Nodular Iron

Nodular iron is however a material that contains different kinds of defects, such as
inclusions, dross, surface defects, slag stringers and micro shrinkage pores.

From: European Structural Integrity Society, 1997

Related terms:

Magnesium, Austenite, Camshafts, Casting, Compressors, Crankshafts, Pistons,

Iron, Graphite, Ductile Iron

View all Topics

Learn more about Nodular Iron

Cast Iron
Ramesh Singh, in Applied Welding Engineering (Second Edition), 2016

Nodular (Spheroidal Graphite) Cast Iron

Nodular iron is also called ductile iron. The graphite is present as tiny balls or
spheroids. Because the spheroids interrupt the matrix much less than graphite
flakes, nodular cast iron has higher strength and toughness than gray cast iron. The
formation of nodules or spheroids occurs when eutectic graphite separates from
the molten iron during solidification. The separation of graphite in nodular form is
similar to separation of graphite in gray cast iron except that the additives facilitate
the graphite to take nodular shape.

Spheroidal graphite (SG) cast iron has excellent toughness; it has higher elongation
and is used widely, for example, in crankshafts. Unlike malleable iron, nodular iron is
produced directly from the melt and does not require heat treatment. Magnesium or
cerium is added to the ladle just before casting. The matrix can be ferrite, pearlite, or
austenite. The quality of SG iron is excellent, and X-ray quality castings are regularly
produced.
The latest breakthrough in cast irons is when the matrix of spheroidal graphite cast
iron is not pearlite but bainite. The chemical composition of the SG cast iron is
similar to that of the grey cast iron but with 0.05 wt% of magnesium. This results
in a major improvement in toughness and strength. The bainite is obtained by
isothermal transformation of the austenite at temperatures below which pearlite
forms. The process of graphitization is discussed in some detail in Chapter 12 on
heat treatment.

> Read full chapter

Selection and testing of metalworking

fluids
R. Evans, in Metalworking Fluids (MWFs) for Cutting and Grinding, 2012

Ductile cast iron

Ductile (nodular) iron has and continues to find wide use in the production of
many industrial components. Ductile iron is similar to gray cast iron in composition,
however during casting of ductile iron the graphite nucleates as spherical particles
as opposed to flake-like structures. The graphite structure is a primary reason for the
higher strength and ductility exhibited by ductile irons and subsequently for their
use in the production of many industrial parts which include crankshafts, gears,
rocker arms and disc brake calipers. With its higher strength, the machinability of
ductile iron tends to be lower and the demands for lubrication provided by the
fluid greater than that needed for gray cast iron. To achieve the necessary level of
lubrication, specific additives designed to provide friction reducing and anti-weld-
ing properties under more severe conditions of pressure and temperature can be
utilized to enhance the machining of ductile irons. Such additives typically known
as extreme pressure (EP) lubricants, function by reacting with the workpiece surface
under high temperature conditions, forming a low shear strength organometal-
lic or intermetallic film, which serves to reduce friction and prevent metal-metal
adhesion or localized welding between the tool and the workpiece surfaces. Such
additives have been shown to offer utility in more severe ferrous metalworking
operations. Three common classes of chemical types are known to effectively offer
such properties, these being chlorinated hydrocarbons, organosulfur compounds
and organophosphorus compounds.

Chlorinated paraffins have been used for many years as effective EP lubricants in
metalworking fluids. Their utility has been demonstrated in the machining of ferrous
metals as well as in the machining of certain non-ferrous metals such as aluminum.-
38–40Although extensive studies have been conducted to elucidate the mechanism
of the EP lubrication provided by chlorinated paraffins, there still remains a degree
of uncertainty with regard to the actual mechanism of activity. Nevertheless, it is
generally felt that at the elevated temperatures which are produced from the friction
and/or deformation that occurs during the cutting process, the release of chlorides
from the paraffin with subsequent formation of a surface layer of metallic chlorides
(Al or Fe) occurs, producing an effective EP lubricating film. The chemical structures
of two commonly used chlorinated additives are shown in Fig. 2.21.

2.21. Chemical structures of common chlorine-containing lubricant additives.

Organosulfur compounds have also been long known to provide effective lubrication
under EP conditions.41–43Such additives are believed to function by reacting with
the metal surface, forming a lubricating film comprising metal sulfides which
offer effective friction-reducing and load-bearing properties. The formation of the
lubricating metal sulfide film is thought to proceed via initial adsorption of a di
or polysulfide moiety onto the workpiece surface, followed by rapid homolysis of
the sulfur-sulfur bond, generating the metal sulfide layer (Fig. 2.22). The chemical
structures of commonly used sulfur-based lubricant additives are shown in Fig. 2.23.

2.22. Schematic of sulfur reactivity with metal surface.

2.23. Chemical structures of sulfur-containing lubricant additives.

Organophosphorus compounds are not generally considered to be as effective under

EP lubrication conditions as chlorine- or sulfur-containing lubricants. However,
depending on the structure of the compound, phosphorus-based additives are
known to provide a degree of load bearing and anti-welding properties.44–46Many
phosphorus-based additives used in today’s metalworking fluids are full or partial
phosphate esters prepared via the reaction of phosphoric acid or anhydride with
selected ethoxylated fatty alcohols. Such additives tend to have good surface active
properties and under conditions of high temperatures during sliding in a met-
al-metal contact, offer effective EP lubrication properties. Examples of commonly
used phosphorus-based EP additives are shown in Fig. 2.24.

2.24. Chemical structures of phosphorus-containing lubricant additives.

While previous speculation about the structure and mechanism of lubricant film
formation with phosphorus-based additives involved the formation of a metal
phosphate layer on the metal surface, more recent work conducted supports the
formation of a more complex structure whereby the organic ligand on the phosphate
plays a significant role in the formation and properties of a lubricating film
comprising a viscous organometallic-organophosphate complex.

The use of effective EP lubricating additives can offer notable benefits to the machin-
ing of ductile irons. Figure 2.25 shows the cutting forces measured for a water-based
fluid used to machine grade 65–45–12 ductile iron. The cutting forces measured for
the fluid without the presence of EP lubricants, as well as those measured for the
same fluid containing effective levels of a chlorine, sulfur and phosphorus-based EP
additive, are shown. The impact of the additives on the cutting forces is clearly seen.
Consistent with the cutting forces measured, Fig. 2.26 shows microphotographs of
the tool cutting edges following machining. While noticeable wear and chipping of
the cutting edge can be seen with the additive-free fluid, the same fluid containing
the various EP lubricants machines with much reduced wear and destruction of the
cutting edge.

2.25. Graph showing the impact of high pressure lubricants on axial cutting forces
in 65–45–12 ductile iron machining (1 lb = 4.448 N; 1 lb-foot = 13.8 kg-cm).
2.26. Microphotographs of tool flank face following machining of 65–45–12 ductile
cast iron. It shows higher wear and noticeable chipping on the tool cutting edge
used with the fluid containing no extreme pressure lubricating additive.

While the effectiveness of the EP additives in metalworking fluids can, and in

most cases should, be assessed via machining tests prior to selection of the fluid,
conventional benchtop lubrication testers can also be useful for initial screening of
the fluid and additive performance. Such testers include the Falex Pin on Vee Block
Tester and the Shell Four Ball Tester. Both of these tribometers can be used to assess
fluid performance under high pressure and temperature conditions.

The benefit of using EP-containing additives in water-based fluids can also be seen
in more severe ferrous machining operations such as the gun drilling of ductile
iron. Gun drilling is a metal removal process involving a drilling machine, a high
pressure coolant system and a high quality drill with a single or double flute along
the shank. In a gun drilling operation, the drill is positioned and held in the spindle
nose, then guided into the workpiece through a pre-started hole or guide bushing
to prevent vibration and ensure accuracy. The drill tip’s cutting edges produce thin
curled chips that are carried back along the shank by a high pressure flow of coolant.
The off-center design of the cutting edges creates pressure within the bore, which
is carried by pads behind the drill tip.

The metalworking fluid used must sufficiently flush out the chips and also lubricate
the pads, which burnish the surface and develop the fine finish for which gun drilling
is known. Thus the principal roles of the metalworking fluid in ductile iron gun
drilling operations are to provide lubrication and cooling as well as to disperse
and enhance chip removal effectively through the tool’s flute. As it is one of the
more difficult cutting operations, most fluids that perform well in a gun drilling
operation will typically perform well in the remaining cutting operations. While
various types of water-based and straight oil fluids have been used in deep hole
drilling operations, the use of a water-based macroemulsion type fluid containing
a suitable EP additive is usually the most effective. This is especially true when
machining softer grades of ductile iron, such as grade 65–45–12, which tends to
soften and become more adhesive with increasing surface temperatures.

The use of EP additives can minimize heat generation during the drilling process
and, as a result, limit localized welding as well as more catastrophic tool failure
during the process. An example of this can be seen in results obtained in the deep
hole drilling of a grade 85–55–06 ductile iron using a single fluted carbide drill and
water-based emulsion type metalworking fluids. In assessing the inside angle flank
wear as well as margin wear and chipping which occur, it can be seen that the use of
an organophosphorus-based additive in the fluid effectively reduces both flank face
tool wear as well as wear and chipping of the drill margin (Fig. 2.27 and 2.28).

2.27. Inside angle flank wear deep hole drilling of 85–55–06 ductile iron. The wear
area was measured and recorded in mm2. The wear areas measured for the products
tested are shown.
2.28. Metal adhesion on drill margin; deep hole drilling of ductile iron.

> Read full chapter

Casting Alloys
John Campbell, in Complete Casting Handbook (Second Edition), 2015

6.5.9 Chunky Graphite

Chunky graphite is often observed concentrated in the centers of heavy sections of
nodular iron castings. ‘Chunky’ is not a particularly helpful descriptive adjective for
this variety of graphite. Its ‘chunkiness’ is only apparent under the microscope at
high magnification; otherwise, it simply appears to be fine, irregular, branched and
interconnected fragments (Figures 6.52(c) and 6.55). Once again, the properties of
nodular iron are reduced. However, it seems the loss of properties may, once again,
be at least partly associated with the short diffusion distances between branches of
the graphite filaments, promoting the development of ferrite instead of the stronger
pearlite eutectoid phase (Liu et al., 1983).
Figure 6.55. Graphite nodules and areas of fine, chunky graphite in the thermal
centre of a 200 mm cube casting (Kallbom, 2006).

Liu and co-workers (1980, 1983) found evidence that chunky graphite grows along
the C-axis direction, as does both nodular and compacted graphite. Furthermore,
they reported observations on spheroids that exhibit gradual degeneration, gradually
taking on the growth forms of chunky graphite. Thus they concluded that chunky
graphite is a degenerate form of spheroidal graphite, and their work implied that
chunky graphite grows out from spheroids. Itofugi and Uchikawa (1990) confirmed
the identical growth modes of spheroidal, compacted and chunky graphites as
illustrated schematically in Figure 6.52.

All these workers observed the characteristic form of chunky graphite, as an appar-
ently ‘stop/start’ growth in the C-direction consisting of nearly separate pyramidal
‘chunks’ linked by a narrow neck, like beads on a string (Figure 6.52(c)). The individ-
ual chunk sections comprise layers parallel to the basal plane, but only nanometres
thick. This characteristically lumpy growth may be the result of a pulsating or
irregular advance of the growth front, with the austenite advancing to nearly grow
over the top of the graphite, forming the nearly pinched-off neck of the graphite,
only to be overtaken again because the carbon in solution will now buildup in the
liquid ahead of the front, accelerating the next phase of growth of the graphite until
the local carbon concentration is depleted once again.

Observations by Kallbom and co-workers (2006) are consistent with an origin as-
sociated with bifilms. They observe the chunky graphite to be concentrated in the
center of heavy sections, explained by the growth of the freezing front pushing
bifilms ahead, and explaining their observations of ‘stringers’ of graphite nodules.
These features are almost certainly sheets of oxides decorated with graphite nodules
that have been nucleated on the oxide (analogously to those seen in Figure 6.32).
The earlier paper by these authors (Kallbom, 2005) described how the outer several
centimetres of the casting can be perfect, with good nodularity, good strength and
ductility, but the structure can change abruptly, over a short distance equivalent to
only a nodule diameter, to chunky graphite. Thus the central volume of the casting
is weak and brittle. Because the problem is buried in the centre of thick section
castings it can be difficult to find by non-destructive methods.

All previous evidence that suggests chunky graphite requires both the presence of
bifilms combined with an absence of nuclei. It is possible to imagine a mechanism in
which following a turbulent pour, many bifilms will be pushed ahead of the forest of
growing dendrites, forming, at times, a distinct and abrupt separation of the outer
dendritic region from the inner residual liquid. The presence of the concentration of
bifilms in the centre will suppress the normal pattern of free circulation that would
ensure a good supply of nodules from the outer, cooler regions into the hot central
region. Furthermore, because so much time is available, particles such as nuclei and
nodules already in suspension in the centre will have time to float out, or existing
nodules to dissolve (because they will be unstable at these higher temperatures)
depleting the centres of nuclei so that spheroids cannot form.

For those nuclei now floated out to the edge of this region of higher temperature and
enhanced segregation, any nodules formed on the nuclei will not enjoy the benefit
of a surrounding austenite shell, so that their growth mechanism will more nearly
resemble that of an exploded spheroid. Because these will be at the boundary of the
central region, their growth is most likely to be an extension of the nodules along
the C-axis (Liu et al., 1980) in the direction of the gradually advancing solidification
front. In the absence of nuclei, the whole region would be expected to fill with this
continuous growth form. The extended size of chunky graphite regions, much larger
than cells of other types of graphite (Itofugi and Uchikawa, 1990), corroborate the
absence of nuclei in these regions.

The presence of bifilm cracks concentrated in the chunky graphite regions would
explain the poor properties that are observed; it is difficult to see how otherwise
a continuous graphite phase could reduce properties, particularly because in other
irons (such as CGI) a continuous graphite phase is associated with excellent and
reproducible tensile properties.

It is hoped that in the near future the explanation for the origin of chunky graphite
might be clarified and confirmed by further careful experiments. The key word here
is ‘careful’. For instance, the experiment by Asenjo and co-workers (2009) involving
the placement of inoculants in different branches of a runner system to simulate the
casting of separate moulds from one melt. In this way, it should have been possible
to compare the effects of different mould inoculation in separate heavy castings. The
idea was clever, but regrettably experimentally flawed because, in common with most
iron casting, the runners were not designed to be pressurised and fill on a single
pass. Thus a reverse flow is likely to have contaminated the mould cavities, and all
the cast material would have suffered from turbulence and air entrainment. All the
cavities would therefore have been contaminated with varying amounts of inoculants
from neighbouring cavities, and all would have contained unknown quantities of ox-
ide bifilms. Clearly, in the future, much greater sophistication of melting and casting
will be required for experiments designed to clarify the solidification mechanisms
for cast irons.

> Read full chapter

Life Cycle Tribology

Simon C. Tung, ... Xianghuai Dong, in Tribology and Interface Engineering Series,
2005

3.2 TOOLING MATERIAL COMPARISON

Three tooling materials were evaluated in the present study at a constant load of
200N: GM 238 gray cast iron and 246 pearlitic nodular iron, and 1040 steel. The
tooling materials were evaluated using a variety of lubricants and tested both with
the lubricant only on the tooling (summarized in Table 2), and also with lubricant
on both the tool and the 5083 aluminum sample. No significant differences in
behavior were observed among the three tooling materials. However, there are some
small differences which may suggest that larger differences in behavior could exist,
especially when larger numbers of panels are run in a production environment.
The best condition for distinguishing between die materials occurred when the
aluminum sheet was lubricated and no lubricant was applied to the die (Table 2).
Under these conditions, the 1040 steel showed slightly higher friction when boron
nitride and molybdenum disulfide were used, and slightly more wear (along with
GM 238) when magnesia was used. While these differences may not be significant,
additional research should be conducted to understand the effect of tooling material
on friction and wear.

> Read full chapter

Gas turbines: operating conditions,

components and material require-
ments
A.W. James, S. Rajagopalan, in Structural Alloys for Power Plants, 2014
1.2 Overview of materials systems and their role in gas turbines
Materials and materials systems play a central role in the function of the gas
turbine, and appropriate materials choices are essential to maximizing gas turbine
efficiency and operational longevity. The compressor section of the gas turbine is
predominantly manufactured from ferrous alloys, namely steels and nodular irons.
The temperature within the compressor increases from ambient at the inlet to nearly
600 °C in the final stages towards the compressor exit. Materials used for the blades
and vanes in the rear compressor stages must have adequate high temperature
strength and oxidation resistance to withstand these conditions. Other important
material property requirements include good corrosion resistance and high cycle
fatigue strength. Stainless steels are the preferred materials for compressor blades
and vanes. Examples of the prominently used grades include 17-4 PH (a precipita-
tion hardenable grade) and 400 series martensitic stainless steels. Where additional
protection against corrosion is required, coatings (such as alumina) may be applied.

The compressor external flow path is defined by the casing. While the casing for the
inlet portion of the compressor is typically made of either carbon steel or nodular
iron, the remainder of the compressor casing is usually made of a low alloy steel.
Stainless steels maybe used towards the rear end of the compressor, where the
temperatures are too high for low alloy steel. Combustion and turbine casings
operate at higher temperatures than the compressor. The casings materials for
the turbine and combustor are frequently manufactured from heat-resistant steels:
alloy steels such as 2.25%Cr steel or stainless steels such as 400 series martensitic
stainless steels.

The rotor is a critical component, extending from the front of the compressor to
the rear of the turbine section carrying both the compressor and turbine blades.
The rotor consists of a series of disks that either are bolted or welded together to
form the rotor or affixed to a central shaft. The rotor disks experience significant
centrifugal loads resulting from the blades attached to the outer diameter. Disk
materials must have relatively high tensile strength, as well as very good fatigue and
fracture properties. Disks at the front stages of the compressor may be exposed to
low ambient temperatures, and the need for good fracture toughness at sub-zero
temperatures is important for these stages. In contrast, the disks at the rear end of
the compressor experience relatively high temperatures and must therefore exhibit
good creep properties. High strength low alloy (HSLA) steels, e.g. 3.5NiCrMoV steel,
meet the mechanical property requirements for front end compressor disks and
are also relatively low cost. There is a need to transition from low alloy steels to
creep-resistant steels once the temperatures start to exceed 300–350 °C. Twelve
percent chromium steels or martensitic stainless steels are often preferred for the
last compressor stages, where temperatures exceed 400 °C, due to their good
elevated temperature strength and creep properties. At temperatures beyond about
550 °C steels do not have sufficient creep strength for disk applications, and at these
higher temperatures it is necessary to employ solid solution strengthened or gamma
prime ( ) strengthened nickel-based alloys. With the appropriate composition
and microstucture, nickel-based superalloys may be used for disk applications at
temperatures of up to around 700 °C (Reed, 2008).

From a materials and design perspective the turbine section probably represents the
most challenging environment in the gas turbine. The temperature of the working
fluid entering the turbine section frequently exceeds the useful working temperature
limit of nickel-base superalloys, and in the most advanced industrial gas turbines the
gas path temperatures can easily exceed the melting temperature of the blade and
vane alloys by several hundred degrees Celsius. This demands the use of effective
cooling schemes and protective thermal barrier coatings.

Superalloys are typically the material of choice for turbine hot gas path components
(blades, vanes and ring segments). The strengthened superalloys exhibit a unique
behavior, maintaining their strength and creep properties up to approximately 0.7
times their melting temperature. The superalloys have been the subject of extensive
development efforts driven primarily by the aero engine industry. The develop-
ment has focused both on compositional modifications and on processing. The
nickel-base alloys have progressed through a number of ‘generations’ characterized
by increasing amounts of rhenium (Re) and ruthenium (Ru). However, while the
creep resistance of the alloys has increased significantly, so has the cost. While
the superalloys with 6% Re and 6% Ru are tailored specifically for aero engine
applications, they are not well suited to use in large industrial gas turbines. The
casting of large monolithic single crystal industrial gas turbine components can be
very challenging, and the high scrap rates accompanied by the very high cost of the
alloy make the use of these alloys prohibitively expensive for industrial gas turbine
(IGT) applications.

Coatings are an integral part of many IGT materials systems, contributing several key
functions including thermal and oxidation protection, clearance control and wear
resistance (Clarke and Phillpot, 2005; Padture et al., 2002). With the push towards
increased efficiency, reduction in cooling air for blades and vanes is an essential
design requirement driving the need for increased thermal protection from the
coating system. Porous abradable coatings deposited on ring segments enable the
reduction of gaps between blade tips and the ring segments arising from engine
build tolerances. The reduced leakage over the blade tips leads to further increases
in efficiency and power. Component mating interfaces, such as combustor spring
clips, experience significant sliding motion resulting in local component wear, and
wear-resistant coatings serve to alleviate this distress.
Thermal barrier coating (TBC) systems consist of an oxidation-resistant metallic
coating, deposited on top of a superalloy substrate, with a porous ceramic coating
on top. The ceramic coating provides thermal insulation to the underlying superalloy
and bond coat. The metallic coating performs the dual functions of providing
adherence for the ceramic coating and oxidation resistance for the superalloy. Such
oxidation protection is particularly important following spallation of the TBC. The
metallic bond coat is typically applied to the component using a thermal spray
process such as low pressure plasma Spray (LPPS) or high velocity oxy-fuel (HVOF).
Figure 1.3 schematically represents a section through such a multi-layer protection
system. The thickness of the coatings are typically one-tenth to one-fifth the thick-
ness of the superalloy substrate, depending upon the component. Typically, coatings
on blades and vanes are thinner (300–500 μm) than those used in combustors
(about 1 mm or higher). Zirconia-base TBCs are widely used as the ceramic coating
on the surfaces of high-temperature engine components. The microstructures and
properties of TBCs are largely defined by the processing parameters. For example,
plasma spray (PS) and electron beam–physical vapor deposition (EB-PVD) produce
distinctively different microstructures and thermomechanical characteristics. Each
of these processing techniques has advantages and disadvantages. The size of the
underlying component, performance requirements, and cost are key factors in the
selection of a TBC system.

1.3. Schematic representation of a section through a multilayer thermal and oxida-

tion protection system.

Used with permission from Siemens Energy, Inc.

Ceramic abradables are used in the turbine section of both aero and industrial gas
turbines to permit reduced hot running clearances between the rotating blades and
stationary shrouds or ring segments. The benefits of tighter running clearances
include increased power, efficiency and reduced emissions. For a modern industrial
gas turbine, a 1 mm reduction in the Row 1 and Row 2 turbine blade tip clearance
is worth in excess of US$1 million. This benefit does not come without some risk,
however. If the abradable system is not chosen correctly for the specified application,
the blade tips can be damaged, removing material from the tips and resulting in
increased gas leakage for that row of blades. Criteria for choosing abradables include
operating temperature, incursion rate (rate at which the radial gap changes during
blade rubbing) and time before cutting occurs (ideally the blades would begin to cut
into the abradable coating during the first rotation on starting the engine). The blade
tips themselves may be left uncoated or coated with an abrasive for better cutting of
the abradable coating.

Wear-resistant coatings have been critical to the operation of gas turbines in aircraft
and land-based applications. Gas turbine components are subjected to harsh envi-
ronments that include rigorous mechanical loading conditions. Many compressor,
combustion and turbine components experience vibrations and dynamic forces
that cause wear. These components can be coated with wear-resistant coatings to
increase maintenance intervals and ensure that components meet their intended
design lives.

Coatings are a critical component of the ‘materials system’ for hot section turbine
components. The first two rows of turbine blades, vanes and ring segments are
usually protected with two separate coatings, a metallic bond coat and a ceramic
thermal barrier coating. The bond coat is usually in the form of an MCrAlY (where
M is either Co or Ni). As the name suggests, the bond coat is an interlayer between
the substrate alloy and the TBC which helps ‘bond’ the TBC to the underlying alloy.

Towards the rear of the turbine section where the temperatures are lower, TBC
are not required. However, metallic overlay coatings are very often applied to pro-
vide oxidation and corrosion protection to the underlying superalloy. Some cooled
components utilize internal coatings for oxidation or corrosion protection. Internal
coatings are often applied using chemical vapor deposition (CVD). A summary of
the typical temperatures ranges and materials at the various locations within an
industrial gas turbine is given in Table 1.1.

Table 1.1. Typical operating temperature ranges and materials for gas turbine com-
ponents

Location Component Typical temperature Typical class of materi-

(°C) range als
Compressor inlet Compressor blades Ambient (− 30 to + 45) Precipitation harden-
able stainless steels
Compressor vanes Ambient (− 30 to + 45) Martensitic stainless steels
Compressor disks Ambient (− 30 to + 45) High strength low alloy steels
Compressor outlet Compressor blades Up to 450Up to 600 Martensitic stainless
steels strength-
ened nickel-base super-
alloys (cast or wrought:
equiaxed)
Compressor vanes Up to 450Up to 600
 Martensitic stainless steels -
strengthened nickel–base su-
peralloys (cast or wrought:
equiaxed)
Compressor disks Up to 550 High strength low alloy steels;
12%Cr creep-resistant steels
Combustor Combustor Up to 800 Solid solution strength-
ened nickel-base super-
alloys Stainless steels
Combustor to turbine Transition duct Up to 800 Solid solution strength-
ened nickel-base super-
alloys
Turbine inlet Turbine blades 1200–1600 strengthened nick-
el-base superalloys
(cast: single crystal, di-
rectionally solifidied or
Turbine vanes 1200–1600 strengthened nickel-base
equiaxed)
superalloys (cast: single crystal
or equiaxed) Cobalt-based su-
Turbine disks 450–550 500–650 High strength low alloy steels;
peralloys
12%Cr steels
strengthened nickel-base
superalloys (wrought: equiaxed)
Turbine exit Turbine blades 500–600 strengthened nick-
el-base superalloys
(cast: equiaxed)
Turbine vanes 500–600 strengthened nickel-base
superalloys (cast: equiaxed)
Cobalt-based superalloys
Turbine disks 450–550 Steel
Outer casing Outer casing Up to 600 Cast iron

> Read full chapter

Fatigue Design of Components

Kenneth Hamberg, ... Anders Robertson, in European Structural Integrity Society,
1997

INTRODUCTION
Nodular cast iron is a material that has found a increasing number of applications in
the automotive industry during the last decade. It has a static strength comparable
to cast steels and a greater fatigue strength and ductility than grey irons. Castability
and machinability is good, and all these properties makes it an economic alternative
for medium stressed components and for safety critical applications. A reduction of
30% or more in component cost can be made when nodular iron is substituted for
cast or forged steel [1]. Nodular iron is however a material that contains different
kinds of defects, such as inclusions, dross, surface defects, slag stringers and micro
shrinkage pores. It has been found that cracks will initiate and propagate from these
defects. The degree to which these different defects will lower a components service
life is not fully investigated [2,3]. A rule of thumb is that the rough cast surface lowers
the fatigue performance to the same level independently of the grade of the material.

The present work is a study of the lifetime for test specimens in nodular cast iron
with an as cast surface marred by surface defects. The analysis and calculations are
based on fracture mechanics.

> Read full chapter

Piping system components

Maurice Stewart, in Surface Production Operations, 2016

4.2.11.5 Valve trim materials

Trim denotes the stem, core, gate, disk, and seats (or seals). Material for each of
these items is usually specified when selecting a valve and determined by the specific
service. Some of the more common types of materials used for trim include carbon
and stainless steels, cast iron, nodular iron, special alloys, Teflon, Buna-N, and other
elastomers. Each of these materials exhibits different characteristics in the presence
of various fluids. Conditions that may require special trim include the following:

• High or low temperature

• High pressure drop

• Erosive fluids (sand-laden)

• Corrosive fluids (CO2, H2S, etc.)

• Special chemicals (acid)

The manufacturer must be informed of any factors that affect the design of the
valve to be furnished. Each valve manufacturer has developed a trim combination
for handling the various oil field fluids. It is best to obtain the manufacturer's
recommendations, and if experience does not dictate otherwise, specify that trim.
If the service is particularly severe, the manufacturers recommended materials may
be approved by a metallurgist or corrosion engineer.

> Read full chapter

Bergen (Rolls-Royce)
Doug Woodyard, in Pounder's Marine Diesel Engines and Gas Turbines (Ninth
Edition), 2009

BV Engine
The first BV engines—twin V12-cylinder models, each developing 5294 kW at 750-
 rev/min—were delivered in 1998 for powering a large anchor handling/tug/supply
vessel (Figure 23.1). The BV design is based on a single-piece engine block cast
in GGG500 nodular iron carrying two banks of cylinders in a 55° V-configuration
(Figure 23.2), an underslung crankshaft (Figure 23.3) and two camshafts; it also
incorporates the charge air receiver between the cylinder banks. The camshafts are
located outside each bank and housed in open-sided recesses in the block, allowing
the complete camshafts to be removed sideways. At the front of the block is an
opening for the charge air cooler and another for the auxiliary gear drive; the timing
gears are arranged at the rear of the engine. The whole structure is designed for
firing pressures in excess of 200 bar. An advantage of the block material is that it can
be repaired by welding in the event of accidental damage.

Figure 23.1. A Bergen B32:40 engine in V12-cylinder form

Figure 23.2. The BV engine block is a nodular iron casting

Figure 23.3. Crankshaft of the BV engine

A new cylinder liner design specified for the BV engines features a thicker upper wall
section than the in-line cylinder BR models and a revised bore-cooling layout (Figure
23.4). The liner, rated for mean effective pressures up to 32 bar and peak pressures
in excess of 220 bar, was subsequently standardized for all B-series engines. Small
changes were made to the BV cylinder heads, mainly a new head gasket matching
the redesigned liner. The two-piece piston is essentially the same as that used in the
BR engines, with a nodular iron skirt and bore-cooled steel crown. The connecting
rods were lengthened but the same bearings were used as before.

Figure 23.4. BV engine cylinder liner with bore-cooled upper part, also applied to
the in-line cylinder BR models

Shorter fuel injection periods dictated strengthened camshafts to meet the increased
loads, with a larger diameter both for the shaft and for the cam base circles. The
fuel pumps are the same as those for BR engines but the fuel supply system was
modified, chiefly by increasing pipe volumes and changing the layout to avoid
cavitation and smooth out vibration caused by pressure pulses from the pumps.

Twin turbochargers mounted above the two insert-type charge air coolers operate on
the impulse system, the pipework enclosed in an insulated box between the cylinder
banks. A choice of electronic governors is offered, operating in conjunction with a
standardized hydro-mechanical actuator. All electrical transducers on the BV engine
are linked to a common electrical rail, one on each side of the engine, in a neat layout
enabling faulty transducers to be quickly changed.

> Read full chapter

The piston ring

Hiroshi Yamagata, in The Science and Technology of Materials in Automotive En-
gines, 2005

4.4.2 Tensioning
The most common designs of piston rings have a non-circular shape in the free state,
so that when they are installed, they will conform tightly to the cylinder wall at every
point and the desired contact pressure distribution will be obtained. This favorable
shape, characteristic of the ring in its free state, can be produced by several different
processes.

In the case of cast iron rings, the shape of the casting gives the desired contact
pressure distribution. The flaky graphite iron is shaped into an oval without a gap
(Fig. 4.12). In nodular iron rings, the tube cast for slicing is oval in cross-section,
and the circular shape is obtained by cutting the gap. During processing, the gap
is subjected to several repeated cycles of opening and closing. This load cycle on
the ring removes micro-yielding (anelasticity) to increase elastic properties. Mi-
cro-yielding is the phenomenon where small plastic deformation takes place before
the macroscopic elastic limit is reached (Appendix K). The repeated load cycle on the
ring removes it. This effect is very important and is called accommodation.

In steel rings, the shape generated in the coiling process (Fig. 4.15) determines
contact pressure distribution geometrically. It is also possible to grind a non-circular
shape out of a circular ring, but this raises the cost quite considerably. An alternative
method of generating an oval shape involves first coiling the wire onto a circular
form. The coil is then pressed around a core bar with an oval section. Heat treatment
causes the coil to deform thermally and conform to the oval shape of the bar. This
process is called thermal tensioning and is also applied to cast iron rings.

> Read full chapter

Magnesium alloys for lightweight pow-

ertrains and automotive bodies
B.R. Powell, ... P.E. Krajewski, in Advanced Materials in Automotive Engineering,
2012

7.1.3 Automotive applications of magnesium

Magnesium has been used in a wide range of non-automotive commercial products.
The first commercial uses were pyrotechnics, both civilian and military. Due to
its high chemical reactivity, magnesium has also had a role in organic chemistry
and pharmaceuticals, as well as in the electrochemical industry. Like zinc, mag-
nesium has been used as a sacrificial anode to protect other metals in corrosive
environments. Finally, in the metallurgy industry, the major non-component uses
of magnesium are as an alloying element for aluminum, to which it imparts strength
and corrosion resistance, in steel melt processing to accomplish desulfurization, and
in iron melt processing to produce nodular iron. The worldwide demand (in metric
tons) for these products in 2007 is shown in Fig. 7.2. Some of the uses of magnesium
as a structural material in non-automotive applications are presented in Table 7.4.

7.2. Magnesium consumption by end use in 2007 (Brown, 2008) (used with permis-
sion from TMS).

Table 7.4. Uses of magnesium as a structural material in non-automotive applica-

tions

Military and aerospace Consumer products

•Aircraft air frames•Engines•Transmis- •Power tools•Cameras•Hand luggage-
sion cases•Missile skins and frames•Elec- •Appliance parts•Cell phones•Portable
tronic housings computers

The advantages of magnesium as a structural material are summarized in Table 7.5.

Some of the key advantages include specific strength, specific stiffness, fluidity, hot
formability, machining, and damping. Each of these advantages is briefly addressed
in Table 7.5, but it is these advantages that drive consideration for magnesium in
automotive applications.

Table 7.5. Key advantages for improved properties, design, and manufacturing with
magnesium
Property Advantage
•Specific strength•Specific stiffness•Flu- •Magnesium has a specific strength that
idity•Hot formability•Machining•Damp- is similar to cast iron, and similar or
ing•Low temperature properties greater than many traditional automotive
aluminum and thus can provide more
mass reduction relative to aluminum.•-
Magnesium has a higher specific stiffness
than many polymeric materials and com-
posites, thus allowing improved mass
reduction.•The relatively high fluidity of
magnesium allows extremely thin walled
castings (1.5 mm), which enhances mass
reduction opportunities.•Wrought mag-
nesium can be formed into very com-
plex shapes using elevated temperature
forming processes.•Machining tools last
longer with magnesium than aluminum,
reducing costs. The only issue is added
care required with machining chips.Mag-
nesium alloys have excellent damping
capability compared to other materials
making them attractive•Magnesium does
not exhibit a brittle to ductile transition
so it can be used at very low service tem-
peratures

Adapted from ASM International, 1999.

Magnesium has a long history of automotive use dating back to the mid 1930s when
it was introduced as an engine block in the Volkswagen Beetle.

Since that time, there has been a steady stream of applications covering a wide range
of powertrain, chassis, and body structure applications. A pictorial summary of many
of these historic and current applications is provided in Fig. 7.3. Most major vehicle
components have been made with magnesium either as prototype or production
applications. The majority of these applications have been cast components which
take advantage of the excellent fluidity of magnesium and the ability to cast very
complex and thin walled shapes.
7.3. Pictorial summary of past and current magnesium automotive applications.

Despite the large number of applications which have been explored or used with
magnesium, it remains a relatively small percentage of the materials in a typical
vehicle as shown in Fig. 7.4. There are many reasons for the lack of use including the
high cost of magnesium, low formability limiting its use in sheet metal components,
low corrosion resistance, and limited overall design and manufacturing experience
with the material compared to steel. Despite these limitations, magnesium has
shown significant recent growth in applications as evidenced by the number of
applications on the bottom half of Fig. 7.3. The growth and potential for further
growth will be discussed in the remaining sections of this chapter.
 7.4. Breakdown of materials in a typical automobile (after Taub et al., 2007) (used
with permission of General Motors).

> Read full chapter

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