Materials and

Manufacturing

Week 2
 Manufacturing Processes
Properties of Materials

STRUCTURE

PERFORMANCE

PROCESSING PROPERTIES

Spring 2005
Material-Process-Geometry Relationships

Function Role of Prod

Engr

Material Geometry

Role of Mfg
Process Engr

3
The manufacturing Process
Materials Science, Statics, Dynamics, Thermodynamics, Fluid
dynamics
Raw Material

Material

Products
Assembly
Transformation
Processes

Machines and Automation

 Manufacturing Processes
Properties of Materials

Mechanical Properties.
Mechanical properties are useful to estimate how parts will
behave when they are subjected to mechanical loads
(stresses)
Properties include: Strength, ductility, hardness, elasticity,
toughness, creep, fatigue …etc.

Physical Properties.
Physical properties define the behavior of materials in
response to physical forces other than mechanical
Properties include: density, specific heat, melting point, thermal
expansion, conductivity, magnetic properties.

The manufacturing engineer should appreciate the design

viewpoint and the designer should be aware of the manufacturing
viewpoint
Spring 2005
 Manufacturing Processes

Stress – Strain Relationships

Three types of static stresses to which materials can be
subjected:
 Tensile Stress - tend to stretch the material
 Compressive Stress - tend to squeeze it
 Shear Stress - tend to cause adjacent portions
of material to slide against each other

Spring 2005
 Manufacturing Processes
Tensile Test

Most common test for

studying stress-strain
relationship, especially
metals

In the test, a force pulls

the material, elongating it
and reducing its diameter

Spring2005
 Manufacturing Processes
Tensile Test

ASTM (American Society for Testing and Materials)

specifies preparation of test specimen

Spring 2005
Manufacturing Processes
Tensile Test Machine

Spring 2005
 Manufacturing Processes
Tensile Test
Typical tensile test progress

(1) beginning of test, no load;

(2) uniform elongation and reduction of cross-sectional area;
(3) continued elongation, maximum load reached;
(4) Necking begins, load begins to decrease; and
(5) fracture.
(6) If pieces are put back together as in (6), final length can be
measured
Spring 2005
Manufacturing Processes
Tensile Test - Calgroup

Spring 2005
 Manufacturing Processes

Engineering Stress

Defined as force divided by original area:

F
e 
Ao
where
e = engineering stress;
F = applied force; and
Ao = original area of test specimen.

Spring 2005
 Manufacturing Processes

Engineering Strain

Defined at any point in the test as

L  Lo
e
Lo
where
e = engineering strain;
L = length at any point during elongation
(instantaneous length); and
Lo = original gage length.

Spring 2005
 Manufacturing Processes
Engineering Stress – Strain Curve in Tensile Test

It shows the basic relationship between stress and strain

Spring 2005
 Manufacturing Processes
Engineering Stress – Strain Curve

Two Regions of Stress-Strain Curve

• The two regions indicate two distinct

forms of behavior:

1. Elastic region – prior to yielding of the

material

2. Plastic region – after yielding of the material

Spring 2005
 Manufacturing Processes
Elastic Region in Stress – Strain Curve

 Relationship between stress and strain is linear

 Material returns to its original length when stress is

removed

 The material obeys Hooke's Law: e = E e

where
E = modulus of elasticity (Young's modulus )

Spring 2005
 Manufacturing Processes
Young’s Modulus

Young's modulus measures the resistance of a

material to elastic (recoverable) deformation under
load .
Its value differs for different materials

A stiff material has a high Young's modulus and changes its

shape only slightly under elastic loads (e.g. diamond). A stiff
material requires high loads to elastically deform

A flexible material has a low Young's modulus and changes its

shape considerably (e.g. rubbers).

The stiffness of a component means how much it

defects under a given load .
Spring 2005
 Manufacturing Processes
Yield Strength in Stress – Strain Curve

As stress increases, a point in the linear

relationship is finally reached when the
material begins to yield.

 Yield Strength Y can be identified by the

change in slope at the upper end of the linear
region

 Y = a strength property

 Other names for yield strength = yield point, yield

stress, and elastic limit
Spring 2005
 Manufacturing Processes
Plastic Region in Stress – Strain Curve

Yield point marks the beginning of plastic

deformation.

The stress-strain relationship is no longer guided

by Hooke's Law .

As load is increased beyond Y, elongation proceeds

at a much faster rate than before, causing the
slope of the curve to change dramatically.

Spring 2005
 Manufacturing Processes
Tensile Strength in Stress – Strain Curve

As the load is further increased, the engineering

stress reaches a maximum and then begins to
decrease.

The maximum engineering stress is called the Tensile

Strength - TS (or Ultimate tensile Strength – UTS) of
the material.

Fmax
TS =
Ao

Spring 2005
 Manufacturing Processes
Ductility in Tensile Test
Ability of a material to plastically deform without
fracture
There are two common measures of Ductility
l f  l0
% Elongation  x100
l0
lf = specimen length at fracture; and
lo = original specimen length
lf is measured as the distance between gage marks after two pieces of specimen are put back
together

A0  Af
% Reduction of  x100
Area A0
lf = final (fracture) cross-sectional area of the specimen; and
lo = original cross-sectional area of the specimen

Brittleness is simply the lack of significant ductility

Spring 2005
 Manufacturing Processes
Mechanical Properties of Various Materials

Martial removal Spring 2005

 Manufacturing Processes
True Stress

True Stress is defined as the ratio of the applied load

F to the actual (instantaneous) cross-sectional area
A of the specimen.

F

A
where
 = true stress;
F = applied force; and
A = actual (instantaneous) area resisting the load

Spring 2005
 Manufacturing Processes
True Strain

True Strain (natural or logarithmic strain) is calculated

as
l
dl l
    ln
l0
l l0
where
 = engineering strain;
L = length at any point during elongation (instantaneous length);
and
Lo = original gage length.

Spring 2005
 Manufacturing Processes
True Stress – Strain Curve

If previous engineering stress-strain curve

were plotted using true stress and strain
values

Spring 2005
 Manufacturing Processes
Compression Test
Applies a load that squeezes the ends of a
cylindrical specimen between two platens

(1) compression force

applied to test piece; and

(2) resulting change in

height

Spring 2005
Tension Compression

Shear Torsion
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 Manufacturing Processes
Compression Test Machine

lab

Spring 2005
 Manufacturing Processes
Engineering Stress in Compression

As the specimen is compressed, its height is

reduced and cross-sectional area is increased

F
e 
Ao
where
F = applied force
Ao = original area of the specimen

Spring 2005
 Manufacturing Processes
Engineering Stress in Compression

As the specimen is compressed, its height is

reduced and cross-sectional area is increased

F
e 
Ao
where
F = applied force
Ao = original area of the specimen

Spring 2005
 Manufacturing Processes
Engineering Strain in Compression

Engineering strain is defined

h  ho
e
ho
where
h = height at any point during elongation (instantaneous);
and
ho = original height of the specimen

Since height is reduced during compression, value of e is negative

(the negative sign is usually ignored when expressing compression
strain)

Spring 2005
 Manufacturing Processes
Engineering Stress – Strain Curve in Compression Test

Shape of plastic region is different from tensile test

because cross-section increases

Spring 2005
 Manufacturing Processes
Shear Stress and Shear Strain

Application of stresses in opposite directions on

either side of a thin element
Shear Stress Shear
Strain


Shear stress is defined as  
F Shear Strain is defined as  
A b
where Where
F = applied force; and  = deflection element; and
A = area over which deflection occurs.
b = distance over which deflection occurs

Spring 2005
 Manufacturing Processes
Shear Stress – Strain Curve

Typical shear stress-strain curve from a torsion

test

Spring 2005
 Manufacturing Processes
Shear Elastic Stress – Strain Relationship

In the elastic region, the relationship is defined

as

  G
where
G = shear modulus, or shear modulus of elasticity
For most materials, G  0.4E
where E = elastic modulus

Spring 2005
 Manufacturing Processes
Shear Plastic Stress – Strain Relationship
shear strength S = Shear stress at fracture
 Shear strength can be estimated from tensile

strength: S  0.7(TS)

Since cross-sectional area of test specimen in torsion test does

not change as in tensile and compression, engineering
stress-strain curve for shear  true stress-strain curve

Spring 2005
 Manufacturing Processes
Hardness
The ability of a material to resist scratching, wear and indentation.

 Good hardness generally means material is

resistant to scratching and wear
 Most tooling used in manufacturing must be hard
for scratch and wear resistance

• Commonly used for assessing material properties

because they are quick and convenient.
• Several methods have been developed to measure
the hardness of materials.
• Most well-known hardness tests are Brinell and Rockwell
and Vickers.

Martial removal Spring 2005

 Manufacturing Processes
Hardness Tests

Spring 2005
 Manufacturing Processes
Brinell Hardness Test
Widely used for testing metals and nonmetals
of low to medium hardness

A hard ball is pressed into specimen surface with a

load of 500, 1500, or 3000 kg
Spring 2005
 Manufacturing Processes
Brinell Hardness Test

Brinell Hardness Number (BHN) = Load divided into

indentation area

2F
BHN 
Db ( Db  D  D ) 2
b i
2

where
BHN = Brinell Hardness Number;
F = indentation load, kg;
Db = diameter of ball, mm; and
Di = diameter of indentation, mm

Spring 2005
 Manufacturing Processes
Toughness
Toughness is an estimate of how much
energy is consumed before the material
fractures.
Energy consumed = work done = force x distance

which you can easily see, is related to the stress and strain. So:

Toughness = the strain energy = area under the stress-strain

curve

To compute toughness, True stress and True strain

are used, which measure the instantaneous/direct
stress.

The tensile test can provide a measure of this

property. Spring 2005
 Toughness measures the
total energy absorbed before fracture

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 Manufacturing Processes
Machinability, Formability and Weldability
Machinability: depends not only on worked
material but on applied machining process (range
of meanings).

Formability (malleability, workability): materials

suitability for plastic deformation (depends on
process conditions).

Weldability: depends on particular welding

(joining) technique.

Spring 2005
 Manufacturing Processes
Physical Properties Defined

 Properties that define the behavior of materials in

response to physical forces other than mechanical
 Includes: volumetric, thermal, electrical, and
electrochemical properties
 Components in a product must do more than
simply withstand mechanical stresses
 They must conduct electricity (or prevent
conduction), allow heat to transfer (or allow its
escape), transmit light (or block transmission),
and satisfy many other functions

Spring 2005
 Manufacturing Processes
Physical Properties in Manufacturing

 Important in manufacturing because they often

influence process performance

 Example:
 In machining, thermal properties of the work

material determine the cutting temperature,

which affects how long tool can be used before
failure

Spring 2005
 Manufacturing Processes
Thermal Expansion in Manufacturing
 Thermal expansion is used in shrink fit and
expansion fit assemblies
 Part is heated to increase size or cooled to
decrease size to permit insertion into another
part
 When part returns to ambient temperature, a
tightly-fitted assembly is obtained
 Thermal expansion can be a problem in heat
treatment and welding due to thermal stresses that
develop in material during these processes

Rolling hot and cold

Spring 2005
 Manufacturing Processes
Melting Properties of Metals

 Melting point Tm of a pure element = temperature at

which it transforms from solid to liquid state
 The reverse transformation occurs at the same
temperature and is called the freezing point
 Heat of fusion = heat energy required to accomplish
transformation from solid to liquid

Spring 2005
 Factors affecting material
properties

 Temperature :
 Increasing temperature will decrease
- Modulus of Elasticity
- Yield Strength
- Tensile Strength
 Decreasing temperature will:
- Increase ductility
- Reduce brittleness
 Environment:
Sulfites, Chlorine, Oxygen in water, Radiation

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Summary for some functional parameters
affected by production processes

 Mechanical properties (Strength, Hardness,

Fatique, Ductility, Resistance to environment)
 Tolerances
 Surface finish
 Resistance to corrosion and abrasion
 Electrical properties
 Thermal Properties
 Appearance/surface finish
Materials in Manufacturing

Venn diagram
Product function is interdependent

Material
Properties

Product
Function

Manufacturing Product
Processes Geometry
Materials Definition
Class
Metals Metals are combinations of
one or more "metallic
elements," such as iron,
gold, or lead. Alloys are
metals like steel or bronze
that combine more than
one element, and may
include non-metallic
elements e.g. carbon.
Ceramics Ceramic materials are
inorganic materials with
non-metallic properties
usually processed at high
temperature at some time
during their manufacture
Polymers A polymer contains many
chemically bonded parts or
units that are bonded
together to form a solid.
Composites Composites are two or
more distinct substances
that are combined to
produce a new material
with properties not present
in either individual material.
Examples Properties Applications
Steel, aluminium, Strong, dense, ductile, Electrical wiring,
titanium iron, gold, electrical and heat structures (buildings,
lead, copper, conductors, opaque bridges), automobiles
platinum, brass, (body, springs),
bronze, pewter, airplanes, trains (rails,
solder engine components,
body, wheels), shape
memory materials,
magnets
Structural ceramics, Lower density than metals, Dinnerware, figurines,
refractories, strong, low ductility (brittle), vases, art, bathtubs,
porcelain, glass low thermal conductivity, sinks, electrical and
corrosion resistant thermal insulation,
sewage pipes, floor and
wall tile, dental fillings,
abrasives, glass
windows
Plastics (synthetic, Low density, poor Fabrics, car parts,
nylon, liquid conductors of electricity and packaging materials,
crystals, adhesives, heat, different optical bags, packing materials
elastomers (rubber) properties (Styrofoam*), fasteners
(Velcro*), glue,
containers, telephone
headsets, rubber bands
Fibreglass (glass Properties depend on Golf clubs, tennis
and a polymer), amount and distribution of rackets, bicycle frames,
plywood (layers of each type of material. tires, cars, aerospace
wood and glue), Collective set of properties materials, paint
concrete (cement are more desirable and
and pebbles) possible than with any 53
individual material.
Important engineering
characteristics of materials

 Mechanical properties  Thermal properties

 Density  Thermal conductivity
 Strength  Coefficient of expansion
 Hardness  Melting point
 Ductility
 Toughness
 Fatigue resistance
 Electrical properties
 Creep  Conductivity

 Chemical properties
 Reactivity
 Optical properties
 Combustibility  Transmissivity
 Colour

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 Strength

 A measure of the material’s ability to resist

deformation and to maintain its shape.
 It is quantified in terms of yield stress or
ultimate tensile strength.
 High carbon steels and metal alloys have
higher strength than pure metals.
 Ceramics also exhibit high strengths.

55
 Hardness

 A measure of the material’s ability to resist

indentation, abrasion and wear.
 It is quantified by a hardness scale such as
Rockwell and Brinell hardness scales.
 Hardness and Strength correlate well because
both properties are related to in-molecular
bonding.

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Ductility
 A measure of the material’s
ability to deform before failure.
Brittle  It is quantified by reading the
value of strain at the fracture
point on the stress strain curve.
Ductile  Examples of ductile material
include:
 low carbon steel
Strain
 aluminum
 bubble gum

57
 Toughness
A measure of the material’s ability to absorb
energy. It is measured by two methods.

a) Integration of stress strain curve

 Slow absorption of energy
 Absorbed energy per unit volume unit :
 (lb/in²) *(in/in) =lb·in/in³

b) Charpy test
This measures impact toughness (see later)

58
Since the properties we are concerned
with all deal with how structures deform
in response to forces, we need some way
to normalize:

 Force
 Amount of deformation

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What’s the difference between
simple and composite materials?

Simple materials have a

homogenous structure

Composite materials may

be composed of more than
one material, or may contain
voids
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 Composite materials

 We shall see later that discontinuities in composite

materials can help to prevent fractures from propagating.
 A good example of a composite structure is a modern
panel door, in which the surfaces are made of wood, with
an infill of paper honeycomb that provides strength with
lightness.
 Concrete and fibreglass (grp) are also composites

61
 Properties of materials 1:Metals

Metal Density Young’s Shear Poisson’s Yield Stress Ultimate Elongation

modulus modulus ratio Stress
Alumimium 2.7 70 26 0.33 20 70 60

Al Alloy 2.7 80 28 0.33 35 - 500 100-550 1 - 45

Brass 8.6 100 39 0.33 70 - 550 200-600 4 - 60

Bronze 8.2 110 40 0.33 80 - 690 200-830 5 - 50

Cast Iron 7.2 80 - 170 60 0.2 – 0.3 120 -290 70-480 0-1

Mag Alloy 1.7 45 17 0.35 80 - 280 140-340 2 - 20

Solder 9 20 - 30 12 - 54 5 - 30

Steel 7.8 200 80 0.3 280-1600 340-1900 3 - 40

Ti Alloy 4.5 110 40 0.33 960 10

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 Properties of materials 2
Material Density Young’s modulus Poisson’s Yield Stress MPa Ultimate Stress
Mg/m3 GPa ratio MPa

Brick (compression) 1.8 – 2.4 10 - 24 7 - 70

Concrete 2.4 18 - 30 0.1 – 0.2 230 - 380

Glass 2.6 48 - 83 0.2 – 0.27

Nylon 1.1 2.1 – 2.8 0.4 40 - 70

Stone: Granite 2.6 40 - 70 0.2 – 0.3 70 – 280

(compression)

Stone: Marble 2.8 50 - 100 0.2 – 0.3 50 - 180

(compression)

Wood: Ash 0.6 10 - 11 40 - 70 50 - 100

(Bending)

Wood: Oak 0.7 11 - 12 40 - 60 50 - 100

(Bending)

Wood: Pine 0.6 11 - 14 40 - 60 50 - 100

(Bending)

63
 Stresses in Metal Forming

 Stresses to plastically deform the metal are usually

compressive
 Examples: rolling, forging, extrusion
 However, some forming processes
 Stretch the metal (tensile stresses)

 Others bend the metal (tensile and compressive)

 Still others apply shear stresses

rolling
Material Properties in Metal Forming

 popular material properties:

 Low yield strength and high ductility
 These properties are affected by temperature:
 Ductility increases and yield strength decreases when
work temperature is raised
 Other factors:
 Strain rate and friction
Cold working is metal forming performed at room temperature.
Advantages: better accuracy, better surface finish, high strength and hardness of the
part, no heating is required.
Disadvantages: higher forces and power, limitations to the amount of forming,
additional annealing for some material is required, and some material are not capable of
cold working.

Warm working is metal forming at temperatures above the room temperature but bellow
the recrystallization one.
Advantages: lower forces and power, more complex part shapes, no annealing is
required.
Disadvantages: some investment in furnaces is needed.
Hot working involves deformation of preheated material at temperatures above the re
crystallization temperature.
Advantages: big amount of forming is possible, lower forces and power are required,
forming of materials with low ductility, no work hardening and therefore, no additional
annealing is required.
Disadvantages: lower accuracy and surface finish, higher production cost, and shorter
tool life.
Cold working (or cold forming, as it is sometimes called) may be
defined as plastic deformation of metals and alloys at a
temperature below the recrystallisation temperature for that metal
or alloy.

Page 53

Hot working may be explained as plastic deformation of

metals and alloys at such a temperature at which recovery
and recrystallisation take place simultaneously with the strain
hardening.