Outline

❑Introduction
❑Review of Op-Amps
❑Nyquist Sampling Theorem & Aliasing
❑Types of digital to analog conversion
❑ Binary weighted resistors
❑ R/2R Ladder resistors
❑Examples
❑Applications
 Introduction

❑ Digital-to-analog converter (DAC, D/A, D2A, or D-to-A) is a

system that converts a digital signal into an analog signal. An
analog-to-digital converter (ADC) performs the reverse
function.
❑ DACs are often used to convert finite-precision time series
data to a continually varying physical signal.
Introduction
Introduction
 Review of Op-Amps

❑ Virtual ground concept and

closed-loop voltage gain
development for the inverting
amplifier
 Review of Op-Amps

❑ Summing Amplifier
 Nyquist Sampling
Theorem
❑ The Nyquist Sampling Theorem states that:
In order to recover a signal, the sampling rate must be
greater than twice the highest frequency in the signal.
❑ Stated as an equation, fsample > 2fa(max)
where fsample = sampling frequency
fa(max) = highest harmonic in the analog signal
 Nyquist Sampling
Theorem
❑ If the sampling is performed at a proper rate, no info is
lost about the original signal and it can be properly
reconstructed later on.
❑ Statement:
“If a signal is sampled at a rate at least, but not
exactly equal to twice the max frequency component of the
waveform, then the waveform can be exactly reconstructed
from the samples without any distortion”

f s  2 f max
Nyquist Sampling
Theorem
Nyquist Sampling
Theorem
 Nyquist Sampling
Theorem
❑ The data in Figure 5.4, sampled a
t18Hz,also represent a periodic
wave. The apparent frequency is 8
Hz, the difference between the
sampling rate and the signal
frequency, and is again incorrect
relative to the input frequency.
❑ These incorrect frequencies that
appear in the output data are
known as aliases.
 Aliases
❑ Aliases:
are false frequencies
that appear in the output data,
that are simply artifacts of the
sampling process, and that
do not in any manner occur in
the original data.
 Examples
❑Example 1:
Consider the following two analog signals

which are sampled at a rate of Fs = 40 Hz. The

corresponding discrete time signals are:

However,
 Examples
❑If we reconstruct the signal at the same
sampling rate, we will get:
𝜋∗40∗𝑡
𝑋1 = 𝑋2 = cos = cos 2𝜋 10 𝑡
2

Whereas
 Examples
❑Example 2:
Consider the analog signal
❑ x (t) = 3cos(100 𝜋t)
a) Determine the minimum sampling rate required to avoid
aliasing.
b) Suppose that the signal is sampled at the rate of Fs = 200
Hz, what is the discrete time signal obtained after
sampling?
c) Suppose that the signal is sampled at the rate of Fs = 75
Hz, what is the discrete time signal obtained after
sampling?
d) What is the frequency of a sinusoid that yields samples
identical to those obtained in part (c)?
 Examples
❑Solution:
a) Determine the minimum sampling rate required to
avoid aliasing..

• Hence the minimum sampling rate required to

avoid aliasing is Fs = 100 Hz.

b) Suppose that the signal is sampled at the rate of Fs =

200 Hz, what is the discrete time signal obtained after
sampling?

c) Suppose that the signal is sampled at the rate of Fs =

75 Hz, what is the discrete time signal obtained after
sampling?
 Examples

❑Solution:
d) What is the frequency of a sinusoid that yields
samples identical to those obtained in part (c)?
for the sampling rate of 𝐹𝑠 = 75 Hz
,

• Hence the constructing signal will be:

 Examples

❑Example 3:
Consider the analog signal

a) What is the Nyquist rate for this signal?

b) Suppose that the signal is sampled at the rate of Fs = 5000
samples per second, what is the discrete-time signal obtained
after sampling?
c) What is the analog signal we can reconstruct from the
samples?
 Types of DAC
Binary weighted resistors

❑ A scaling adder as a four

digit DAC
 Types of DAC
Binary weighted resistors

❑ Example:
 Types of DAC
Binary weighted resistors

❑ Solution:
 Types of DAC
Binary weighted resistors

❑ Solution:
Types of DAC
R/2R Ladder resistors
 Types of DAC
R/2R Ladder resistors

❑ Equivalent Ladder circuit

with D2,D1,D0 grounded
−𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 −𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓
❑ 𝐼3 = =
2𝑅+2𝑅||2𝑅 3𝑅
 Types of DAC
R/2R Ladder resistors

❑ Equivalent Ladder circuit

with D3,D1,D0 grounded
−𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 −𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓
❑ 𝐼2 = =
2𝑅+2𝑅||2𝑅 3𝑅
 Types of DAC
R/2R Ladder resistors

❑ Equivalent Ladder circuit

−𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 −𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓
❑ 𝐼0 = =
2𝑅+2𝑅||2𝑅 3𝑅
 Types of DAC
R/2R Ladder resistors

Generally:
The equation of
the output
voltage
will be:
𝑫𝟎 ∗𝟐𝟎 +𝑫𝟏 ∗𝟐𝟏 +𝑫𝟐 ∗𝟐𝟐
𝑽𝒐 = 𝟐𝟑
Or,
 Types of DAC
R/2R Ladder resistors

Example:
 Types of DAC
R/2R Ladder resistors

Solution:
 Comparison between
two types
Binary
R-2R
Weighted
Only 2 resistor values
Easier implementation
Pros Easily understood
Easier to manufacture
Faster response time
Limited to ~ 8 bits
Large # of resistors
Cons Susceptible to noise More confusing analysis
Expensive
Greater Error
 DAC
Performance Specifications

❑Resolution
❑Errors
 Resolution

Resolution: is the amount of variance in output

voltage for every change of the LSB in the digital input.
How closely can we approximate the desired output
signal(Higher Res. = finer detail = smaller Voltage
divisions)
A common DAC has a 8 - 12 bit Resolution

VRef
Resolution = VLSB = N N = Number of bits
2
 Resolution
Poor Resolution(1 bit)
Better Resolution(3 bit)
Vout Vout
Desired Analog Desired Analog signal
signal
111

110 110
1
2 Volt. Levels

8 Volt. Levels
101 101

100 100

011 011

010 010

001 001

0 0 000
000
Digital Input Approximate Digital Input
Approximate
output output
 Errors

.
Analog Output
Digital Input

Ideal Output Positive Offset Errorr Negative Offset Error

Offset Error:
Occurs when there is a constant
offset between the actual output
and the ideal output
 Errors

Resolution error:
Poor representation of ideal output
due to poor resolution
 APPLICATIONS

❑CD Players
❑MP3 Players
❑Digital Telephone/Answering
Machines
 APPLICATIONS
❑Function Generators
• Digital Oscilloscopes • Signal Generators
• Digital Input • Sine wave generation
• Analog Output • Square wave generation
• Triangle wave generation
• Random noise generation
THE END
Any question?