thethechance to apply
same time, more energy
by applying a greaterthan necessary
amount to cause
of small specific particle
energy breakage.
contacts Inthe
increases
contrast, smaller values of specific
chance to applyenergy might initially
the minimum amount of lead to particle
energy weakness,
that is required insteadbreakage.
for particle of direct
breakage. Because of that, it can be necessary for a larger amount of low specific energy collisions
4.2. Wear Simulation
cause breakage. At the same time, by applying a greater amount of small specific energy contacts
The wear simulation started after at least three revolutions at steady-state conditions,
increases the chance to apply the minimum amount of energy that is required for particle breakage.
thus, allowing the wear simulation to be performed under stable conditions.
4.2. Wear Simulation 4.2.1. Particle Trajectory and Velocity
The wear simulation Figure

started14after
shows the streaming lines associated with particle absolute trans-
at least three revolutions at steady-state conditions, thus,
lational velocity.
allowing the wear simulation to be performed under stable conditions.
A red box surrounds the grinding media trajectory for the new liner condition, shown
in the left side of the image. Comparing the left and right side of the picture, it can be noted
4.2.1. Particle Trajectory and
that redVelocity
boxes on the right side miss the streaming lines both at the top and bottom parts
of the mill. This indicates that media motion is negligible in those regions. In the bottom
Figure 14 shows the streaming lines associated with particle absolute translational velocity.
part of the mill, it is noted that the dead zone effect is emphasized by liner wear.
Minerals 2021, 11, 397 13 of 20
Figure 14.Particle
Figure 14. Particle trajectory
trajectory and absolute
and absolute translational
translational velocity
velocity for new for worn
(left) and new liner
(left)(right)
and conditions,
worn liner (right)
at different
mill velocities.
conditions, at different mill velocities.
Figure 15 shows the relationship between particle absolute translational velocity and
A red box surrounds the thebase
grinding media
liner wear. trajectory
It is possible tofor thethat
note new liner velocity
particle condition, shown
reduces within the due
wear, left
to the reduction in the liner surface area. This reduction is more aggressive
side of the image. Comparing the left and right side of the picture, it can be noted that red boxes on for higher
agitator velocities. This means that a more representative decrease in particle velocity is
the right side miss the streaming lines both at the top and bottom parts of the mill. This indicates that
media motion is negligible in those regions. In the bottom part of the mill, it is noted that the dead
zone effect is emphasized by liner wear.
Figure 15 shows the relationship between particle absolute translational velocity and the base
liner wear. It is possible to note that particle velocity reduces with wear, due to the reduction in the
Minerals 2021, 11, 397 14 of 20
obtained when operating at higher agitator velocity. Based on the extrapolated data, it can
be expected that particle velocity will be independent on agitator velocity when the base
Minerals 2020, 10, x FORliner
Minerals 2020, 10, x FOR isREVIEW
PEER
PEER approximately
REVIEW 40% to 50% worn. 14 of1421of 21
0.8 0.8
Absolute Translation Velocity (m/s)

Absolute Translation Velocity (m/s)
87 rpm
87 rpm
130130
rpmrpm
0.6 0.6
190190
rpmrpm
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
0 0
0%0% 20%20% 40%40% 60%60% 80%80%
Base
Base Liner
Liner Wear
Wear (%)(%)
Figure
Figure Figure
15.
15. The The 15. The relationship
relationship
between between
average
average average
particle
particle particle
velocity
velocity velocity
andand and
linerthe
the base
the base base
liner
wear liner
wear wear intensity.
intensity.
intensity.
4.2.2. Power
4.2.2.
4.2.2. Power
Power
Figure 16 shows the relationship between base liner volume and simulation power. It
Figure
Figure 16 shows
16 shows the the relationship
relationship
is possible between
between
to note that powerbase base liner
liner
reduction isvolume
volume andand atsimulation
simulation
intensified higherpower. power. Itpossible
is possible
It isvelocities.
rotational In the
to note
to note thatthat power
power reduction
reduction
operational is intensified
iscontext,
intensified at higher
at higher
the power rotational
rotational
is kept constant velocities.
velocities.
during In the
In liner
the the operational
operational
lifecycle context,mill
bycontext,
increasing
the the power
power is kept filling.
is kept constant
constant during
during the the liner
liner lifecycle
lifecycle by increasing
by increasing millmill filling.
filling.
1400
1400
87 rpm
87 rpm
1200
1200
130130
rpmrpm
1000
1000 y = y1301.5x 1.32 1.32
= 1301.5x
190190
rpmrpm R² =R²0.9611
= 0.9611
Power (W)
Power (W)
800800
600600
y = y743.64x
= 743.64x 1.0306
1.0306
R² =R²0.9453
= 0.9453
400400
200200 y = y416.541x 0.8800.880

= 416.541x
R² =R²0.989
= 0.989
0 0
60%60% 70%70% 80%80% 90%90% 100%
100%
Base liner volume
Base liner volume (%) (%)
Figure
Figure 16. The
16. the the relationship
relationship
between
between simulation
simulation
simulation power
andand
power
power basebase
and linerliner
base liner volume.
volume.
volume.
4.2.3. Particle 4.2.3. Particle Spectrum

Spectrum
Figure 17 shows normal and shear energy spectrums for the three operational veloci-
Figure
Figure 17 ties,
17 showsshows normalnormalandand
at different shear
shear
wear energy
energy
stages. spectrums
Byspectrums
comparing for for
shear the
the(right)
three three operational
operational
and velocities,
velocities,
normal (left) at
atspectra,
collision
different
different wearwear stages.
stages. By By comparing
comparing shearshear (right)
(right) and and normal
normal (left)
(left) collision
collision spectra,
spectra, it
it is possible to note that normal contacts are more affected by wear. In this sense, a greater isit is possible
possible to to
notenote
thatthat normal
normal contacts
contacts
reduction areinare
moremore
the affected
affected
collision by by wear.
wear.
frequency In this
In was
this sense,
sense,
observed afor
greater
a greater reduction
reduction
normal ininthe
in the
contacts, collision to
collision
comparison
frequency
frequency waswas observed
observed
shear. for for
This normal
normal contacts,
contacts,
reduction is in comparison
in comparison
emphasized at greater to
to shear.shear.
specific This This reduction
reduction
energies, above 1 × 10−1
is emphasized
is emphasized
especially
at greater
at greater specific
specific J/kg.energies,
energies, Based especially
on the idea
especially above
abovethat 110×−110
1 ×collisions−1 J/kg.
J/kg. ofBasedBased
greater on the
onspecific
the ideaidea
thatthat
energies collisions
can of
angreater
leadoftogreater
collisions inefficient
specific
specific energies
energies cancanleadlead
to anto inefficient
an inefficient
useuse of energy,
of energy, it can
it can be suggested
be suggested thatthat
wearwear scenarios
scenarios cancan
be related
be related to ato a better
better energy
energy useuse behavior.
behavior. ThisThis indicates
indicates thatthat
the the agitator
agitator wearwear pattern
pattern affects
affects mostly
mostly
highhigh energy
energy contact,
contact, whilewhile maintaining
maintaining lowlow energy
energy contacts
contacts thatthat present
present a better
a better energy
energy efficiency
efficiency
behavior.
behavior. However,
However, it isitimportant
is important to emphasize
to emphasize thatthat
the the collision
collision frequency
frequency andand energy
energy reduction
reduction
Minerals 2021, 11, 397 15 of 20
caused by the overall power consumption reduction. Recently, Oliveira [31] applied a mechanistical
use of energy, it can be suggested that wear scenarios can be related to a better energy use
model to predict product size distribution by using the particle contact spectra obtained with DEM
behavior. This indicates that the agitator wear pattern affects mostly high energy contact,
simulations. The simulation considered grinding media as the mill charge, in the absence of ore and
while maintaining low energy contacts that present a better energy efficiency behavior.
slurry. By taking into consideration different proportions of shear power involved in inter particle
However, it is important
collision, the model successfully to emphasize
predicted product that the
size distribution of collision frequency
laboratory-scale and energy reduction
experiment,
will probably generate a coarser product, and thus, the better energy
for different solids concentration ratios. In this sense, this model can be applied to quantify the wear use behavior will be
effect on productmainly caused by the overall power consumption reduction. Recently, Oliveira [31] applied
size distribution.
a mechanistical
In the operational context, it ismodel to predict
important product
to evaluate size
the effect ondistribution by using
the target product the particle contact
size, such
spectratoobtained
as mineral liberation, with DEM
prevent mineral losses simulations. The simulation
in further beneficiation processes.considered
In this sense,grinding
a media as
wider evaluation theismill
necessary
charge, to guarantee the overall
in the absence process
of ore andefficiency,
slurry. Bywhich includes
taking intoaconsideration
proper different
understanding proportions
of the effect on of the downstream
shear process. As
power involved an alternative,
in inter particle various
collision,operational
the model successfully
conditions can predicted
be approached to guarantee
product the obtaining of
size distribution of the target mineral product
laboratory-scale size, while
experiment, for different solids
maximizing energy efficiency. In the specific case of the Mins-Rio project, the product requirement is
concentration ratios. In this sense, this model can be applied to quantify the wear effect on
in relation to fines generation, for pipeline transport requirements. In this sense, it is necessary to
product size distribution.
evaluate the effect on fines generation to guarantee the product adequacy.
Figure 17. Particle collision spectra at different liner conditions and rotational velocities.
Comparing the collision spectra behavior at different mill rotational velocities it can be noted
that higher rotational velocities intensified the overall collision frequency reduction, such as reduced
the maximum value of specific energy (J/kg). This explains the greater power reduction observed for
this rotational velocity.
Minerals 2021, 11, 397 16 of 20
In the operational context, it is important to evaluate the effect on the target product
size, such as mineral liberation, to prevent mineral losses in further beneficiation processes.
In this sense, a wider evaluation is necessary to guarantee the overall process efficiency,
which includes a proper understanding of the effect on the downstream process. As an
alternative, various operational conditions can be approached to guarantee the obtaining
of the target mineral product size, while maximizing energy efficiency. In the specific
case of the Mins-Rio project, the product requirement is in relation to fines generation, for
pipeline transport requirements. In this sense, it is necessary to evaluate the effect on fines
generation to guarantee the product adequacy.
Comparing the collision spectra behavior at different mill rotational velocities it can be
Comparing the collision spectra behavior at different mill rotational velocities it can be noted
noted that rotational
that higher higher rotational
velocitiesvelocities
intensifiedintensified the overall
the overall collision collision
frequency frequency
reduction, suchreduction,
as reduced
the maximum value of specific energy (J/kg). This explains the greater power reductionthe
such as reduced the maximum value of specific energy (J/kg). This explains greater
observed for
power
this reduction
rotational observed for this rotational velocity.
velocity.
4.2.4.Wear
4.2.4. WearVolume
Volume
The relationship between the liner volume and simulation time is shown in Figure 18
The relationship between the liner volume and simulation time is shown in Figure 18 for the
for the base and intermediate liner parts. It can be noted that wear is more intensive in the
base and intermediate liner parts. It can be noted that wear is more intensive in the base liner,
base liner, resulting in a more representative volume reduction. The increase in the agitator
resulting in a more representative volume reduction. The increase in the agitator velocity also
velocity also intensifies wear. This effect is more representative of the intermediate liner
intensifies wear. This effect is more representative of the intermediate liner part. This is a consequence
part.
of This distribution
a wider is a consequence of a trajectory
of particle wider distribution of particle
when operating trajectory
at higher when
rotational operating
velocity, at
as shown
higher rotational
in Figure 18. velocity, as shown in Figure 18.
100% 100%
90% 90%
Intermediate Liner Volume
87rpm 87rpm
Base liner volume
80% 130rpm 80% 130rpm

190rpm 190rpm
70% 70%
y = -0.071ln(x) + 1.1353
y = -0.177ln(x) + 1.289
R² = 0.9665
60% R² = 0.999 60%
y = -0.204ln(x) + 1.321 y = -0.12ln(x) + 1.2001
R² = 0.997 R² = 0.9944
50% 50% y = -0.188ln(x) + 1.3
y = -0.253ln(x) + 1.399
R² = 0.993 R² = 0.9985
40% 40%
1 10 100 1 10 100
Simulation time (s) Simulation time (s)
Figure
Figure 18. 18.
BaseBase
andand intermediateliner
intermediate liner volume
volume during
duringsimulation time.
simulation time.
4.3.VTM-1500
4.3. VTM-1500 Wear
Wear Measurement
Measurement
Basedon
Based on the
the three-dimensional
three-dimensionalscanning
scanningof ofVTM-1500
VTM-1500 liner
liner parts,
parts, [30]
[30] presented
presented the
the relationship
between operational
operational hours andhours and liner
liner mass, mass,
separately forseparately for
the base and the base and
intermediate liner
intermediate liner parts.
parts.
The absolute mass value was converted as liner volume percentage, and are presented
in Figure 19, in relation to the operational time. The wear ratio is defined as the relationship
between wear percentage and operational time.
The liner volume comparison between the two liner parts reinforces that wear is
more aggressive in the base liner. In this sense, at the end of the lifecycle, or 3000 h, the
intermediate liner reached approximately 67% of the initial volume, while the base liner
reached 35.5% of its initial volume. Because of that, the base liner requires sooner and
more frequent replacement. Moreover, the base liner wear ratio significantly increases
after 2000 h.
The absolute mass Thevalue was

absolute converted
mass as linerasvolume
value was converted liner volumepercentage, andareare
percentage, and presented
presented in Figure
in Figure
Minerals19,
2021,in
11, relation
19, in relation to the operational time. The wear ratio is defined as the relationship between wear
397 to the operational time. The wear ratio is defined as the relationship between
percentage and operational time.
17 of 20 wear
percentage and operational time.

100%
100%
80%
Liner volume
80%
60%
Liner volume
40% Base
60%
Intermediate
20%
0Base 1000 2000 3000 4000
40%
Time (h)
Intermediate
Figure 19. Base and intermediate liner volume reduction during liner operational time (in hours).
20%
The liner volume comparison between the two liner parts reinforces that wear is more aggressive
0 this sense,1000
in the base liner. In at the end of 2000
the lifecycle, or3000 4000
3000 h, the intermediate liner reached
approximately 67% of the initial volume, while the base liner reached 35.5% of its initial volume.
Time
Because of that, the base liner requires sooner and(h)more frequent replacement. Moreover, the base
liner wear ratio significantly increases after 2000 h.
4.4.4.4.
DEM Wear
DEM Modeling
Wear Modeling
The liner volumeFigure 20 compares
Figure
comparison 20 compares the the
between simulated
the twogeometry
simulated and industrial
geometry
liner parts and liner liner
industrial
reinforces designs underunder
thatdesigns
wear isseveral
more wear
several
aggressive
conditions. The visual
wear conditions. comparison
The between wear
visual comparison patterns
between shows
wear that DEM
patterns showsprovided
that DEM a remarkably
provided
in the base liner. Inathis
similar sense,
wear
remarkablydesign.at The
thenext
similar end
wear of would
stage the The
design. lifecycle,
be next or would
to quantify
stage 3000
the wearh, thequantify
intermediate
berelation.
to For that, time liner
the awear relationreached
relation.
approximately 67% wasof
For the ainitial
established
that, time volume,
in order was while
to obtain
relation the
aestablished
scale-up base
factor
in that liner
order reached
correlates
to obtain simulation35.5%
a scale-upseconds ofand
factor itsoperational
that initial
correlatesvolume.
hours. The scale-up
simulation secondsfactors
andwere calculated hours.
operational for the base
The and intermediate
scale-up factors liners,
were at each operational
calculated for the
Because of that, the base liner requires sooner and more frequent replacement. Moreover, the base
velocity.
base andThe intermediate
final scale-up factor,
liners,per
atvelocity, was obtained
each operational as an average
velocity. valuescale-up
The final in between the liner
factor, per
liner wear ratio significantly
and intermediateincreases
factors. after 2000 h.
velocity, was obtained as an average value in between the liner and intermediate factors.
4.4. DEM Wear Modeling

Figure 20 compares the simulated geometry and industrial liner designs under several wear
conditions. The visual comparison between wear patterns shows that DEM provided a remarkably
similar wear design. The next stage would be to quantify the wear relation. For that, a time relation
was established in order to obtain a scale-up factor that correlates simulation seconds and operational
hours. The scale-up factors were calculated for the base and intermediate liners, at each operational
velocity. The final scale-up factor, per velocity, was obtained as an average value in between the liner
and intermediate factors.
Figure 20. Comparison between 3D worn screw after DEM simulation and industrial
worn 20.
Figure liner.
Comparison between 3D worn screw after DEM simulation and industrial worn liner.
Figure 21 shows the predicted liner volume, based on the obtained DEM model. By
comparing the intermediate and base liner predictions, a better agreement was achieved
when using the 87 rpm as agitator velocity. In relation to the base liner, the results compared
favorably during most of the operational time, except for the last liner measurement, which
corresponds to approximately 3000 h. This is probably because the last liner measurement
presents an aggressive behavior, which representatively differs from the trend.
Figure 21 shows the predicted liner volume, based on the obtained DEM model. By comparing
the intermediate and base liner predictions, a better agreement was achieved when using the 87 rpm
as agitator velocity. In relation to the base liner, the results compared favorably during most of the
Minerals 2021, 11, 397 operational time, except for the last liner measurement, which corresponds to approximately183000
of 20h.
This is probably because the last liner measurement presents an aggressive behavior, which
representatively differs from the trend.
100% 100%
Intermediate liner volume

80% 80%
Base liner volume

60% 60%
87rpm
87rpm
130rpm
40% 130rpm 40%
190rpm
190rpm
Industrial Industrial
20% 20%
0 2000 4000 6000 0 2000 4000 6000
Operational time (h) Operational time (h)
Figure
Figure21.
21.Model
Modelpredicted and
predicted measured
and values
measured of base
values andand
of base intermediate liner liner
intermediate volume during
volume
operational time (h).
during operational time (h).
For
Forthe
theintermediate
intermediate liner, thethe
liner, behavior was was
behavior well well
predicted up to approximately
predicted 1500 h. This
up to approximately 1500is
probably
h. This is probably due to the fact of filling increases during the liner lifetime. The fillingis
due to the fact of filling increases during the liner lifetime. The filling increasing
performed
increasingduring the liner during
is performed lifetime with the aim
the liner to keep
lifetime constant
with power
the aim by activating
to keep constant upper parts
power byof
the mill. Because of that, added grinding media gets in contact with upper
activating upper parts of the mill. Because of that, added grinding media gets in contact parts of the intermediate
liner,
with thus
upperresulting
parts ofintheadditional wear. In
intermediate contrast,
liner, thus the liner volume
resulting predictions
in additional forIn
wear. 130 rpm andthe
contrast, 190
rpm did not fit very well when evaluating base and intermediate liner
liner volume predictions for 130 rpm and 190 rpm did not fit very well when evaluating parts.
baseTo andsummarize,
intermediate it was
linernoted
parts.that the wear prediction presented a relative agreement with
industrial measurements in
To summarize, it was noted the first halfthat
of the liner
the lifecycle.
wear Differently,
prediction the agreement
presented was not
a relative very
agree-
effective for the second half of the lifecycle, especially for the intermediate liner part. In relation to
ment with industrial measurements in the first half of the liner lifecycle. Differently, the
the liner part, the disagreement can be explained by the wear compensation in the industrial context.
agreement was not very effective for the second half of the lifecycle, especially for the
In order to keep constant power consumption, additional grinding media is added to the mill, thus
intermediate liner part. In relation to the liner part, the disagreement can be explained
activating the upper parts of the intermediate and generating extra wear. This filling compensation
by the wear compensation in the industrial context. In order to keep constant power
was not taken into account by the DEM simulation, and then it can be expected a lower wear rate and
consumption, additional grinding media is added to the mill, thus activating the upper
the end of the lifecycle for the intermediate liner part. In relation to the base liner, the differences after
parts of the intermediate and generating extra wear. This filling compensation was not
3000 h can be explained by a possible variation in the material properties after several wears, which
taken into account by the DEM simulation, and then it can be expected a lower wear rate
should be confirmed by liner material properties evaluation. In this sense, the intensive wear could
and the end of the lifecycle for the intermediate liner part. In relation to the base liner, the
substantially affect liner material resistance properties, thus reducing wear resistance for very worn
differencesThis
conditions. aftereffect
3000 was
h can betaken
not explained by a possible
into account by the variation in the material
DEM simulations, resulting properties
in a large
after several wears, which should be confirmed
difference for the base liner prediction after 3000 h. by liner material properties evaluation. In
this sense, the intensive wear could substantially affect liner material resistance properties,
thus
5. reducing wear resistance for very worn conditions. This effect was not taken into
Conclusions
account by the DEM simulations, resulting in a large difference for the base liner prediction
Once the vertical stirred mill screw liner is responsible for media movement, and consequently,
after 3000 h.
grinding, it is very important to perform accurate monitoring of wear progress. However, it is not
possible to directly install a sensor for wear measurement. The paper addressed this issue by
5. Conclusions
performing DEM simulations, with the aim to provide a better understanding of screw liner wear
Once the vertical stirred mill screw liner is responsible for media movement, and con-
sequently, grinding, it is very important to perform accurate monitoring of wear progress.
However, it is not possible to directly install a sensor for wear measurement. The paper
addressed this issue by performing DEM simulations, with the aim to provide a better
understanding of screw liner wear behavior and effects. The simulation was performed
for a 1:10 reduced scale geometry from the Metso Vertimill VTM-1500 model, to reduce
simulation effort.
The simulations applied different scale-up methodologies for agitator rotational veloc-
ity. In this sense, three different mill velocities were simulated. Firstly, a reduced velocity
was obtained based on a dataset model. This consists of a more recent approach for velocity
scale-up in laboratory-scale equipment. Moreover, a direct scale-up factor based on the
Minerals 2021, 11, 397 19 of 20
geometry reduction was applied, thus resulting in a higher operational velocity of 190 rpm.
Finally, an intermediary velocity was tested to provide a better understanding of the effects
of operating in between the lower and maximum mill velocities.
The wear simulation results qualitatively showed that the wear profile obtained
using DEM presents a relative similarity to the wear design observed in the full-scale
equipment at the beginning of the liner lifecycle. The worn agitator geometries were
exported, at different simulation times, to provide a volume quantification of wear. By
comparing worn geometries obtained from DEM simulations and industrial measurement,
a time correlation was proposed. In this sense, a scale-up factor was obtained to correlate
simulation time, in seconds, and operational time, in hours. This scale-up factor was
then applied to simulation results to predict wear in the operational context, for the base
and intermediate liner parts. By comparing the obtained wear prediction and industrial
measurement, a better agreement was encountered for the 87 rpm mill velocity. Based
on that, the recommendation would be to apply the developed model under different
operational conditions, to evaluate different strategies for wear compensation, such as
changing mill speed and grinding media filling.
Additionally, DEM outputs were evaluated to provide a better understanding of wear
effects. From that, it was noted that wear introduced a significant decrease in simulation
power and particle average translational velocity. In relation to particle trajectory, the
particle velocity reduction was intensified in the top and bottom parts of the mill, thus
resulting in null particle motion in those areas. In the bottom part of the mill, this is known
as the dead zone effect. The particle collision spectra indicated that wear affects more
intensively normal contacts of greater specific energy. Although this might cause a decrease
in fines generation, this can lead to an improvement in energy usage. This is because the
predominance of low energy contacts is related to an increase in energy efficiency, once
this reduces the occurrence of high-intensity contacts, which apply greater energy than
required for particle breakage.
To summarize, the obtained results indicate that liner wear affects particle breakage
and energy consumption. A better understanding and proper quantification about its effects
can play a key role in the development of strategies for optimizing operational procedures
to keep grinding efficiency and to reduce wear rates. In this sense, the recommendations
would be to evaluate the relationship between operational conditions and liner wear, in
the industrial context.
The model did not consider particle breakage, as ore particles itself are not included
in the simulation. Grinding media wear also not considered. Finally, the current work
did not consider the slurry (fluid), so as there would be a recommendation to apply CFD
(computational fluid dynamics) or SPH (smoothed particle hydrodynamics) to describe the
mill charge with more details.
Author Contributions: P.M.E. wrote the paper and carried out all the experimentation, D.B.M.
planned the experimental part and reviewed the paper, R.G. reviewed the paper and L.C.R.M.
provided the technical support on the site of Minas-Rio operation. All authors have read and agreed
to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: The authors thank CAPES and Anglo American for the financial support.
Acknowledgments: The authors acknowledge the license of ROCKY Software provided by ESSS
and its technical support during the simulations performed. Thanks to Anglo American for the
support and permission to publish the results from Vertimill™ laser wear measurement. Thanks to
peer reviewers for the comments that significantly contributed to the paper.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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Minerals: Industrial Vertical Stirred Mills Screw Liner Wear Profile Compared To Discrete Element Method Simulations

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Minerals: Industrial Vertical Stirred Mills Screw Liner Wear Profile Compared To Discrete Element Method Simulations

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minerals

1 Programa de Pós-Graduação em Engenharia Metalúrgica, Materiais e de Minas (PPGEM), Universidade

Citation: Esteves, P.M.; Mazzinghy,

Minerals 2021, 11, 397. https://doi.org/10.3390/min11040397 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/minerals

2. Gravity Induced Stirred Mill

Minerals 2021, 11, 397 4 of 20

Minerals 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 21

Figure 1. Vertical stirred mill components [24].

Figure 2. Vertical stirred mill screw liner parts [24].

Figure 3. Wear pattern for the bottom liner [25].

Mill VTM-1500 Scaled Down (Simulated)

Minerals 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 21

Figure 5. Vertimill 1:10 scale of the VTM-1500.

3.2. Dem Outputs

3.4. Boundary3.4. Boundary Definition

The defining The defining

geometrical mesh and causing a representative increase in the computational simulation

Minerals 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 21

Figure 7. Effect of boundary

It is possible to note the

Figure 8. Minas-Rio process flowsheet [27].

Figure 8. Minas-Rio process flowsheet [27].

Minerals 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 21

The wear measurements

Minerals 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 21

Figure 10. A flowchart Figure A flowchart

Minerals 2021, 11, 397

Figure 11. Particle trajectory at different mill rotational velocities.

0.80.4 y = 0.0045x 1200600 R² = 0.917

Minerals 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 21

4.2. Wear Simulation 4.2.1. Particle Trajectory and Velocity

The wear simulation Figure

Minerals 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 21

Absolute Translation Velocity (m/s)

200200 y = y416.541x 0.8800.880

4.2.3. Particle 4.2.3. Particle Spectrum

Minerals 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 21

Minerals 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 21

Minerals 2021, 11, 397 16 of 20

80% 130rpm 80% 130rpm

The absolute mass Thevalue was

percentage and operational time.

4.4. DEM Wear Modeling

Intermediate liner volume

Base liner volume

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