Degradation Assessment and Failure Prevention of Pipeline Systems

Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering
Gabriella Bolzon
Giovanna Gabetta
Hryhoriy Nykyforchyn Editors
Degradation
Assessment and
Failure Prevention
of Pipeline Systems
Volume 102
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Gabriella Bolzon Giovanna Gabetta
• •
Hryhoriy Nykyforchyn
Editors
Degradation Assessment
and Failure Prevention
of Pipeline Systems
123
Editors
Gabriella Bolzon Giovanna Gabetta
Dipartimento di Ingegneria Civile e Oil&Gas Sector
Ambientale Milano, Italy
Politecnico di Milano
Milano, Italy
Karpenko Physico-Mechanical Institute
National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine
Lviv, Ukraine
ISSN 2366-2557 ISSN 2366-2565 (electronic)

ISBN 978-3-030-58072-8 ISBN 978-3-030-58073-5 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58073-5
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Preface
Pipelines represent an extremely safe way to transport hydrocarbons across the

world. A barrel of crude oil or petroleum product shipped by pipeline reaches its
destination safely more than 99.99% of the time. In addition, most incidents do not
impact the public or the environment, since they are occurring and wholly con-
tained within the operators’ facilities. Efforts are however necessary to ensure that
health, safety, security, and environmental concerns are addressed throughout all
planning, construction, and operational phases of pipeline operations. Integrity
management programs can prevent releases and accidents by defining adequate
evaluation, inspection, and maintenance procedures.
The research project G5055 ‘Development of novel methods for improved safety
assessment of gas pipelines with security implications,’ supported by NATO
Science for Peace and Security (SPS) program, addressed some of the safety issues
listed above. The main results of this project are collected in this volume together
with the contribution of experts operating in the wider fields of pipe safety, with the
aim of offering the overall picture of the technical discussion going on in this area.
The SPS G5055 project was dedicated to the study of steel degradation in gas
pipeline. Tests were performed on some serviced pipeline sections provided by
utilizers settled in Italy and in Ukraine, operating in wide production and distri-
bution areas. The research focus was on non-destructive mechanical tests and
electrochemical evaluation of degradation. The objective was to describe and if
possible to model the in-service degradation of pipeline steel via the examination of
structural and fractographical features.
In fact, during their lifetime, pipelines are exposed to demanding working
conditions and aggressive media. In long-term exploitation, material aging
increases the risk of fracture and the possibility of significant economic losses and
severe environmental consequences. Thus, understanding damage evolution in steel
represents a main purpose to be persecuted in order to predict reliably the residual
life of pipelines and the connected risks.
Failure in operation of the considered strategic infrastructures can be prevented
by continuous monitoring. Non-destructive experimental techniques can evidence
in-bulk degradation phenomena like material embrittlement, particularly critical in
v
vi Preface
gas transportation systems for the danger of bursts and explosions. Data collected
on site and inserted in validated prediction models allow to estimate the evolution
of the ongoing processes and to plan the retrofitting interventions that ensure the
maintenance of adequate safety margins.
Crack growth in pipeline steel is often assisted by hydrogen, by a mechanism
that depends strongly on the physico-chemical characteristics of transported fluid.
Hydrogen embrittlement is considered in a few papers in this book, together with
the main corrosion issues that are known to cooperate to pipeline degradation.
The capability of detecting defects is mandatory to improve the safety perfor-
mance of the investigated systems and of related components; some innovative
methods are described to evidence the presence of corrosion and its evolution with
time.
Improved safety of pipelines can be provided by assessing different damaging
scenarios in a risk-based context, with the combination of complementary inspec-
tion techniques.
Finally, a significant contribution to pipeline safety is provided also by the
ongoing technological progresses in materials and components, partly described in
this book.
Milano, Italy Gabriella Bolzon

Co-Director of NATO SPS G5055 Project
Lviv, Ukraine Hryhoriy Nykyforchyn
Co-Director of NATO SPS G5055 Project
Milano, Italy Giovanna Gabetta
Industrial Advisor of the Project
Contents
Project Results
Non-destructive Mechanical Testing of Pipelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Gabriella Bolzon
In-Service Degradation of Pipeline Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Non-destructive Electrochemical Evaluation of Pipeline
Degradation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Olha Zvirko and Oleksandr Tsyrulnyk
Structural and Fractographic Features of Gas Pipeline
Steel Degradation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Halyna Krechkovska, Myroslava Hredil, and Oleksandra Student
Determination of the Residual Lifetime of Gas Pipeline with Surface
Crack Under Internal Pressure and Soil Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Ivan Shtoyko, Jesus Toribio, Viktor Kharin, and Myroslava Hredil
Open Issues
A Tentative Summary of Corrosion Issues in Pipelines
Transporting Hydrocarbons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Giovanna Gabetta
Risk-Based Inspection and Integrity Management
of Pipeline Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Stefano P. Trasatti
A Model of a System for Gas Transmission Pipeline Integrity
Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Vasyl Chekurin, Roman Kushnir, Yuriy Ponomarev, Myroslav Prytula,
and Olga Khymko
vii
viii Contents
The VERNE System for Underwater Test of Pipeline Integrity . . . . . . . 115

G. Nardoni, D. Nardoni, and M. Bentoglio
Detection and Assessment of Defects in Gas Pipelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Vasyl Kostiv, Roman Banakhevych, and Hryhoriy Nykyforchyn
Hydrogen Embrittlement and Microdamage of 316L Steel Affecting
the Structural Integrity, Durability and Safety of Pipelines . . . . . . . . . . 135
Jesús Toribio and Javier Ayaso
Effect of Environmental Composition on Fatigue Crack Growth
and Hydrogen Permeation in Carbon Pipeline Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Ihor Dmytrakh, Rostyslav Leshchak, and Andriy Syrotyuk
Development of Improved Materials for the Production of Forged
Integral Buckle Arrestors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Francesca Cena, Giovanna Gabetta, and Giuseppe Cumino
Assessment of Operational Degradation of Pipeline Steel Based
on True Stress–Strain Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Ihor Dzioba, Olha Zvirko, and Sebastian Lipiec
Effect of Impact-Oscillatory Loading on the Variation of Mechanical
Properties and Crack Resistance of Pipe Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Mykola Chausov, Pavlo Maruschak, Andrii Pylypenko,
and Andriy Sorochak
Prediction of Residual Service Life of Oil Pipeline Under
Non-stationary Oil Flow Taking into Account Steel
Degradation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
Oleksandr Andreykiv, Oksana Hembara, Iryna Dolinska,
Yaroslav Sapuzhak, and Nataliya Yadzhak
Application of the Magnetoacoustic Emission Method for Estimation
of Pipelines Material State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
V. Skalskyi, Ye. Pochaps’kyi, O. Stankevych, B. Klym, and N. Melnyk
Corrosion-Mechanical Failure of Pipe Steels in Hydrogen
Sulfide Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Myroslav Khoma, Vasyl Vynar, Maryan Chuchman,
and Chrystyna Vasyliv
Determination of Preconditions Leading to Critical Stresses
in Pipeline During Lowering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
Yurii Melnychenko, Lubomyr Poberezhny, Volodymyr Hrudz,
Vasyl Zapukhliak, Ihor Chudyk, and Taras Dodyk
Project Results
Non-destructive Mechanical Testing
of Pipelines
Gabriella Bolzon
Abstract Strategic infrastructures made of pipelines transporting hydrocarbons

across the world are exposed to the risk of failure due to damage accumulation during
operation. The degradation process is promoted by material aging and enhanced by
harsh service conditions. Severe consequences can be prevented by the long-life
monitoring and integrity assessment of materials and components. Structural diag-
nosis can be assisted by non-destructive mechanical testing. This chapter provides
an overview on the procedures at present available for pipeline steels in this context.
The information content of hardness and instrumented indentation tests is specifi-
cally addressed. The focus is on the reliability of the predictions that can be provided
by small sampling sizes when experimental information and numerical simulations
are combined. The significance of such methodology for the evaluation of the current
properties of exercised pipelines is illustrated together with the relevant validation
studies. The gains resulting from the progressive technological advancements are
also evidenced.
Keywords Pipelines · Failure prevention · Structural diagnosis · Non destructive

testing · In-situ analysis
1 Introduction
Strategic infrastructures made of pipelines transporting hydrocarbons across the

world are exposed to the risk of failure due to damage accumulation during opera-
tion. The degradation process is promoted by material aging and enhanced by harsh
service conditions, due to either the presence of aggressive agents in the fluids and
to the characteristics of the surrounding environment [1].
G. Bolzon (B)
Dipartimento di Ingegneria Civile e Ambientale, Politecnico di Milano, Milano, Italy
e-mail: gabriella.bolzon@polimi.it
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license 3
to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021
G. Bolzon et al. (eds.), Degradation Assessment and Failure Prevention
of Pipeline Systems, Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering 102,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58073-5_1
4 G. Bolzon
The maintenance of adequate safety levels poses significant challenges and implies
large maintenance investments that may be adequately planned through the imple-
mentation of effective structural health monitoring systems [2, 3]. Thus, failure
prevention costs can be payed back by the reduction of interventions in emergency
and by the reconversion of existing pipeline systems to different uses, as expected in
the transition from the carbon to the hydrogen era [4].
Distributed corrosion represents a common threat of steel components. In oil and
gas infrastructures, corrosion can be evidenced by specific in-line inspection tools
and dedicated sensors [5, 6]. Visual examination and ultrasonic measurement permit
to detect the presence of flaws, which may trigger localized (pitting) corrosion [7].
These dangerous phenomena are often preceded or accompanied by diffuse material
degradation.
Ductility represents a crucial material characteristic to prevent bursts and explo-
sions in gas transportation system. This property can be compromised by mate-
rial aging, enhanced by physical–chemical processes involving hydrogen and water
[8–10]. Embrittlement phenomena may become critical especially at low oper-
ating temperatures, which represent typical working conditions of pressure vessels
[11–13].
Ductility is usually determined by standard mechanical tests performed on
samples extracted from the pipe (or vessel) wall and machined in the shapes and
dimensions prescribed by Standards [14, 15]. A non-invasive alternative proposed
for industrial power generation systems and for nuclear plants consists of the small
punch test. In this methodology, a small disc is cut from a thin (a few mm thick) metal
layer removed from the component to be investigated. The sample is punched by a
spherical ball. The applied load is recorded versus the induced deflection. Conven-
tional mechanical properties like yield strength, ultimate tensile strength and ductile-
to-brittle transition temperature are inferred from the collected measurement by semi-
empirical relationships [16, 17]. This mechanical characterization approach has been
proposed also for the estimation of fracture toughness, starting from the identifica-
tion of the crack initiation point in the deformation process. However, facing this
challenging task implies the use of sophisticated measurement techniques, which
are seldom available [18, 19].
Several investigations have evidenced a significant correlation between the embrit-
tlement (i.e., the reduction of elongation at failure) and the variation of other mechan-
ical properties of exercised metals [8, 10, 11, 20]. This is for instance the case of
the tensile strength, which can be reliably estimated by several experimental proce-
dures. A truly non-destructive, fast and rather inexpensive technique is based on
instrumented indentation, which represents the quite natural evolution of the classical
hardness tests [21, 22].
Indentation does not require to machine any specimen. In this approach, a hard
steel or diamond tip of pre-fixed shape is pressed against the polished surface of
the component to be investigated. The load can be applied directly on the operated
structure through specifically designed equipment and anchorage systems [23, 24].
The force value is controlled continuously together with the penetration depth of
the tip. These data produce the so-called indentation curves, which are exploited
Non-destructive Mechanical Testing of Pipelines 5
in parameter identification procedures based on either semi-empirical formulae [23,

25] or (more and more frequently) on inverse analysis tools [24, 26].
The reliability of the material characteristics calibrated on the basis of instru-
mented indentation tests has been often discussed. In some circumstances, in fact,
several parameter sets can approximate the load-penetration curves to the same
extent. This limitation can be circumvented by exploiting the geometry of the residual
imprint left on the material surface [27]. This additional information can be acquired
by a variety of tools, also depending on the magnitude of the applied load and on
the induced penetration depth [26, 28, 29]. The relevant equipment is now easily
available on the market, even in portable format, and can be mounted on frames
moving on rails or on the arms of collaborative robots for the probing of the material
characteristics over large distances; see e.g. [30–32].
The load levels considered in [24, 26] conform to standard specification for struc-
tural applications. The experimental output is therefore truly representative of the
bulk material properties, with a large spatial resolution that permits to evidence gradi-
ents in material properties. This is an interesting feature for diagnostic applications
since damage processes often spread through structural components starting from an
initial small volume or surface.
The effectiveness of in situ diagnostic analyses depend on the portability and
manoeuvrability of the indentation tools and on the acquisition speed of the imaging
devices. These operative characteristics can be enhanced by the reduction of the
maximum applied load. The feasibility of this potential technical advancement has
been partly verified in the research work summarized in this chapter.
2 Indentation-Based Structural Diagnosis Tool
The alteration of the mechanical properties induced by the bulk degradation of

pipeline steel is reflected by the output of hardness and indentation tests [20, 23,
33]. Thus, the structural integrity of in-service components can be monitored by
the routine application of these fast non-destructive techniques. When required, the
collected information can be exploited in inverse analysis procedures to return a
reliable quantification of the damage extent and severity [34].
2.1 Damage Detection
Diffuse damage processes produce variations on the main characteristics of metals.

The modification of the mechanical properties can be evidenced by traditional labo-
ratory tests performed on material samples extracted from operated components.
Alternatively, the variation of the material characteristics can be inferred from the
output of indentation tests performed in situ. This non-destructive approach has been
6 G. Bolzon
Fig. 1 Indentation curves of as-received (dashed lines) and degraded (continuous lines) X60 and
X70 pipeline steel (rough data)
verified on different types of pipeline steels, tested in laboratory in as-received status

and in artificially aged and degraded conditions [20, 33].
In some experiments, a Rockwell tip was pressed against the metal surface at
increasing load, up to 200 N maximum force, and then removed. The indentation
curves corresponding to X60 and X70 steel samples are for instance visualized in
Fig. 1. Despite some dispersion, the curves permit to distinguish the different material
status. In particular, the maximum penetration depth in the as-received sample are
larger than in degraded conditions, evidencing that the undergone processes induced
material hardening. This effect was confirmed by the output of standard uniaxial tests
performed on cylindrical tensile specimens with circular cross section of 4.9 mm
diameter. Results, also in terms of constitutive parameters, are fully comparable
to those evidenced by indentation despite the different volumes involved by the
alternative experiments. In fact, the estimated radius of the steel surface in contact
with the Rockwell tip during the loading process represented in Fig. 1 is about
250 µm.
The residual deformation left on a metal surface by indentation reflects signifi-
cantly the material characteristics. The geometry of the imprint can be acquired in
a variety of modes and returned in digital format as a set of coordinates. These data
can be used to identify the main constitutive parameters of pipeline steels and their
evolution with time.
2.2 Damage Quantification
Damage extent is correlated to the variation of bulk material properties like the
elastic modulus, the initial yield limit and the hardening coefficient of metals. These
parameters can be evaluated from the information collected from non-destructive
indentation tests performed in situ, on components in use. The measurements can be
processed in almost real time by inverse analysis tools resting on the combination of
Fig. 2 The validated material calibration procedure illustrated in [26]
experimental and computing procedures partly proposed and developed in different

research areas [35, 36].
An approach effective in the present context consists of the steps schematically
represented in Fig. 2. The whole procedure can be summarized as follows, while
details are given in [26].
1. An axisymmetric (Rockwell, in this case) tip is pressed against the material to be
tested until a given reaction force is achieved. The load is progressively released
and the tool is eventually removed. During the loading–unloading process, an
instrumented indenter returns the force level versus the penetration depth of the
tip.
2. In all cases (i.e., even with the use of a hardness tester that does not return
the load-penetration curve) the geometry of the permanent impression left on the
surface of the sampled material is mapped, storing the relevant three-dimensional
coordinates in digital format. These data are processed to return the profile of
the residual imprint, which is expected to be axisymmetric in the case of an
isotropic material. The corresponding confidence limits serve as indicators of
the representativeness of the test and of the isotropy of the material response.
3. The data describing the geometrical profile of the residual imprint (and, possibly,
the load vs. penetration curves) constitute the input of an inverse analysis proce-
dure based on the comparison between the measurements and the output of
a simulation model of the test. The computational results depend on a set of
material parameters, which are sequentially updated in order to minimize the
discrepancy between the experimental and the computational output.
4. The reliability of the final estimates is checked through the comparison between
the actual and the recalculated system response.
8 G. Bolzon
Fig. 3 a Finite element

discretization for the
simulation of axisymmetric
indentation processes;
b detail of the mesh in the
contact region
A realistic simulation of the indentation processes is performed by finite element

analyses, non-linear in terms of constitutive models and geometrical effects. The
contact conditions and the large irreversible strain developing under the indenter tip
are accurately reproduced by fine meshes like the one visualized in Fig. 3, where the
discretized domain has an extension of a few millimeters and the typical element size
in the contact region is of the order of a few micrometers. At the same time, the oper-
ative procedures that permit the minimization of the scatter between experimental
data and computational results are iterative [37].
The large computational burden can be alleviated by surrogate analytical models
that replace the finite element analyses, using radial-basis functions (RBFs) to gener-
alize the results of a training set of numerical simulations performed off-line. This
kind of fast and flexible interpolation means is exploited in computer graphics for
the effective reconstruction and representation of moving 3-dimensional objects [38].
Accuracy is improved by the filtering of experimental and numerical noises by means
of proper orthogonal decomposition (POD) techniques, of common use in the field
of signal processing [39].
The above mentioned tools permit to achieve an optimal compromise between
the conflicting requirements of an accurate simulation of the system response with
diagnostic analyses performed in almost real-time [40, 41]. Thus, the consequences
of accidental or local defectiveness, which may alter the safety assessment of the
pipeline section, can be overcome by the prompt repetition of the test.
2.3 Sampling Size
The output of instrumented indentation tests carried out on pipeline steel at 200 N
maximum force is shown in Fig. 1 [20, 33]. As already noticed, the as-received
and degraded material conditions are distinguishable at this load level despite the
observed scatter in the indentation curves.
The representativeness of the results obtained from indentation at 200 N maximum
load has been verified also by the comparison of results gathered from independent
Fig. 4 Experimental and

simulated response to
instrumented indentation of
X70 steel [34]
investigations. In particular, a fairly good correspondence was found between the

experimental response to indentation of X70 steel and the numerical simulation of
the test performed using the constitutive (stress–strain) law returned by traditional
tensile tests, see Fig. 4 [34, 42].
This concurrence can be attributed to the microstructure of pipeline steel, with
typical grain size significantly lower than the material volume affected by indentation
performed at either 1.5 and 0.2 kN maximum load, as visualized in Fig. 5. The graphs
compare the simulated profile of the imprints left on the material by a Rockwell tip,
while the apparent contact surface at 200 N force (about 200 µm radius) is likened
to the micrographs presented in [20] and [33].
Indentation tests are commonly performed also at much smaller scale, in the range
1–5 N maximum force [43, 44]. The relevant instrumentation is easily equipped by
loading frames of high relative stiffness, capable of an accurate control of the tip
penetration depth. These devices provide highly valuable information for several
Fig. 5 Simulated profile of the imprint geometry compared to the microstructure of typical pipeline
steels [20, 33]
10 G. Bolzon
applications, but proved to be inadequate in the present context due to a large disper-
sion of the output curves that reflect the inhomogeneities and the imperfections of
pipeline steel at the microscale [45].
Former studies have verified that Rockwell indentation tests carried out on metals
at load levels consistent with Standards for structural applications [46] provide results
in terms of elastic limits and ultimate strength, which are equivalent to those of
uniaxial tensile tests when the geometry of the residual imprint is taken into account
[24, 26]. The outperformance of this information source in material characterization
problems, compared to the load-penetration curves, has been demonstrated also in
[47].
The reproducibility of the residual deformation produced by axisymmetric Rock-
well indentation carried out at 200 N maximum load has been verified considering a
pipeline steel in reference and hardened conditions. The corresponding indentation
curves are shown in Fig. 6. Larger penetration depth and larger dispersion of the
results are observed in the initial status.
The graphs in Fig. 7 visualize the mean profiles of the residual deformation.
The mapping was performed several days after indentation and the anomalies in
the bottom of the imprints represented in Fig. 7a are due to the deposition of dust
particles difficult to be removed. Elsewhere, the profiles concerning the investigated
samples are quite repetitive, except for the roughness of the free surface.
The larger penetration depth and the more pronounced piling-up of the graphs in
Fig. 7a compared to those in Fig. 7b reflect the larger ductility of the metal in its
initial conditions.
The graphs visualized in Figs. 6 and 7 are more directly compared in Fig. 8 where
all indentation curves and a representative pair of the imprint profiles are redrawn. It
is worth noticing that the indentation curves relevant to the different material states
are partially overlapped, see Fig. 8a.
On the contrary, the residual deformation is significantly different. Only the initial
portion of the graphs in Fig. 8b is almost perfectly superimposed. In fact, most part
Fig. 6 Indentation curves produced by an axisymmetric Rockwell tip on pipeline steel in:
a reference and b hardened conditions
Fig. 7 Half mean profiles of the imprints produced by an axisymmetric Rockwell tip on pipeline
steel: a output of different tests of the same sample; b results obtained from mechanically hardened
pipeline steel
Fig. 8 Comparison between the indentation response of pipeline steel in reference (light lines) and
hardened (dark lines) conditions: a indentation curves of Fig. 6; b two representative imprints from
Fig. 7
of the profile beneath the free surface reproduces the geometry of the Rockwell tip
while the region around the small crater created by the indenter contains signifi-
cant information about the irreversible material response, and presents the largest
sensitivity with respect to the plastic parameters [48].
The geometry of the residual deformation shown in Figs. 7 and 8 was acquired
by the same multifocal microscope that recovered the imprints visualized in [26],
produced by 2 kN maximum force. The measurement accuracy is comparable at
these different scales, but the geometry reconstruction time is much shorter at the
lower load (a few seconds instead of a few minutes).
12 G. Bolzon
3 Closing Remarks
This contribution provides an overview on procedures at present available for the

monitoring and the diagnostic analysis of steels in gas transmission lines. Techniques
based on non-destructive tests that can be performed in situ, on operating components,
are considered.
Indentation based approaches supported by simulation models of the experiment
represent flexible and promising tools in this context. The experience gained with
these techniques is widely illustrated.
Benefits due to technology advancement are evidenced. The portability and
the manoeuvrability of testing devices for in situ measurements are continuously
improved while accuracy is enhanced. Also, significant reduction of processing
times and costs is offered by the computing facilities available at present, providing
simulation results of increased reliability for effective safety assessment procedures.
All together, the mentioned tools permit an adequate planning of retrofitting oper-
ations that can extend the lifetime of existing infrastructures. Thus, prevention costs
can be paid back by the reduction of interventions in emergency and by the recon-
version of existing pipeline systems to different uses, as for instance expected in the
transition from the carbon to the hydrogen era.
Acknowledgements This paper summarizes the work carried out within the research project
‘Development of novel methods for the prevention of pipeline failures with security implications’
with the substantial contribution of G. Cornaggia, H. Nykyforchyn, B. Rivolta, M. Talassi, O.
Zvirko. The financial support provided by NATO in the frame of the ‘Science for Peace and Secu-
rity’ program is gratefully acknowledged (SPS G5055 project). Thanks are also due to P. P. Zonta
and to his Company (EniProgetti, eni group) for the support offered to the studies presented in this
contribution.
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In-Service Degradation of Pipeline Steels
Abstract Long-term operation of structural steels causes an essential decrease of

the mechanical properties, especially characteristics of brittle fracture and SCC resis-
tance. General regularities of in-service degradation of pipeline steels are analysed in
the chapter. On these base two stages of pipeline steels degradation are distinguished
in the chapter. The first one is deformation aging which is characterized by improve-
ment of characteristics of strength and hardness but from the other hand a decrease
of plasticity and brittle fracture resistance. The stage II is the stage of in-bulk steel
dissipated microdamaging, which is more dangerous with regard to a loss of pipeline
integrity. Operational degradation of the mechanical properties of the steels is accel-
erated by their hydrogenation from the inner surface of the pipe, which indicates
the hydrogenating ability of transported hydrocarbons. The accelerated method of
pipeline steels degradation is substantiated. It is based on the common method of
deformation ageing of steels by plastic strain with subsequent heat treatment up to
250 °C, however, it additionally involves preliminary hydrogen charging.
Keywords Steels · Degradation · Damaging · Hydrogen · Fracture
1 Introduction
More than half of oil and gas transmission pipelines in Ukraine have been oper-
ating beyond the calculated service time. Substantiation of the possibility of their
further safe operation is of strategic and economic importance. Pipeline integrity is
dependent on a number of factors: the quality of coating, the stress state of pipes, the
corrosive activity of transported media, etc. Besides, structural integrity is determined
by mechanical and other properties of metal, which determine bearing capacity of an
object, namely, its capability to withstand the applied mechanical loads in specific
H. Nykyforchyn (B)
Karpenko Physico-Mechanical Institute of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, Lviv,
Ukraine
e-mail: hnykyforchyn@gmail.com
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58073-5_2
16 H. Nykyforchyn
operating conditions. Apart from the mechanical properties, corrosion resistance,

resistance to stress corrosion cracking (SCC) and hydrogen assisted cracking (HAC)
and fatigue strength should be taken into account. Therefore, in recent years, consid-
erable attention has been paid to this problem in Ukraine [1–6]. In general, long-
term operation of structural steels leads to significant worsening of their physico-
mechanical properties, which determine workability of an object. This aspect is
essential, since in order to justify the further safe operation of responsible structures,
it is necessary to take into account not the initial, but the current properties of the
material. It was shown that the characteristics of brittle fracture resistance reduce the
most intensively [7, 8], thereby the material becomes especially susceptible to the
action of corrosive-hydrogenating media due to enhanced susceptibility of operated
steels to SCC and HAC [5, 9, 10], and also corrosion fatigue [3]. For assessment of
the current technical condition of pipeline steel non-destructive techniques based on
instrumental indentation [11–14] and electrochemical methods [15–18] can be used
during operation.
Special aspect of operational degradation of pipelines is the damaging role of
hydrogen. Hydrogen can be active in enhancing fracture mechanisms, especially at
the stage of crack propagation [5, 19]. Role of hydrogen is also taken into account
as a factor of delamination in a pipe wall due to creation of high pressure in defects
[20–23]. Furthermore, hydrogen can facilitate operational degradation of metal when
acting combined with working stresses [24, 25].
2 General Regularities of In-Service Degradation of Long

Term Operational Structural Steels
2.1 Strength, Plasticity and Brittle Fracture Resistance
Table 1 summarizes the mechanical testing results for 17H1S (equivalent to X52),
X52, X60 and X70 pipeline steels in the as-received state (spare pipes) and after their
operation for 25–51 years. Data are obtained using longitudinal specimens (relative
to the rolling direction).
Table 1 shows that plasticity and brittle fracture resistance of steels decreases
as a result of long-term service. However, the expected reduction of both plasticity
characteristics was not always observed. In some cases, the influence of operation
time on steel elongation was controversial, namely, for the 17H1S and X52 steels
this parameter increased whereas reduction in area decreased.
Similar effects have been known for operated steels of power engineering facilities
[26, 27] and explained by their intensive in-bulk microdamaging. Opening a large
number of microcracks during loading of a specimen contributes to its overall defor-
mation, thus, elongation can even increase despite a significant decrease of brittle
fracture characteristics.
In-Service Degradation of Pipeline Steels 17
Table 1 Mechanical properties of different pipeline steels after their long-term operation
Pipe Service time σUTS (MPa) σY (MPa) RA δ(%) KCV J 0.2 (kN/m)
steel (years) (%) (J/cm2 )
17H1S 0 470 301 65.9 21.2 255
(As-received) 624 380 72.0 23.9 129
564 413 74.0 29.0 348
30 541 368 55.3 26.3 175
36 606 453 64.0 21.0 110
38 520 357 73.1 25.4 154
40 515 302 69.2 26.3 125
51 610 449 67.0 24.5 56/33
X52 0 475 355 72.9 22.7 350 412
X521 30 451 268 64.4 20.8 189 127
X522 536 362 54.6 29.7 173 79
X60 0 592 510 81.9 23.2 342
25 633 502 71.1 18.5 225
X70 0 615 521 73.4 22.3 277
37 641 547 74.5 23.0 350/310
Note KCV values in the denominator refer to transverse specimens relative to the pipe axis
Impact toughness KCV, and fracture toughness determined by J-integral show

a most essential decrease during service. The sensitivity of the J-integral method
to operational degradation is higher. It is suggested that such low brittle fracture
resistance of the operated steels is caused by accumulation of defects in metal during
long-term operation [28].
It is important to note that when the components of impact toughness value are
separated in crack initiation and propagation [29, 30], it is shown that KCV decreased
during operation mainly due to a decrease in the component of crack propagation,
which in fact is fracture mechanics parameter. Thus, comparative mechanical testing
of operated and non-operated steels leads to the conclusion that brittle fracture char-
acteristics are the most sensitive to in-service changes in metal, and among them—
parameters of crack growth resistance expressing the fracture resistance of material
in a local volume.
2.2 Stress Corrosion Cracking of Operated Pipeline Steels
Slow strain rate tests were performed to evaluate the susceptibility to the near-neutral-
pH stress corrosion cracking (SCC) of the long-term operated pipeline steels. The
17H1S, X60 and X70 steels were studied. Smooth cylindrical specimens cut from
the operated gas pipelines in the longitudinal direction (direction of rolling) were
18 H. Nykyforchyn
Table 2 Mechanical properties of studied pipeline steels

Pipe steel Service time (years) RASCC (%) RAair (%) SCC sensitivity parameter
(KSCC )
17H1S 0 (As-received) 66.1 65.9 0
51.1 72.0 0.29
71.6 74.0 0.03
30 45.8 55.3 0.17
36 53.0 64.0 0.17
51 66.8 67.0 0
X60 0 (As-received) 77.6 81.9 0.05
25 67.3 71.1 0.05
X70 0 (As-received) 53.6 73.4 0.27
37 53.8 74.5 0.28
tested by tension with the strain rate of 3 × 10–3 s−1 and 1 × 10–6 s−1 for the test
in air and environment, respectively. The simulated soil solution NS4 saturated with
CO2 was used as corrosive environment. Tests were performed under the open circuit
condition (at corrosion potential) under room temperature. Reduction in area of the
studied steels, determined in air RAair , and reduction in area, determined in test
solution RASCC , as well as SCC sensitivity parameter Kscc (Kscc = 1 – [RAscc /RAair ]
are reported in Table 2.
No susceptibility of the 17H1S pipeline steel in the as-received state to SCC in NS4
test solution, saturated CO2 was revealed. The as-received X60 steel exhibited very
low sensitivity to SCC: reduction in area and elongation insignificantly decreased.
Resistance to SCC of the 17H1S pipeline steel decreased after long-term operation.
At the same time long-term operation didn’t influence the susceptibility of the X60
steel to stress corrosion cracking: X60 steel in both studied states had the same value
of stress corrosion cracking sensitivity parameter (see Table 2). Tests on the X70 steel
having a higher strength indicated the susceptibility of the steel in both investigated
states to SCC in NS4 solution saturated with CO2 under open circuit conditions.
2.3 Regularities of Corrosion Fatigue Crack Growth in Steels

Taking into Account Their Operational Degradation
The durability of structural elements is usually divided into two components: the stage
of crack initiation and the stage of crack propagation. The crack propagation stage
is considered, as a rule, using fracture mechanics. In cyclic loading, the main tool to
describe the fracture process under cyclic loading is the fatigue crack growth curve—
the dependence of fatigue crack growth rate da/dN (a—crack length, N—number of
loading cycles) on stress intensity factor range K.
Experience shows that cracks usually occur at the outer surface of a pipe, due to
the aggressive action of the soil environment in case of loss of protective properties
of the insulation coating.
Corrosion fatigue crack growth in as-received and operated 17H1S, X60 and X70
pipeline steels was studied in NS4 solution (pH 7) using 0.5CT specimens. The tests
were done at room temperature under stress ratio R = 0.1 and frequency f = 10 Hz (in
air) and 1 Hz (in corrosive environment). The lateral surfaces of the specimen were
polished up to 2000 grit and pre-cracked in fatigue to provide a sharpened fatigue
crack which removed the effect of the machined starter notch and eliminated the
effects on subsequent crack growth rate data caused by changing crack front shape
or pre-crack loading history. Crack extensions were measured visually on both sides
of the specimens with accuracy of 0.05 mm after a different number of loading cycles.
Stress intensity factor range K th was determined in the K-decreasing test procedure
conducted by shedding force in a series of decremental steps. As a result, the fatigue
crack growth curves da/dN = f (K), which are presented in Fig. 1, were built for
each specimen.
Figure 1 shows that the negative effect of operation is noticeable only for the
17H1S steel; the threshold value of stress intensity factor range K th for the operated
steel is somewhat lower comparing to the steel in the initial state. Any significant
changes at the Paris region were not observed for all tested steels; therefore, steel
operation does not affect fatigue crack growth in this range of K values.
Corrosion fatigue crack growth tests performed in the model soil solution NS4
revealed a negative effect of the aggressive medium only for the X70 operated steel
Fig. 1 Effect of operation on fatigue crack growth of different pipeline steels in air
20 H. Nykyforchyn
Fig. 2 Effect of corrosion

environment NS4 on fatigue
crack growth of the X70
steel in the operated state
(Fig. 2): in the middle range of K values some acceleration of fatigue crack growth
is observed, that indicates susceptibility of the steel to environmentally assisted crack
growth under cyclic loading. On the other hand, if this acceleration is conditionally
considered as a plateau, it is suggested [9] that an SCC mechanism is active under
conditions of cyclic loading. This effect could be considered as manifestation of
steel operational degradation of the X70 steel. However, it should be pointed out that
no other negative effect of long-term operation impact strength KCV was found for
this steel. Contrariwise, impact toughness was even somewhat higher after operation.
Thus, it can be concluded, that the brittle fracture resistance determined in air (KCV)
and the corrosion fatigue crack growth resistance have different sensitivity to service
degradation of the pipeline steel.
3 Role of Hydrogen in In-Bulk Service Degradation

of Pipeline Steels
The values of the average hydrogen concentration CH in some studied pipeline steels
measured by desorption at different temperatures are presented in Table 3 [31]. It
is revealed that the operated X522 steel, taken from inner bottom pipe section, is
characterized by a higher amount of CH in comparison to that for the X52 steel in
the as-received state and even for the X521 steel with the same operation time. This
Table 3 Concentration of hydrogen CH in API X52 5L pipeline steel measured by desorption at

different temperatures T
Pipeline steel Service time (years) Pipe section T (◦ C) Total CH (ppm)
200 400 600
X52 0 (As-received) 1.40 0.07 0.04 1.5
X521 30 Top, outer 0.10 0.50 0.60 1.2
X521 30 Bottom, inner 0.01 1.00 0.40 1.4
X522 30 Top, outer 0.30 0.60 0.80 1.7
X522 30 Bottom, inner 0.15 0.80 4.15 5.1
result is an evidence of hydrogenation of pipe wall from the inner surface as a result
of electrochemical interaction of metal with water which tends to accumulate at the
pipe bottom. It should be also noted that the method is effective to measure residual
hydrogen content since the tests were carried out after more than one year later than
pipes were put out of operation.
The peculiarity of this research is the following. A higher concentration of residual
hydrogen is concerned with more intensive in-bulk microdamaging, which act as traps
for hydrogen. Damaging in turn leads to a decrease first of all in resistance to brittle
fracture. Therefore, a correlation exists between hydrogen content in steels and their
impact toughness, as derived from Table 4. Here, lower values of impact toughness
correspond to higher hydrogen concentrations in the operated metal, as compared to
the as-received steel.
Special role of transported hydrocarbons as a source of hydrogenation of a pipe
wall is illustrated in Table 5. It could be noticed that if specimens for Charpy testing
are cut closer to the internal surface of the pipe, then the values of KCV are lower.
This result cannot be related to the gradient of properties in the pipe wall for a
non-operated pipe, since the as-received metal is more likely to have an inverse
relationship.
Thus, hydrogenation of the pipe wall from the inside is an important factor in
accelerating the operational degradation of the metal [24, 32]. The mechanism of
this acceleration consists in intensification of in-bulk dissipated microdamaging,
Table 4 Concentration of hydrogen CH measured by extraction, and impact toughness of pipeline

steels
Pipeline steel Steel state Pipe section CH (ppm) KCV (J/cm2 )
10HS As-received – 1.6 180
10HS Operated 28 years Top 2.6 95
X52 As-received – 1.5 196
X522 Operated 30 years Top 2.4 77
X522 Operated 30 years Bottom 4.2 57
22 H. Nykyforchyn
Table 5 Mechanical properties of the 17H1S pipeline steel

Steel state Service time (years) Pipe section Hardness HRB KCV (J/cm2 )
As-received Inner 90 206
Outer 95 194
Operated 28 years Inner 87 165
Outer 89 169
31 years Inner 78 115
Outer 81 133
which in turn results in a drastic decrease of resistance to brittle fracture of pipeline

steels.
4 Stages of Operational Degradation of Pipeline Steels
Figure 3 illustrates two stages of operational degradation of structural steels on the

whole, and particularly pipe steels: deformation ageing (stage I) and development of
dissipated damaging (stage II) [22]. At the stage I, strength and hardness rise whereas
plasticity and brittle fracture resistance decrease. Stage II is implemented after a
certain period of operation. Its main peculiarity is a possible decrease of strength and
hardness together with further decline in brittle fracture resistance. Besides, atypical
changes in elongation with the plasticity parameter are eventual. This characteristic
can even rise due to contribution of opening of microcracks into the total elongation.
However, the tendency to delamination in ferritic-pearlitic pipe steels led to modi-
fication of stage II, with two substages in it, namely, the formation of randomly
oriented defects (substage IIA), and development of damages oriented along the
texture with a reduction of cohesion between ferrite and pearlite strips in a course of
service (substage IIB). In this case, when testing standard axial specimens of such
Fig. 3 Scheme of the

two-stage in-bulk steel
degradation: stage
I—deformation aging; stage
II includes two substages:
IIA—disoriented dissipated
damaging, and IIB—damage
accumulation in the rolling
direction
metal for impact strength determination, the fracture plane intersects the delami-
nations oriented along the pipe generatrix. This requires increased fracture energy
and, therefore, results in overestimated resistance to brittle fracture despite further
intensification of operational degradation of metal.
5 Accelerated Method of Steel Degradation
As shown above, hydrogenation of metal during corrosion process, together with

working stresses, facilitates the development of in-bulk damaging at microscale,
which is the main reason for a drastic decrease of resistance to brittle fracture. Based
on this, a method of accelerated degradation of pipeline steels has been elaborated
[9, 24, 25]. It is consisted in the deformation aging of steel preliminary charged
with hydrogen. Specimens were cut from reserve pipes. The accelerated degradation
procedure is as follows: electrolytic hydrogenation of specimens in H2 SO4 solution
(pH 2) during 95 h, followed by tensile loading up to 2.8% axial strain, and then aging
at 250 °C for 1 h. Cathodic current density for hydrogen charging varied from 0.33
to 20 mA/cm2 depending on the steel strength. The highest value (icat = 20 mA/cm2 )
was considered for the 17H1S steel, icat = 10 mA/cm2 for the X60 steel and the lowest
value (icat = 0.33 mA/cm2 ) concerned the X70 steel due to a different susceptibility
of these steels to hydrogen embrittlement.
Figure 4 illustrates a microstructure of the 17H1S steel degraded in laboratory
conditions, in longitudinal and transversal directions. The steel has a typical ferrite-
pearlite microstructure. The grain size was quite non-uniform. Narrow strips of
pearlite grains are separated by wide bands of ferrite grain aggregations. Any special
differences between the microstructure of the degraded steel in comparison with that
of the as-received state were not revealed. However, the damages along the inter-
faces between non-metallic inclusions and the matrix, as well as along the interfaces
between ferrite and pearlite grains were noted. Such damages were practically not
observed in the microstructure of the as-received steel. Based on this, it was concluded
that accelerated degradation of the 17H1S steel microstructure, induced in labora-
tory, was manifested by weakening interphase boundaries. Moreover, boundaries
between ferrite and carbide lamellae within pearlite were also weakened, since they
have easily been removed during specimen polishing. This can be seen more clearly
at higher resolution. Moreover, it is more obvious on the longitudinal section.
Mechanical properties of investigated steels after in-laboratory degradation were
determined by tensile tests up to fracture at a deformation rate of 3 × 10–3 s–1 . The
obtained values of the mechanical characteristics for the 17H1S, X60 and X70 steels
are presented in Table 6.
Evidently, the revealed reduction of plasticity and resistance to brittle fracture
due to the proposed method of laboratory degradation of steels is associated with the
development of dissipated microdamage, which is metallographically shown for the
steel 17H1S steel as an example.
24 H. Nykyforchyn
Fig. 4 SEM image in longitudinal (a, c) and transversal (b, d) directions of the 17H1S pipeline
steel after in-laboratory degradation
Table 6 Mechanical properties of as-received pipe steels and after in-laboratory degradation
Pipeline steel Steel state σUTS (MPa) σY (MPa) Elongation RA (%) KCV (J/cm2 )
(%)
17H1S* As received 564 463 28.8 73.7 348
Degraded 602 561 15.9 59.5 245
X60 As received 592 510 23.2 81.9 319
Degraded 588 547 22.1 77.7 185
X70 As received 615 521 22.3 73.4 277
Degraded 687 642 15.8 60.6 209
Note icat = 10 mA/cm2 for 17H1S steel
Susceptibility of the degraded pipe steels to SCC was also investigated. In-
laboratory damaged specimens were subjected to SCC tests by monotonic tension
with the strain rate of 10–6 s−1 under open circuit conditions (at the corrosion poten-
tial) and room temperature in NS4 test solution saturated with CO2 . The results are
given in Table 7.
Comparison of the results obtained by testing 17H1S and X60 steels in the as-
received state and after accelerated degradation in air and by slow rate tension in
NS4 solution showed that the strength and plasticity characteristics of both steels
Table 7 Results of SCC tests of investigated steels after in-laboratory degradation

Pipeline steel Steel state σUTS (MPa) σY (MPa) Elongation (%) RA (%)
17H1S As-received 473 304 21.1 66.1
Degraded (icat = 486 375 – 63.2
10 mA/cm2 )
Degraded (icat = 467 426 10.9 46.4
20 mA/cm2 )
X60 As-received 565 489 21.9 77.6
Degraded 610 551 16.4 71.3
X70 As-received 615 521 22.3 73.4
Degraded 677 642 – 50.3
in the as-received state are insignificantly changed under the influence of the test
environment. At the same time, the degraded steels revealed a high sensitivity to the
environment (the essential increase of σY is caused by deformation hardening during
the preliminary plastic deformation of specimens in accordance with the procedure of
accelerated degradation and is not connected with the environment action). Moreover,
environmental sensitivity of the 17H1S steel was higher in comparison with the X60
steel. In particular, plasticity of the 17H1S steel under the influence of the test solution
decreased more than that for the X60 steel.
Fractographic peculiarities of the specimens after SCC tests have been analysed
in [33] relative to the 17H1S and X60 steels. A common fractographic feature at the
micro scale, namely microdelamination, for the operated and in-laboratory degraded
pipeline steels was observed, which indicated an important role of hydrogen in degra-
dation. A significant decrease of plasticity at SCC testing was observed for both steels
only after their degradation in laboratory conditions. This is attributed to cracking
along the boundaries of ferrite and pearlite grains, formation of deep secondary
intergranular cracks and delaminations between ferrite and cementite lamellae inside
pearlite grains as well.
Fatigue and corrosion fatigue crack growth testing of degraded pipeline steels
were performed. The samples 10 × 6 × 220 mm in size made of the 17H1S, X60
and X70 steels in the as-received state were subjected to in-laboratory degradation
for further fatigue crack growth testing. The beam bend specimens with a size of
10 × 6 × 160 mm were manufactured from the samples after their treatment for
further fatigue and corrosion fatigue crack growth tests in NS4 solution by cantilever
bending. It should be noted that standard CT specimens were not possible to cut from
the degraded samples. Specimens were investigated under stress ratio R = 0.1, and
the frequency for corrosion fatigue testing was reduced to f = 1 Hz.
The effect of corrosion environment on fatigue behaviour of the artificially
degraded steel was more pronounced for the X70 steel (Fig. 5). Similar acceler-
ation of fatigue crack growth was also observed for the operated X70 steel (see
Fig. 2) starting from K ~15 MPa·m1/2 . This area in the fatigue crack growth curve
is a manifestation of steel susceptibility to SCC. At the upper part of the fatigue
26 H. Nykyforchyn
Fig. 5 Effect of corrosive

environment (NS4 solution)
on fatigue behaviour of the
X70 steel in the in-laboratory
degraded state
crack growth curve (K ≥ 30 MPa·m1/2 ), no essential difference was observed for
artificially degraded steel comparing to corresponding tests in air.
6 Concluding Remarks
Long-term operation in general has a negative effect on the mechanical properties of

low-carbon pipeline steels with ferrite-pearlite structure. That allows claiming their
operational degradation. The resistance to brittle fracture of steels is reduced most
significantly; besides, its crack propagation component is the most sensitive for the
estimation of steel operational degradation. Thus, crack growth facilitated by steel
operation is a major risk for structural integrity of a pipe.
Operation of pipeline steels also adversely affects their resistance to stress corro-
sion cracking in a simulated soil solution. Concerning fatigue crack growth, the
negative effect of the environment is only found under higher K levels, reflecting
the susceptibility of the steel to SCC under cyclic loading.
Operational degradation of the mechanical properties of the steels is accelerated
by their hydrogenation from the inner surface of the pipe, which indicates the hydro-
genating ability of the transported hydrocarbons. This is confirmed by the worse
properties of the metal of those sections of the pipe where the conditions for elec-
trochemical interaction with water condensate were favourable, and also correlation
between the characteristics of brittle fracture resistance and the concentration of
the residual hydrogen in the metal of the pipe wall. Role of hydrogen in the oper-
ational degradation of steels primarily consists in the development of dissipated
microdamaging in the bulk of the pipe wall.
There are two main stages of operational degradation of steel: deformation aging
and dissipated damaging. The first stage is characterized, on the one hand, by an
increase in strength, and on the other hand, by a decline in the characteristics of
plasticity and resistance to brittle fracture. The second stage of degradation can be
characterized by a number of mechanical effects. In particular, the opening of multiple
cracks of dissipated damage can contribute to the elongation of a specimen during its
tensile tests and lead to the incorrect estimation of the steel plasticity. Hydrogenation
of the metal, facilitating its microdamaging, can enhance the manifestation of this
effect.
The accelerated method of in-laboratory degradation of pipeline steels is substan-
tiated. It is based on the common method of deformation ageing of steels by plastic
strain with subsequent heat treatment up to 250 °C. However, it additionally involves
preliminary hydrogen charging. The proposed method is efficient for simulation
of in-laboratory degradation of steels and operational changes in their mechanical
properties and resistance to stress corrosion cracking.
Acknowledgements This research has been supported by the NATO in the Science for Peace and
Security Programme under the Project G5055.
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Non-destructive Electrochemical
Evaluation of Pipeline Degradation
Olha Zvirko and Oleksandr Tsyrulnyk
Abstract Long-term operation of natural gas transmission pipelines leads not only
to the appearance of macro defects but also to in-bulk damaging of pipeline steels at
nano- and micro-scales. In-bulk steel degradation and a decrease in characteristics of
brittle fracture resistance of pipeline steels under long-time operation increase signif-
icantly a failure risk. Therefore, deterioration of pipelines under operation calls for
effective methods for current condition evaluation. The paper is aimed to the devel-
opment of a prediction method of degradation of pipeline steel in operating condi-
tions based on electrochemical correlation. The low-carbon ferrite-pearlite steels
with different strength of gas transit pipelines after long-term operation were inves-
tigated. It was shown that mechanical and electrochemical properties of the pipeline
steels were deteriorated due to long-term operation. It was found that one of the most
sensitive parameters to in-bulk steel degradation among electrochemical properties
was polarization resistance. An acceptable correlation between relative changes in
polarization resistance and impact toughness of steels caused by long-term service
was revealed. It was concluded that mechanical properties changes of pipeline steels
caused by degradation under operation can be evaluated by measurements of changes
in their electrochemical characteristics. Having initial properties of the steel, its
current properties can be predicted. The method enables non-destructive in-service
assessment of degradation degree of brittle fracture resistance of pipeline steels. The
verification studies of prediction method of pipeline steel degradation were carried
out on damaged and operated pipeline steels.
Keywords Pipeline steel · Hydrogen degradation · Brittle fracture · Prediction

method · Polarisation resistance · Electrochemical analysis
O. Zvirko (B) · O. Tsyrulnyk

Ukraine
e-mail: olha.zvirko@gmail.com
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58073-5_3
32 O. Zvirko and O. Tsyrulnyk
1 Introduction
Natural gas transmission pipelines are important components of worldwide energy

supply. Nowadays, a special attention is paid by scientists to the problem of ageing
and in-service degradation of gas pipelines because many of them are near the end
of their design life. Ageing of a gas transit pipeline is not the most important factor
affecting the safety of that pipeline [1]. However, time-dependent degradation of
pipeline steels can cause many problems. Thus, hydrogen embrittlement, in-bulk
damaging of pipeline steels at nano- and micro-scales, hydrogen-induced and stress
corrosion cracking, deterioration of mechanical and corrosion properties is often the
results of in-service degradation [2–11]. This leads to a loss of the initial mechanical
properties which were used as input data for engineering calculations at pipeline
design stage and associated to a safe serviceability of the pipelines. The risk of
failure increases significantly with decreasing brittle fracture resistance of pipeline
steels under long-time operation. Since a pipeline’s fitness for service may degrade
during operation, the pipeline should be periodically assessed and timely repaired.
Pipelines are subject to periodic in-service inspection by non-destructive testing
methods, which detect and size defects and damages. However, for the correct predic-
tion of the residual lifetime of aging pipelines, considering serviceability, leakage
and structural integrity, the current technical condition of the pipeline steel should
be taken into account [12–14]. The environment in which a pipeline operates (soil
and hydrocarbons) can cause hydrogen embrittlement and stress corrosion cracking
phenomena, both of which may lead to brittle fracture due to degradation of pipeline
steel [9, 15, 16]. Both mechanical and electrochemical characteristics of pipeline
steels are significantly deteriorated as a result of long-term operation [2–12, 17,
18]. Deterioration of pipelines under operation calls for effective methods for actual
condition evaluation.
With the purpose of evaluation of in-service degradation of pipeline steel by
destructive methods, the most sensitive mechanical characteristics are impact tough-
ness, fracture toughness, resistance to stress corrosion cracking [4, 9]. Among non-
destructive methods, special attention is given to the electrochemical characterization
[19–23], since it was demonstrated that electrochemical characteristics of a metal
are sensitive to change in its state caused by in-service degradation. Electrochem-
ical tests can be performed on a pipeline without the need of extracting material
specimens for laboratory testing.
The present paper summarizes studies [20–23] aimed to develop and verify
methods to predict the degradation of ferrite-pearlite pipeline steel in operating
conditions, based on electrochemical correlation.
Non-destructive Electrochemical Evaluation of … 33
2 Experimental
2.1 Materials
The work consisted in characterization of the pipeline steels with different strength.
Three 17H1S (Ukrainian code, 0.17C–Mn–Si, strength grade API 5L X52), API 5L
X52, API 5L X60 and API 5L X70 low-carbon pipeline steels in different states,
as-received and after long-term operation (25–53 years), were studied. Pipe sections
being investigated in the study were cut out from gas transmission pipelines after
different time of operation: 17H1S—28–53 years, X52—30 years (marked X52(10)
and X52(12) for wall thickness 10 and 12 mm, respectively), X60—25 years and
X70—37 years. Samples from the top and bottom sections of the serviced pipes
made of X52 steel were also investigated in order to distinguish the influence of
possible corrosion due to condensed water, accumulating on the pipe bottom, on
degradation of the pipeline steel. With the purpose of comparing the behaviour and
properties of steels and evaluating their degradation degree, samples were also taken
from reserved pipes (as received) made of steels with different strength grades (X52,
X60 and X70).
2.2 Impact Testing
Impact toughness KCV of the studied steels, characterising brittle fracture resistance,
was determined using Charpy V-notch specimens. The standard specimens having
cross section of 10 × 10 mm with sharp V-type notch of radius of about 0.25 mm were
used for impact testing. The specimens were machined from pipes in the longitudinal
and transversal directions of the pipe section. Notch was cut out from side of the
internal pipe surface.
2.3 Electrochemical Investigations
Electrochemical tests were carried out using a potentiodynamic method in order to

study the electrochemical behaviour of steels and to determine their susceptibility to
corrosion degradation during long-term operation. Investigations were performed on
Bio-Logic SP-300 and IPC-Pro potentiostats, using a standard three-electrode elec-
trochemical cell consisting of working electrode, Ag/AgCl (saturated KCl) reference
electrode and auxiliary Pt electrode. The working electrodes were made from the
studied steels in the form of bars with all polished surfaces. Insulating waterproof
coating was applied on all surfaces of the working electrodes, except the selected area
of about 0.5 cm2 for electrochemical studies and for current supply. Potentiodynamic
polarisation curves were performed by sweeping potential from −1.1 V to corrosion
Table 1 Chemical composition of NS4 test solution

Components KCl NaHCO3 CaCl2 · 2H2 O MgSO4 · 7H2 O
Concentration in mg/L 122 483 181 131
potential (E corr ) E corr + 0.6 V versus Ag/AgCl at a sweep rate of 1.0 mVs−1 under
ambient temperature.
The steels were tested in NS4 test solution simulating soil environment. Chemical
composition of NS4 test solution is presented in Table 1. The solution containing
(mg/L) 14,440 Na+ ; 25,400 Cl– ; 129 K+ ; 5.0 SO4 2– ; 2.5 Li+ ; 600 Ca 2+ ; 522 HCO3 – ;
518 Mg2+ ; 140 Ba2+ ; 5.0 NO3 – ; 389 Sr2+ ; 3.6 F– ; 0.25 Fe2+ ; 100 Br– ; 0.5 Mn2+ ; 21
I– ; 1.0 Al3+ ; 5.0 PO4 3– ; 52 NH4 + ; 18 SiO2 2 (alkalinity—455), simulating aqueous
condensate in gas transit pipelines [15], was also used as the test medium. The test
solutions were prepared from analytical grade reagents.
The basic electrochemical characteristics of steels (corrosion potential E corr ,
corrosion current density icorr , the Tafel constants bc and ba of the cathodic and
anodic reactions, respectively) were determined by the graph-analytic method. The
polarisation resistance Rp was calculated using the Stern-Geary equation:
E K
= Rp = , (1)
i i corr
where K is the Stern-Geary coefficient:
ba · bc
K = . (2)
2.3 · (ba + bc )
3 Deterioration of Brittle Fracture Resistance of Pipeline

Steels Under Operation
Mechanical properties of pipeline steels deteriorate during long-term operation.

Generally, strength properties of steels are insignificantly changed due to in-service
degradation [3, 10, 12]. Nevertheless, characteristics of brittle fracture resistance
of steels sharply decrease as a result of long-term operation [3, 7–9, 12]. Relative
changes in impact toughness of X52 and X60 grade pipeline steels caused by long-
term operation are illustrated in Fig. 1. It should be noted that the high strength X70
steel after operation was characterized by increase in impact toughness from 277 to
330 J/cm2 and from 237 to 250 J/cm2 in the longitudinal and transversal directions
of the pipe, respectively. It can be associated with some difference in manufacturing
process of different pipes, or with intensive in-bulk dissipated damage of the operated
X70 steel, which causes increasing fracture energy, as it was demonstrated in [7, 8].
Fig. 1 Relative changes in

impact toughness
(KCVdeg /KCVin ) for the
17H1S, X52 and X60
pipeline steels caused by
long-term operation
Table 2 Fracture toughness √

Pipeline steel Steel state J0.2 (MPa m)
of the pipeline steels
X52 As-received 412
X52 Operated 30 years 79
X52 Operated 30 years 127
17H1S As-received 322
17H1S Operated 29 years 175
17H1S Operated 31 years 201
In-service degradation of ferrite-pearlite pipeline steels implies a number of features

related to decreasing cohesion between the structure fibers and developing delamina-
tion and microcracks orientated along rolling direction [8]. Fracture of longitudinal
specimens is significantly influenced by delamination, as it was reported for pipelines
steels in a number of publications [24, 25].
Fracture toughness J0.2 (the value of J-integral corresponding to 0.2 mm crack
growth) of steels after operation was also deteriorated (Table 2) [3, 23]. Thus, J0.2
was decreased of 1.6–1.8 times for the 17H1S steel, and of 3.2–5.2 times for the X52
steel due to long-term operation.
It was shown for the X60 and X70 steel [13] that, despite of only minor changes
in strength and plasticity characteristics due to long-term operation (21 years), resis-
tance to brittle fracture was significantly
√ decreased. Thus, fracture
√ toughness K Ic
decreased from 231 to 149 MPa m and from 294 to 231 MPa m for the X60 and
X70 steel, respectively.
Consequently, these characteristics of brittle fracture resistance (impact strength
and fracture toughness) can be considered as mechanical parameters for evaluation
of degradation degree of pipeline steels under operation. However, for high strength
steels (API X70 and higher) usage of impact toughness can be limited due to possible
increasing fracture energy caused by dissipated damaging and delamination.
4 Susceptibility of Pipeline Steels to Corrosion Degradation

Under Operation
Considering susceptibility of pipeline steels to in-service corrosion degradation as

reported in previous researches [17, 23], electrochemical behaviour of pipeline steel
with different strength (17H1S, X60 and X70 steels) in the as-received state and
after long-term operation was investigated. The polarisation curves for the studied
steels in initial and post-operated states, determined in NS4 solution simulated soil
environment, are presented in Fig. 2. The polarization parameters of the pipeline
steels are given in Table 3.
Fig. 2 Polarisation curves for the 17H1S, X60 and X70 pipeline steels in the as-received a and
operated, b states in NS4 test solution
Table 3 Electrochemical characteristics of the studied pipeline steels in NS4 solution

Pipeline Steel state Corrosion Corrosion Tafel Tafel Polarisation
steel potential current density constant constant resistance Rp ,
E corr (V) icorr (µA/cm2 ) bc (V) ba (V) (k cm2 )
17H1S As-received −0.683 1.85 −0.090 0.062 8.63
17H1S Operated −0.687 4.20 −0.083 0.058 3.53
30 years
X60 As-received −0.664 1.81 −0.090 0.063 8.90
X60 Operated −0.696 3.86 −0.090 0.056 3.89
25 years
X70 As-received −0.518 0.67 −0.089 0.061 23.49
X70 Operated −0.642 2.24 −0.088 0.060 6.92
37 years
As it can be seen from Fig. 2, the pipeline steels in both studied states are char-
acterized by active behaviour in NS4 aqueous solution; there is no active–passive
transition in the investigated potential range, only active dissolution. Electrochemical
behaviour of the 17H1S and X60 steels was identical in both studied steel states—
as-received and operated, while that of the X70 steel differed from other investigated
steels. Thus, intensity of anodic dissolution of X70 steel is lower than that of the
17H1S and X60 steels (Fig. 2). The diffusion of depolarizer dominated the corro-
sion process of steels in NS4 solution, as demonstrated by the presence of cathodic
limiting diffusive current.
Both 17H1S and X60 steels in as-received states were characterized by similar
corrosion resistance, and the highest corrosion resistance was typical for high strength
X70 pipeline steel (Table 3).
Deterioration of electrochemical properties of the post-operated pipeline steels
in NS4 test solution in comparison with the as-received steels was revealed. It is
caused by in-service degradation under mutual action of corrosion, hydrogenation
and working stresses during long-term operation of gas mains. Electrochemical acti-
vation of pipeline steels due to in-service degradation was shown as an increase
of intensity of cathode and anode processes on the degraded steels. This leads to
an increase in corrosion current density, a decrease in polarisation resistance and
in shifting corrosion potential values towards more negative ones for the degraded
steels compared with the steels in the as-received state (Table 3).
Some features of electrochemical behaviour of the high strength X70 pipeline
steel compared with other investigated steels were observed. On the one hand, the
degraded X70 steel was characterized by higher corrosion resistance in NS4 solution
defined by characteristics of corrosion current density and polarization resistance (see
Table 3) than both 17H1S and X60 steels after operation. On the other hand, degree
of corrosion degradation (decrease in corrosion resistance caused by operation) was
the highest for the X70 steel. Thus, polarisation resistance Rp for the 17H1S and
X60 steels decreased about 2.3–2.4 times after long-term operation of gas pipelines
and at the same time that for the X70 steel—decreased about 3.4 times. This means
that despite the highest degree of operational degradation, the X70 steel remained
the most corrosion-resistant one between the studied steels.
As it can be seen from the tests results, trends in changes in the electrochem-
ical characteristics caused by in-service degradation were similar for all investigated
materials. Considering different sensitivity of electrochemical properties of steels to
service degradation [23], relative changes in them for the same degradation degree
should be compared. It is obvious from the research data (Table 3) that relative
changes in corrosion potential and Tafel constant values are insignificant. Neverthe-
less, changes in corrosion current density icorr and polarisation resistance Rp caused
by long-term operation are noticeable. Accordingly, these characteristics are enough
sensitive to pipeline steel degradation. They can be used as informative parameters
of the steel state changes during long-term operation. The use of polarisation resis-
tance for the evaluation of degradation of steels could be investigated, because of its
determination is easy enough in the field.
Fig. 3 Relative changes in

polarisation resistance
(Rp deg /Rp in ) for the 17H1S,
X52, X60 and X70 pipeline
steels caused by long-term
operation, measured in NS4
solution and solution
simulated aqueous
condensate in gas pipelines
Relative changes in polarisation resistance (Rp deg /Rp in ) for the 17H1S, X52, X60
and X70 pipeline steels in the as-received (Rp in ) state and after different time of
operation (Rp deg ), measured in NS4 solution and test solution simulated aqueous
condensate in gas transit pipelines, are presented in Fig. 3.
Degradation of brittle fracture resistance of the studied pipeline steels under
operation (Fig. 1; Table 2) is accompanied by a decrease in polarisation resistance
(Fig. 3).
Deterioration of a number of electrochemical properties of the operated pipeline
steels with different strength, especially corrosion current density and polarisation
resistance, indicated their corrosion degradation, which was evidently caused by in-
service degradation due to mutual effect of corrosion hydrogenating environments
and working stresses during operation.
5 Degradation Prediction Method Based

on Electrochemical Correlation
In order to assess degradation degree of pipeline steel during operation, a method

based on electrochemical correlation is proposed.
Analyzing in-service degradation phenomenon of gas pipeline steel, it was
revealed that both mechanical and electrochemical characteristics were deterio-
rated. Being brittle fracture resistance characteristic regulated by normative docu-
ments (DSTU EN ISO 3183:2017/API 5L, and others [26]), the possibility of non-
destructive estimation of impact toughness of pipeline steels based on changes in
electrochemical behaviour caused by long-term operation was analysed. A system-
atic deterioration of impact toughness and polarisation resistance parameters of the
X52 and X60 pipeline steels caused by long-term operation was observed (Figs. 1
and 3). The correlation between changes in these parameters for the low-carbon
ferrite-pearlite API 5L strength grade X52 pipeline steel is shown in Fig. 4.
Using regression analysis, the dependence satisfies the following relation:
Fig. 4 Correlation between

relative changes in impact
toughness (KCVdeg /KCVin )
and polarisation resistance
(Rp deg /Rp in ) for the
low-carbon ferrite-pearlite
API 5L strength grade X52
in-service degradation, and
prediction of the relation
KCVdeg /KCVin
KCVdeg Rp deg
= −0.308 + 1.309 · , (3)
KCVin Rp in
where KCVin and KCVdeg —impact toughness of the as-received and operated steel,
respectively; Rp in and Rp deg —polarisation resistance of the as-received and operated
steel, respectively.
The dependence KCVdeg /KCVin —Rp deg /Rp in is the basis of non-destructive elec-
trochemical method for prediction of in-service degradation degree of the low-carbon
ferrite-pearlite API 5L strength grade X52 pipeline steels.
An acceptable correlation revealed between relative changes in polarisation resis-
tance Rp deg /Rp in and impact toughness KCVdeg /KCVin of API 5L strength grade X52
pipeline steels caused by their in-service degradation (Fig. 4) enables an evaluation
of in-bulk material properties changes, namely impact toughness, by measurements
of electrochemical characteristics changes. Having initial properties of the material
(for example, impact toughness of the as-received pipeline steel according to certifi-
cate or impact toughness of the steel of the reserved pipe), its actual properties can
be predicted. The prediction method of pipeline steel degradation was verified on
damaged and operated pipeline steels.
6 Method for Degradation Evaluation Based

on Electrochemical Fracture Surface Analysis
A new method for evaluation of in-service degradation degree of long-term operated

pipeline steels, based on electrochemical analysis of fracture surface, is developed
[21, 22]. The background of the method is reported in detail in [22].
It was assumed [21] that in-service embrittlement of ferrite-pearlite pipeline steels,

which, consequently, caused brittle fracture and decreasing fracture energy, is associ-
ated with precipitation of carbide nanoparticles at grain boundaries and defects inside
grains during long-term operation. This leads to intergranular cracking of pipeline
steels under operation and transgranular cracking of post-operated pipeline steels at
impact toughness tests. This mechanism of in-service degradation of pipeline steel
implies enrichment of fracture surface by carbon compounds (obviously, carbide-
type), and electrochemical characteristics are sensitive to electrochemical micro-
heterogeneity of steel, including different content of carbon/carbides, as it was
demonstrated in [21, 22]. Considering dependence of certain electrochemical char-
acteristics, namely corrosion current density and polarization resistance, on surface
area, which is difficult to estimate in a case of fracture surface, determination of
open-circuit potential of fracture surface of steel is used in the method.
A possibility of evaluation of brittle fracture resistance of steel based on changes
of potential of fracture surface was analysed. Open-circuit potential of the polished
steel surface and that of the fracture surface of specimens made of the ferrite-pearlite
API 5L strength grade X52 pipeline steels in the different states (in the as-received
one and after 28–30 years of operation) were determined in 0.3% NaCl solution
and compared (Fig. 5). A significant difference between open-circuit potentials of
the fracture surface (brittle fracture) and polished surface was observed for operated
steels. It was explained by increasing content of carbon compounds on the fracture
surface due to in-service degradation [22, 23]. Change in open-circuit potential of the
fracture surface of the steel caused by operation was revealed to be enough sensitive
to in-service degradation of operated pipeline steels. This parameter can be used as
an informative parameter for evaluation of current condition of pipeline steel.
The correlation between changes in potential of the fracture surface of ferrite-
pearlite API 5L strength grade X52 pipeline steel E fr in /E fr deg and changes in impact
toughness KCVdeg /KCVin caused by in-service degradation is shown in Fig. 6.
Using regression analysis, the dependence satisfies the following relation:
2
KCVdeg E fr in E fr in
= 14.2 − 34.3 · + 21.1 · , (4)
KCVin E fr deg E fr deg
Fig. 5 Values of potential E

of the polished surface and
E fr of the fracture surface of
the specimens made of the
ferrite-pearlite API 5L
strength grade X52 pipeline
steels in the as-received state
and after 28–30 years of
operation, measured in 0.3%
NaCl solution
Fig. 6 Correlation between

relative changes in impact
toughness (KCVdeg /KCVin )
and potential of the fracture
surface (E fr in /E fr deg ) for the
low-carbon ferrite-pearlite
API 5L strength grade X52
in-service degradation, and
prediction of the relation
KCVdeg /KCVin
where KCVin and KCVdeg —impact toughness of the specimen made of the as-
received and operated steel, respectively; E fr in and E fr deg —potential measured on
the fracture surface of the specimen made of the as-received and operated steel,
respectively.
Consequently, an acceptable correlation revealed between changes in open-circuit
potential of fracture surface and impact toughness of pipeline steels caused by long-
term operation allows current brittle fracture resistance of operated metal to be esti-
mated. The dependence KCVdeg /KCVin —E fr in /E fr deg is the basis of electrochem-
ical method for estimation of in-service degradation of API 5L X52 strength grade
pipeline steels [27].
The developed method, supplementing known methods of non-destructive evalua-
tion, can be used during fracture analysis in order to increase accuracy and reliability
of assessment of current mechanical properties of operated steel when there are any
difficulties of cutting out samples from pipe for in laboratory testing [22, 23]. With
the purpose of evaluating brittle fracture resistance degradation of pipeline steel
under operation, electrochemical potential of the steel fracture surface should be
determined. Change in impact toughness of operated steel can be determined based
on an empirical correlation (Fig. 6), and then current impact toughness value can be
predicted, if impact toughness value for as-received steel is known.
7 Non-destructive Evaluation of Pipeline Steel Considering

Degradation Stage
Based on numerous research results, two stages of in-service degradation of pipeline

steels are recognized, as summarized in [3]: deformation ageing and dissipated
damaging. These stages are different due to the difference in degradation degree of
pipeline steels, since long-term service of pipelines causes changes in metal state, and,
consequently, in mechanical behaviour of steels being operated under complicated

operational conditions.
Safe operating pipelines require monitoring actual state of pipeline steels in
service using non-destructive testing. The recent trend is quantifying steel degra-
dation by using non-destructive methods based on indentation tests [28–30]. These
methods allow to predict, first of all, operational changes in strength characteristics.
The method is reliable to assess the metal degradation degree at the stage of defor-
mation aging, when there is an increase in hardness and strength characteristics and
a decrease in plasticity and resistance to brittle fracture. However, the use of inden-
tation method can be limited if degradation degree of a tested metal is high, when
the second degradation stage associated with dissipated damaging is dominating. At
this stage a decrease in plasticity and brittle fracture resistance characteristics can
also be accompanied by a decrease in hardness and strength. When it is the case, the
developed electrochemical method is proposed to be used additionally to evaluate the
degradation degree of steels being operated at the stage of accumulation of dissipated
damaging in a metal bulk.
The main advantages of the non-destructive electrochemical method are that it
enables quantitative evaluation of degradation degree of pipeline steels and prediction
of brittle fracture resistance, namely impact toughness. The method is reliable to
assess the metal degradation degree at any stage of degradation, including the stage
of dissipated damaging.
Long-term operation of natural gas transmission pipelines leads to in-bulk damage,

corrosion degradation and decreased brittle fracture resistance of pipeline steels,
increasing the risk of failure. Mechanical and electrochemical properties of the low-
carbon ferrite-pearlite pipeline steels with different strength (API 5L X52, API 5L
X60 and API 5L X70 strength grade) were deteriorated due to in-service degradation.
Polarization resistance was one of the most sensitive parameters to in-bulk steel
degradation among electrochemical properties.
The method to predict in-service degradation of pipeline steel based on elec-
trochemical correlation was proposed. The method was verified on ferrite-pearlite
API 5L X52 grade pipeline steels. Correlation between relative changes in polar-
ization resistance and impact toughness of steels caused by long-term service was
revealed. Impact toughness changes of pipeline steels caused by degradation under
operation can be evaluated by measurements of changes in polarisation resistance.
Having initial properties of the material, its actual properties can be predicted.
The method enables non-destructive in-service assessment of degradation of brittle
fracture resistance of pipeline steels.
The proposed method is based on electrochemical analysis of fracture surface.
Correlation between changes in open-circuit potential of fracture surface and impact
toughness of API 5L X52 strength grade pipeline steels caused by long-term operation
allows current brittle fracture resistance of operated metal to be estimated.
The non-destructive electrochemical method enables quantitative evaluation of
degradation degree of pipeline steels and prediction of brittle fracture resistance,
namely impact toughness, at any stage of metal degradation, including the stage of
dissipated damaging.
Acknowledgements The research has been supported by the NATO in the Science for Peace and
Security Programme under the Project G5055 “Development of Novel Methods for the Prevention
of Pipeline Failures with Security Implications”.
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Structural and Fractographic Features
of Gas Pipeline Steel Degradation
Halyna Krechkovska, Myroslava Hredil, and Oleksandra Student
Abstract Structural and fractographic features of degradation are analyzed for pipe
steels after their operation on main gas pipelines. The structural feature of steel
degradation is damaging along the boundaries between pearlite and ferrite grains
manifested by more intensive etching the boundaries with extraction of cementite
particles from the matrix. The most obvious effect of degradation is revealed for the
steel 17H1S, and the least one for the steel X70. It is concerned with steel texture
peculiarities, namely, different sizes (thickness and length) of strips of pearlite, and
with dispersion of its components (i.e. cementite lamellae) which control to a large
extent hydrogen permeability in a pipe wall and its trapping at the ferrite–pearlite
boundaries. Structural peculiarities of steel degradation revealed themselves clearer
fractographically in a form of delaminations at the fracture surfaces of the operated
steels. The hydrogen absorbed by metal during pipe operation and concentrated at
the structural defects along the boundaries between interlayers of ferrite and pearlite
grains led to the occurrence of these delaminations and their extension. Therefore,
these delaminations are considered as the fractographic features of embrittlement for
the operated steels. The relationship between mechanical properties of pipeline steels
and metallographic and fractographic parameters is obtained. The critical state of
degraded steels is substantiated by the change of the crucial element of embrittlement
on the fracture surfaces from delaminations (in the subctitical state) to cleavage (in
the overcritical one).
Keywords Gas pipelines · Steel degradation · Structural and fractographic

features · Delamination · Cleavage · Impact toughness
H. Krechkovska (B) · M. Hredil · O. Student

Ukraine
e-mail: krechkovskahalyna@gmail.com
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58073-5_4
46 H. Krechkovska et al.
1 Introduction
An increase in distances of gas transmission implies the substantiation of the pipeline

operating pressure over 9.8 MPa, which is impossible without increasing the pipe
wall thickness. In particular, pipes of strength grade X70 having the wall thickness
of 15.7–18.7 mm are replaced by pipes with a thickness of more than 21.6 mm, while
for underwater pipelines the thickness could be up to 40 mm (taking into account
the water pressure). However, choosing the pipe wall thickness, it is also necessary
to take into account the degradation of pipe steels, caused by the thermodynamically
nonequilibrium structural state of these steels in as received state and the tendency
to reach the equilibrium state during long-term operation. Such transformations are
usually associated with the diffusion of carbon and alloying elements in steels at
distances comparable to the grain size. This process takes a prolonged time, especially
under climatic temperatures. The consequences of such transformations have been
convincingly proved in the case operation of heat-resistant steels under elevated
temperature (up to 570 °C), where the diffusion coefficients of carbide-forming
elements are significantly higher. Thus, the formation and coagulation of carbides
along grain boundaries has been confirmed on low-alloy heat-resistant steels and
their welded joints after more than 20 years of operation on the main steam pipelines
of thermal power plant TPP [1, 2]. The decohesion of carbides from the matrix
at the grain boundaries weakens the cohesion between adjacent grains and causes
premature intergranular cracking due to creep. Thermal stresses occurring in the pipe
wall due to shutdowns of TPP units intensify this process [3, 4]. The intensification
of structural transformations in such steels is also confirmed by modeling the effects
of shutdowns in laboratory conditions by thermal cycling of specimens in hydrogen
[5]. Such structural changes in operated heat-resistant steels did not significantly
affect their tensile strength and plasticity. However, their impact toughness, fracture
toughness and threshold values of fatigue crack growth resistance are more sensitive
to their degradation [6–12].
Considering low-alloy steels (in particular, steels used on main gas pipelines), it
is noticeable that there is no undeniable evidence of carbide precipitation along
grain boundaries even after their long-term operation (more than 30 years) at
climatic temperatures. This is explained by the low mobility of carbide-forming
elements under such conditions. However, some researchers suggested [13] that
formation of very small particles of cementite at the grain boundaries of pipe steels
is possible under their long-term operation (for decades) under climatic conditions.
As a confirmation, some pictures were presented [14].
The mechanical testing of the operated steels showed a rather large data scattering
and a slight deviation of the standard mechanical characteristics under tension from
the regulated values for pipe steels [15, 16]. Like in the case of high-temperature
operation, the sensitivity of impact toughness to degradation is also significantly
higher than that the tensile characteristics [17, 18].
Thus, the aim of the present research is an evaluation of structural and fracto-
graphic features of pipe steel degradation after their long-term operation on the main
Structural and Fractographic Features of Gas Pipeline … 47
gas pipelines, and estimation of the influence of the structural state on the mechanical
properties of pipeline steels with different strength grade.
2 Materials and Methods
Gas pipeline steels of the different strength (steel 17H1S as a prototype of API X52,
and also steels X60 and X70) in as-received state and after their long-term operation
(30, 25 and 37 years respectively) were studied. The mechanical characteristics of
steels were determined under tensile tests in air with strain rate of 3.3 × 10–3 s−1 and
in NS4 solution (composition, g/l: KCl 0.122; NaHCO3 0.483; CaCl2 0.093; MgSO4
0.131) with strain rate of 1.7 × 10–7 s−1 using smooth longitudinal specimens with
a diameter of 5 mm, and the testing machine UME–10 T. The surface of the working
part of the specimens was polished before the tests to eliminate the influence of stress
concentrators from machining and thereby reduce the scatter of the obtained data.
Impact tests were carried out using the IO-5003 installation. Charpy specimens
with a V-shape stress concentrator were cut in a longitudinal direction (relative to the
pipe generatrix) from spare pipes and from the pipes after operation. Concentrators
in the specimens were cut along the pipe wall thickness. Thus, the fracture surface
in the specimens was oriented perpendicularly to the pipe axis and located in their
radial cross section ensuring the fracture path in the tangential direction.
The chemical composition of the investigated steels was evaluated using of the
spark optical atomic-emission spectrometer SPECTROMAX LMF 0.5. The metal-
lography and fractography investigations were performed by optical (Neophot-
21) and scanning electron (EVO-40XVP) microscopes. Quantification of revealed
fractography features of steel degradation was done using software elaborated in
Karpenko Institute [19] for the computer analysis of halftone images of fracture
surfaces by automatic recognition of the objects of research interest with following
estimation of their geometrical parameters.
3 Results and Discussion
The chemical composition of the investigated steels in the as-received state and after
their long-term operation on the pipelines is presented in Table 1. The analyzed
steels have typical composition for pipes of given purposes. Content of presented
elements in steels X60 and X70 is almost the same in as-received state and after
operation whereas the steel 17H1S in the as-received state has lower carbon content
and somewhat higher amount of other elements (twice the silicon content and almost
an order of magnitude higher sulfur and phosphorus content).
Table 1 Chemical composition of the investigated steels, mass (%)

Steel code Metal state Service time C Si Mn Cr S P
(years)
X70 As-received 0 0.108 0.26 1.42 0.016 0.004 0.0005
After operation 37 0.116 0.34 1.62 0.022 0.003 0.0009
X60 As-received 0 0.111 0.24 1.49 0.021 0.007 0.0037
After operation 25 0.118 0.41 1.75 0.044 0.004 0.0050
17H1S As-received 0 0.140 0.99 1.54 0.067 0.029 0.0080
After operation 30 0.176 0.49 1.28 0.028 0.004 0.0005
36 0.168 0.44 1.21 0.03 0.004 0.0004
3.1 Mechanical Properties Under Tensile Testing
The characteristics of strength (ultimate strength σUTS and yield strength σYS ) and
plasticity (elongation and RA) of all investigated steels in the as-received state
differed insignificantly (Fig. 1). However, a clear tendency to raising the strength
with a respective decrease of plasticity is traced in the following order: 17H1S →
X60 → X70. The only exception is RA obtained for the steel X60.
As depicted in Fig. 2, strength (σUTS and σYS ) of the tested steels is somewhat
higher after operation, and plasticity (elongation and RA) for the steels 17H1S
and X60 is lower, and in the case of the steel X70 even slightly higher, however
these changes are comparable to data scattering. The maximum hardening effect
was observed for the steel 17H1S (σ UTS value is increased by 11%) (Fig. 2c). This
could be a result of a slightly higher carbon content (compared to the steel in the
initial state, Table 1), which usually determines the strength of low alloy pipe steels.
However, strength of the X60 steel is also higher after operation despite almost the
same carbon content in the operated and non-operated variant of steel. Therefore,
Fig. 1 a Strength (I—σUTS , II—σYS ) and b plasticity (I—Elongation; II—RA) for the steels X70
(1), X60 (2) ta 17H1S (3) in the as-received state
Fig. 2 Relative changes λ in strength (σUTS and σYS ), plasticity (elongation and RA) and impact
toughness KCV of the tested steels X70 (a), X60 (b) and 17H1S (c, d), after their operation during
37 years (a), 25 (b), 30 (c) and 36 years (d)
the steel degradation can also be manifested by strengthening of steel. It is natural

that plasticity of the steels hardened due to operation is decreased. In particular, for
17H1S steels operated for 30 years and 36 years, elongation values are decreased
by 22% and 19% respectively, and reduction in area by 18% and 17% respectively.
It could be noted as a peculiarity, that both the strengthening and the plasticity loss
of the steel after longer operation are somewhat smaller than those of the steel with
shorter service time. This was concerned with a slightly lower carbon content of
longer operated steel (Table 1). With respect to X70 steel, a little hardening effect
after operation practically did not worsen its plasticity characteristics (their change
did not go beyond the data scattering and did not exceed 3%). Therefore, despite the
maximum duration (37 years) of service of the X70 steel on the main gas pipeline, its
plasticity has not practically changed. At the same time, the plasticity of 17H1S steel
after 30 and 36 years of operation and X60 after 25 years is significantly decreased.
It is evident that the degradation peculiarities of pipe steels reflected by a change of
their mechanical characteristics should be taken into account in strength calculations
of other operated sections of pipelines.
3.2 Brittle Fracture Resistance of Pipeline Steels
Impact toughness values for the steels X70, X60 and 17H1S in the as-received
state are 2.77 MJ/m2 , 3.42 MJ/m2 and 2.63 MJ/m2 respectively, and this param-
eter is decreased significantly after long-term operation of these steels (Fig. 2). The
minimum decrease in impact toughness (by 11%) was observed for the steel X70.
In X60 steel, KCV is decreased by 23% relative to the corresponding value for the
spare pipe. However, the changes for 17H1S were the most essential; namely, impact
toughness of this steel is decreased by 49% and 56% after 30 and 36 years of service,
respectively (Figs. 2c, d). It has been shown earlier [20] that after 51 years of oper-
ation, the reduction in KCV of this steel reached 87%. It was suggested that such a
low resistance to brittle fracture of operated steels is a result of the accumulation of
defects in the metal during so long period of operation.
3.3 Structural Peculiarities of Degradation for Pipeline Steels
Structural features which could be responsible for such essential change in steel’s
mechanical characteristics, were analyzed for the steel 17H1S as the brightest
example [21]. Considering the structure of this steel in the as-received state and
after 30-year operation, a pronounced texture consisted of the layers of ferrite and
pearlitic grains was revealed in both cases. The texture was found in the axial (Fig. 3a,
c) and in the radial (Fig. 3b, d) cross sections of the pipe. It was noted that perlite
and ferrite grains generally retained their polygonal form. Grain size distribution was
irregular, which was clearly visible in the radial cross section of a pipe. In general, the
defining elements of the structure for both analyzed steel states were the following.
Thinner strips of perlite (up to 12 μm) were interspersed with wider bands of ferrite
(up to 31 μm). Perlite strips in the axial section of the steel pipe in the initial state
were almost continuous with a length up to 2 mm (Fig. 3a). In addition, long (100–
200 μm) chains of thin (up to 1 μm) non-metallic inclusions (such as manganese
sulfides) were observed in this plane. They are mostly located along the ferrite layers,
somewhere crossing the ferrite grains. At the same time, in the radial cross section of
the pipes, the continuity of the perlite strips was often interrupted by separate ferrite
grains. Therefore, the length of continuous perlite strips in this pipe section did not
exceed 150 μm (Fig. 3b).
Two peculiarities of degradation of 17H1S steel at the microstructural level were
identified (Fig. 3c, d). On the one hand, an insufficient clarity of some part of the grain
boundaries separating adjacent bands of perlite and ferrite was observed. The loss of
their clarity can be a consequence of their scattering. From the other hand, some grain
boundaries became remarkably clear, which indicated their especial susceptibility to
etching. Besides, the enhanced susceptibility to etching was more pronounced in the
axial direction of the pipe (Fig. 3c), whereas in the radial direction the interphase
boundaries between ferrite and pearlite were etched selectively and did not spread on
Fig. 3 Microstructure of the steel 17H1S in the initial state (a, b) and after 30 years of operation on
the main pipeline (c, d) in the axial (a, c) and radial (b, d) cross sections of the pipes at a distance
of 3 mm from their external surface
the whole length of continuous strips (Fig. 3d). This nonuniformity in pearlite etching
in the operated steel is concerned with a different stage of its damaging under a long-
term influence of service factors, namely, operational loads, and steel hydrogenation
which cannot be avoided. It has been experimentally shown that steels’ hydrogenation
does take place in the main gas pipelines during their long-term operation [22].
Particularly, the hydrogen content in the pipe wall of emergency pipes on the sections
of fractured gas pipelines reached 0.045–0.06 at.%, which significantly exceeded the
average hydrogen content in pipes in the as-received state (0.015 at.%). Somewhat
less amount of hydrogen (up to 0.032 at.%) was revealed in other emergency pipes
operated for 20–34 years on gas mains, whereas the hydrogen content in spare pipes
did not exceed 0.014 at.%, and in pipes of current production—0.013 at.% [23].
Meanwhile, the problem of hydrogen effect which absorbed inside the damages
in operated steels located along their ferrite-pearlite texture is still controversial. It
is known that hydrogen diffusion coefficient in the steel AISI 4130 with randomly
oriented ferrite and pearlite grains is higher than that measured in the direction across
the ferrite-pearlite texture [23]. This statement is in agreement with the research
[24] where it was shown that the hydrogen diffusion coefficient is lower in the
transversal direction relative to ferrite-pearlite texture than that along it. In the latter
case, hydrogen can easily diffuse along the ferrite bands. Hydrogen permeability
was also higher along the striped structure than across it. Studies of pure Fe–C alloys
with ferrite-pearlite structure have shown that the boundaries between ferrite and
pearlite or between adjacent pearlite grains are effective traps for hydrogen [25].
Boundaries between ferrite and cementite lamellae inside pearlite weakly absorb
hydrogen; they serve as a barrier for hydrogen diffusion through pearlite colonies.
However, these results contradict direct visualization of sites of hydrogen release
from ferrite-pearlitic steels. It was obtained using the high sensitive “hydrogen
microprint” method, which leaded to the conclusion that there was no preference
for hydrogen diffusion just along ferrite grains [26]. Indeed, even in the cross section
of the perlite grains, the hydrogen located within ferrite lamellae, which is consis-
tent with the significantly lower diffusion coefficient of hydrogen in the cementite in
comparison with the ferrite (1.84 × 10–11 and 7.1 × 10–10 m2 s−1 respectively) [27].
Above mentioned structural features (first of all damage along the bands of ferrite
and pearlite) are most typical for the steel 17H1S, and to the least extent for the steel
X70. This is in principle consistent with the results of mechanical tests according
to which X70 steel (despite its longest operation time among the considered steels,
37 years) is the least susceptible to degradation by all characteristics. The thickness of
the perlite strips revealed in the structure of this steel under a higher resolution (using
SEM) was very small (from 1 to 5 μm, see Fig. 4c, d). Even at a high magnification,
most often it was difficult to identify the individual lamellae in ferrite-cementite
mixture inside the pearlite colonies in the structure of X70 steel. It was suggested that
such grinding of perlite constituents minimized the hydrogen trapping inside the pipe
wall and, accordingly, prevented damage accumulation along texture interlayers. In
any case, the best mechanical properties of this steel, even after the longest operation
time, can be logically associated with the shredding of both layers of perlite and its
constituents.
3.4 Fractographic Features of Operational Degradation

of Pipe Steels
Signs of the steel degradation revealed under SCC tests. The described struc-
tural features of the operational degradation of gas pipeline steels were manifested
clearer on the fracture surfaces of the specimens tested by SSRT in NS4 solution
simulating soil environment [28]. In particular, at the fracture surfaces of the oper-
ated steel, delaminations appeared clearer than after the tests in air, both at macro
and micro levels (Fig. 5). After testing in air, the delaminations are surrounded by a
ductile relief consisted of dimples (Fig. 5a), whereas in the case of the testing in the
environment, the delaminations became origins of brittle fracture in the form of trans-
granular cleavage (Fig. 5b). This trend maintained not only near the external surface
of the specimen contacted with the corrosive environment, but also in the center of
its cross section (Fig. 5c). In addition, intergranular fracture elements initiated from
some delaminations were observed close to the lateral surfaces of the specimens.
Their occurence was considered as a direct manifestation of the corrosive medium
Fig. 4 Microstructure of X70 steel in the axial direction for the as received state (a, c) and after
37 years of operation (b, d)
action (Fig. 5d). Indeed, the solution penetrated during SSRT along the delamina-
tions (similar as along capillaries) into the crack tip and ensured corrosion cracking
along the grain boundaries. This allowed suggesting that delaminations along the
boundaries between adjacent layers of ferrite and perlite were already present in the
structure of the operated steel even before the tensile testing of specimens. These
fractographic features were considered as a direct confirmation of the influence of
hydrogen accumulated in pipes during their long term operation, on the weakening
of cohesion between different grains (especially between adjacent layers of ferrite
and perlite in the steel texture). It should be also noted that under the same testing
conditions of non-operated steel, such fractographic evidence of steel degradation
were not traced at all.
Signs of degradation found after Charpy testing. Basing on the analysis of
mechanical properties, a conclusion can be drawn that the impact toughness of all
three steels is the most sensitive characteristic to the change in the metal state caused
by their operation. Therefore, it seems evident to find out fractographical signs of
steel degradation on the fracture surfaces of impact specimens. Fractographic anal-
ysis of all the tested steels in the initial state revealed the dominance of a typical
Fig. 5 Facture surfaces of the operated 17H1S steel after SSRT in air (a) and NS4 solution (b–d)
ductile fracture relief from the practically equilibrium voids formed as a result of
elongation of the partitions separating adjacent voids from each other up to their
fracture (Fig. 6).
Analyzing the fracture surfaces of the operated steels, it was noted that besides
the typical ductile relief formed by microvoid coalescence, similar as in their initial
state, some fragments were identified which were considered to be signs of steel
embrittlement due to degradation. First of all, these were numerous and various in
size delaminations with smooth unstructured relief, as a rule, with chains of small
pores at their bottom (Fig. 6a–c). Delaminations were clearly visible at the back-
ground of ductile fracture relief. Moreover, the coalescence of the microvoids was
observed preferentially in the areas of fracture surface which served as partitions
between adjacent delaminations. In addition to delaminations, some rounded frag-
ments of cleavage were found against the background of the ductile relief on fracture
features of the steel 17H1S operated for 51 years [20]. Both mentioned fractographic
elements of embrittlement were considered as features of operational degradation of
pipe steels. Moreover, their appearance was a proof that the hydrogen absorbed by the
metal during its operation and accumulated in defects along the interfaces between
ferrite and pearlite layers of their texture, contributed to the development of delam-
inations, and also facilitated the nucleation of brittle transgranular cleavage in the
critically degraded steel (Fig. 6d). Similar fractographic features of embrittlement
have been found for other ferrite-pearlite pipe steels after their operation [29, 30].
Fig. 6 Fracture surfaces of the Charpy specimens of the steels X70 (a), X60 (b) and 17H1S (c,
d) after their operation during 37 years (a), 25 (b), 30 (c) and 51 years (d)
Using computational approaches to process and quantify fragments of fracto-

graphic images by the elaborated software [19], it was possible to determine the
area of brittle fracture elements (delamination and cleavage) S cr on the unit area
of fracture surfaces of impact specimens S. The ratio S cr /S = α was accepted as a
fractographic indicator of the steels degradation.
Relationship between mechanical and fractografic indicators of the technical
state of operated steels. After analyzing the mechanical characteristics used for the
assessment of the current state of the tested steels from the point of their sensitivity
to operational degradation, it was established that the impact toughness is the most
sensitive to operational changes in pipeline steels. For instance, the loss of brittle
fracture resistance relative to the initial value (the ratio KCV op /KCV in ) of 17H1S
steel after 51 years of operation exceeded 80%. At the same time, elongation, being
the most sensitive parameter to the in-service changes of steel state under the tensile
testing, decreased by as much as 25%. Taking this into account, a correlation was built
between the ratio KCV op /KCV in for the analyzed steels and corresponding values of
the introduced fractographic parameter α (Fig. 7). The obtained dependency allows
Fig. 7 Ranking of the considered mechanical properties by their sensitivity to operational degra-
dation (a) and correlative dependence between the loss in brittle fracture resistance KCV op /KCV in
and the part of brittle fracture elements at the unit area of fracture surfaces of Charpy specimens
S cr /S (b) for the steels 17H1S, X60 and X70 after their long term operation on gas mains
estimating the actual state of operated steels used, depending on their degradation
stage.
This approach has been earlier proposed for long term operated carbon steels
from the profile metal rolling, for which the critical value of KCV op /KCV in was
additionally substantiated [31]. According to this approach, the critical state for
operated steels was reached when brittle transgranular cleavage began to appear on
the fracture surfaces of impact specimens replacing delaminations. In this case the
loss of brittle fracture resistance has reached a critical level KCV op /KCV in = 0.23.
As a consequence, further operation of critically degraded steels will inevitably lead
to the brittle fracture of structural members by cleavage, typical for a spontaneous
fracture. Since the regularities of changing the standard mechanical properties due
to operational degradation are similar for the analyzed low-alloy steels to those
obtained on carbon steels, we suggested that the critical value of loss of brittle
fracture resistance obtained for carbon steels can be used to estimate the current
state of pipeline steels. It is possible to estimate in this way how close the current
steel state is to the critical one.
According to the obtained data, most of the analyzed steels are above the critical
value KCV op /KCV in = 0.23 [31]. It is obvious that the steel X70 has the highest
serviceability even after 37 years of operation. The loss of resistance to brittle fracture
of X60 steel exceeded 20%. And the worst prospects for further service has 17H1S
steel after 51 years of operation, for which KCV op /KCV in = 0.17. Basing on the
above mentioned approach, it should be stated that this steel have already reached
the critical limit. This was also confirmed by the fractographic studies, which revealed
more than 20% of brittle fracture elements on the fracture surfaces of this steel. Their
presence is a key indicator of especial susceptibility of structural elements made of
this steel to uncontrolled fracture.
4 Conclusions
Structural degradation of the main gas pipeline steels was manifested by the tendency
to selective etching of separate boundaries between adjacent ferrite and perlite layers,
caused by the development of microdamages in the direction of the texture. Damaging
at the interface boundaries is the result of different hydrogen permeability in ferrite
and perlite. Hydrogen absorbed by steels during operation, accumulated along the
boundaries of structurally dissimilar layers, weakened the cohesion between them
and contributed to the formation of defects there. Structural features of the degrada-
tion were the clearest in 17H1S steel and the least pronounced in X70 steel. They
were confirmed fractographically by distinct signs of the weakening of cohesion
between ferrite and perlite bands on the fracture surfaces. Hydrogen, accumulated
along the boundaries between ferritic and pearlite layers, promoted the occurrence of
delaminations and cleavage fragments as an evidence of steel embrittlement due to
operational degradation. The area of these fragments is proposed as a fractographic
indicator in the assessment of the current state of operated pipeline steels.
A correlative dependency between the loss of resistance to brittle fracture (as the
most sensitive indicator of operational degradation) and the proposed fractographic
indicator was built for the analyzed steels. Substantiation of the critical state of
degraded steels was proposed. The change of the main brittle elements on the fracture
surfaces from delaminations against the background of ductile relief with typical
dimples to brittle transgranular cleavage was used as a criterion.
Basing on the proposed approach to the assessment of the current state of operated
steels, it was shown that X70 steel has the highest reserve of serviceability despite
its 37-year operation. Whereas 17H1S steel operated for 51 years has reached the
critical state, therefore, the pipe sections made of this steel can be easily ruptured
under any overload during operation.
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Determination of the Residual Lifetime
of Gas Pipeline with Surface Crack
Under Internal Pressure and Soil
Corrosion
Ivan Shtoyko, Jesus Toribio, Viktor Kharin, and Myroslava Hredil
Abstract The model describing the corrosion-mechanical fracture of the under-

ground gas pipeline with semi-elliptical external surface crack is developed taking
into account the intensification of crack growth in the pipe steel 17H1S by diffusible
hydrogen. The model is grounded on the energy approach to fracture combined with
the hydrogen accelerated soil corrosion cracking mechanism. The formula for the
soil corrosion rate is derived as the sum of two components: the rate of regular soil
corrosion due to contact of steel with the soil, and the term characterizing its accel-
eration by hydrogen. Corresponding mathematical model (differential equation with
initial and final conditions) is built up to determine the residual lifetime of a pipe
of gas pipeline subjected to hydrogenation from the transported gas, soil corrosion,
long term sustained and transient loadings caused, respectively, by gas pressure in
the pipe and by start/stop valve operations. As a result of model implementation, the
pipe residual lifetimes are evaluated considering pipe hydrogenation from the inner
surface, soil corrosion at the outer surface as well as transient loading. From the
analysis of results, it is concluded that pipe wall hydrogenation, as well as transient
loading, lead to significant acceleration of corrosion-mechanical crack growth in the
pipe, and thus, reduce its residual lifetime.
Keywords Gas pipeline · Semi-elliptical crack · Soil corrosion · Non-stationary

loading · Residual lifetime
I. Shtoyko (B) · M. Hredil

Ukraine
e-mail: ivan.shtoyko@gmail.com
J. Toribio · V. Kharin
Fracture & Structural Integrity Research Group, University of Salamanca, Zamora, Spain
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58073-5_5
62 I. Shtoyko et al.
1 Introduction
Rupture inspections of long-term operating main gas pipelines show that the stress
corrosion cracking (SCC) is one of the major causes of their integrity loss [1].
Cracks usually initiate at the pipe outer surface due to soil corrosion in places where
protecting coatings are damaged [2, 3]. The soil environment is often considered not
only corrosive, but also hydrogenating [1, 4, 5]. Besides, recent researches pointed
out the hydrogenating capability of transported hydrocarbons [6–8], too. Therefore,
the pipeline serviceability can also be reduced by the crack growth under hydro-
genation, when the metal at the pipe inner surface absorbs hydrogen in the course
of long-lasting operation. If hydrogen absorbed by metal at the pipe inner surface
promotes the crack propagation, two cases could be considered: (i) the crack propa-
gation from the pipe inner surface into the wall; (ii) the crack growth from the pipe
outer surface, when hydrogen penetrates from the pipe inner surface through its wall
towards the crack. It should be noted that fracture kinetics in these cases depends
on the operational degradation of steel that reduces its corrosion resistance [6], as
well as the brittle fracture resistance [9–12], and facilitates stress corrosion cracking
[13–15] and corrosion fatigue [2, 3, 16].
An important aspect of the assessment of the structural integrity of pipelines
consists in the modelling of corrosion crack growth in metal basing on fracture
mechanics approaches considering the above mentioned factors, and prediction of the
residual lifetime of pipes with crack-like defects. Indeed, it has been shown [17–19]
for the case of SCC in the pipeline steel X52, that its 30-year operation significantly
reduces the residual lifetime of pipes with surface semi-elliptical cracks.
2 Experimental Substantiation of the Importance

of Hydrogen Effect on Metal in the Modelling of Fatigue
Crack Growth in Pipeline Steels
As it has been mentioned, pipeline fractures initiate mainly from the pipe outer
surfaces due to aggressive action of the soil environment. However, the hydrogena-
tion at the inner surface of the pipe from the transported hydrocarbons should also
be taken into account. Hydrogen absorbed there by metal can diffuse towards the
opposite surface, where the corrosion-induced crack arises, and alter the growth rate
of this crack. To simulate this situation experimentally, a special technique to assess
the influence of hydrogen on fatigue crack growth in the pipeline steel 17H1S, which
is similar to X52 steel, was developed [20]. It is as follows. After the determination of
the constant fatigue crack growth rate in a specimen according to the standard proce-
dure, cyclic loading is interrupted and cathodic polarization at the current density of
5 mA/cm2 is applied during 24 h to the specimen in a corrosion chamber equipped
with an auxiliary platinum electrode. The solution NS4, which is often used for
simulation of soil environment, is taken as electrolyte. Its composition is as follows
Determination of the Residual Lifetime of Gas Pipeline … 63
Fig. 1 Scheme of the

fatigue testing and hydrogen
charging: 1 specimen; 2
grips; 3 Pt wire; 4
electrochemical chamber; 5
power supply
(g/l): KCl—0.122, NaHCO3 —0.483, MgSO4 —0.131, CaCl2 —0.093. A moderate

hydrogen charging level is chosen basing on the previous experience. This ensures
sufficient hydrogenation of the steel, but does not induce new defects that could arise
in the steel under intensive hydrogen uptake. After hydrogen charging, fatigue crack
growth testing is continued to establish hydrogen effect on mechanical behaviour of
the steel. The level of electrolyte in the chamber is 1 mm below the crack tip, which
avoids direct contact of the crack with the hydrogen source (Fig. 1). Consequently,
hydrogen can influence the crack growth only due to its diffusion towards the crack
tip. The experiment simulates service conditions of gas pipelines, where hydrogen
diffused through the pipe wall to the external surface affects the stress corrosion
cracking initiated at the pipe external surface.
It was found that hydrogen absorbed by metal under described testing conditions
caused a leap of the crack growth rate V in the Paris region of the fatigue crack
growth diagram evidencing detrimental effect of hydrogen on fatigue properties of the
17H1S steel (Fig. 2). The observed “plateau” on the crack growth diagram is typical
for SCC [21] and indicates the realization of the static fracture mechanism under
cyclic loading, namely, hydrogen-assisted cracking in the considered case. However,
it does not imply the insignificance of cyclic loading in the fracture process, which
at least should produce the crack sharpening, and increase the stress concentration
at the crack tip.
Fig. 2 Hydrogenation effect

on fatigue crack growth rate
V as the function of stress
intensity factor range K in
17H1S steel in NS4 solution
(red and blue points
represent, respectively, the
crack growth rates with and
without steel hydrogenation)
3 Estimation of the Residual Lifetime of the Pipe Subjected

to Combined Action of Soil Corrosion
and Hydrogenation Under Sustained Load
The pipe subjected to soil corrosion and filled with hydrogen-containing environment
is considered (Fig. 3). The semi-elliptical surface crack with initial semi axes a0 , b0 ,
where b0 is the ellipse semi axis in the direction of pipe wall thickness h, is located in a
region subjected to corrosion, and this crack propagates through the pipe wall leading
to the pipe depressurisation. The objective is to determine the pipe residual lifetime,
i.e. the time t = t∗ when the decompression occurs, taking into account the effect
of hydrogenation on corrosion-mechanical fracture. Corresponding mathematical
model and the calculation results are as follows.
The crack propagation under the combined action of loading and hydrogenating
environment is considered as a continual alternation of two interrelated phases: the
protracted periods of electrochemical interactions and the jump-like crack advances.
Each electrochemical phase lasts until the time t∗ when the hydrogen concentration
C H in the fracture zone attains the critical value dependent on the imposed stress
level. At this instant t = t∗ , the crack advances instantaneously with an increment
equal to the length of the zone where the hydrogen concentration exceeds the critical
value. The crack growth rate VscH can be defined then as follows [22]:
∂C H
VscH ≈ Vsc + M(xμ)−1 γ D , (1)
∂h
where V cs is the experimentally determined rate of stress corrosion crack propagation
under sustained load [23], M is the metal atomic mass, x is its oxidation level, μ is
the metal density, D is the hydrogen diffusion coefficient in metal, γ is the coefficient
that relates physical dimensions of the current density and the hydrogen flux, and C H
= C H (h, t) is the hydrogen concentration distribution along the pipe wall thickness
h in time t [22]. It is also assumed that the diagram of fatigue crack growth in the
pipe steel under the action of environment has rather long plateau where the crack
propagation rate keeps constant [23]. The pipe durability at the crack propagation
stage, which depends on the initial crack depth b0 , can be determined then by the
next ratio:
t∗ = (h − b0 )/ Vsc . (2)
Fig. 3 Scheme of the pipe

with external surface crack
under the action of soil
environment and gas
pressure p
The calculations for the pipe made of the 17H1S steel were performed using
the following parameters: the pipe external diameter 2r = 1440 mm, the pipe wall
thickness h = 18.7 mm, the gas pressure in the pipe p = 7 MPa, the steel Young
modulus E = 200 GPa and its tensile yield strength σ 0 = 470 MPa.
The hydrogen redistribution along the pipe thickness, which is produced by its
diffusion from the pipe inner surface towards the outer one, was calculated depending
on the hydrogen gas pressure pH that controls the hydrogen concentration C at
√
the entry surface according to the Sieverts law C = K S p H [22], where K S is
the hydrogen solubility in metal. Unstressed and stressed material conditions were
considered taking into account the stress dependence of hydrogen solubility in metal.
The hydrogen solubility in the unstressed material√was assumed the same as in α-iron
at room temperature, which is K S =√0.41 ppm/ MPa [22], and for the deformed
material, the value K S = 0.54 ppm/ MPa [24, 25] was taken. According to [22],
the hydrogen diffusion coefficient was taken D H = 5.5 × 10−11 m2 /s. The diffu-
sive hydrogen equation was determined by analogue to solution of the Heat equa-
tion. Thus, the diffusive hydrogen distribution in the pipe with boundary conditions
(where hydrogen concentration is equal to zero on the external side and determined
by analogue to Sieverts law on the internal one) was determined. Based on this data
the obtained crack growth rate values result as follows:
Vsc ≈ 2.6 × 10−8 mm/s, VscH ≈ 4.1 × 10−8 mm/s (3)
Figure 4 displays the dependency of pipe residual lifetime t∗ on the initial crack
size b0 under pipe hydrogenation and without it. It is deduced from Fig. 4 that the
steel hydrogenation causes nearly twofold reduction of the pipe residual lifetime.
Fig. 4 Dependence of the

pipe residual lifetime on the
initial crack size: (solid
line—taking into account the
effect of hydrogen; dotted
line—without hydrogen)
4 Calculation Model for the Assessment of Pipe Residual

Lifetime Under Transient Loading Conditions
Transient loading route associated with closing and opening of the pipeline valves
in operation is presented in Fig. 5. In order to determine the pipe residual lifetime
(namely, the period before depressurisation) under these conditions with account for
the pipe hydrogenation from the inside environment, the model of the semi-elliptical
surface crack propagation in the pipe (Fig. 3) is proposed.
It is assumed that constant pressure p, which is maintained in the pipe, can be
switched off for certain time intervals due to the closing and opening of valves, then
t i (i = 1, …, n) are the durations that the pressure was kept “on” (Fig. 5). The task is
to determine the residual lifetime of the pipe, i.e. the time t = t∗ required for the crack
propagation through the pipe wall due to mechanical loads, the action of corrosive
medium and possible hydrogenation of the pipe wall from the internal surface.
To solve the problem, the mathematical model of the growth of arbitrary surface
crack is developed. It is assumed that a crack grows from the initial dimension S 0 to
the final one S * by small steps S c during time intervals t 1 . Hence, the crack growth
rate V can by defined as follows:
V = dS/dt ≈ S c /t1 . (4)
The energy balance of the fracture process at each crack increment reads:
A = W + , (5)
where A is the work of external forces, W is the strain energy of the body after
the crack propagation by S c , Γ is the fracture energy which is a function of the
crack area S, environment characteristics, and time t. The strain energy W can be
represented as follows:
W = Ws + W p(1) (S) + W p(2) (S), (6)
Fig. 5 Scheme of the pipe

loading by gas internal
pressure
where W s is the elastic strain energy component, W p(1) (S) is the part of the plastic
deformation work induced by the pressure p in the process zone near the crack contour
that depends only on the crack area S, W p(2) (S) is the part of the plastic deformation
work in the process zone caused by pressure changes (loading–unloading) that also
depends only on S. The balance of the rates of energy components reads:
dA/dt = dW/dt + d/dt. (7)
Substituting expression (6) into relation (7) yields the next:

∂ − A − Ws − W p(1) − W p(2) /∂ S · dS/dt − ∂/∂t = 0. (8)
Thus, the determination of the pipe residual lifetime is reduced to the solution of
the following differential equation subjected to corresponding constraints:

dS/dt = ∂/∂ S/∂ − A − Ws − W p(1) − W p(2) /∂ S, (9)
t = 0, S(0) = S0 ; t = t∗ , S(t∗ ) = S∗ ; S∗ = π b(t∗ )a(t∗ ), b(t∗ ) = h. (10)
According to the equivalent area method [26], the area of a crack of given config-
uration varies similarly to what is observed for semi-circular crack of the radius ρ
having the same initial area. In this case, it is assumed that the crack propagation
rate of semi-circular crack is approximately the same at all points of its contour. The
mathematical model (9)–(10) takes then the following form:
dρ/dt = ∂/∂t/[γC − γt − ∂ W p(2) /∂ρ], (11)

t = 0, ρ(0) = π −1 S0 ; t = t∗ , ρ(t∗ ) = h, (12)
where γ t = δ t σ0 is the plastic strain specific work in the process zone near the
crack tip associated with the crack-tip opening displacement δ t under the load p,
γ C = δ CC σ0 is the critical value of γ t associated with the critical crack-tip opening
displacement δ CC at corrosion fracture. Using the results of the previous works [22,
27, 28], the unknown quantities Γ and W p(2) (ρ) can be determined as follows:
= ρ C σ0 δCC , ρ C = 0.16ρ −1 S C ,
ρ
(2)
n

W p (ρ) = 0.25(1 − R) 4
α0 σ0 δ(ρ − ρi ) δt2 (ρ) − δscc
2
dρ, (13)
0 i=1
where α 0 is the experimentally determined characteristic of the material fatigue, δ scc

is the lower threshold
√ value of δ t for which the crack does not propagate under stress
corrosion, R = δscc /δt is the load ratio in the cycle, δ(x) is the Dirac delta-function
[29], ρ i is the contour radius of the stress-corrosion crack at the moment of the i-th
loading–unloading, ρ C is the value of semi-circular crack radius changes during
its single jump, which is determined by the method of equivalent areas.
Taking into account the previous researches [6, 22, 26, 30, 31], the substitution
of relations (13) into (11) renders the equation for the period of subcritical crack
growth t = t ∗ in the pipe with n events of loading/unloading:
dρ [∂(δCC ρ C )/∂t]t=t1
= n . (14)
dt δCC − δt − 0.25α0 (1 − R)4 i=1 δ(ρ − ρi ) δt2 (ρ) − δscc
2
To make the mathematical model closed, Eq. (14) is supplemented with the
following initial and final conditions:
t = 0, ρ(0) = ρ0 ; t = t∗ , ρ(t∗ ) = h. (15)
In the absence of transient component of loading, Eq. (14) takes the form
dl [∂(δCC l C )/∂t]t=t1
= . (16)
dt δCC − δt
The experimental results [7, 30, 31] indicate that for small and medium values
of δ t , the growth rate V sc of a corrosion-mechanical crack under sustained load is
constant, i.e.,
dl [∂(δCC l C )/∂t]t=t1
= Vsc . (17)
dt δCC − δt
From the last equation it follows:
[∂(δCC l C )/∂t]t=t1 = Vsc (δCC − δt ). (18)
Using relation (18), Eq. (14) can be rewritten in the next form:
dρ Vsc (δCC − δt )
= n . (19)
dt δCC − δt − 0.25α0 (1 − R)4 i=1 δ(ρ − ρi ) δt2 (ρ) − δscc
2
This is accompanied by the initial and final conditions (15).

To take into account the influence of pipe hydrogenation, V sc in Eq. (19) is
substituted with V scH . Assuming that the crack is macroscopic, i.e., that there hold
−1
δt (ρ)δCC = K I2 (ρ)K I−2 −1 −1
C and δscc = K scc (σ0 E) , δt (ρ) = K I (ρ)(σ0 E) , the
2 2
integration of the obtained equation under conditions (15) reads:

α0 (1 − R)4 4 2 −1
h n
−1
t∗ = VscH dρ − K I (ρi ) − K scc
4
K fC − K I2 (ρi ) , (20)
ρ0 8VscH Eσ 0 i=1
where K I is stress intensity factor (SIF), K IC and K f C are critical values of SIF under
static and cyclic loading respectively, K scc is the threshold value of SIF at the fatigue
crack growth curve which represents stress corrosion cracking mechanism [7]. It may
be assumed that the the stress-corrosion crack propagates with equal increments ρ
= n−1 (ρ − ρ 0 ) during the time intervals t = t i (i = 1,…, n). Using the mean value
theorem [32] for large n, i.e., for ρ (h − ρ 0 ), relation (20) transforms as follows:

−1 α0 (1 − R)4 n h K I4 (ρ) − K scc
4
t∗ = VscH (h − ρ0 ) − 2 dρ. (21)
8VscH Eσ 0 h − ρ0 ρ0 K fC − K I2 (ρ)
Now, at given values of V scH , σ 0 , α 0 , K IC , K scc , E, and n, the relation (21) specifies
the residual lifetime of the pipe with surface crack operated under combined action
of internal pressure, corrosive media, long-term hydrogenation, and subjected to n
events of loading and unloading.
5 Calculation of the Residual Lifetime of the Gas Pipeline

Under Transient Loading
Two cases are considered, namely, the pipe made of 17H1S steel under hydrogenation
from the internal surface and without hydrogenation. The geometric parameters and
the loading conditions are as follows: r = 0.71 m, h = 0.0187 m, p = 9 MPa; and
α ≈ 0.23. The corrosion-mechanical characteristics of the operated pipe steel taken
from the previous work [23] are presented in Table 1.
The stress intensity factor K I (its maximum value at the crack contour) in the case
of semi-circular crack can be written in the form [26]:
√ √
K I = 0.7σ π h f (ε), f (ε) = ε 1 + 0.32ε2 1.04 + 0.23ε2 − 0.11ε4 , (22)
where ε = ρh ; ε0 = ρh0 ;σ = prh

.
After substitution of Eq. (22) into relation (21) taking into account values (3) and
other characteristics of the steel, the expression for t∗ takes the following form:
under pipe hydrogenation from natural gas

2.4 × 10−4 · n 1
f 4 (ε)
t∗ = 14.29 · (1 − ε0 ) − dε, (23)
1 − ε0 ε0 1 − 0.33 f 2 (ε)
without hydrogenation

3.5 × 10−4 · n 1
f 4 (ε)
t∗ = 22.80 · (1 − ε0 ) − dε. (24)
1 − ε0 ε0 1 − 0.33 f 2 (ε)
If the pipe is subjected to m events of loading and unloading per year, i.e.,
n = m · t∗ , (25)
where t∗ is the time of operation in years, then the pipe residual lifetime can be
determined by the following formula:
in the case of pipe hydrogenation

−1
1
f 4 (ε)
t∗ = 14.29(1 − ε0 )2 1 − ε0 + 2.4 × 10−4 · m dε (years),
ε0 1 − 0.33 f 2 (ε)
(26)
without hydrogenation

−1
−4
1
f 4 (ε)
t∗ = 22.80(1 − ε0 ) 2
1 − ε0 + 3.5 × 10 ·m dε (years).
ε0 1 − 0.33 f 2 (ε)
(27)
Based on relations (26) and (27), Fig. 6 displays the calculated dependences of
pipe residual lifetime t∗ on the dimensionless value ε0 of the initial crack size for both
the sustained (curve 1) and transient (curves 2–4) regimes of operation at various
event numbers m. It is evident from Fig. 6 that the hydrogenation of pipe leads to 1.53
times reduction of its residual lifetime under sustained loading, and to 2.04 times
decrease under transient loading conditions combined with hydrogen influence.
Fig. 6 Dependence of the pipe residual lifetime t∗ on the dimensionless initial crack size ε0 in the
sustained (curve 1) and transient (curves 2–4) modes of operation for different values of m (m = 0,
100, 200 and 365): a without hydrogenation, b with hydrogenation
Table 1 Properties of the operated steel 17H1S [23]

√ √
Conditions K SCC (MPa m) K fC (MPa m) V SC (mm/year)
With hydrogenation 8.5 60 1.29
Without hydrogenation 6.0 93 0.82
6 Conclusions
The model describing the corrosion-mechanical fracture of the underground gas

pipeline with semi-elliptical external surface crack is developed taking into account
the intensification of crack growth in the pipe steel 17H1S by diffusible hydrogen.
Corresponding mathematical model (differential equation with initial and final condi-
tions) is derived to determine the residual lifetime of a pipe of gas pipeline subjected
to hydrogenation from the transported gas, soil corrosion, long term sustained and
transient loadings caused by gas pressure in the pipe and by start/stop valve opera-
tions, respectively. Model implementation allows evaluating the pipe residual life-
times considering pipe hydrogenation from the inner surface, soil corrosion at the
outer surface and a possible transient loading. It is concluded that pipe wall hydro-
genation results in acceleration of corrosion-mechanical crack growth in the pipe,
reduction of its residual lifetime by 1.5 times under sustained loading, and 2 times
under transient loading conditions with hydrogen impact.
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Open Issues
A Tentative Summary of Corrosion Issues
in Pipelines Transporting Hydrocarbons
Giovanna Gabetta
Abstract As it is widely known, pipelines can be a safe and environmen-

tally/economically sound means to transport multiphase fluid of different nature;
if not well monitored, however, they can pose a serious threat to health and envi-
ronment. Operational and monitoring methods are improving, but new challenges
are also present, mainly due to the quality of transported fluids, especially in the
case of hydrocarbons. To quote a few, crude oil often contains H2 S; new pipelines
transporting and injecting supercritical fluids are built; new corrosion problems can
occur due to the—only partially known—damage mechanisms caused by biofuels,
and to external aggressive environments as for instance deep sea water. After more
then 40 years of work in the field of corrosion, often in projects specifically related to
pipelines, in the present paper the author will try to make a summary of the principal
damage mechanisms, the present knowledge and the open threats for the future, from
the partial point of view of a former employee of the Oil&Gas industry and at present
consultant in that sector.
Keywords Corrosion · Pipeline steel · Damage mechanisms · Knowledge

management
1 Introduction
Corrosion problems in pipelines transporting hydrocarbons are quite well known and
damage mechanisms can be in many cases managed, so that it is possible to say that
pipelines are a safe mean to transport multiphase fluids. It is foreseen however that
multiphase transport will have a major impact on offshore development of Oil&Gas
industry during the future years. As a consequence, the situation is now challenging
under many aspects. In the past, the multiphase well stream was preprocessed through
separation on platforms or even subsea, close to the wells. Drastic reduction in
G. Gabetta (B)
Oil&Gas Sector, Milano, Italy
e-mail: giovanna.gabetta@gmail.com
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58073-5_6
78 G. Gabetta
costs nowadays can be achieved when unprocessed, multiphase well streams are
transported over longer distances in carbon steel pipelines [1].
For long-distance and large-diameter pipelines, cost can become prohibitively
high if corrosion-resistant alloys instead of carbon steel are used. Better under-
standing and control of carbon steel corrosion is mandatory, having a large economic
impact.
Internal corrosion is one of the main causes of pipelines damage, particularly in
presence of water. Acid gases, such as CO2 , H2 S, and/or sulphur in oil industry’s
production fluids can be responsible for general and localized corrosion. Corrosion
can be responsible of hydrogen evolution. Hydrogen Embrittlement mechanisms are
the cause of bulk deterioration of the steel [2].
In production wells, water amount tends to increase with exploitation time. In new
fields, produced fluids can contain a larger amount of acid gases. As a consequence,
corrosion problems can be enhanced and different mechanisms, not yet accounted
for, can be active. They must be considered during both the design phase and the life
management of pipelines.
Moreover, there is a need of managing knowledge. Organizations and companies
worldwide are currently facing:
(a) increasing quantity of available information on materials;
(b) increasing complexity of the problems to be solved, and
(c) increasing lack of communication between people and/or institutions.
When trying to cope with such difficulties, I became interested in Knowledge
Management. I learned that there is a need to build bridges between contemporary
science, engineering and business. The huge amount of available information can
not be simply stored in a single human brain, and Communication Technology (ICT)
tools can be of great help only if well managed. They shall be implemented to help
supporting team work and networks, using available experience and expertise and,
hopefully, international cooperation. We are facing big challenges, and maybe it is
time to do things differently and to consolidate different disciplines of engineering
with applications that can give us more reliable predictions [3].
Knowledge Management (KM) involves a cultural change to stimulate a better
use of all resources. Progress will be slow and difficult if we do not learn how to
afford this complex situation.
2 Damage Issues of Pipelines
Corrosion is one of the principal causes of degradation and failure of pipelines.

Damage mechanisms can be observed externally and internally. Externally, a pipeline
can be in contact with the ground (buried pipelines), or can be immersed in sea water.
In both cases, external corrosion is prevented by the use of coating (passive protec-
tion) and/or by cathodic protection (active protection). In the ground, in a closed
A Tentative Summary of Corrosion Issues … 79
Fig. 1 Stress Corrosion Spectrum following suggestions by Parkins [4]
sea or in deep water, the occurrence of anaerobic condition with the proliferation of
bacteria can trigger Microbiologically Induced Corrosion (MIC).
Underground pipeline steels are mainly low alloy steels. These steels are suscep-
tible to Stress Corrosion Cracking in peculiar situations. Such damage mechanisms
have been studied and discussed since long time, not only for pipeline materials.
A very important statement about Stress Corrosion Cracking was made by Redvers
Parkins as early as 1963 [4], and is summarized in Fig. 1. At that time, the issue of
Intergranular SCC was understood and overcome with the application of tempera-
ture control. However, Transgranular SCC can also by observed in pipelines, both
externally and/or internally, depending on:
• the environment in contact with the steel (internally or externally)
• the steel properties (presence of inclusions, hardness, service time).
Hydrogen embrittlement due to cathodic reaction at the crack tip and subsequent
diffusion was identified as the active Transgranular Cracking mechanisms. In this
case, the importance of stress situation (and the presence of time-dependent loading)
shall be also kept in mind [5, 6].
While for long transport pipelines the gas is normally dry and internal corrosion is
not an issue, for flowlines and inter-field lines transporting untreated fluids, internal
corrosion plays a crucial role for structural integrity. This is a growing and challenging
problem for Oil&Gas industry, since the age of plants and components is worldwide
increasing, and new frontiers of Offshore Engineering are ultra-deep waters, where
remote treatment is performed on floating processing units. In order to protect the
environment, it is necessary to prevent internal corrosion that is a well known cause of
failure and leakages. Internal corrosion can be due to different mechanisms. Standards
and models are available to help in material selection, but further work is needed
to fully understand the corrosion process and its evolution in time, since it is very
complex and depends on a range of variables: hydrocarbon characteristics, process
fluid-dynamics and pipeline configuration [7].
Steel properties and in-bulk degradation of the pipe material is also an important
challenge. This leads to the loss of the initial mechanical properties, causing problems
80 G. Gabetta
that impact in economy and efficiency. Recent studies have shown that an important
factor of main pipelines serviceability loss under their long-term resistance service
is due to hydrogen embrittlement which is a consequence of corrosion processes [8].
Material selection for sour service pipelines is the subject of international guide-
lines, e.g. the standards issued by Nace International [9] and EFC [10]. Commonly,
standards pose limitations to carbon steel line pipe for sour service, which regard
lower bound for ‘cleanness’ and surface hardness as well, further a satisfactory
performance in specific (very aggressive, low pH) test conditions. Unfortunately,
these standards have shown a few weak points that already impacted the safety
performance in recent projects, namely:
• In the definition of sour service, since more severe environments are nowadays
common. The role of fluid composition needs to be better assessed and understood.
Data on material susceptibility are more reliable if tests are performed in close-
to-service environments [11].
• Mechanisms of crack initiation and crack propagation can be different. Hydrogen
Embrittlement can play a different role in these two phases. Stress state and stress
variations are very important in HE.
The relationship between corrosion resistance and crack susceptibility can affect
the linear application of recommended practices [12].
2.1 Internal Corrosion Challenges
Internal corrosion due to the presence of CO2 in the transported fluid is the most
diffused corrosion mechanism in pipelines transporting hydrocarbons. The study of
this corrosion form started in 1945 due to the peculiar problems encountered in the
exploitation of fields located in Louisiana and Texas. Towards an appropriate mate-
rials selection, Corrosion Rate (CR) shall be evaluated as a function of transported
fluids properties and of the resistance of candidate steel.
Predictive models are available to allow evaluating CR from the main physico-
chemical parameters of the fluid. The majority of such models is obtained by compar-
ison of experimental data and field observations. A few more complex models are
based on equations describing the physico-chemical behaviour of metal.
A good model shall be able of complying with two fundamental requests:
1. To provide a first indication on the applicability of carbon steel;
2. To evaluate CR for Carbon Steel, so that an adequate corrosion allowance value
can be established.
However, when models are compared with field cases, results are often fairly
conservative and CR estimate often do not match with field measurements. While
it is reasonably easy to understand a corrosion event “retrospectively” with failure
analysis methods, a large degree of uncertainty is associated with the attempt of
quantifying a prediction for the future evolution of damage. Further study is necessary
to implement models and methodologies. CO2 corrosion is still to be considered an

open issue since models markedly reflects the philosophies used in their development
[13].
Most models are unsuitable for situations with appreciable H2 S contamination,
which is of growing importance in the recent new discoveries. When dealing with
H2 S rich fluids, ad hoc models are needed. Hydrogen sulphide is a weak acid, causing
a small decrease in pH of a water solution, and corroding steels and alloys in neutral
solutions, with a generally low uniform corrosion rate. Hydrogen sulphide plays an
important role in the stability of corrosion products film, increasing or decreasing its
corrosion resistance by interaction with other components, such as CO2 .
Wet gas mixtures containing hydrogen sulphide attack aggressively iron and mild
steels. Sulphur forms stable sulphides with many transition metals. H2 S dissociation
on transition metal surfaces is an easy process and, as consequence, sulphur deposits
and sulphide compound formation on metal surfaces is favoured [11].
Three regimes of mild steel corrosion can be identified in CO2 /H2 S environments,
as shown in Fig. 2. Characteristic of the mixed regime is the formation of scales of
iron carbonate and iron sulphide. The application of a sweet corrosion model for
the mixed regime appears justified, though it may be conservative. Testing of the
candidate material in the service environment is strongly recommended [11].
Cases of MIC and under deposit corrosion have some similarities because bacteria
colonies may form a deposit or shell under which corrosion and pitting proceeds even
while the surrounding metal is unaffected. MIC and under deposit pits commonly
are localised and non-uniform owing to the particular location of deposits or bacteria
colonies on the steel. Under deposit pitting is a common failure mode in locations
where solids can accumulate. The deposits trap corrodents against the metal surface
but allow in enough water to create a locally severe aqueous environment beneath the
deposit, which is vastly different from the general environment. Acidic sludge, salts,
and sulphur compounds create some of most aggressive environments for under
deposit pitting. Bacteria and other microbiological organisms can also be present
Fig. 2 Effect of CO2 versus

H2 S partial pressure on
corrosion [11]
82 G. Gabetta
under deposit and cause severe localised pitting. Sulphate Reducing Bacteria (SRB)
are typically found in crude oil and treatment plants. Microbiologically-Induced
Corrosion can cause rapid failures of carbon steels, low-alloy steels, and stainless
steels. Only a few models are available to describe and predict MIC, they shall be
better developed and compared with service data [14].
The transport of biofuels also presents corrosion problems due to their different
chemical composition compared to classic diesel fuel. Carbon steel may experience
not expected mechanisms, of both general and localized corrosion (as for instance
stress corrosion cracking) that shall be accounted for [15].
Corrosion models can be coupled with hydraulic analysis performed with the help
of flow dynamics codes. Flow dynamics can help in assessing different risk levels
in different region of a long pipeline. Flow regimes and the potential water wetting
at the pipeline wall can be estimated using one-dimensional code. Computational
Fluid Dynamics (CFD) is also a powerful tool in some critical pipeline sections. The
methodology is just a first attempt to couple corrosion and fluid dynamics analysis
and further applications are foreseen to allow completing the procedure [16].
2.2 External Corrosion Challenges
Transgranular Stress Corrosion Cracking (TGSCC) can be observed in buried

pipelines where the metal is in contact with diluted solution under disbonded coating.
It seems already known that such cracking involves hydrogen evolution and perme-
ation at the crack tip, as previously observed in nuclear pressure vessel steels and
other low alloy steels under variable loading. This cracking mechanism is influenced
by loading conditions (crack tip strain rate) and by the chemistry of the external envi-
ronment. With reference to pipeline steels, the fracture surface observed in serviced
pipes has been reproduced in laboratory. An example is shown in Fig. 3.
Fig. 3 Comparison of a fracture surface in field (left) with the fracture surface in a laboratory
specimen (right) [6]
Using a comparison with literature data describing the behaviour of landslides,

the hypothesis was proposed that the crack grows only during short times, followed
by long intervals where only generalized corrosion is active. The observation is
supported by actual fracture surface features. Similar mechanisms are active sub-sea
if the water contains H2 S (typical source of hydrogen in aqueous solution), [17] as
for instance it was observed for the Blue Stream pipeline in the Black Sea. Pipelines
posed in anoxic water must be designed and monitored with extra care. Test in
environment simulating service conditions are once again recommended [11].
2.3 Bulk Material Degradation Problems
Electrochemical and corrosion tests of low-carbon steel after long term operation
show degradation of the corrosion resistance. It was also shown that the degradation
of corrosion resistance correlated with the degradation of mechanical properties [18].
Degradation depends on the steel quality, presence of defects such as lamina-
tions, service conditions and length of service. The main degradation mechanism is
Hydrogen Embrittlement (HE). Cracking processes might occur when pipeline steel
absorbs Hydrogen. In presence of manufacturing defects in the bulk steel, internal
cracks and/or blisters can be observed. Blisters are formed when atomic Hydrogen,
resulting from corrosion reactions between the carried fluid and the steel, diffuses
into the metal and accumulates as gaseous Hydrogen at planar defects, such as pre-
existing cracks or nonmetallic inclusions. The high pressure of gaseous Hydrogen
inside the trapping sites causes separation of the metal-defect interface, forming a
cavity filled with high pressure gaseous Hydrogen.
Hydrogen Embrittlement however can act in many different modes, degrading
bulk materials properties and enhancing the probability of damage. Research in this
field is very active and recommended.
3 Inspection Tools
Internal corrosion is a crucial issue for the safe operation of oil&gas pipelines. Despite
the large number of models proposed in literature, the corrosion process is very
complex and its evolution is very difficult to predict. Defects can be detected using
Non Destructive Test procedures.
Intelligent pig is a widely used tool to measure pipeline wall thickness and the
lack of metal along the pipeline length. Each pig report can provide a number of data
indicating the position of defects, as shown in Fig. 4.
Research is needed to develop further knowledge in the evolution of internal
damage starting from the evidence of an intelligent pig. Artificial Neural Network
(ANN) was for instance proposed to interpolate thickness measurements.
84 G. Gabetta
Fig. 4 Example of results of Internal Inspection in a subsea pipeline [19]
Pipeline geometrical characteristics and fluid dynamics variables are the input
data, and the future challenge is to provide a correlation of geometry and process
data with damage evolution, (i.e. defect growth in number and/or in dimension) in
each section of the examined pipeline [20].
The goal of the research should be:
• To predict corrosion level better than using provisional models.
• To decrease costs due to better pig utilization.
• To support the management of asset integrity of non piggable sealines, comparing
the results of ILI with with external inspection and extending the assessment to
pipelines having similar characteristics
• To provide a ranking of pipelines corrosion risk, that will help scheduling internal
line inspections (ILI).
4 Knowledge Dissemination
Pipeline integrity is a growing and challenging problem for Oil Companies since
the length of pipelines transporting hydrocarbons is increasing worldwide, and the
responsibility and awareness about environmental protection is increasing too.
Corrosion is one of the most active and dangerous damage mechanisms, while
fracture mechanics helps to verify and predict pipeline stability. Knowledge in both
disciplines was increasing at a fast pace in the second half of past century, but the
progress in some way slowed down more recently, following the idea that everything
is known and the necessity for further research is lower [21].
At the same time, new tools are now available to communicate and to share
knowledge; they are increasingly used but their potential is not fully understood
especially by older people. Social networks and the collection of information via the
web are often simply used to help connecting people, but not as a full exchange of
knowledge. We are all aware of the difficulty in selecting what can be useful out of
a huge amount of findings obtained by a search engine in the web; of the feeling
of impotence when we are working and we get further and further interruptions by
e-mail and phone calls. Neural science specialists are sometimes wondering if the
human mind is going through a deep change, from reading capabilities to digital
information use [22].
With a simpler goal in mind, corrosion engineers in Oil Companies are facing
some peculiar problems, as for instance:
• The amount of papers published annually in the topic of pipeline corrosion is
huge.
• In many cases, on the other hand, users need to understand the problem as quick
as possible, to give fast answers.
When comparing information on failure cases with models and codes, it seems
that they are quite reliable to explain what happened, retrospectively after having a
problem. However, when looking for prediction, users must often choose between
a very conservative approach, good enough for a preliminary material selection at
the design phase, and not reliable numbers when trying to extend the life span of
existing facilities.
A large number of older experts is now facing retirement; in the span of a few
years, these people will be replaced by a much younger workforce, often without
the time for a gradual change necessary to transfer knowledge. As a consequence,
easy problems already known can be quite simply solved; but much more complex
problems are emerging and their solution—or their simple management—is probably
far from the reach of a single human brain; there is a need of cooperation, but the
capability of human people to cooperate is still far too little, we have a habit for
competition, usually enhanced by historical reason.
In summary, we tend to propose old solutions for new problems, and we do not
use at their best the new available tools. It is worth some effort to think about these
problems and to try an application of this philosophy to engineering problems such as
pipeline management. Sometimes the amount of time required to select what is useful
can be of the same order of magnitude that the time necessary to solve a problem,
but changing the available information in applicable knowledge is important in the
longer term. KM is a resource that can be very useful and recommended.
Following a previous paper presented at the Nato Advanced Research Workshop

CBP.MD.ARW 983731, the present paper is an attempt to summarize some of the
86 G. Gabetta
problems and challenges that are still open in the safety of pipelines transporting
hydrocarbons.
Engineers are mainly interested in procedures to avoid and/or manage the damage.
In the case of internal corrosion and/or cracking in pipelines transporting sour hydro-
carbons, international standards rely on steel metallurgy (composition, microstruc-
ture) and hardness, with the aim at selecting not susceptible materials. Field obser-
vations at the opposite show that, due to the large variation of fluid compositions and
process variables, the concept itself of Stress Corrosion Susceptibility is probably
too simple. A better understanding and a quantitative approach to different aspects
of Hydrogen Embrittlement are required to assess damage evolution.
Knowledge Management can be a useful tool to manage the huge amount of data;
an example is the use of ILI results, which can be approached with ICT tools to help
in life prediction of such important industrial components.
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New York (2008)
Risk-Based Inspection and Integrity
Management of Pipeline Systems
Stefano P. Trasatti
Abstract Over the last decade, there has been a substantial increase in construction
projects of pipelines for the transportation of several varied and dissimilar fluids,
such as oil and natural gas, fuels and chemicals, as well as water to drink or for
irrigation. The need to transport fluids over considerable distances calls for carbon
steel as construction material as it guarantees the required tensile strength and tough-
ness properties. Also, pipelines can be laid in very diverse environmental conditions
and terrains, thus exposing steel to different risks of damage. Since any deteriora-
tion of line pipes can lead to leaks or ruptures, that requires the development of an
adequate system for control and monitoring of the structural integrity of the pipeline.
Existing inspection and maintenance practices commonly applied by most pipeline
operators are formulated mainly on the basis of experience. Such procedures are no
longer sufficient and quantitatively risk-based methodologies are required. Analyt-
ical tools have therefore been developed for several years with the aim, on one hand,
of reducing the economic impact of failures and, on the other hand, of limiting the
impact that failures may have on environment, health and safety as much as possible.
The present article, by evaluating the rationale behind commercially available risk-
based procedures and through a critical analysis of the open literature on the subject,
intends to highlight limitations and possibilities to improve a procedure of this type.
Keywords Risk based inspection · Pipeline integrity management · Threats ·

Corrosion modes
1 Introduction
The demand for transportation of commodities is increasing very rapidly and

pipelines represent a unique mode to move huge amount of commodities over large
distances at relatively low operating costs.
S. P. Trasatti (B)
Department of Environmental Science and Policy, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milano, Italy
e-mail: stefano.trasatti@unimi.it
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58073-5_7
90 S. P. Trasatti
Pipelines are ideal for unidirectional flow of goods and can be laid on a wide variety
of terrains without much difficulty. Further, pipeline transportation has complete
automation of loading and unloading operations and can be considered environmental
friendly. The use of pipelines to transport single phase fluids like water, oil and
natural gas is a well-known technology, also for transporting other fluids such as
slurry, sewage, etc.
With this in mind, it is not surprising that the pipeline transportation market is
expected to grow at a very high pace in the next years.
Oil and gas transmission pipelines are mainly installed underground with the
consequence that many factors can affect their structural integrity, including corro-
sion, interference from the third party, material defects, malfunction, and natural
hazard.
Besides, increasing number of aging pipelines in operation has significantly
augmented the number of serious accidents, thus leading authorities and industry
itself to reflect on how to keep equipment safe over time.
The first action was the development of calculation codes like ASME B31G
criterion [1] that provides the most basic and widespread method in assessing the
remaining strength of corroded pipelines. Later, DNV [2] published recommended
practices for assessing corroded pipelines under combined internal pressure and
longitudinal compressive stress. More recent studies [3–7] indicated that the predic-
tions are known to be conservative [8], resulting in pipelines being removed from
service too early and costly and unnecessary repair or replacement of the affected
region imposed. Accordingly, the need to monitor over time the integrity of equipment
during operation have arisen.
This was at the beginning faced with the definition of inspection methods and
control frequencies that provided for checks on a regular basis with established
times equal for all types of equipment.
However, industry felt soon the need to adopt preventive and predictive manage-
ment tools since it was mandatory, in addition to reducing risk of accidents and
pollution, to optimize costs and reduce production loss, at the same time keeping
the life of each component to the maximum. Studies were started, especially in the
oil and gas industry, on the various damage mechanisms that could affect equipment
depending on the design and service conditions [9]. This led to acquired knowledge
that has allowed to establish corrosion rates and in turn to calculate the residual life
of each component with greater precision: inspections and maintenance procedures
could therefore be carried out before unforeseen events occurred.
Accordingly, the random characteristics of the governing parameters in real
pipelines have motivated several authors to develop probabilistic approaches to assess
the probability of failure of pipelines with and without corrosion damages.
All this has represented the rationale behind the so-called risk management
approach, that is to say the process of identifying risk, assessing risk, and taking
steps to reduce risk to an acceptable level.
In 1994 the American Petroleum Institute (API) started to develop a Risk-Based
Inspection (RBI) methodology and the related publication became a recommended
practice (API RP 581, Risk-Based Inspection Technology in 2008, reviewed in 2016.
Risk-Based Inspection and Integrity Management … 91
The present article, by evaluating the rationale behind commercially available

risk-based procedures and through a critical analysis of the open literature on the
subject, intends to highlight limitations and possibilities to improve a procedure of
this type.
2 Pipeline Integrity Management
There are different kinds of threats to pipeline integrity, such as metal loss, cracking,
third party damage (dents and gouges), design imperfections, joints, etc. One or a
combination of these failure mechanisms could eventually lead to leak or rupture
and consequently to potential huge human, financial, and environmental loss. Study
on different defect prediction models is the foundation of effective integrity manage-
ment. The last step, risk-based management, will determine proper inspection inter-
vals, and maintenance and repair actions. The management models will also influence
the first step and the second step by possibly changing the inspection actions and
defect status. The aim of an integrity program is to achieve accurate defect prediction
and balance the reliability and costs in an effective way.
Integrity is the top priority for pipeline operators to ensure reliable and safe oper-
ations of pipelines, to increase productivity, reduce cost, prevent damage to the envi-
ronment, support future projects, etc. It is essential to find effective ways to monitor,
evaluate and assure the integrity of the pipeline, and reduce the risk of leaks and
rupture.
For pipelines, it is mandatory to ensure safety, security of supply and compliance
with relevant codes and legislation. Procedures and practices are implemented to
protect, manage and maintain the integrity of pipeline systems.
A pipeline integrity program generally consists of three major steps:
(i) Defect detection and identification, to obtain defect information through
inspection, monitoring, testing and analysis techniques.
(ii) Defect growth prediction, to predict defect growth based on damage prediction
models and the collected data.
(iii) Risk-based management, to recommend optimal inspection, maintenance and
repair policies and activities.
Pipeline companies can gather defect information through walking along the
pipelines by technical personnel, hydrostatic testing, in-line inspection (ILI), nonde-
structive evaluation (NDE), etc. ILI tools are currently the most widely used
inspection technology for detecting and inspecting various types of pipeline defects.
92 S. P. Trasatti
3 Pipeline Degradation Mechanisms
Pipeline facilities can be subject to several degradation mechanisms depending on

process fluids, operating conditions and environmental factors. Among the major
causes of accidents in liquid and natural gas pipelines there are internal and external
corrosion defects. As a pipeline ages, it can be affected by a range of corrosion
mechanisms, which may lead to a lowering of its structural integrity and in turn to
eventual failure.
Clearly, regular inspections of pipelines with state-of-the-art tools and procedures
can reduce the risk of any undue accident caused by a lack of unawareness of the
integrity of the line.
Metal loss is a major integrity threat to oil and gas pipelines. Serious metal loss
can lead to pipeline rupture or collapse. Pipeline metal loss is mainly caused by
corrosion and erosion, and is strongly dependent on the surrounding environment.
Methods for assessing pipelines with corrosion defects have been extensively
studied, and popular code-based deterministic methods in the published literature
include among the others ASME B31G, modified B31G, RSTRENG, and DNV-RP-
F101 [10–12]. Equations used in these methods are similar, the main differences being
in the defect shape factor and bulging factor. These methods provide the prediction
for corroded pipelines by determining the burst pressure using relevant equations.
Monte Carlo method, first-order reliability method (FORM), and the first order
Taylor series expansion of the limit state functions are the main methods that can
be combined with deterministic methods for computing the probability of failure
for a corrosion defect. In this way, corrosion propagation model is generated and
remaining useful life is predicted.
Calculating the corrosion growth rates is an essential part of corroded pipeline
integrity management. Corrosion rate can be estimated either through the physics-
based corrosion models or using ILI data.
4 Risk Based Management
The common definition of risk is the multiplication of probability and consequence.

Thus, to perform risk-based management, operators are called to analyze the causes
of risk, to estimate failure probabilities and to perform consequence analysis.
For pipeline integrity management, probabilities typically refer to probabilities
of pipeline failure due to certain defect growth. The consequences are related to the
costs incurred by activities like inspection and maintenance, loss of productivity,
damage to the environment and community, etc.
There are some preliminary activities to conduct. First threats and consequence
need to be identified to calculate risk: the selection of a proper risk assessment model
is critical to determine the structural integrity. Second, pipeline segments and existing
threats must be prioritized. In this way, the riskiest pipeline segments and threats will
be inspected and repaired prior to others. Third, suitable mitigation and preventative
activities for each threat have to be selected. Finally, cost-effective and appropriate
re-inspection and re-assessment interval should be determined. This re-assessment
interval must ensure the safe operation of pipelines and the reliability of pipelines
should be beyond the predetermined safety threshold.
5 Risk Based Inspection
Despite American Petroleum Institute and Det Norke Veritas developed RBI method-
ology since 1990, RBI is still a developing technology. Various Risk Based Inspec-
tion (RBI) methodologies are available in the marketplace, including API 581, each
having its own merits and weaknesses [11, 13].
In current industrial practice, the main objective of risk-based studies is to esti-
mate pipelinés present risk, define the target reliability of each pipeline segment and
to determine the pressure containment capacity of the pipeline at the time it was last
inspected. This approach can be used to determine and predict factors such as the
remaining life capacity of the design or the remaining life to current Maximum Allow-
able Operating Pressure. However, it is difficult to accurately predict the inspection
planning time, including the risk level during operating time.
RBI is a method for using risk as a basis for prioritising and managing the effort
of an inspection program to rationally allocate inspection resources. The term of
“inspection” is understood as a systematic procedure used to assess equipment tech-
nical conditions. It is usually performed on a fixed periodical basis. In an operating
plant or installation, a relatively large percentage of risk is associated with a small
percentage of the equipment items. Typically, about 80% of risk of equipment’s
failure is associated with only 20% of equipment. RBI allows shifting inspection and
maintenance resources to provide a higher level of coverage on the high-risk items
and an appropriate effort on lower risk equipment.
The RBI method defines the risk of operating equipment as the combination of
two separate terms: the likelihood of an undetected failure and the consequence of
such a failure.
The assessment of failure consequences follows these steps:
• scenarios definition in which failure (i.e.: leak) progresses into undesirable events
• estimation of the physical effect of each scenario
• adverse effect on people, equipment, environment, productivity as a result of the
outcome.
The likelihood of failure assessment takes into consideration such criteria as:
• the damage mechanisms applicable to the analysed item;
• the inspection history of the item;
• the effectiveness of the previous inspection.
94 S. P. Trasatti
The detailed method to assess consequence and likelihood depends directly upon
the facility type. Furthermore, the level of detail of the method is fitted to the future
use of the result, the available data for the analysis, the need of accuracy of the result:
a range of probability/consequences or a formal probability/consequences.
The Risk Based Inspection approach helps to determine inspection and corro-
sion monitoring scope from understanding of corrosion threats, extent, locations and
optimized inspection cycle for static equipment based on susceptibility to failure, the
health, safety, environmental and economic risks of its operation and remnant life of
the equipment.
It is applicable to static equipment such as process piping, pressure vessels, heat
exchangers, above ground storage tanks and pressure relief devices, boilers and
heaters. It takes into account only degradation mechanisms related to the operation
of an installation (corrosion, fatigue, etc.).
6 Risk Analysis
The risk in RBI is defined as the likelihood of failure (POF) times the consequence
of failure (COF), so the essential element of RBI methodology is an assessment of
the POF and the COF, i.e. hazardous, environmental and production loss.
The equation for risk calculation is showed as following:
Risk(t) = Pf (t) × COF (1)
where the POF (Pf (t)) is a function of time, and increases as the damage in the
component due to thinning or other damage mechanisms accumulate with time.
The implementation of RBI starts with a clear objective and scope of equipment
to be assessed within agreed boundaries in the facility.
Depending on the nature of the process and the detail of the study, a risk analysis
may include thousands of different scenarios. The risk analysis would evaluate both
the likelihood and the consequence of the set of events in each scenario.
The RBI programme is not a full risk analysis, but a hybrid technique between risk
analysis and mechanical integrity. In its elemental form, a risk analysis is comprised
of six tasks:
(i) Identification of accident scenarios involving failure of the equipment;
(ii) Identification of potential deterioration mechanisms and modes of failure;
(iii) Assessment of the probability of failure from each mechanism/mode;
(iv) Assessment of the consequences resulting from equipment failure;
(v) Determination of the risk from equipment failure;
(vi) Risk ranking and categorization.
There are various related but different approaches to RBI analysis.
Basically, there are three analytical levels: qualitative, semiquantitative and
detailed quantitative.
In a Qualitative analysis the LOF is evaluated from the influencing factors, such
as amount of equipment, possible damaged mechanisms, effectiveness of inspection,
current equipment conditions, and the nature of the process and equipment design.
The risk level of each equipment can be identified by the likelihood category and
the consequence category. The risk results can be used to locate areas of potential
concern and to decide which portions of the process unit require the most inspection
attention or other methods of risk reduction. It can also be executed to determine
whether a full quantitative study is justified.
In addition to the qualitative RBI method, the semiquantitative method takes
account of the inspection results, such as corrosion rate, historical records, and main-
tenance information, and so on. Under certain circumstance, the method can alleviate
the discrepancies in risk assessment induced by a person with subjective judgments.
According to the potential losses, the quantitative method could determine risk
levels. The LOF is the generic failure frequency (GFF) for the specific type of equip-
ment, which is based on a compilation of available equipment failure histories from
various industries, and multiplied by an equipment modification factor and manage-
ment system evaluation factor. The COF can be assessed with the losses, i.e. hazard,
environment, impact on business interruption and maintenance expense, etc. There-
fore, the calculated quantitative risk calculation can directly assist the inspector to
evaluate the risk exposures.
7 Risk Based Approaches
Talking about the risk assessment as part of an RBI study, basically three approaches
are possible:
• Qualitative
• Semiquantitative
• Quantitative.
Since the late 1980s, numerous quantitative, semiquantitative, and qualitative
models have been developed to aid plant engineers with the prioritization of
components inspections.
7.1 Qualitative Approaches
Qualitative risk index approaches assign subjective scores to the different factors that
are thought to influence the probability and consequences of failure. These scores are
then combined using simple formulas to give an index representing the level of risk.
Risk index approaches provide a ranking of the different process components based
on the perceived level of risk estimated. The ranking obtained by using these methods
is highly subjective. In addition, these approaches do not provide any indication of
96 S. P. Trasatti
whether the risk associated with a component is unacceptable and consequently no

guidance is provided regarding whether any risk reduction action is necessary.
7.2 Semi-quantitative Approaches
In addition to the qualitative RBI method, the semiquantitative method takes account
of the inspection results, such as corrosion rate, historical records, and maintenance
information, and so on. Under certain circumstance, the method can alleviate the
discrepancies in risk assessment induced by a person with subjective judgments.
These approaches provide a tool to ascertain that the estimated risk of failure
satisfies a predetermined acceptance criterion. Depending on the level of risk for
each mode and pattern of failure, the required analysis, inspection, maintenance,
and repair tasks are selected. For example, a review of historical failure databases
indicates that the major failure modes in a pipeline are internal corrosion and external
impact. Thus, the main efforts (in terms of design, structural modeling, inspections,
etc.) should be focused on these failure modes.
7.3 Quantitative Approaches
These approaches determine the level of risk based on direct estimates of the proba-
bility and/or consequences of failure. Current quantitative risk assessment approaches
focus on a single aspect of the consequence associated with failure. Published studies
deal with either loss of life risk or economic risk. Integration of environmental
damage, life safety, and economic risks has not been addressed adequately.
Another limitation of quantitative risk assessment approaches is that they typically
base the failure probability estimates on historical failure rates.
Publicly available databases do not usually allow subdivision of the failure data
according to the attributes of a specific process component and where adequate
subdivision is possible, the amount of data associated with a particular attribute set
is very limited because of the rarity of the failures. Failure probabilities estimated
from public data are, therefore, not sufficiently specific to represent a given failure
in a specific process component.
8 Conclusions
An Oil and Gas Facility has integrity when it is operated and maintained so that the
combination of the likelihood of failure and the consequence of failure makes the
risk to people, to the environment, and to the company as low as reasonably practical.
The primary objective of Asset Integrity Management (AIM) is to maintain the

asset in a fit-for-service condition while extending its remaining life in the most
reliable, safe, and cost effective manner.
In addition to regulatory and company requirements, operators of facilities
and related pipelines have the following business needs: maximizing production,
reducing lost income due to unplanned shutdowns, optimizing inspection and
maintenance costs, maximizing asset value, maintaining an auditable system.
Asset integrity is managed at each stage of the asset lifecycle, including project
design, asset operation and decommissioning. Inspections, auditing/assurance and
overall quality processes are just some of the means to execute an effective integrity
management program.
Nowadays, AIM programs are deployed to meet API-580, API-581 requirements.
To successfully implement an asset integrity management system in a dynamic
operating environment, it is essential that all stakeholders have a consistent and a
unified understanding of what the essentials of asset integrity are and how they can
be applied in their day-to-day operations, yet this is often cited as among the most
significant challenges in achieving an integrity culture within an organization.
References
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supplement to ANSI/ASME B31G Code for Pressure Piping (1991)
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of pipelines. In: Proceedings of the 20th International Conference on Offshore Mechanics and
Arctic Engineering, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (2001)
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uniform depth corrosion defects. In: Proceedings of the 21st International Conference on
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5. Cronin, D.S., Pick, R.J.: Prediction of the failure pressure for complex corrosion defects. Int.
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Wiley & Son Inc., New York (2015)
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98 S. P. Trasatti
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(2014)
A Model of a System for Gas
Transmission Pipeline Integrity
Monitoring
Vasyl Chekurin, Roman Kushnir, Yuriy Ponomarev, Myroslav Prytula,

and Olga Khymko
Abstract The model of the software system for monitoring the integrity of the
linear part of a gas main pipeline is considered. The pipeline is considered to be
a linear structure formed by series-connected compressor stations and sections of
the linear part. The structure model of a section consists of sequentially connected
line and nodal elements. The nodal elements represent the technological objects of
the linear part, which create small pressure drops between their inputs and outputs.
Mathematical models of gas motion through such elements contain ordinary time-
dependent differential equations. Gas flow through the line elements is described
by partial differential equations, which depend on the spatial coordinate and time.
According to this model, the integrity monitoring system of the linear part consists
of the integrity monitoring systems of all objects represented by both linear and
nodal elements. An object integrity control systems include sensors of informative
parameters, logging systems, monitoring database, mathematical models and object
integrity checking algorithms, data exchange subsystem and information security
subsystem.
Keywords Integrity monitoring · Leakage detection · Flow parameters

monitoring · Transient flow simulation · Acoustic emission
V. Chekurin (B) · R. Kushnir

National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, Pidstryhach Institute for Applied Problems of
Mechanics and Mathematics, Lviv, Ukraine
e-mail: v.chekurin@gmail.com
Y. Ponomarev · M. Prytula
Joint-Stock Company “Ukrtransgas”, Research and Development Institute for Gas Transportation,
Kharkiv, Ukraine
O. Khymko
Lviv Polytechnic National University, Lviv, Ukraine
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58073-5_8
100 V. Chekurin et al.
1 Introduction
Gas main pipelines (GM) are effective means for transporting natural gas over long
distances. The high efficiency of GM is achieved by the use of large diameter pipes
and the maintenance of high gas pressure by means of compressor stations (CS).
In such circumstances, the uncontrolled depressurization can have negative effects
threatening to both humans and the environment. Therefore, the technological facil-
ities of GM, in particular such as CSs gas distribution stations, transitions through
natural and artificial obstacles, are classified as objects of high hazard [1].
The reliability of GM’s technological facilities will inevitably decrease over long
operation periods. A considerable part of the Ukrainian GM has already exhausted
projected terms of operation. Maintenance and scheduled repairs maintain the relia-
bility of the GM facilities within certain limits. However, there are threats of disrup-
tion the integrity of the GM’s technological facilities and the associated risks of
environmental and human hazards as well as of material losses. Continuous integrity
monitoring reduces the likelihood of an uncontrolled violation of pipelines integrity.
This is consistent with regulatory documents of Ukraine [2, 3] and current approaches
to managing the integrity of pipeline transportation systems [4].
The model of the software system for integrity monitoring of the linear part
(LP) of GM, and corresponding mathematical models, methods and algorithms are
considered in the paper.
2 The Model of the System for the Linear Part Integrity

Monitoring
GM is a set of two components—LP and compressor stations. CSs divide GM into

separate sections 120–150 km long. Therefore, we will consider GM as a structure
of series-connected compressor stations CSλ and sections Sλ , λ = 1, 2, . . . , N (N is
the number of the section):
GM = [CS1 , S1 ; CS2 , S2 ; · · · ; CSN , SN ; CSN+1 ], (1)
LP includes the line valve stations, takeoff nodes, transitions through natural
and artificial obstacles, etc. The line valves are installed in the LP’s sections every
25–30 km, on both sides of the transitions through obstacles, at takeoff nodes.
On this basis, we will consider any section Sλ as a linear structure formed by
successively connected nodal (NE) and line (LE) elements:

Sλ = N E λ,1 , L E λ,1 ; N E λ,2 , L E λ2 ; . . . ; N E λ,Nλ , L E λ,Nλ ; N E λ,Nλ +1 (2)
Here N E λ,k , k = 1, 2, . . . , Nλ + 1 and L E λ,k , k = 1, 2, . . . , Nλ stand for node

and line element correspondingly, Nλ is number of the linear elements in the section.
A Model of a System for Gas Transmission Pipeline … 101
The line elements are segments whose length is much greater the pipe diameter.
The mathematical model of gas flow through them contains partial differential equa-
tions depending on the spatial coordinate and time. Such objects have high hydraulic
resistance and create considerable pressure drops between their ends in operation.
Mathematical models of gas motion through nodal elements contain ordinary
time-dependent differential equations. Their hydraulic resistances are low, so they
do not create considerable pressure drops between their inlets and outlets. We also
include to the nodal elements the segments, in which corrosion defects were detected
with the in-line inspection or other non-destructive methods of diagnostics.
According to the model (1), the system for integrity monitoring (GMIM) links in
its structure the systems for integrity monitoring of all compressor stations CSλ , λ =
1, 2, . . . , N +1 and all LP sections Sλ , λ = 1, 2, . . . , N (Fig. 1). Here the denotations
are used: CC is the control computer, CSIM is the system for a compressor station
integrity monitoring, LPIM is the system for LP section integrity monitoring, PIDB is
the main pipeline integrity database, CS is the communication subsystem, IS stands
for the information security subsystem.
PIDB collects the data about integrity status of all compressor stations and sections
of the GM. It also stores information about GMIM information security.
Next, we will focus on the system for integrity monitoring of the LP’s objects.
The system for integrity monitoring of the LP’s section includes object integrity
monitoring systems (OIM) for all section’s technological facilities both represented
by line and nodal elements. Figure 2 shows the structure of OIM.
It includes the control computer (CC), the system for informative parameters
monitoring (IPM), object integrity checking algorithms (OICA), the object database
(ODB), communication (CS) and information security (IS) subsystem. System IPM
contains the sensor devices (SD), the data logging (DL), and object operative database
GMIM
CC CSIM LPIM PIDB CS IS
Fig. 1 The structure of the system for main pipeline integrity monitoring
OIM
CC IPM OICA ODB CS IS
SD DL MMP ODW
OODB
Fig. 2 The structure of the system for integrity monitoring of a LP’s object
(OODB). The object database (ODB) includes a database of mathematical models

parameters (MMP) and an object data warehouse (ODW). In ODW, the monitored
flow parameters are accumulated with references to the time moments of their receipt.
The hardware of the IPM systems, as well as needed components of the commu-
nication and information security subsystems can be located on the sites of corre-
sponding NE (in particular on the areas of line valves stations). Other components of
the OIM system can be located remotely. Communication between OOBD and the
remote OIM system’s components, as well as between the OIM systems and GMIM
system can be carried out using native SCADA channels or special connections, such
as GSM or satellite channels.
Various methods are used to monitor the integrity of the LP’s objects. The corre-
sponding OICA are implemented in the form of software modules and are executed
during the operation of the OIM as appropriate application processes (OICP).
The IPM system collects data with prescribed frequency and places them into
OODB. Here, they are preprocessed and then stored in ODW with binding to the
moments of their logging. The stored data are utilized by OICP, which works iter-
atively, determining the integrity of an object in the current checking period. The
integrity status of the object for each checking period is transmitted through commu-
nication channels to the GMIM system, which summarizes the information received
from the OIM of all objects and determines, on this basis, the integrity status of the
GM as a whole.
3 Method for Integrity Monitoring of the Line Elements
For line elements, it is proposed to use a method based on monitoring gas flow
parameters at inlets and outlets and numerical modeling the flow in real time. Its
implementation is based on direct boundary value problems formulated within the
model of gas dynamics in a long pipeline. Similar approach knowing real time tran-
sient modeling (RTTM) is used for leakage detection and locating in gas pipelines
[5].
3.1 Mathematical Model of Gas Dynamics in the Line

Elements
The line element of LP is a pipeline of constant diameter Dpipe and length L. The
mathematical model of gas dynamics contains three partial differential equations. In
the absence of leakages, these equations in dimensionless variables have the form
∂ρ ∂j
= −Ma · − Ma · ρlM (3)
∂τ ∂ξ

∂j ∂ Zt dγ
= −Ma · Vj + p − Ma · ρ − Ma · β|v| j − Ma · lM j (4)
∂τ ∂ξ Ma 2 dξ

∂ρu ∂ ∂θ Z t α ∂v dγ
= λT − ju − p + Ma · α j + Ma · αβ|v| jv
∂τ ∂ξ ∂ξ Ma ∂ξ dξ
− Ma · uρlM + h̄(θenv − θ). (5)
Here ρ = D/Dt , j = J/Jt , θ = T /Tt , p = P/Pt , v = V /Vt , u = U/Ut stand

for dimensionless flow parameters correspondingly: density, flow density, tempera-
ture, pressure, flow velocity, and density of internal energy; D, J, θ, P, V and U are
corresponding dimensional parameters; Dt , J t , θt , Pt , V t are typical values of corre-
sponding dimensional flow parameters. Parameters ρ, j, θ, v and u are functions of the
dimensionless coordinate ξ = x/L and time variable τ = t/tt ; tt is the typical time
period, defined as tt = L/Ct , where Ct stands for typical gas sound velocity, which
is determined from the thermal state equation. Dimensionless function γ = γ(ξ)
in (4) defines the profile of the pipeline axis in the vertical plane: γ = H (Lξ)/Ht ,
where Ht = Vt2 /g, g is gravitational acceleration. Parameter β ≡ λ · L/(2Dpipe ) is
reduced coefficient of the pipeline hydraulic resistance, where λ is the coefficients
of hydraulic resistance, which determines the force of viscous friction in the gas
caused by flow velocity gradients in radial directions. In GM, operation modes at
which the flow is turbulent are generally used. Under these conditions, coefficient λ
depends on the average height of the irregularities of the inner surface of the pipe
(roughness) divided by Dpipe , as well as on the Reynolds number Re of the flow
[6]. Parameter λT in (5) is the dimensionless thermal conductivity: λT = /t ,
where t = L Dt Ut Ct /Tt is the typical value of the thermal conductivity coeffi-
cient = (D, T ). The symbol Z t = Z (Dt , Tt ) in (4) and (5) denotes the typical
value of the compressibility factor Z = Z (D, T ) that is a constituent of the thermal
state equation. Symbol θenv in (5) denotes the dimensionless environment tempera-
ture θenv ≡ Tenv /Tt , h is the dimensionless coefficient of convective heat exchange
between the gas in the pipe and the environment through the pipeline wall; coefficient
α in (5) is defined as α ≡ 2Ut /Vt2 .
Three Eqs. (3)–(5) contain six unknown functions: ρ(ξ, τ), p(ξ, τ), j(ξ, τ),
v(ξ, τ), u(ξ, τ) and θ(ξ, τ). To make the model closed we complement them by
thermal and caloric state equations as well as by the relation.
j(ξ, τ) = ρ(ξ, τ) · v(ξ, τ). (6)
The thermal equation of state establishes a relation between the thermodynamic

parameters P, D and T . There are various forms of analytical representation of this
equation [7]. We will use one that is based on the correction of the ideal gas model,
according to which P = Rg T D (Rg ≡ R/μg , R is the universal gas constant,
μg is the molar mass of the gas), through introducing the corrective dimensionless
coefficient Z, called compressibility factor. It is considered as a function of the
parameters of state density D (or pressure P) and temperature T: Z = Z (D, T ), which
is established using empirical data. The thermal equation of state in dimensionless

variables will look like this
p = zθρ. (7)
Here z = Z /Z t is the normalized compressibility factor being a function z =

z(ρ, θ).
The caloric equation of state establishes dependence of the specific internal energy
U on density D and temperature T: U = U (D, T ). It can be derived by ther-
modynamic methods with the use of empirical data that determine heat capacity
C V = C V (D, T ). The known thermodynamic relation [7] expressing the differen-
tial of internal energy U can be used for that. In dimensionless form it can be written
as

θ2 ∂z
du = c V dθ + b dρ, (8)
ρ ∂θ ρ
where cV = cV (ρ, θ) is dimensionless heat capacity of the gas, CtV is the typical
value of the gas specific heat capacity.
Relationship (8) can be treated as the caloric equation of state in differential form.
If parameters cV and z are known as functions of ρ and θ, one can integrate the full
differential in (8) and obtain the caloric equation in integral form: u = u(ρ, θ).
There are known mathematical models for the equations of state such as
AGA-8 DC-92 [8], GERG-2004 and GERG-2008 [9], that allow calculating the
thermodynamic properties of natural gases with high accuracies.
Utilizing relation (6), thermal (7) an caloric (8) equations of state, one can exclude
from Eqs. (3)–(5) the functions p(ξ, τ), V (ξ, τ) and u(ξ, τ) and obtain the closed
system of governing equations with respect to the key functions ρ(ξ, τ), j(ξ, τ) and
θ(ξ, τ). Let denote this system as PDE_Sys.
3.2 The Boundary-Value Problems
Mathematical model PDE_Sys can be used to study gas flow by numerical solving
boundary value problems. To formulate such problem, the system PDE_Sys must
be supplemented by appropriate initial and boundary conditions.
The initial conditions (IC) determine the distribution of dimensionless gas density
ρ, mass flow j, and temperature θ along the pipeline in the initial time moment:
IC: ρ|τ=0 = ρ0 (ξ), j|τ=0 = j0 (ξ), θ|τ=0 = θ0 (ξ), ξ ∈ (0, 1), (9)
where ρ0 (ξ), j0 (ξ), θ0 (ξ) are prescribed functions.

Further, we will consider the next three sets of boundary conditions (BCI , BCII
and BCIII ) that define values of the key functions at the element inlet ξ = 0 and
outlet ξ = 1
BCI : ρ|ξ=0 = ρin (τ), ρ|ξ=1 = ρout (τ), θ|ξ=0 = θin (τ), θ|ξ=1 = θout (τ) (10)
BCII : ρ|ξ=0 = ρin (τ), j|ξ=1 = j out (τ), θ|ξ=0 = θin (τ), θ|ξ=1 = θout (τ) (11)
BCIII : j|ξ=0 = j in (τ), ρ|ξ=1 = ρout (τ), θ|ξ=0 = θin (τ), θ|ξ=1 = θout (τ) (12)
Here ρin (τ), ρout (τ), j in (τ), j out (τ), θin (τ), θout (τ) are given functions.
In accordance with this, we will consider three boundary-value problems for the
system PDE_Sys with initial conditions (9) and boundary conditions (10)–(11):
BVPI = {PDEI , IC, BCI }, BVPII = {PDEII , IC, BCI }, BVPI = {PDEI , IC, BCI }
(13)
3.3 Method for Numerical Solving the Problems
The problems (13) can be solved numerically using the finite difference method.
Approximating the differential operators in the right-hand sides of the Eqs. (3)–
(5) by the finite differences and taking into account a set of boundary condi-
tions BC , = I, II, III one can reduce the problem BVP to the corresponding
initial-value problems IVP for non-linear system of 3N − 4 ordinary differential
equations dependent of time variable τ: BVP → IVP . Here N is the number
of the regular grid nodes ξi ∈ [0, 1]. The solution of each problem IVP is
the set ρ(i) (τ), j (i) (τ), θ(i) (τ), ∀i = 1, 2, . . . , N containing the functions of time
presenting the key functions ρ(ξ, τ) of corresponding problem BVP in the grid
nodes: ρ(i) (τ) = ρ(ξi , τ), j (i) (τ) = j(ξi , τ), θ(i) (τ) = θ(ξi , τ).
The problems IVP can be effectively solved by applying Runge–Kutta methods.
In particular, the algorithm RKF-45 is widely used [10, 11]. It provides a forth-fifth
precision degree and is present in mathematical libraries of many programming
systems, such as C++, Fortran 90, Matlab, GNU Octave, Python, SciLab and so on.
Such approach was applied, in particular, in paper [12] to study the transient
processes that occur in long gas pipelines when the flow is controlled by boundary
conditions BC , = I, II, III. Results of numerical experiments conducted in this
paper approved the high effectiveness of the approach and its serviceability for real-
time simulation of the gas dynamics problems in gas main pipelines.
3.4 Schemes for Informative Parameters Collection
The algorithm monitoring the integrity of the line elements, considered here, is
based on the functions of the boundary conditions BC , = I, II, III determined
from the data of monitoring of the flow parameters at the inlets and outlets of each
line elements. Gas pressure P, temperature T and flow velocity V are measured
at checkpoints with some frequency. In this way, we obtain the three time series
that represent the values Pemp in
, Temp
in
, Vemp
in
of these parameters on the inlet and other
three ones Pemp , Temp , Vemp that represent them at the outlet of the line elements.
out out out
Parameters P and T can be monitored with the use of the regular pipeline measuring
devices. To monitor gas velocity one can use ultrasonic sensors.
To provide automatic data monitoring, sensor readings should be periodically
collected by DL, and then accumulated in the operative database OODB, which
is organized according to the principles of OLTP (Online Transaction Processing)
systems [13]. Here, they are being preprocessed and then transmitted to ODW (a
component of ODB) with references to the time moments of their logging.
Using the data accumulated in ODW, one can obtain time dependent values of
informative parameters at the inlet Pemp in
(t), Temp
in
(t), Vemp
in
(t), and outlet Pemp out
(t),
(i) (i)
T (t), Vemp (t), t ∈ of each line element L E λ,k for each period =
out out
emp
t1(i) , t2(i) up to current moment t. Basing on this data, a computational process,
implementing the algorithm of integrity checking of the element (OICA), calcu-
lates the corresponding dimensionless functions at the inlet pemp in
(τ) = Pemp
in
(tt τ)/Pt ,
θemp (τ) = Temp (tt τ)/Tt , Vemp (τ) = Vemp (tt τ)/Vt and outlet pemp (τ) = Pemp (tt τ)/Pt ,
in in in in out out
emp (τ) = Temp (tt τ)/Tt , vemp (τ) = Vemp (tt τ)/Vt of each element L E λ,k . Further,
θout out out out
the process, using thermal equations of state (7) and relation (6), calculates the
dimensionless functions ρin emp (τ), jemp (τ) and ρemp (τ), jemp (τ),τ ∈ , where
in out out ¯ (i)
¯ = /tt . Obtained dimensionless functions:
(i) (i)
emp (τ), jemp (τ), θemp (τ), ρemp (τ), jemp (τ), θemp (τ), τ ∈
ρin in in out out out ¯ (i) (14)
are used by the algorithm to check the integrity of the element L E λ,k during the
period (i) . The result of this algorithm is stored in the ODW repository as a logical
variable I S L Eλ,k , whose values are linked up to the intervals (i) .
3.5 Algorithm for Integrity Monitoring of the Line Elements
Let us denote as DS = I, II, III the solutions of corresponding boundary-value

problems BVP . The object DS can be treated as an operator reflecting, specific
for , a set of four out of six boundary functions (14) into the set of three functions
(ρ(ξ, τ), j(ξ, τ), θ(ξ, τ)). For instance, at = I, we have

DS
ρin
emp (τ), θemp (τ), ρemp (τ), θemp (τ) −→ (ρ(ξ, τ), j(ξ, τ), θ(ξ, τ))
in out out I
We can consider the image DS (ξ, τ) of the operator DS as a vector-function
defined in the segment ξ ∈ [0, 1] for period τ ∈ ¯ (i) . The components of this vector
are the three functions DS (ξ, τ) = (ρ(ξ, τ), j(ξ, τ), θ(ξ, τ))T of the BVP solution.
Using the upper index for the components, one can write this as ρ(ξ, τ) = DS1 (ξ, τ),
j(ξ, τ) = DS2 (ξ, τ), θ(ξ, τ) = DS3 (ξ, τ).
Only four out of six empirical functions (14) are used in any BVP . Since the
solutions DS (ξ, τ) were obtained in the assumption of the integrity of the line
element, this allows checking its integrity comparing the obtained solution of BVP
to the two empirical boundary functions from the set (14) that were not used in BC .
Consider the problem BVPI . The boundary data ρin emp (τ), θemp (τ), ρemp (τ), and
in out
θout
emp (τ) are used in the problem BVPI , but jemp (τ) and jemp (τ) are not. Hence we
out out
can compare the solution DSI (ξ, τ) to the functions jemp (τ) and jemp
out out
(τ). This can be
made, in particular, in quadratic norm L 2 with the use of the functional:
⎛ (i)
⎞1/ 2
τ2
2
2
⎜ 1 ⎟
IF(i)
I = ⎝ ¯ (i)
in
jemp (τ) − DSI2 (0, τ) + jemp
out
(τ) − DSI2 (1, τ) dτ⎠
2
τ(i)
1
(15)
that determines deviation of the solution from the empirical functions.

Two pairs of empirical functions jemp in
(τ), ρout
emp (τ) and ρemp (τ), jemp (τ) are not
in out
used in the problem BVPII and BVPIII correspondingly, so, we can compare their
solutions DSII (ξ, τ) and DSIII (ξ, τ) to these pairs respectively:
⎛ (i)
⎞1/2
τ2
2
2
⎜ 1 ⎟
IF(i)
II = ⎝ ¯ (i)
in
jemp (τ) − DSI2 (0, τ) + ρout
emp (τ) − DSI (1, τ)
1
dτ⎠
2
τ(i)
1
(16)
⎛ (i)
⎞1/2
τ2
2
2
⎜ 1 ⎟
IF(i)
III = ⎝ ¯ (i) ρin
emp (τ) − DSI (0, τ)
1
+ jemp
out
(τ) − DSI2 (1, τ) dτ⎠
2
τ(i)
1
(17)
Let ¯ I F > 0 be a total mean square inaccuracy of solutions DS (ξ, τ), =
I, II, III. Parameters I F includes the measurement inaccuracy of empirical functions
(14) used as boundary data in the problem BVP , and the calculation inaccuracy
has been arisen during solving the problem. Then, if the values of the functionals
L E λ,k do not exceed I F , one can assert that the assumption made about the integrity
of line element L E λ,k is true. Proceeding from this, we formulate the criterion: line
element L E λ,k can be considered as undamaged during the time period (i) if the
condition is satisfied.

max IF(i)
I , IF (i)
II , IF (i)
III ≤ I F (18)
where IF(i) , = I, II, III are determined by the formulas (15)–(17).

Criterion (18) enables to monitor the integrity of the line elements exploiting the
data of flow parameters values monitoring in the control points and the numerical
solutions of the boundary-value problems BVP .
A computational process OICP (Object Integrity Checking Process), executing the
algorithm OICA, monitors the integrity of a line element in real-time. It works cycli-
cally, checking on each iteration the integrity of the element at a next interval (i) .
Each iteration includes the steps: (1) selecting the data Pemp in/out
(t), Temp
in/out
(t), Vemp
in/out
(t)
(i) (i) (i)
from the warehouse ODW for period , such, that t2 ∈ corresponds to the last
record in ODW at the current moment; (2) calculation the dimensionless functions
emp (τ), jemp (τ), θemp (τ), τ ∈ ; (3) solving the problems BVP = I, II, III;
ρin/out in/out in/out ¯ (i)
(4) calculation the values of the functionals IF(i) ; (5) checking integrity criterion (18);
(6) if the criterion condition is satisfied, then logical value TRUE is assigned to a
variable IS (Integrity Status), in another case the variable get value FALSE; (7) the
current value of the variable IS is stored in the warehouse ODW with link to time
period (i) . After that, the process is going back to step 1. The process runs until it
is interrupted by one of scheduled events.
Depending on the duration of the periods (i) and the execution time of a single
OICP iteration, neighboring intervals (i) can overlap. Due to this, the reliability of
the monitoring will be risen.
To monitor the integrity of line elements in section Sλ , λ = 1, 2, . . . , N , a
computational processes O I C PL Eλ,k , checking the integrity of elements L E λ,k ,
k = 1, 2, . . . , Nλ , are running parallel. They form the computational process
Nλ
OICPSLλE = k=1 O I C PL Eλ,k for integrity monitoring of line elements of the section
N
Sλ . Collection OICPGM LE
= λ=1 OICPSLλE forms the process for integrity monitoring
of line elements in the gas main pipeline GM.
4 Method for Monitoring the Integrity of the Nodal

Elements
The majority of leaks in MPs occur in the piping equipment such as valves and
other shut up and control fittings, i.e. – in objects that we categorize as the nodal
elements. Usually, the intensity of such leaks is rather small and they create slight
perturbations of flow parameters, which are often insufficient to detect leaks using
the method considered in the previous section. To control the integrity of the nodal
elements, we propose to use acoustic emission waves.
The leakage of gas through a small opening in the wall runs under significant
pressure difference. Therefore, the flow through the hole is turbulent. As a result, a
wave process, called acoustic emission, springs up. The waves, propagating from the
place of depressurization, can be detected by acoustic emission sensors (AES). This
can be used to detect the leakage in the element to register its integrity violation.
The method for leaks detection using AE sensors installed on the surface of an
object is described, in particular, in document ASTM International [14]. Article [15]
presents the results of a practical application of the AE method for the detection
of leaks in underground pipeline sections, transitions through rivers, dams, railway
tracks, and highways. It has been established by these studies that for continuous
monitoring of the pipeline the AE sensors should be installed at distances of 100–
200 m. This means that the AE method can be used to monitor the integrity of pipeline
objects of the corresponding length.
4.1 Schemes for AE Data Logging
Let consider schemes for collecting data for AE integrity monitoring of nodal
elements, such as valve stations, transitions through natural and artificial obstacles,
pipe segments, containing corrosion defects, which have been detected by in-line
pipeline inspections, etc. Considering ways for data collection for the AE method,
we will distinguish two kinds of the nodal elements: objects, which have parts that
protrude above the ground, and fully buried objects.
Figure 3 shows a schema of AES installation on a buried line valve with the bypass
piping arrangement and blow-off pipe, which protrude above the ground. Disposition
of the AES enables detecting leakages from the buried line valve, connections of the
inlet and outlet pipelines to crane housing as well as from three overground valves.
Similar schemes can be used to collect data from partly buried tube pieces, as for
instance, those containing corrosion defects reducing the pipe strength.
Figure 4 shows schemes for data collection from a buried tube. This can be a
transition through an obstacle or a piece of pipe with defects. By the scheme (a) the
AES is mounted directly on the outer surface of the buried tube. The scheme (b)
shows the case, when waves of acoustic emission are transmitted outwards by the
waveguides. One end of each waveguide is established on the outer surface of the
buried tube. Another one is protruding above the ground. AESs are mounted on their
surfaces.
The sensor outputs are fed to the inputs of the multi-channel acoustic emission
logger. Here, the signals are processed, digitalized and then transmitted to ODW.
AES
Fig. 3 Chart of AES mounting on overground part of a valve node
to DL to DL
Dual-channel AE Dual-channel AE AES
AES Waveguides
signal processor signal processor
Damaged pipeline section Damaged pipeline section

a) b)
Fig. 4 Chart for AE data logging from a damaged pipeline section with AES mounted: a on the
pipeline surface, b on the waveguides
4.2 Algorithm for Leakage Detection
The leak detection method is based on the analysis of the output signals of AES and
detection of informative signs caused by acoustic emission.
In the bodies of monitoring objects, elastic waves of various origins exist. Besides
the acoustic emission waves, here can spread vibrations evoked by the operation of
the compressors, noise caused by gas flowing in the pipeline, oscillation caused by
random fluctuations of gas pressure and temperature, etc. Hence, the AES output
signals will contain various components. However, these components distinguish by
their amplitude and frequency characteristics. According to the literature data [14,
16], the spectrum of AES lies in the frequency range of 30–100 kHz. Moreover, if
the AES is mounted close enough to the source of the acoustic emission, then the
AE constituent in the output signal will have the highest amplitude.
Based on this, a method for selection of the acoustic emission component in the
AES output signals is proposed. According to the method, the sensors are installed
at distances of up to 200 m from the place of possible depressurization, and their
output signals u S (t) are logged in the frequency range 30–100 kHz. To detect the
leak and determine the moment of depressurization, successive segments u (i) S (t), t ∈
(i) , i = 1, 2, . . . of the output signals u AE S (t) are analyzed. The segments are being
selected from the output signal by the sliding window on successive time intervals
(i) = t1(i) , t2(i) of a fixed aperture = t2(i) − t1(i) . The value of is defined
empirically with the use of computational and physical experiments. Further, the
mean square value of output signal for each interval (i) is calculated:

(i)
t2
1 2
Ū S(i) =
u (i) (t) dt (19)
t2(i) − t1(i)
t1(i)
In the absence of leakage, the output of the AES signal is low, so the condition
(i)
is satisfied Ū AE S ≤ Ū0 , and at the moment of depressurization the signal level will
(i)
increase, so we will have Ū AE S > Ū0 . Here U 0 is the upper edge for mean square
values of AES signal in the absence of leakage. It can be determined empirically
based on the data of AES output signal measuring during the operation of the object
in the absence of leaks.
The moment of depressurization is determined by finding two consecutive inter-
(i−1) (i)
vals (i−1) and (i) , on which the condition Ū AE S ≤ Ū0 and Ū AE S > Ū0 are
correspondingly satisfied. Intervals may be chosen overlapped each other. It can
increase the robustness of the method and precision of depressurization moment
determining.
According to this, the algorithm for a nodal element integrity monitoring includes
the steps: (1) selecting from ODW a segment u (i) (i) (i)
AE S (t), t ∈ , in which t2 ∈
(i)
corresponds to the last (for current time) record in the database; (2) calculating by
(i) (i) (i)
formula (19) mean-square value Ū AE S of the segment Ū AE S on interval ; (3)
(i) (i)
comparing Ū AE S to prescribed value U 0 : if the condition Ū AE S ≤ Ū0 is satisfied,
then logical value TRUE is assigned to variable IS, in another case value FALSE is
assigned to IS; (4) writing variable IS to the database ODW with binding to interval
(i) ; (5) comparing values of variable IS for two consequence intervals (i−1) and
(i) : if I S (i−1) = T RU E and I S (i) = F AL S E, then depressurization of the nodal
element under monitoring has occurred on interval (i) \(i−1) .
4.3 Algorithm for Determining the Depressurization Site
After the leakage has been detected its location can be determined. This is important,
in particular, in the case when a piece of a buried pipe, containing several defects
distributed along its length, is monitored (see Fig. 4). As an example, we consider
here an algorithm based on cross-correlation of the signals of two AES [17].
After depressurization, both sensors, located at opposite ends of the moni-
toring element, generate continuous signals u 1 (t) and u 2 (t). We determine the
cross-correlation function ρ(i) (i)
12 of the signals calculated for the time interval ,
as
(i)
t2
1
ρ(i)
12 (τ) = u (i) (i)
1 (t + τ)u 2 (t)dt (20)
t2(i) − t1(i)
t1(i)

Supposing that the value τ(i) = arg supτ ρ(i)
12 (τ) of the cross-correlation func-
tion’s argument, which corresponds its maximal value, determines the difference of
acoustic wave traveling times of the distances x L and L − x L (see Fig. 5), we obtain
L − cτ(i)
xL = (21)
2
The algorithm for determination of the depressurization site on a buried pipeline
with the use of two AES, mounted at the opposite ends of the monitored section of
length L, starts after the leakage has been detected. It executes in real time and includes
the next steps: (1) synchronous logging the signals of the sensors on successive time
intervals (i) , digitizate them and accumulate in the database OWB with binding to
interval (i) ; (2) retrieval the functions u (i) (i)
1 (t) and u 2 (t) for next interval
(i)
from
(i)
OWB and calculation cross-correlation

function ρ12 by formula (20); (3) calculation
time delay τ(i) = arg supτ ρ(i) (i) (i)
12 (τ) between signals u 1 (t) and u 2 (t); (4) calcu-
late the location of the depressurization site by formula (21). Comparing values x L
obtained in such a way for several time intervals . . . , (i−2) , (i−1) , (i) , one can
reduce errors in x L determination, caused by the noise and random fluctuations, and
improve the precision of leakage location.
Fig. 5 To determination of
the depressurization site AES1 AES2
xL
L
5 Conclusion
An approach to integrity monitoring of the linear part of a gas main pipeline has been
proposed. For that, a section of a gas main pipeline between two compressor stations
is considered as the structure of sequentially connected line and nodal elements. The
line elements are long pipes, in which gas flow is described by the nonlinear system of
partial differentials equations depending on the spatial coordinate and time variable.
The nodal elements are considered as systems of lumped parameters, in which gas
dynamics is described by the nonlinear system of ordinary differential equations
depending on the time variable.
Different methods are considered to monitor the integrity of the line and nodal
elements. Numerical modeling non-stationary gas flows in the line elements in real-
time and empirical data obtained by measuring flow parameters at their inlets and
outlets are proposed to use in common to monitor these elements’ integrity. Signals
of several acoustic emission sensors, mounted on the surfaces of the nodal elements,
are proposed to monitor the integrity of these elements. Corresponding schemes for
data collection and algorithms of their processing are developed to check the integrity
of the elements of both types.
The developed approach can be used to create the system of integrity monitoring
the linear part of the gas main pipeline as a substantial constituent of its integrity
management system.
References
1. State committee of Ukraine on industrial safety, labor protection and mining supervision
“Safety guidelines for main gas pipelines operation”, https://zakon.rada.gov.ua/laws/show/
z0292-10#o37, last accessed 2020/03/08 (in Ukrainian).
2. Law of Ukraine “On high-risk facilities”, https://zakon.rada.gov.ua/laws/show/2245-14, last
accessed 2020/03/08 (in Ukrainian).
3. Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine “On identification and declaration of safety of objects of
increased danger”, https://zakon.rada.gov.ua/laws/show/956-2002-p, last accessed 2020/03/08
[in Ukrainian].
4. Mora, R.G., Hopkins, P., Cote, E.I., Shie, T.: Pipeline Integrity Management Systems: A
Practical Approach. ASME Press, US (2016)
5. Geiger, G.: State-of-the-art in leak detection and localization, https://www.researchgate.net/
publication/290631637_State-of-the-art_in_leak_detection_and_localization, last accessed
2020/03/08.
6. Gerhart, P., Gerhart, A., Hochstein, J.: Munson, Young and Okiishi’s Fundamentals of Fluid
Mechanics, 8th edn. Willey, E-Book (2018)
7. Anderson, G.: Thermodynamics of Natural Systems, 2nd edn. Cambridge University Press,
New York (2005).
8. Farzaneh-Gord, M., Khamforoush, A., Hashemi, S., Namin, H.: Computing thermal properties
of natural gas by utilizing AGA8 equation of state. Int. J. Chem. Eng. Appl. 1(1), 20–24 (2010)
9. Kunz, O., Wagner, W.: The GERG-2008 wide-range equation of state for natural gases and
other mixtures: An expansion of GERG-2004. J. Chem. Eng. Data 57, 3032–3091 (2012)
10. Hairer, E., Norsett, S.,Wanner, G.: Solving Ordinary Differential Equations I Nonstiff Problems,
2nd edn. Springer (1987).
11. Hairer, E., Norsett, S.,Wanner, G.: Solving Ordinary Differential Equations II Stiff and
Differential-Algebraic Problems, 2nd edn. Springer (2002).
12. Chekurin, V., Khymko, O.: Numerical modeling transient processes in a long gas pipeline.
Math. Model. Comput. 6(2), 220–238 (2019)
13. Bog, A.: Benchmarking Transaction and Analytical Processing Systems: the Creation of a
Mixed Workload Benchmark and its Application. Springer, Heidelberg (2014)
14. ASTM E1211/E1211M—17 Standard Practice for Leak Detection and Location Using Surface-
Mounted Acoustic Emission Sensors, https://www.astm.org/Standards/E1211.htm.
15. Kourousis, D., Bollas, K., Anastasopoulos, A.: Acoustic Emission Leak Detection of
Buried Oil Pipelines, River and Road Crossings, https://www.ndt.net/article/ecndt2010/rep
orts/ 1_07_01.pdf, last accessed 2020/03/08.
16. Brunner, A., Barbezat, M.: Acoustic emission leak testing of pipes for pressurized gas using
active fiber composite elements as sensors. J. Acoust. Emission 25, 42–50 (2007)
17. Knapp, C.H., Carter, G.C.: The generalized correlation method for estimation of time delay. J.
Sound Vib. 24, 320–327 (1976)
The VERNE System for Underwater Test
of Pipeline Integrity
G. Nardoni, D. Nardoni, and M. Bentoglio
Abstract The problem of corrosion evaluation of subsea pipes after many years
under water is a real problem for many companies operating in the oil and gas busi-
ness. The European Union research action in the frame of the new research program
Horizon 2020 has developed a project to monitor deep subsea tube with guided
wave manipulated by a Remote Operating Vehicle (ROV). The paper summarizes
the main points of the program, the experimental tests, the sensitivity of the system.
The target is also to prepare a white paper document to present to ISO for a norm
draft, as a specific EU request. The project is at its final stage after the satisfactory
tests in the laboratories of I&T NARDONI INSTITUTE in Brescia and at Dacon
in Oslo. The final test is scheduled on end of February in OSLOFJORD. VERNE
has been presented in the most important exhibition as OTC 2019 Houston, OMC
Ravenna, AIPND BIENNALE NDT CONFERENCE Milano 2019 EGYSP 2020
Cairo. Oil&Gas companies have expressed great interest for VERNE being an alter-
native to intelligent PIG Inspection, only possible from the inside of the pipe, while
not all pipelines are inspected for different reason from the inside.
Keywords Oil&gas · NDT inspection · Guided waves · Ultrasonic · H2020

European project
1 Introduction
The VERNE system is at the moment the first prototype of ultrasonic technique to
test the corrosion of underwater pipelines from the sea side.
The peculiarity of this technique is that the examination can be made from the
seaside, placing the 96 piezoelectric transducers on the outside surface of the pipe.
Three immediate advantages arise applying this technique:
G. Nardoni (B) · D. Nardoni · M. Bentoglio

I&T Nardoni Institute Srl, Brescia, Italy
e-mail: nardoni.campus@gmail.com
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58073-5_9
116 G. Nardoni et al.
Fig. 1 The physical principle of the ultrasonic guided waves
• The full section of the pipe can be examined for corrosion evaluation or transversal
serious damage in the pipe or in the welding in one shot.
• Inspection of the pipelines can be performed in any moment without interruption
of the oil or gas transmission.
• There are pipelines were the intelligent pigs can not be applied from the inside of
the pipe due to different factors consequently VERNE system can do.
2 Ultrasonic Technique
The applied technique for the VERNE system is the guided waves technique.
This technique uses a type of ultrasonic waves called guided waves (GW) which
are ultrasonic waves with wavelength comparable with the thickness of the plate in
which these are generated.
This is the only technique where the reflection can be either due to the change in
the velocity in the corroded area, because the reduction in thickness of the wall, or
due to the change of the material density in the interface of the discontinuity (Figs. 1
and 2).
3 The Clamp
The clamp (Fig. 3) is the heart of the VERNE system. Its project starts with a
brainstorming among the engineers of the research team of the EU VERNE Project.
Many factors have to be considered good contact of the transducers to the pipe, the
centring, the weight, the corrosion problem, the isolation of the electrical parts, the
software, the more conductivity of the salt water, the entanglement of the VERNE
system with the ROV (Remote Operation Vehicles) and many other factors.
From the drawing to the first test for more than one year of intensive work on real
samples from 12 m up to 50 m length. In Figs. 3 and 4 the presentation of the clamp
in its final configuration.
The VERNE System for Underwater Test of Pipeline Integrity 117
Fig. 2 The modes of vibration of the pipe when crossed by guided waves
Fig. 3 The clamp in the

close position; the yellow
ring covering is floating
material to reduce the weight
of the clamp on the ROV arm
4 Engineering Request on Critical Corrosion Level
Many meetings, with the engineering responsible of the maintenance of pipelines

(Saipem, Eni, BP, Chevron and more), have been conducted during the presentation
of the system at the main oil and gas conferences and exhibitions.
Fig. 4 The full system

clamp-ROV in operating
position
The request as detection probability was for a minimum value of reduction area
of 20%; based on this value sample from 12 m up to 50 m have been realized.
Reduction areas of 2.5, 5, 10, 15 and 20% have been tested.
4.1 The First Test Results
Below the first laboratory test results are presented. In Figs. 5 and 6 the results of
test conducted on 12 m pipe in laboratory are presented.
In Fig. 7 the sketch of the 18 m tube with the different reduction areas is presented.
Figure 8 the results of test performed on the 18 m tube are presented. All the five
reduction areas from 2.5% up to 20% have been detected with different amplitude
at different distance.
On pipe of 50 m (see Fig. 9), the reduction area of 20% located at 46 m have been
clearly detected (see Fig. 10). These tests have been performed onshore with pipe
empty and only with the clamp fully immersed in sweet and salt water.
5 Test in Open Sea
In a Fiord of Norway test of pipes up to 12 m long have been carried out (Figs. 11
and 12).
The scope of the inspection was to verify the influence of full immersed tube on
signals. The test demonstrates the full immersion has not significant attenuation of
the signal.
Fig. 5 First test in Dacon Laboratory (Norway) on different value of reduction area 2.5%—5%—
20%—10%
Fig. 6 Only limited indications have been detected with flexural mode. Torsional mode is the most
important one in guide waves with the highest POD
Fig. 7 Drawing of a pipe 18 m long inspected by the VERNE system
Fig. 8 Diagram of indications with clamp located at the extremity of pipe. Result: 5, 10, 15 and
20%. Reduction area is clearly detected; only reduction area of 2.5% is twice the noise
5.1 Operation of the Clamp from the ROV
A fully mechanical simulation of all the functions from ROV have been performed:
open the clamp, centering the clamp, close the pump, open the pump have been
correctly performed in a special tank.
Fig. 9 Drawing of the 50 m pipe with indicated in red the redaction area. The clamp relative to the
diagram of Fig. 9 has been positioned at the end of the pipe
Fig. 10 Diagram of the pipe of Fig. 8, very clear the signal of the welds the average reduction area
for each weld is 20% due to the welding cup. The reduction area of 20% at 46 m is indicated in
yellow
6 Surface Preparations of Pipes to Inspect
The VERNE system is today ready to start its real application on the outstanding
pipelines. The pipe surface shall be free of sand and any other heterogeneity that can
avoid a good contact of the transducers to the surface on the pipe.
Fig. 11 The different phases of transportation of the 12 m pipes in Oslofjord. In the left picture it
is possible to see the clamp locked on the tube extremity
Fig. 12 Setup of the clamp for the its positioning on the pipe
7 Personnel Qualification for the Examination
Two different types of personnel qualification are requested to perform the test: one
person for the evaluation of the ultrasonic test according ISO EN 9712 ultrasonic
guided waves and a second person qualified to guide the ROV system.
8 Draft for a “Recommended Practice”
Most important for the application of VERNE system is to prepare a recommendation

for ultrasonic guided wave inspection of underwater pipelines as a basis for a future
standard approved by ISO or EN institution.
The Authorities involved for this topics have been contacted. RINA, the Italian
Shipping Register, has received all the final documentation of the test performed with
VERNE.
RINA is ready to perform a validation test on the outstanding sample of 18 and
50 m. Based on these results RINA will release an “approval in principles” of the
procedure applied. This document represented the first action to present ISO for the
starting of the standard.
Detection and Assessment of Defects
in Gas Pipelines
Vasyl Kostiv, Roman Banakhevych, and Hryhoriy Nykyforchyn
Abstract A case study of the Urengoy–Pomary–Uzhgorod main pipeline inspec-

tion in the section between Illintsi and Bar compressor stations is described, and the
causes for initiation of longitudinal cracks on the pipe outer surface are discussed.
Importance of timely and correct reaction to diagnostic results is shown. Experience
of the Joint Stock Company “Ukrtransgaz” in taking measures on optimization of
the processes of main gas pipeline repair is shown. It consists in establishing precise
terms both for assessment of in-line inspection results and for making repair plans,
determination of criteria of defect selection for repair and formation of a common
approach to the process, in particular, to technical documentation. The recommen-
dations for the repair, replacement and strengthening of dangerous sections of main
gas pipelines are developed basing on the data obtained during the diagnostics and
the results of calculations. Regular monitoring of these sections makes it possible
to assess adequately their current technical state and allows establishing the expe-
diency of further operation and recommendations for the elimination of detected
defects. The system of pipeline integrity control has been introduced into operation
by Ukrtransgaz. It is based on currently available geographic information system
of certification and technical monitoring of the main gas pipelines and also on the
analytical hardware and software system that is constantly being developed and
improved.
Keywords Gas pipeline · In-line inspection · Nondestructive testing · System of

gas pipeline integrity control
V. Kostiv
Gas Transmission System Operator of Ukraine LLC, Ivano-Frankivsk, Ukraine
R. Banakhevych
JSC Ukrtransgaz, BMPD Lvivtransgaz, Lviv, Ukraine
H. Nykyforchyn (B)
Ukraine
e-mail: hnykyforchyn@gmail.com
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58073-5_10
124 V. Kostiv et al.
1 Introduction
Most of Ukraine’s main gas pipelines (MGP) operate over a fixed lifetime. The eval-
uation of their current technical state [1–4] and the substantiation of their further safe
operation [5, 6] is of strategic and economic importance. To ensure reliable opera-
tion of MGP and according to annual diagnostic programs, Ukrtransgaz periodically
monitors the technical state of gas pipelines, and since 1996—in-line inspection of
MGP. The main task of such inspection is estimation of the actual technical state of
the gas pipeline as well as equipment installed in it with the subsequent repair of the
identified defects in the gas pipeline to ensure reliable operation of the facility for at
least five years. Untimely diagnostic and repair works could lead to more frequent
occurrence of failures and emergencies with unpredictable consequences [7].
For the period 1996–2019, more than 16 thousand km of corrosion inspection
and 7.2 thousand km of inspection were carried out to identify longitudinal defects
of gas mains. It should be noted that to date, the in-pipe inspection of all MGP
equipped with intelligent pigs receiving/launching chambers has been carried out.
Over this period, more than 31 thousand accidentally dangerous defects were iden-
tified and eliminated and a significant number of emergencies were prevented on the
linear part of the main pipelines of the gas transmission system of Ukrtransgaz [8].
The in-pipe inspection allowed identifying defects occurred during the pipe produc-
tion, so-called “manufacturing faults” (slag inclusions, delaminations of pipe metal,
etc.); defects formed during pipeline construction (lacks of penetration, pores, dents,
cracks, displacements of pipe edges, etc.) due to improper work organization and
insufficient qualification of operators; operational defects caused by imperfection
of the insulation coating and errors in the maintenance of cathodic protection, high
corrosion activity of the environment, etc. [9].
2 Urengoy–Pomary–Uzhgorod Gas Transit Pipeline

Inspection
An interesting case occurred in 2008 on the Urengoy–Pomary–Uzhgorod DN 1400

gas pipeline operating under internal gas pressure of 7.4 MPa. According to the
results of an intelligent pig pass in August 2007 to identify longitudinal defects in the
section between Illintsi and Bar compressor stations at 3871.81 km of the Urengoy–
Pomary–Uzhgorod gas pipeline (20,259.8 m from the launch chamber, according to
ROSEN), a defect was detected there identified as metal loss – a factory anomaly on
a longitudinal weld with a depth of 11% of the pipe wall thickness, 454 mm long,
14 mm wide. Figure 1 contains a fragment of the defect passport according to the
technical report of the company Rosen [10], which performed the in-line inspection
of the gas pipelines of Ukrtransgaz in 2007.
During the inspection of this defect by the diagnostic laboratory of BMPD
Cherkasytransgaz of Ukrtransgaz using the Einstein-2 ultrasonic flaw detector,
Detection and Assessment of Defects in Gas Pipelines 125
Fig. 1 The fragment of the defect’s passport from the technical report provided by Rosen [10]
cracking of the pipe metal with a length of 3000 mm and a depth of 1.5 mm was
found very close to the pipe weld, as shown in Figs. 2 and 3. This indicates especial
susceptibility of welded joint area to operational degradation [11].
Fig. 2 Crack along the

welded joint
Fig. 3 Other cracks in the

vicinity of the pipe weld
For a detailed examination of a dangerous section of the main gas pipeline, experts
from third-party organizations were involved in order to determine the cause of the
formation of longitudinal cracks on the outer surface of the pipe.
It has been found that the underground section of the Urengoy–Pomary–Uzhgorod
gas pipeline lies in marshland with a groundwater watershed at the level of the
lower generatrix of the pipeline. To prevent pipeline surfacing, concrete UBOP-type
weights were used, which were mounted on both sides of the pipeline.
2.1 Methods a Subsection Sample
The following investigations were performed in the vicinity of the longitudinal weld
of the DN 1400 pipe with surface cracks:
• visual and optical inspection of the damaged site;
• non-destructive ultrasonic testing in order to detect the penetration depth of the
crack into the pipe metal;
• non-destructive capillary inspection for more detailed identification of sections
with cracks appearing on the pipeline surface.
Additionally, the following examinations were performed:
• electrometric tests of the electrochemical cathodic protection (ECP) of the gas
pipeline for determination of the protective and polarization potential;
• quality control of the insulation coating;
• assessment of the stress state of the metal of the gas pipe in this section;
• failure analysis of cracking on the outer surface of the pipeline.
2.2 Inspection Results
Visual and optical inspection of the outer surface of the pipe in the vicinity of the
longitudinal weld revealed:
• a white coating on the metal surface in the lower section of the gas pipeline, under
a layer of insulation and primer;
• after removing the white coating, on one side of the longitudinal welded joint,
stepped layering of the metal pipe surface (made by a metal device) which is
located along the entire length of the pipe at a distance of 7 mm from the welded
joint. The metal height difference is up to 0.6 mm, and longitudinal marks of
0.5 m are present on the other side of the welded joint;
• a crack with a total length up to 3000 mm (in the area of stepped surface layering),
which is located along the welded joint and has an intermittent nature and the
seepage on the pipe metal;
• no corrosion pits or other manifestations of corrosion process.
Fig. 4 General view of the

surface in the process of
capillary control
Ultrasonic testing shoved that the crack in the vicinity of the longitudinal welded
joint of the pipe in some places has a depth of up to 5 mm. The crack propagates
parallel to the longitudinal weld, it is intermittent, directed perpendicularly to the
outer surface, with a total length of up to 3000 mm.
Capillary inspection of this section in turn revealed (Fig. 4) a number of surface
cracks with branched ends with a total length of up to 3000 mm located on the surface
of the pipe metal at a distance of 7–15 mm from the longitudinal weld. These cracks
tend to merge in the direction along the generatrix of the gas pipeline.
Electrometric measurements of the ECP parameters established that the protective
polarization potential of the gas pipeline is –1.25 V, that exceeds the requirements
of regulatory documents [12] by 0.15 V, and can contribute to delamination of the
protective coating. It shoud be noted that overprotection of a pipepine leads also to
hydrogen induced cracking [13, 14]. When measuring the potential of the stationary
electrode (a metal plate made of steel similar to pipeline steel) in the soil at a distance
of 2.5 m from the gas pipeline and 0.05–0.10 m from its wall, a difference of stationary
potentials is found between these two points (0.1 V), that thereby indicates the
differences in electrolytic solution composition in the soil, namely, the presence of
an alkaline medium near the wall of the gas pipeline.
Besides, pH of the media (soil and groundwater in the hole) was determined, and
the following was found:
• soil and groundwater have a neutral reaction (pH 7);
• the soil between the gas pipeline and the concrete weight has an alkaline reaction
(pH 8.0–8.5);
• the medium near the surface of the concrete weight is also alkaline (pH 8.5);
• the X-ray inspection of the pipe metal confirmed the results of previous studies
and control, which is clearly demonstrated in Fig. 5.
Fig. 5 Radiographic image

of the damaged place
3 Discussion
White coating (carbonate film) on the surface of the gas pipeline under the insulation
layer indicates the presence of a carbonate-containing medium near the gas pipeline,
it is formed as a result of the long-term effect of concrete weights on the soil envi-
ronment. This is evidenced by the results of electrometric measurements and pH
determination of the soil in the areas around the pipe.
The formed carbonate film has protective properties against soil corrosion, as
evidenced by the non-corroded metal surface. Hovewer during operation, the metal
of the gas pipeline is subjected to service stresses, which contribute to the cracking
of the carbonate film in the longitudinal direction and the formation of crack-like
local anode zones, which in their turn are the origins of stress corrosion cracking
[15, 16].
The occurrence of a stepwise layering on the pipe surface and longitudinal lines
in the vicinity of the longitudinal weld is explained by improper location of the pipe
billet in the mandrel stand during the expansion at the manufacturer. During the
operation of the gas pipeline, a local stepwise layering of the pipe surface becomes
a concentrator of mechanical stresses of the metal at the annular intersection of the
pipe, the designations of which can go beyond the elastic zone of the metal, which is
confirmed by stress state studies. These factors determine possible causes of cracking
on the outer surface of the pipeline.
A more detailed information about the crack initiation can be obtained after the
destructive testing.
As a result of the performed inspection, the potentially hazardous section of
the Urengoy–Pomary–Uzhgorod pipeline located at 3871.81 km was repaired by
replacing the defective part using materials that meet the requirements [17]. Taking
into accound the inspection results, the following measures have been developed for
further safe operation of gas main pipelines:
• continuous monitoring of the pipe state at locations of concrete weights in
gas pipeline sections of DN 1400 pipes (beam crossings, water accumulation,
marshland, etc.);
• regular inspection aimed at surface crack detection, replacement of damaged pipes
with new ones in accordance with the requirements [17] in places where the
combined action of several unfavorable factors are detected;
• re-insulation of the gas pipeline sections with identified surface cracks in
accordance with the requirements [12];
• replacement of the concrete weights with similar ones made of another material,
or anchors;
• taking into account cases of mismatch of defects detected by in-pipe inspections
to their real dimension, a special attention should be paid to identification and
priority examination of defects located at longitudinal seams of “hot” pipeline
sections (within 30 km from the compressor station).
4 Development of Documentation on Pipeline Safety
It should be noted that after the case discussed above, a significant work was carried
out by Ukrtransgaz in several areas aimed at preventing similar incidents in the future.
This work is performed to improve the overall quality of in-line inspection (more
stringent requirements, the formation of a working group made of representatives of
Ukrtransgaz and the company executing the in-line inspection, etc., expanding the
scope of investigations involving other diagnostic methods, more precise analysis
of inspection results). Thus, the experts of Ukrtransgaz (including the branch of the
Scientific and Technical Center “Tekhdiagaz”), taking into account the experience
of other countries [18–20], have developed the Regulation [21] aimed at optimizing
the repair process of gas pipelines by clearly setting deadlines for the analysis of
the results of technical diagnostics as well as for arrangement of repair schedule;
defining criteria for selecting defects for repair, establishing a unified approach to
the process.
The purpose the Regulation [21] is to provide engineers with instruments to
analyze the results of the in-line inspection. It defines the criteria for choosing defects
for repair, classifying them according to their priority for additional examination
and/or repair, which are given in Table. All present defect parameters for repair are
determined based on (i) the analysis of existing regulatory documents; (ii) operating
experience (repair, additional flaw detection control, accidents).
It should be noted that a number of defect selection parameters for inspec-
tion/repair are quite conservative, however in some cases the cost of mistake is too
high, in particular at export gas pipelines of Ukraine, so this is a justifiable measure.
It is well known that capabilities of in-line inspection tools regarding the detection
of stress corrosion cracking are limited. The experience of accidents as well as addi-
tional flaw detection control confirmed the discrepancy in the parameters of real
defects and those indicated in the in-pipe inspection report. In order to prevent the
possibility of ignoring such defects, a specific criterion has been introduced (No. 5
in Table 1).
Table 1 Criteria for choosing defects for repair detected by the in-line inspection
No. Description Parameters
1 2 3
Primary Repair Defects
1 Anomalies categorized «Critical» or «Considerable»
according to [22] as
2 Anomalies for which the repair ≥0.95
coefficient ERF
3 Anomalies for which the ≤1.05
nominal coefficient according
to [23]
4 Geometry defect (anomaly of Depth ≥ 3.5% of Din
the internal diameter Din —a
dent)
5 External or internal metal loss, Depth ≥50%
or their combination Longitudinally oriented with a
(corrosion, manufacturing depth of ≥10% near a longitudinal
defect, construction defect) weld (±200 mm) with a length to
width ratio (L/W) ≥ 30 and a
width of ≤2 h (h is a pipe wall
thickness)
Transversely oriented with a depth
of ≥10% near an annular weld
(±200 mm) with a width to length
ratio (W/L) ≥ 30 and a length of
≤2 h
6 Annular weld anomaly Depth ≥50%; or
circumferential length ≥ 1/3 > Din
7 Anomaly of a longitudinal weld The length along the weld axis
√
≥2 Din h
8 Corrugations Wave height > h
9 Crack in a pipe body or in a All defects
weld
10 Delamination at an angle in the All defects
near-weld area, delamination
with surface egress,
delamination with protuberance
11 Defects to be repaired and All defects
located in potentially hazardous
[24] areas of gas mains
Defects to be repaired (previous inspection)
12 Anomalies categorized «Moderate»
according to [22] as
(continued)
Table 1 (continued)
No. Description Parameters
13 Geometry defect (anomaly of All defects
the inner diameter) adjacent to
a weld (100 mm) or located on
it
14 External or internal metal loss, Depth ≥30%
or their combination The number of defects with a
(corrosion, manufacturing depth of ≥20% in one section > 0
defect, construction defect) The number of defects with a
depth of ≥10% along a
longitudinal weld (±200 mm) in
one section >5
Longitudinal defects with a depth
of ≥10%, a width of ≤2 h and
L/W ≥10
Transversal defects with a depth
of ≥10% along an annular weld
(±100 mm) with W/L ≥ 10 and a
length of ≤2 h;
defects with a depth of ≥10% near
a longitudinal weld (±200 mm) in
sections within 30 km from a
compressor station
15 Delamination in the near-weld All defects
area (100 mm)
16 Annular weld anomaly The total length of a circle ≥1/6 >
D in , meta loss with a depth ≥ to
30%
17 Anomaly of a longitudinal One defect along the weld axis of
(spiral) weld >10 mm
18 Corrugations Wave height > 0.5 h
19 Line Scratch, Scuff Depth ≥10%
20 Inadmissible structural All defects
elements and connecting parts
that do not meet the
requirements of regulatory
documents
21 Anomaly of an annular Depth ≥30%
weld—planar discontinuity
22 Anomaly of a longitudinal Depth ≥30%
(spiral) weld
5 Essence of Pipeline Integrity Management System
Nowadays, two methodologies are implemented in Ukraine to ensure reliable

operation of pipelines:
(1) regulatory, in which the periodicity, volumes and means of diagnostic control
and repair methods are clearly defined by the standards. However, it is connected
mainly to the operation time of MGP but not to their current technical state. This
approach contradicts common engineering sense, when further actions (repair,
diagnostics) should depend on the actual pipe state, monitoring data, statistics
of damage, etc., and not on the regulations;
(2) universal, or so-called pipeline integrity management system—where the solu-
tions are interconnected and agreed on the basis of a detailed analysis (including
risk-analysis).
The described criteria (sequence of inspection/repair) of defect evaluation are an
integral part of a comprehensive assessment of the technical state of the pipeline.
Recommendations are made on the volume of overhaul or selective repair based on
the results of the assessment, namely:
• diagnostic examinations of pipeline metal;
• mechanical testing [3, 25, 26];
• comprehensive reseach of corrosion protection of gas pipeline facilities;
• analysis of terrain peculiarities, etc.
In general, the described procedure can be characterized as a component of the
pipeline integrity management system [27].
The activities of any enterprise in the end should ensure profit, so resources should
be used as efficiently as possible. One of the ways to optimize costs is to introduce an
effective and flexible system where the expenses on diagnostic, repair, emergency and
recovery measures are interconnected and agreed on the basis of a detailed analysis
(including risk-analysis). The pipeline integrity management system implemented by
Ukrtransgaz is based on the existing geographical information system for certification
and technical monitoring of gas pipelines, as well as on the analytical hardware and
software system that is constantly being developed and improved.
References
(2015)
2. Gredil, M.I.: Operating degradation of gas-main pipeline steels. Metallofizika i Noveishie

Tekhnologii 30, 397–406 (2008)
(2014)
(2012)
6. Kryzhanivs’kyi, E.I., Hrabovs’kyi, R.S., Mandryk, O.M.: Estimation of the serviceability of oil
and gas pipelines after long-term operation according to the parameters of their defectiveness.
Mater. Sci. 49(1), 117–123 (2013)
7. Witek, M.: Validation of in-line inspection data quality and impact on steel pipeline diagnostic
intervals. J. Nat. Gas Sci. Eng. 56, 121–133 (2018)
8. Banakhevych, Yu.V., Banakhevych, R.Yu.: Experience of identification of the defects revealed
by the intra-tube diagnostics in JSC “UKRTRANSGAZ”. Tech. Diagnos. Non-Destructive
Test. 2, 40–46 (2013) (in Ukrainian)
9. Standard of Organization SOU 49.5-30019801-135:2016: Gas mains. In-tube diagnostics of
the linear part. Kyiv, PJSC “Ukrtransgas”, 130 p. (2016) (in Ukrainian)
10. Final Pipeline Survey Report: Examination for metal loss, examination for longitudinal anoma-
lies and determination of the spatial position of XYZ. Gas pipeline 48 GM “Urengoy–Pomary–
Uzhgorod” CS “Ilintsy”—CS “Bar”, ROSEN, Oldenzaal, 423 p. (2008)
11. Tsyrul’nyk, O.T., Kryzhanivs’kyi, E.I., Petryna, D.Y., Taraevs’kyi O.S., Hredil’ M.I.: Suscep-
tibility of a welded joint of 17G1S steel in a gas main to hydrogen embrittlement. Mater. Sci.
40(6), 844–849 (2004)
12. DSTU 4219–2003: Steel main pipelines. General requirements for corrosion protection. State
Consumer Standard of Ukraine, Kyiv, 72 p. (2003) (in Ukrainian)
14. Hredil, M.I.: Role of disseminated damages in operational degradation of steels of the main
gas conduits. Metallofizika i Noveishie Tekhnologii 33, 419–426 (2011)
pipeline steel taking into account susceptibility to stress corrosion cracking. Procedia Struct.
Integr. 16, 121–125 (2019)
of degraded gas pipeline steels. Procedia Struct. Integr. 16, 153–160 (2019)
17. SNiP 2.05.06-85: Main pipelines. Gosstroy of USSR, Moscow, 52 p. (1985) (in Russian)
18. CAN/CSA-Z662-03: Oil and Gas Pipeline Systems. Toronto: CSA Group, 865 p (2015)
19. Pipeline Defect Assessment Manual, 2nd ed. Penspen, Richmond, 473 p (2016)
20. British Gas Engineering Standard BGC/PS/P11: Procedures for Inspection and Repair of
Damaged Steel Pipelines (Designed to Operate at Pressure above 7 bar). Windsor: British
Gas, 873 p (2016)
21. Regulation on the analysis of the results of the in-pipe inspection of GMs of “Ukrtransgaz”
and the organization of repair works to eliminate them. “Ukrtransgaz”, Kyiv, 28 p (2009) (in
Ukrainian)
22. DSTU-N B V.2.3-21:2008. Main pipelines. Installation. Determination of the remaining
strength of trunk pipelines with defects. SE “Ukrakhbudinform”, Kyiv, 68 p. (2008) (in
Ukrainian)
23. Technique for assessment the technical state of the long term operated pipeline and its residual
lifetime. JSC Ukrtransgaz, Kyiv, 23 p (2009) (in Ukrainian)
24. NPAOP 60.3-1.01–10. Rules for safe operation of main gas pipelines. Derzhhirpromnagliad,
Kyiv, 141 p (2010) (in Ukrainian)
operated gas pipeline steels fracture under impact loading. Procedia Struct. Integr. 21, 166–172
(2019)
26. Banakhevych, Yu.V., Banakhevych, R.Yu., Dragilev, A.V., Kychma, A.O.: Static strength eval-
uation of pipelines sections with crack-like defects in the weld zone. J. Hydrocarbon Power
Eng. 1(2), 96–102 (2014)
27. Banakhevych, Yu.V., Banakhevych, R.Yu.: Defects identification of the main gas pipelines. J.
Hydrocarbon Power Eng. 6(1), 22–29 (2019)
Hydrogen Embrittlement
and Microdamage of 316L Steel
Affecting the Structural Integrity,
Durability and Safety of Pipelines
Jesús Toribio and Javier Ayaso
Abstract This paper evaluates, by quantitative fractography and image analysis

techniques, the hydrogen embrittlement and microdamage in notched samples of
316L steel, the described phenomenon affecting the structural integrity, durability
and safety of the pipelines made with such a material. After the hydrogen embrit-
tlement tests, it is seen that microdamage created by hydrogen is concentrated in an
external circumferential ring with the same center as the cross sectional area of the
notched samples. The microscopical appearance of this embrittled zone or damaged
area is very rough and irregular at the micro-scale, with evidence of secondary
cracking, in contrast with the smooth surface (at the micro-scale) created by micro-
void coalescence (dimpled fracture) in the inner core which is not embrittled by
hydrogen and fails by mechanical reasons. In addition, differences are observed in
the matter of the appearance of the hydrogen-assisted microdamage area as a function
of the notch geometry and of the embrittlement time.
Keywords Hydrogen embrittlement · Hydrogen-assisted micro-damage · Notched

samples · Embrittled zone · Secondary cracking · Micro-fracture maps
1 Introduction
The annealed type 316L austenitic stainless steel is a material used in pipelines and
vessels as it has good fracture toughness and corrosion resistance [1]. However,
further research is needed on hydrogen assisted failure of this steel, since hydrogen
can be present of the material as a consequence of environmentally assisted cracking
and cathodic reactions, and it is known that hydrogen is a strong promoter of materials
degradation and loss of structural integrity.
J. Toribio (B) · J. Ayaso

Fracture and Structural Integrity Research Group (FSIRG), University of Salamanca, Zamora,
Spain
e-mail: toribio@usal.es
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58073-5_11
136 J. Toribio and J. Ayaso
Although the 316L steel has big ductility and fracture resistance in air environ-
ment, its fracture resistance and notch susceptibility suffer a marked reduction in
a hydrogen environment [2, 3], even higher in the sensitized 316L steel than in
the annealed type [4, 5]. In the latter the hydrogen-induced damage is concentrated
at the final loading stages before the final fracture [6]. The microscopic topogra-
phies confirm the previous reasoning, since the fracture is intergranular (IG) in the
sensitized steel and micro-void coalescence (MVC) in the annealed one [5, 7].
This paper presents a quantitative fractographic analysis of the micromechanical
damage produced in 316L steel by mechanical reasons (plasticity) and environmental
origins (hydrogen embrittlement). The paper goes further from previous work on
notched samples [8–11] and cracked specimens [12] of 316L austenitic stainless
steel.
2 Experimental Program
The analysis is based on previous experimental results of fracture tests on notched

samples of solution-annealed 316L austenitic stainless steel tested in air and hydrogen
environment at room temperature (18 °C) [8, 9]. Two notched geometries A and C
with different notch radius were used, as depicted in Fig. 1. The dimensions were:
Geometry A: R/D = 0.03 C/D = 0.10

Geometry C: R/D = 0.36 C/D = 0.10
where R is the notch radius, C the notch depth and D the specimen diameter
(6 mm).
Two specimens were tested in air, one of them machined with the main axis
(z) parallel to the rolling direction (direction A) and the other with the main axis
perpendicular to the former (direction B). The samples were named AA, AB, CA and
CB, where the first letter indicates the geometry and the second one the orientation of
the specimen in relation to the rolling direction. The mechanical behavior was clearly
ductile in all cases, and no differences were observed between both directions.
Fig. 1 Notch A (sharp

notch specimen SNS) and C
(blunt notch specimen BNS)
SNS BNS
4.8 mm
0.2 mm 4.8 mm
6 mm 6 mm
Hydrogen Embrittlement and Microdamage of 316L … 137
The hydrogen embrittlement tests were performed at constant displacement rate

in aqueous solution of H2 SO4 , using a cathodic potential of –1200 mV vs SCE [8].
At this potential, the hydrogen is cathodically introduced into the specimen. The
displacement rates ranged from 0.01 to 2.5 µm/s. The mechanical behavior was
also ductile (as in air) with decrease in load up to the final rupture. Again no clear
differences were observed between the two directions of machining.
3 Experimental Results
Experimental results in air and hydrogen were described in [10]. In both environments
a ductile-type fracture takes place. The observation of the notch surfaces of specimens
tested in hydrogen environment reveals the existence of extensive damage consisting
of surface multi-cracking and void formation. Figure 2 shows the superficial state
of the notch region in the SNS and BNS at failure situation in two H-embrittlement
tests interrupted at the point of maximum load. Surface damage in the form of multi-
cracking—probably extended in volume—is clearly observed in both specimens.
From the experimental facts described above, two mechanical models of hydrogen
damage were proposed in [9], as depicted in Fig. 3. The notch extension model (NEM)
considers that hydrogen effect can be modelled as a geometric enlargement of the
notch. In the notch cracking model (NCM), it is assumed that the embrittled area
at the notch tip behaves as a macroscopic crack extending the original notch. These
two models allow an engineering prediction of the failure load in hydrogen.
Fig. 2 Surface state near the notch tip in the SNS and BNS showing surface damage in the form
of multi-cracking (tests interrupted at the point of maximum load)
Fig. 3 Mechanical
modeling of hydrogen
damage: notch extension
model (NEM) and notch
cracking model (NCM) NEM NCM
c c c c
4 Fractographic Analysis (Air Tests)
Fracture surfaces of samples tested in air and in hydrogen environment were observed
by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), in order to assemble micro-fracture maps
(MFM) of the whole fractured section. Figures 4 and 5 show the MFM in air.
A predominant fracture topography consisting of micro-void coalescence (MVC)
is observed in the main inner part of the fractured section, surrounded by an external
ring representing the notch surface with an orange-skin appearance which demon-
strates the high degree of plasticity achieved before the fracture phenomenon, the
Fig. 4 MFM of SNS (sharp

notch) fractured in air
(AA01)
Fig. 5 MFM of BNS (blunt

notch) fractured in air
(CA01)
latter being purely ductile and caused by plastic instability in both notch types [9].
With regard to the differences between both notched geometries, it is observed that
the micro-void density increases and the critical micro-void size decreases when
the stress triaxiality increases, as happens in the SNS (geometry A) of small notch
radius (Fig. 4). This fact is consistent with main classical models of micro-void
growth, according to which the stress triaxiality enhances the micro-void growth
rate [13] but limits the critical size of such micro-voids [14, 15].
5 Fractographic Analysis (Hydrogen Embrittlement Tests)
Figures 6 and 7 show the MFM for hydrogen embrittlement tests on both SNS and
BNS, where short and long tests are taken into account. A first experimental fact is
observed: a decrease of plasticity development in the vicinity of the notch tip due to
the presence of hydrogen, because the external area with orange-skin appearance is
smaller than in the air tests. In addition, hydrogen damage appears in the periphery
on the form of a multi-cracked region with secondary cracking. This surface damage
is not confined at the surface, but probably extended in volume near the notch tip.
The microscopic appearance of such an embrittled zone is very rough and irregular
at the microscopic scale, and these roughness and irregularity increase with the tests
duration (see the embrittled zone in sample CB3, cf. Figure 7 for a test of more
than 100 h). This is consequence of the time-dependence of the hydrogen transport
phenomenon, either by diffusion or by dislocational dragging.
The depth of the embrittled zone or multi-cracked external ring (damage depth or
embrittlement depth) is also an increasing function of the test duration, as observed in
Figs. 6 and 7. Therefore, hydrogen-assisted micro-mechanical damage is extended in
surface and volume, the latter due to the higher irregularity of the multi-cracked ring
Fig. 6 MFM of SNS in hydrogen in short (left) and long (right) tests
Fig. 7 MFM of BNS in hydrogen in short (left) and long (right) tests
in the case of long tests, which indicates cracking at different levels in the vicinity
of the notch tip (cf. Figure 7, test CB3 with volumetric damage).
On the other hand, the nucleus (or core) of the transverse section fails by MVC,
as in the case of the air tests, although in hydrogen embrittlement tests the plastic
collapse is enhanced by multi-cracking at the external ring or damaged zone by
hydrogen at the microscopical level. The appearance of the MVC core in hydrogen
is different from the same in air. In general terms, hydrogen increases the density of
micro-voids and decreases their critical size, due to the stress triaxiality increase as
a consequence of multi-cracking.
6 Damage Produced by Hydrogen
The damage depth x (embrittlement depth) was evaluated by image analysis, from
the MFM associated with the hydrogen embrittlement tests (Figs. 6 and 7). Figure 8
plots the numerical predictions of the notch extension model (NEM) and the notch
cracking model (NCM), obtained in a previous research work [9], together with the
experimental results with regard to the fractographic analysis described in this paper.
The comparison between model predictions and fractographic results is made
through the functional relationship between the failure load in the hydrogen tests
and the damage depth measured on the MFM. The former is given in dimensionless
terms as the ratio of the failure load in the hydrogen embrittlement test (Fm ) to the
same value in the fracture tests in air (F0 ) for the same notched geometry.
Figure 8 demonstrates that, considering the logical scatter of this kind of tests,
experimental results, expressed as the average damage depth, agree fairly well with
the predictions of the NCM, according to which the damage due to the presence of
hydrogen can be modeled as a crack extending the original notch.
The adequacy of the latter to describe the hydrogen-assisted fracture process in
SNS is consistent with the results provided by Valiente et al. [12] using pre-cracked
specimens of the same 316L steel subjected to hydrogen embrittlement tests in which
two phenomena were detected in the vicinity of the crack tip: firstly crack tip blunting
(with high degree of plasticity) and later post-cracking (from the initial blunted crack)
with branching.
It would be post-cracking analogous to cracking of sharp notches as in the case of
SNS (notched geometry A of small radius). In a highly ductile material as the 316L
steel, a very blunted crack is geometrically similar to a very sharp notch, i.e., to a
notch with a very small notch tip radius.
Fig. 8 Prediction of the

notch extension model
(NEM) and notch cracking
model (NCM) and
experimental results, in
dimensionless terms as the
ratio of the failure load in the
hydrogen embrittlement test
(Fm ) to the same value in the
fracture tests in air (F0 ). In
all cases the average depth
of the embrittled zone is used
7 Conclusions
Hydrogen-assisted micro-damage in 316L stainless steel in tension test was evaluated

in axisymmetric notched samples by using scanning electron microscopy (SEM),
quantitative fractography and image analysis techniques.
The micro-fracture maps (MFM) show that failure in air takes place in a ductile
manner by micro-void coalescence (MVC) in the whole fractured surface, with a
very high level of ductility associated with plasticity extension.
The hydrogen affect manifests in the MFM as an external multi-cracked ring in
the periphery of the fracture surface, surrounding a central core or nucleus in which
the fracture is ductile by MVC (similar to that in air).
The damage depth due to the hydrogen (measured in the MFM) allows an exper-
imental assessment of the two proposed mechanical models of damage: the notch
extension model (NEM) and the notch cracking model (NCM).
The NCM agrees better with the fractographic data if the average damage depth
is used. Previous conclusion is consistent with experimental results on hydrogen
embrittlement of pre-cracked samples of 316L austenitic stainless steel, in which
crack tip suffers blunting, crack advance and branching.
Acknowledgements This work was supported by the Spanish Office for Scientific and Technolog-
ical Research (CICYT) under Grant MAT91-0113-CE. Funds were also provided by EURATOM as
a part of the European Fusion Technology Programme (Task PSM5: “Hydrogen Effects and Water
Corrosion in Reference 316 L Steel and Welds”, Sub-Task PSM 5-1: “316L H Embrittlement—
Notch Effect”). The authors gratefully acknowledge the support of both organizations, as well as the
encouragement of Drs. J. L. Boutard and P. Lorenzetto (THE NEAT TEAM) and Dr. E. Hodgson
(CIEMAT).
References
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Type 316, 321 and 347 stainless steels. Mater. Sci. Eng. 61, 31–41 (1983)
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Effect of Environmental Composition
on Fatigue Crack Growth and Hydrogen
Permeation in Carbon Pipeline Steel
Ihor Dmytrakh, Rostyslav Leshchak, and Andriy Syrotyuk
Abstract The fatigue crack growth rate diagrams of the carbon pipeline steel were
received under the presence of the admixtures of sodium nitrite as the passive compo-
nent in the basic aqueous hydrogen-containing solution. It has been found that the
fatigue crack growth rate da/dN depends ambiguously on the concentration CNaNO2
in solution due to the different properties of the passive films formed on the steel
surface. The strength of passive films formed under different concentrations CNaNO2
was evaluated as a characteristic value of stress intensity factor K I∗ , which corre-
sponds to the passive film failure of at the crack tip. For the determination of the
parameter K I∗ , the special experimental procedure was developed. Received results
showed that the dependence K I∗ on the concentration CNaNO2 is ambiguous and the
maximum exists at some concentration CNaNO2 when the value K I∗ is maximal. The
study of hydrogen permeation in steel at the presence of the passive film on the metal
surface showed on some specific value of CNaNO2 , at which the formed passive film is
the most resistible barrier against electrochemical hydrogen absorption. This value
is very close to the above-mentioned value CNaNO2 , which corresponds to the highest
strength of the passive film and also to the maximal deceleration of fatigue crack
growth rate. Consequently, it may be concluded that the relationship between passive
film strength, its ability to serve as a hydrogen barrier and fatigue crack growth rate
exists. Thus, it is possible to decelerate the fatigue crack growth by the targeted
variation of environmental composition.
Keywords Pipeline steel · Cyclic loading · Fatigue crack growth rate · Stress
intensity factor · Passive film · Hydrogen permeation
I. Dmytrakh (B) · R. Leshchak · A. Syrotyuk

Ukraine
e-mail: dmtr@ipm.lviv.ua
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58073-5_12
146 I. Dmytrakh et al.
1 Introduction
The prospective plans for introducing the hydrogen energy infrastructure [1–4] lead to
permanent increasing of requirements to the pipeline network [5, 6]. The pipelines
are the most convenient way to transport large quantities of hydrogen-containing
products through very long distances as well as they can serve as a ramification
network between the local suppliers and end-users [7–9].
The specific long-term exploitation of pipelines promotes the hydrogenating of
steel. The external environmental conditions cause free corroding processes, where
hydrogen can evolve on a metal surface as a result of a cathodic counterpart of the
anodic dissolution reaction. This fact has been proved by several studies [10–12].
Also under the in-service condition when a cathodic protection system is in place,
hydrogen charging of pipeline steels is possible [12, 13].
The effects of hydrogen on metallic materials, which lead to the loss of their
plasticity, decrease of fracture toughness and degradation of fatigue properties are
well-known (see, for example [14, 15]). However, the current level of understanding
of these processes can be defined as insufficient mainly due to the complicated
nature of the problem, which contains a number of different aspects [16–20]. It
can be confirmed by recent publications [21–29] where some un-clarified questions
remain for consideration, namely: the mechanisms of these phenomena [21–24],
the effect of specific testing conditions [25–28] and synergistic effects of different
factors [29]. Therefore, a further detailed multidisciplinary study is required with
the aim of a deeper understanding of the fatigue mechanisms, especially for carbon
and low-alloyed pipeline steels. In particular, this is important to clarify the role of
passive films on hydrogen permeation into the material with the aim to obtain some
optimal passive film properties as an effective hydrogen barrier [30].
Within the frame of the above-mentioned problem, the presented work is related to
the fatigue crack propagation in the carbon pipeline steel under hydrogenation condi-
tions when the passive film formation occurs on the metal surface. Here the authors
tried to build some bridge between electrochemical parameters and parameters of
fracture mechanics of materials. The modernity of this study consists of focusing on
the development of the experimental method and study of the passive film’s strength
depending on the physicochemical conditions of testing. It was shown that the effect
of passive film properties on the process of hydrogen permeation into steel is impor-
tant for the evaluation of possible hydrogen effect on fatigue crack propagation and
for a deeper understanding of the hydrogen assisted fatigue mechanisms.
Effect of Environmental Composition on Fatigue … 147
2 Experimental Procedure
2.1 Specimens and Environmental Conditions
The object of study was the carbon pipeline steel (σY = 260 MPa and σU = 440 MPa)
with nominal chemical composition (in weight %): C = 0.17–0.24; Si = 0.17–
0.37; Mn = 0.35–0.65; S < 0.04; remainder Fe. This material consists of grains of
ferrite-pearlite, typical for carbon steels (Fig. 1). The rectangular cross-section beam
specimens (Fig. 2) were manufactured with the real pipe. Specimens were cut off
from the pipe corresponding to the case of the longitudinal cracks. The initial crack
of length a0 in the specimen was produced by fatigue loading in air. The value of a0
depended on the aim of conducting test.
The specimen contains the special hole of diameter d (Fig. 2) for the installation
of the mini-electrodes for electrochemical measurements in the crack cavity [31].
The stress intensity factor K I in the crack tip for such specimen in case of its loading
by pure bending can be calculated from the formula [31]:
Fig. 1 Structural specificity of a pipeline steel (×500)
Fig. 2 The geometry of the

1 mm 60° d=1 mm
beam specimen
a0
20 mmmm
w=20
Initial crack
200 mm
L=200 mm 10 mm
t=10 mm
√
6M λ · f (λ)
KI = √ · (1)
t· w 3 4
(1 − ε)3
f (λ) = 1.99 − 2.47λ + 12.97λ2 − 27.17λ3 + 24.80λ4 + 60.59λ16 , (2)
where M is bending moment; t is specimen thickness; w is specimen height; a is

crack length; λ = a · w −1 ; ε = d · t −1 . The relation (1) is correct under 0 ≤ λ ≤ 0.8,
and 0 ≤ ε ≤ 0.5.
The 3% aqueous solution of N aCl was used as the basic environment
( p Hbulk = 6.5). Such choice supposes that hydrogen can evolve on a metal surface
as a result of the cathodic counterpart of the anodic dissolution reaction under the
process of free corrosion. The solution of NaNO2 served as a passive component,
which promotes the passive film creation on the metal surface. Five concentrations
of N a N O2 were considered in this study, namely: CNaNO2 = 0.007; 0.03; 0.07; 0.14
and 0.21 mol/L.
2.2 Details of Fatigue Crack Growth Test
For the realization of experimental studies of the fatigue crack growth under joint
action of the cyclic loading and hydrogenation environmental conditions the special
testing stand was developed, based on the fatigue testing machine for pure bending
of specimens under the environmental conditions.
The rectangular cross-section beam specimens (Fig. 2) with initial edge crack
of length a0 ≈ 2.5 mm were subjected by cyclic pure bending with frequency f =
1 Hz under stress ratio R = 0. The stress intensity factor K I at the crack tip for such
specimen in case of loading by pure bending was calculated from the formula (1).
The details of the test procedure are the following. As the environment is transparent,
crack lengths were measured on a plane surface of specimens by optical microscope
with accuracy ±0.005 mm. The specimens were subjected to pure bending under
constant displacement mode. The initial cracks were nucleated in air conditions √ (f
= 12 Hz and R = 0) at the final stress intensity factor range K i ≈ 9.5 MPa m
that is lower than the initial range of stress intensity factor for the main tests in the
environment.
The choice of test conditions can be explained by the following. As it is known
from literature records [32, 33] the most significant environmental effects can be
observed at stress ratio R = 0. The frequency of cyclic loading f is also a very
important parameter and it is accepted that fatigue crack growth rate increases with
decreasing frequency. However, as it was shown [34] there is some maximum in the
curve da/dN = ( f ) and for considered steel, this maximum corresponds to value
f = 1.0 Hz. From these reasons the conditions of fatigue test were chosen as R = 0
and f = 1.0 Hz for receiving the maximal environmental effect on fatigue crack
growth rate.
Resulting data under different concentration of the NaNO2 in the 3% NaCl solution
were received as the sequence of the following parameters: number cycles of loading
Ni , crack length ai , fatigue crack growth rate (da/a N )i , and stress intensity factor
range K i .
2.3 Method of Passive Film Strength Evaluation at the Crack

Tip
This work proposes the characteristic value of stress intensity factor K I∗ , which corre-
sponds to the passive film failure of at the crack tip as the basic parameter of its local
strength. For the determination of the parameter K I∗ , the special experimental proce-
dure was developed. To this aim, the special testing equipment [31] for the study of
environmentally assisted fracture of materials and determination of electrochemical
conditions in the crack was used.
The procedure to determine the parameter K I∗ was the following (Fig. 3). The
specimen 1 with initial crack 2 of length a 0 was placed in the corrosion cell 3 and
fixed in the grips 4 of the testing machine for pure bending. The mini-electrode 5 for
measuring the electrode potential E t in the crack tip 6 was installed into the hole of
the specimen. It should be noted that this minielectrode, in a physical sense, is mini-
capillary (like to Luggin-Haber capillary), which provides an electrolytic contact of
the local environment in the crack tip with the standard reference electrode (Satu-
rated Calomel Electrode—SCE). Thus, the measurement of the electrode potential
E t is realized by the standard mode. A detailed description of this technique can be
found in work [31]. The specimen was preliminarly loaded by the bending moment
M0 . The values of the electrode potential E and bending moment M were recorded
in time by PC with the use of the developed software.
At the start of the test, the cell 3 (Fig. 3) was filled by corrosion solution and the
dependence of the electrode potential at crack tip E t versus time of exposure τ was
Fig. 3 Principal scheme of

test for evaluation of passive 5
film strength at the tip of 2
corrosion crack:
1—specimen; 2—initial
crack; 3—corrosion cell; M
4—grips of testing machine M
for pure bending; M M PC
PC
5—mini-electrode for
measuring of the electrode 6
potential E t in the crack tip; 4 1
6—crack tip; M—bending 3
moment; PC—personal
computer
Fig. 4 Schematic diagram

applied bending moment M
M—electrode potential at
the crack tip E t for
.
determination of the critical
load M ∗ (point A), which
A
corresponds to passive film
failure in the crack tip;
M*
E tstab —stabilized meaning of
the electrode potential at
crack tip; M0 —bending ΔM *
moment for preliminary
loading of the specimen
M0
0 Etstab Et
recorded. The stabilization of E t value on some level E tstab indicates that the passive
film in the crack tip is formed. After that, the specimen was loaded by a monotonic
bending moment M with simultaneous recording of the diagram applied bending
moment M—electrode potential at crack tip E t (Fig. 4). Such diagram serves for
determination of the critical load M ∗ , which corresponds to passive film failure in
the crack tip. As the indicator of this event the sharp deflection of E t value from
its stabilized meaning E tstab was used (see Fig. 4, point A). Thus, the strength of
the passive film at the crack tip in terms of bending moment can be evaluated as
M ∗ = M ∗ − M0 .
Having the known values of M ∗ and crack length a0 the corresponding critical
value of stress intensity factor K I∗ can be calculated using formula (1). Such value
can be considered as the basic parameter for strength assessment of passive film at
corrosion fatigue crack tip.
As an additional explanation to this section, it should be noted that the prelimi-
nary loading of the specimen by the bending moment M0 is necessary to create the
minimum crack opening, which ensures the supply of the environment in its tip. The
value of M0 is chosen from the condition that the stress intensity factor at the crack tip
K I should not exceed the threshold value K ISCC , i.e. the value below which the crack
growth does not occur: K I (M0 , a) ≤ K I SCC . The exposure of pre-loaded specimen
in the environment with simultaneous registration of the electrode potential at the
crack tip provides the control of passive film formation. Such control is necessary
in order to determine the strength characteristics of the finally formed passive film
instead of some occasional intermediate states. The moment of the failure of formed
protective passive film is characterized by the creation of a new (fresh) surface in
the crack tip and the electrode potential of this surface is significantly different than
potential E tstab . Therefore, the diagram applied load—electrode potential at crack tip
contains the clear-visible inflection point, at which the failure value of load M ∗
can be accurately determined.
For each experimental condition, which is defined by the concentration CNaNO2 ,

all conducted tests were repeated 2–4 times and the averaged values of determined
parameters were taken into account under the analysis of the results.
2.4 Study of Hydrogen Permeation in Steel at Presence

of Passive Film on Metal Surface
The disk specimens of diameter D = 8 mm and thickness t = 4 mm were used for

the assessment of hydrogen permeation in steel in the presence of the passive film
on the metal surface (Fig. 5). The surface passive films were formed in the 3% NaCl
solution with different concentration of NaNO2 , namely: CNaNO2 = 0.007; 0.03; 0.07;
0.14 and 0.21 mol/L.
The surface of specimen was hydrogen charged during τ = 2 h at constant
cathodic polarization potential E cath = −1200 mV(SC E), which was slightly more
negative (E = −200 mV(SC E)) than corrosion potential E corr for each consid-
ered condition. For the realization of these experiments, the dynamic electrochemical
laboratory VoltaLab40 [35] was used.
The hydrogen-charging process was controlled by registration of the cathodic
polarization current Icath (τ ). The total quantity of hydrogen evolution on the metal
surface during exposure time τexp can be assessed as:
τexp
H =
Q ev Icath (τ ) dτ . (3)
0
The hydrogen concentration in bulk of steel was determined on the base of the
hydrogen discharging process under anodic polarisation using the hydrogen electro-
chemical oxidation method proposed in work [36]. The detailed description of the
application of this method for the hydrogenation problems of pipeline steels can be
found in works [20, 37–39].
Fig. 5 Specimens for the study of surface electrochemical hydrogenation of pipeline steel: a with
soldered conductors; b in the plastic case
Hydrogen discharging of specimens was carried out in 0.2 M NaOH (pH = 12.4)
solution under anodic polarization E anodic = +168 mV(SC E) during a defined time
τdis . The total quantity of hydrogen absorbed by the metal surface with passive film
can be defined as [37]:
τdis
Q abs
H = [I H (τ ) − Iref (τ )] dτ , (4)
0
where
I H (τ ) is the anodic polarization current for hydrogen charged specimen and
Iref (τ ) for specimen without hydrogen (reference curve).
Hydrogen concentration was calculated according to the formula [37]:
Q abs
CH = H
, (5)
z Fv
where z is the number of electrons taken in reaction; F is the Faraday constant; v is

the effective volume of the specimen.
3.1 Fatigue Crack Growth Diagrams Under Different

Environmental Conditions
Fatigue crack growth rate in carbon pipeline steel was studied under different envi-
ronmental conditions when the passive film formation occurs on the metal surface
due to the presence of the different concentration of NaNO2 in solution. It has been
done according to the experimental procedure above described.
The test results were presented as the separate scatter plots of fatigue crack growth
rate da/dN versus maximal value stress intensity factor K max per loading cycle
(Fig. 6). These plots showed that the fatigue crack growth rate da/dN depends
ambiguously on concentration CNaNO2√ . It can be clearly seen when we make the
section of diagrams at K max = 30 MPa m (Fig. 6). Here the maximal fatigue crack
growth resistance (maximal deceleration of fatigue crack growth rate) was observed
approximately at CNaNO2 = 0.095 mol/L (Fig. 7).
These results may be explained on the base of consideration of passive film’s
role in the mechanisms of the fatigue crack growth in given steel. It is known [29,
32, 33] that for such system material—environment the mixed mechanism of fatigue
crack growth exists where the corrosion factor (local anodic dissolution of metal) and
Fig. 6 Fatigue crack growth 05−5

10
diagrams of the pipeline steel
in the 3% NaCl solution with 1
additions of NaNO2 : 2
a CNaNO2 = 0.007 mol/L ; 3
bCNaNO2 = 0.03 mol/L ; c 4
06−6
10
CNaNO2 = 0.07 mol/L ; d 5
da/dN, m/cycle
CNaNO2 = 0.14 mol/L;
e CNaNO2 = 0.21 mol/L
07−7
10
−8
K max = 30 MPa m = const.
10
08
10 100
K max , MPa m
Fig. 7 Dependence of the −5

10
fatigue crack growth rate
da/dN in pipeline steel on K max = 30 MPa m
the concentration CNaNO2 in
da/dN, m/cycle
the environment √at

K max = 30 MPa m
1006
−6
∗
C NaNO 2
−7
1007
0,001 0,01 0,1 1
C NaNO2 , mol L
hydrogen factor (embrittlement of material) act simultaneously. At that, the corro-

sion factor prevails in the threshold zone [32, 33] and the hydrogen factor—in the
middle zone (Paris region [40]) of the fatigue crack growth rate diagram. The above-
presented data refer to the Paris region of the diagram and consequently, it can be
supposed that the hydrogen factor is dominant for considered cases. Indeed, for the
given system material—environment, the water is the main source of hydrogen gener-
ation. The hydrogen atoms are evolved on the steel surface by the electrochemical
reduction of water molecules (see, for example [10]):
H2 O + e → Hads + OH− . (6)

The adsorbed hydrogen atoms can subsequently be combined to H2 molecules by

the chemical reaction:
2Hads → H2 (7)
or the electrochemical reaction:
Hads + H2 O + e → H2 + OH− (8)
or can be absorbed by the steel:
Hads → Habs . (9)
Therefore, the presence of CNaNO2 in the solution, due to its ability to create
the passive film on the metal surface, can be considered as a reducing factor of
the hydrogen charging of metal. For this reason, the assessment of passive film
strength formed under the different composition of the environment is important for
the evaluation of possible hydrogen effect on fatigue crack propagation.
3.2 Evaluation of Passive Film Strength at Crack Tip Under

Different Environmental Conditions
The passive film strength was determined as the characteristic value of stress intensity
factor K I∗ , which corresponds to the passive film failure of at the crack tip. The tests
were carried out according to the above proposed method for five concentrations
of NaNO2 in 3% aqueous solution of NaCl: CNaNO2 = 0.007; 0.03; 0.07; 0.14 and
0.21 mol/L. The process of passive film creation was controlled by the value of
electrode potential in the crack tip E t and its stabilization on some level E tstab indicated
that that the passive film in the crack tip has been formed.
The dependence of the stabilized values of the electrode potential E tstab in the crack
tip versus the concentration NaNO2 in solution is given in Fig. 8a. The corresponding
time of the passivation process in the crack tip zone τ p depends on the concentration
CNaNO2 —in Fig. 8b.
The results showed that increasing the NaNO2 concentration leads to increasing
the values E tstab , which become more positive. At the same, time the passivation
time τ p decreases, which indicates the intensification of the passivation process in
the corrosion crack tip. As can be seen (Fig. 8) this trend is especially visible at the
concentrations CNaNO2 ≥ 0.1 mol/L.
After achieving the stabilized value of the electrode potential in the crack tip E tstab ,
the specimen was monotonic loaded and the moment of the passive film failure was
registered as the moment of sharp deflection of E t value from its stabilized meaning
Et
stab
, τp, s
mV(SCE )
145
-460
-465 140
-470
135
-475
-480 130
0,001 0,01 0,1 1 0,001 0,01 0,1 1
C NaNO2 , mol L a) C NaNO2 , mol L b)
Fig. 8 Dependence of stabilized values of the electrode potential E tstab (a) and time of passivation
τ p (b) on the NaNO2 concentration CNaNO2 in solution
E tstab . As the final result of the test, the critical value of the stress intensity factor K I∗
was determined for all considered cases.
It has been found (Fig. 9) that dependence of the stress intensity factor value K I∗ ,
at which the passive film fracture occurs in the crack tip, on the NaNO2 concentration
CNaNO2 is ambiguous and the maximum exists at some concentration CNaNO2 when
the value K I is maximal.
The existence of such extreme can be associated with the kinetic peculiarities of
passive film formation. The analysis of the images of passive films on the surface of
steel formed under different concentration of the NaNO2 in the 3% NaCl solution
showed the following (Fig. 10). At low concentrations of NaNO2 , the passive film
forms quite slowly and due to electrochemical heterogeneity of metal, some separate
micro-regions are present at the crack tip with more negative potential than the
equilibrium potential of oxide formation. In this case, the reaction goes in the opposite

K I∗ , 10
stress intensity factor value
K I , at which the passive film MPa m
fracture occurs in the crack 9
tip, on the NaNO2
concentration CNaNO2 8
6
∗
C NaNO 2
5
0,001 0,01 0,1 1
C NaNO2 , mol L
Fig. 10 Images of passive films on the steel surface, which formed under different concen-
tration of the N a N O2 in the 3% NaCl solution (×100): a CNaNO2 = 0 mol/L (Air);
b CNaNO2 = 0.007 mol/L; c CNaNO2 = 0.03 mol/L; d CNaNO2 = 0.07 mol/L ; e
CNaNO2 = 0.14 mol/L; f CNaNO2 = 0.21 mol/L
direction and the electrochemical reduction of metal from oxide takes place. As a
result, the film is formed quite thin and damaged. At high concentrations of NaNO2
the film forms thicker; however, due to the rapid course of the process, obviously,
it is quite porous, which affects its strength properties. It follows that there is some
∗
optimal concentration CNaNO 2
, which provides the maximum strength of the passive
film at the crack tip (parameter K I∗ ). For
considered system material-environment,
∗
this value equals CNaNO ∼
= 0.095 mol L.
2
3.3 Hydrogen Permeation in Steel at Presence of Passive

Film on Metal Surface
The ability to absorb hydrogen of pipeline steel at the presence of surface passive
films was studied according above-described method. The cases of five different
concentration CNaNO2 in solution were considered.
The effect of the concentration CNaNO2 in the environment on hydrogen concen-
tration CH in pipeline steel is shown in Fig. 11. The received results indicate the
ambiguous effect of the concentration CNaNO2 in the corrosive environment on the
hydrogen permeation into the material. Some minimum of the hydrogen concentra-
tion value CH can be clearly seen on the curve CH = F(CNaNO2 ). Therefore it may be
concluded that some specific value CNaNO2 exists, at which the formed passive film is
the most resistible barrier against electrochemical hydrogen absorption.
This value
is very close to the above-mentioned value CNaNO∗ ∼
= 0.095 mol L, which corre-
2
sponds to the highest strength of passive film (see Fig. 9) and also to the maximal
deceleration of fatigue crack growth rate (see Fig. 7).

hydrogen concentration C H CH ⋅10 6 5,
in pipeline steel on the
mol cm 3
concentration CNaNO2 in the
corrosive environment 4
1
∗
C NaNO 2
0
0 0,05 0,1 0,15 0,2 0,25
C NaNO 2 , mol L
4 Conclusions
Fatigue crack growth rate diagrams of carbon pipeline steel were received under
the presence of the admixtures of NaNO2 as the passive component in the basic
hydrogen-containing solution. It has been found that the fatigue crack growth rate
da/dN depends ambiguously on concentration CNaNO2 and maximal deceleration of
fatigue crack growth rate was observed approximately at CNaNO ∗ ∼
= 0.095 mol L.
2
The strength of passive films formed under different concentrations CNaNO2 was
evaluated as a characteristic value of stress intensity factor K I∗ , which corresponds
to the passive film failure at the crack tip. For the determination of parameter K I∗ , the
special experimental procedure was developed and verified. Obtained results showed
that that dependence K I∗ on concentration CNaNO 2
is ambiguous and the maximum
exists at some concentration CNaNO∗ ∼
= 0.095 mol L when the value K I∗ is maximal.
2
The study of hydrogen permeation in steel in presence of the passive film on the
metal surface showed some specific value of CNaNO2 , at which the formed passive film
is the most resistible barrier against electrochemical hydrogen absorption.
This value
is very close to the above-mentioned value CNaNO ∗ ∼
= 0.095 mol L, which corre-
2
sponds to the highest strength of passive film and also to the maximal deceleration
of fatigue crack growth rate.
It can be concluded that the relationship between passive film strength, its ability
to serve as a hydrogen barrier and fatigue crack growth rate exists. Therefore, the
knowledge of passive film properties is critically important for considerations of
environmental assisted fracture under conditions of the hydrogenation of pipeline
steels.
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31. Dmytrakh, I.M.: Corrosion fracture of structural metallic materials: effect of electrochemical
conditions in crack. Strain 47(2), 427–435 (2011)
32. Dmytrakh, I.M., Akid, R., Miller, K.J.: Electrochemistry of deformed smooth surfaces and
short corrosion fatigue crack growth behaviour. Br. Corros. J. 2(32), 138–144 (1997)
33. Akid, R., Dmytrakh, I.M., Gonzalez-Sanchez, J.: Fatigue damage accumulation: the role of
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(2006)
34. Syrotyuk, A.M., Dmytrakh, I.M.: Methods for the evaluation of fracture and strength of pipeline
steels and structures under the action of working media. Part I. Influence of the corrosion factor.
Mater. Sci. 50(3), 324–339 (2014)
35. VoltaLab 40 (PGZ301 & VoltaMaster 4). Dynamic Electrochemical Laboratory. Instruction.
Radiometer Analytical (2009)
36. Yan, M., Weng, Y.: Study on hydrogen absorption of pipeline steel under cathodic charging.
Corros. Sci. 48(2), 432–444 (2006)
37. Capelle, J., Gilgert, J., Dmytrakh, I., Pluvinage, G.: Sensitivity of pipelines with steel API X52
to hydrogen embrittlement. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 33(24), 7630–7641 (2008)
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Development of Improved Materials
for the Production of Forged Integral
Buckle Arrestors
Francesca Cena, Giovanna Gabetta, and Giuseppe Cumino
Abstract Submarine pipelines are an industry rapidly changing in innovation and

technological advances and developments, particularly in challenging operation
conditions and deep water applications. Integral buckle arrestors have proved to be an
essential device to limit damages induced by a propagating buckle and to reach and
ensure very high performances both during the pipelines laying and the service life.
New forged integral buckle arrestors are applied especially in case of large diameters
and high wall thicknesses and under extreme external load conditions. Their main
goal is to guarantee and improve the integrity of the offshore pipelines. After a brief
description of the status of the art, the objective of this paper is to show the efforts in
progress to better satisfy the requests of the oil & gas industry. The paper analyses
the manufacturing steps to obtain the final product including material, forging and
mechanical machining processes, intermediate and final tests and inspection.
Keywords Offshore pipeline · Buckle arrestor · Buckle propagation · Collapse ·

Crossover · Finite element analysis · Design criteria · Material characterization
1 Foreword
Offshore pipelines—operating in the challenging conditions of deep and ultra deep

water applications—are subject to a wide range of loading conditions resulting from
internal and external pressure and bending during installation and operations [1].
They are designed to prevent buckling and collapse failure under normal operation
conditions.
The structural analysis of cylindrical shells constitutes a classical problem of
mechanics, with numerous applications. In particular, the nonlinear response and the
F. Cena (B)
Cena Interpipes S.R.L, Brescia, Italy
e-mail: francesca.cena@cenainterpipes.it
G. Gabetta · G. Cumino
Milano, Italy
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58073-5_13
162 F. Cena et al.
Fig. 1 Pipe collapse under

combined loads [2]
loss of structural stability of thin-walled structures such as pipelines is a topic of both

fundamental and applied research. In the past, this problem has caused significant
controversy due to the unreasonably high analytical predictions of buckling loads,
compared with the low buckling loads obtained from relevant experiments. These
studies are however out of the subject of this paper, where only the empirical approach
that allowed the development of buckle arrestors will be summarized.
Unfortunately, design requirements are not always sufficient because off-design
events can occur both during installation and operations. Dragging ship anchors,
fishing equipment interaction, sinking vessels, dropped objects, mudslides, boulders,
extreme waves and current loads or other disturbances [2] can locally reduce the
integrity of a pipeline and induce local collapse. This can initiate a buckle which
propagates at high speed, potentially resulting in a total failure of the pipeline (see
Fig. 1). The external pressure required to thrust a propagating collapse is much
smaller than the pressure necessary to initiate it when the pipe is undamaged. It has
been found that the propagation pressure (Pp) can be as low as 15% of its collapse
pressure (Pco) [3].
To avoid problems and costs associated to a propagating collapse failure, it is
convenient and preferred to install buckle arrestors. Buckle arrestors are thick steel
rings at regular intervals along the pipelines.
2 Scope of the Buckle Arrestor
The pipe response under bending and external pressure loads shows a sudden loss
of strength. The ovalization is due to the well-known von Karman-Brazier effect
[1]. Bending ovalizes the pipe cross section, gradually reducing its bending rigidity,
eventually leading to a limit load instability that is followed by localized ovalization
and collapse [4]. Due to the ovalization, the buckle resistance of the pipe could
be reduced by as much as 40 percent if there is a significant variation of the wall
thickness [5].
Development of Improved Materials for the Production … 163
Buckle arrestors locally increase the bending stiffness of the pipe in the circum-
ferential direction [6] and prevent the natural ovalization of the pipe under bending.
They shall be properly designed, taking into account the maximum water depth, and
will limit the damage to the section between two arrestors, impeding downstream
propagation of collapse [3].
3 Forged Integral Buckle Arrestors
Buckle arrestors have been the subject of a great deal of research from 1980s up to
now. There are many different types of arrestors, all of them typically having the
form of thick-walled rings. Depending on the design, they can mainly be categorized
as integral arrestors, slip-on arrestors, clamped arrestors, and spiral arrestors, as
schematically shown in Fig. 2.
Integral buckle arrestors are widely believed to be most efficient in terms of the
enhancement of the crossover resistance [7]. The integral buckle arrestor (see Fig. 3)
is a ring with the same internal diameter of the pipeline and higher wall thickness. To
match the thickness of the pipeline at both ends, transition sections are machined and
welded between adjacent sections of pipeline (see Fig. 4). Integral buckle arrestors
can be manufactured in welded and seamless (hot rolled and forged) execution.
This chapter is focused on the manufacture of forged, quenched and tempered
carbon steel integral buckle arrestor, for deep water and ultra-deep water offshore
Fig. 2 Example of different kinds of buckle arrestors [7]
Fig. 3 An example of integral buckle arrestor

164 F. Cena et al.
Fig. 4 Integral buckle arrestor assembled to the pipeline
applications where large diameters, high wall thicknesses and high performance
material properties are required. The family of steel grades is that of the API 5L
Standard, typical for pipelines.
Buckle arrestors are required to satisfy some of the same properties of the sealine
they are connected with, typically manufactured in smls (hot rolled) or welded
execution. This means that:
• in case of welded pipelines, forged buckle arrestors include the factor αfab, taking
into account the effect on the welding UO/UOE fabrication process (U for U-ing
cold forming from the plate, O for O-ing cold forming from the U shape, E for
expansion to meet the geometric tolerances), which introduces different strength
in tension and compression along the circumferential direction of the pipeline,
due to cold deformations (Bauschinger effect);
• high pipe wall thickness (more than 30 mm) is not well addressed in the relevant
Codes/Standards of the pipelines but it is generally accepted that the methodolo-
gies for both brittle/ductile transition and minimum Charpy V requirements are
applicable to thicknesses up to 25–30 mm [8].
The first critical point is to achieve the metallurgical, mechanical and corrosion
characteristics of the material as required by project specifications.
The main properties are the toughness at the minimum design temperature (in
particular, Crack Tip Opening Displacement (CTOD), a detailed investigation of
complete britlle/ductile transition temperature using both Charpy V and Drop Weight
Tear Test (DWTT) specimens) and the corrosion resistance.
Requirements can be different for different projects: however, at least the
following shall be considered [9]:
• specific chemical composition;
• hardness;
• tensile strength;
• ductility;
• toughness;
• weldability;
• corrosion resistance to H2 S and CO2 , i.e. testing for HIC (Hydrogen Induced
Cracking), SSC (Sulfide Stress Cracking) and HISC (Hydrogen Induced Stress
Cracking).
4 Development of Improved Materials
The production cycle of improved materials for forged integral buckle arrestors shall
be analyzed in detail, on the basis of the internal know how, historical data and
simulations tools.
The process optimization can be implemented using empirical laws and the know-
how from experimental tests. Numerical simulation can be used towards a more
systematic and scientific approach in design and manufacturing, especially when
the scale ratio between the experimental specimens and the real components is very
high: more reliable results can be obtained when the test specimens dimensions are
comparable to the real components.
4.1 Steel Making Production Process
For high quality items, high quality steel shall be manufactured. A number of
parameters shall be controlled in the ingot production.
The quality of an ingot is not controlled directly, but in totally indirect way, with
the only exception of the chemical composition in the liquid stage. Experience in
production of special steel grades ingots—with validated operative practices—play
a key role to achieve the best results in terms of cleanliness and homogeneity of the
material.
The following four main requirements shall be considered and satisfied:
• Low level of impurity
This means to find the right scraps (see Fig. 5, the charge of the Electric Arc
Furnace) and ferroalloys.
• Low level of segregation
The segregation level is connected to the temperature and pouring rate that is
based on desired steel grade and ingot design. Simulation is a powerful tool to verify
what happens in the first phase of the pouring and also during the solidification.
• Good macrocleanness
166 F. Cena et al.
Fig. 5 Electric arc furnace
Macro-cleanness is manly dependent from the starting phase of the pouring and
also the position of the pouring powder, both necessary for the protection of the steel
during mold filling.
• Good microcleanness
There is a combination of more parameters in several steps of the process:

– deoxydation;
– ladle furnace (Fig. 6) treatment;
– vacuum degassing;
– interaction with pouring powder.
Controls and recording during every steps of the production provide a detailed
overview of the steel elaboration, guarantee the quality of the ingot (Fig. 7) as per
design criteria and the repeatability of the achieved results.
4.2 Forging and Heat Treatment Production Processes
Forging. To achieve the requested material properties, forging activities and final
quality quenching and tempering heat treatment play an important role.
Hot forging, shown in Fig. 8, is the process imposing a plastic deformation on the
Fig. 6 Ladle furnace
Fig. 7 Ingot after cooling

168 F. Cena et al.
Fig. 8 Open die forging
material, to obtain the desired shape and/or certain material properties, through the
optimization of microstructure and the preservation of the flow lines. The forging
material is constantly maintained at a high temperature and therefore no particular
unwanted tensions or phases are created.
After forging, the structure and the grain lose their dendritic conformation
and become equiassic. Segregation, possible inclusions, carbides, further chopped
nitrides and strengthened casting defects are reduced or eliminated. The contact area
and the pressure cones imposed by the forging are significantly higher than those
of lamination and this guarantees the deformation of the material at the heart. This
allows, after the quality heat treatment, to obtain a significant reduction of the multi-
dimensional dispersion of the material properties, thus increasing the fatigue life of
the material. The isotropy of a material is always desired in critical components.
The numerical tool typically adopted to simulate this process is the finite element
modeling and analysis (FEM), having as input parameters the model mesh, the
physico-chemical characteristics of the material and heat exchange parameters (both
topologically different within the same model). The thermodynamic simulator allows
to quickly and accurately analyze the production stages of the forgings and better
understand the physical phenomena that occur with the aim to anticipate and predict
their behavior.
Heat Treatment. After forging, the quality heat treatment is mandatory. Heat treat-
ment is the last very important operation to achieve the metallurgical properties
required by the Customer. Considering the required steel grade (i.e. F60 or F65) as
well as the basic chemistry used for the product, the typical heat treatment applied
is quenching and tempering.
Fig. 9 Forged buckle arrestor before quenching
Quenching consists in an austenitization over 900 °C in a gas furnace (Fig. 9),

with soaking time defined according to the wall thickness of the buckle arrestor,
followed by a quick immersion in a water tank. The water in the tank is under strong
agitation and its temperature is controlled and maintained generally below 40 °C.
After complete cooling the buckle arrestor is subject to a tempering treatment.
This is done generally at temperature below 700 °C with a certain soaking time
and the exact temperature/soaking time are defined according to the final metal-
lurgical required properties. To help this definition, the metallurgist can use TTT
(Time Temperature Transformation) and/or CCT (Continuous Cooling Transforma-
tion) diagrams (see an example of CCT, Fig. 10). Mathematical models are also
Fig. 10 CCT diagram

170 F. Cena et al.
available for setting up the heat treatment parameters.

Destructive Tests for Forged Material Characterization. A complete package
of destructive tests, to verify the achieved metallurgical, mechanical and corrosion
properties, and to validate the final buckle arrestor, must be executed on an end
section of the forged item in the finished heat-treatment conditions. Most of the tests
are performed in correspondence of the greater wall thickness, some other tests are
also conducted on the smaller thickness.
Here below the list of typical tests:
• chemical composition;
• hardness test;
• tensile test;
• impact test;
• grain size dimension;
• inclusion content;
• other specific tests like CTOD, DWTT, corrosion tests (SSC-HIC-HISC) could
be required according to the project.
4.3 Mechanical Machining
Mechanical machining follows the whole cycle of fabrication of the forged item
(Figs.11, 12 and 13):
• depending on the severity of properties and dimensions to be reached, a mechan-
ical preliminary fully body machining for quality heat treatment could be required,
to prepare correctly the surface of the forging and achieving the best and most
homogeneous results;
Fig. 11 Raw forged buckle arrestor, ready for mechanical machining

Fig. 12 Buckle arrestor—turning operations
Fig. 13 Buckle arrestor, boring operations (left)—internal surface after honing operation (right)
• after quality heat treatment, fully body mechanical machining is performed to

reach the greater wall thickness along all the length of the buckle arrestor and to
prepare it for hydrostatic test;
• once hydrostatic test has been performed, the new turning operation provides the
final shape of the buckle arrestor, with the transition of the wall thickness at both
ends to match the wall thickness of the pipeline, and the ends are beveled, for the
following activity of girth welds for assembly.
A good mechanical machining allows to reduce the required extra-material to get
the final shape from the quality heat treated of the forging, thus optimizing the quality
heat treatment process.
172 F. Cena et al.
Fig. 14 An image of manual ultrasonic test
4.4 Non-destructive Tests and Final Inspection
The following final non-destructive tests are performed on the item:

• hydrostatic test;
• 100% manual ultrasonic test (Fig. 14) for the detection of inclusions and lami-
nations, longitudinal and transversal discontinuities within the agreed acceptance
criteria;
• 100% magnetoscopic test on the accessible surface of finished buckle arrestor;
• final visual and dimensional inspection.
5 Conclusions
Integral forged buckle arrestors represent an important technological achievement for

the manufacturing Companies and can be strongly recommended for the following
reasons:
• manufacture of items with large and/or out of standard diameters and very heavy
wall thickness;
• achievement of very tight tolerances on diameters, wall thickness and ovality,
parameters that are taken into consideration during the design phase of the items,
especially when local FEM analyses are applied;
• achievement of the best isotropy that forged items can guarantee;
• absence of longitudinal seam welds;
• absence of Baushinger effect typical of the UO/UOE manufacturing process of
welded pipes.
Table 1 Example of possible

Items O.D. (mm) I.D. (mm) W.T. (mm)
dimensions
Buckle arrestor 699,24 603,24 48,00
Pipeline 660,40 603,24 28,58
Acknowledgements The work was conducted with the support of Asonext (Steel Making
Company) and Forge Monchieri (Forging Company). Any findings, conclusions and recommen-
dations expressed herein are those of the authors and do not necessary reflect those of the
above-mentioned Companies.
References
1. Guarracino, F.: Influence of stiffeners and buckling arrestors on the behaviour of offshore pipeline
under bending. Int. J. Petrol. Technol. 5, 12–18 (2018)
2. Bartolini, L.M., Marchionni, L., Spinazzè, M., Battistini, A., Parrella, A., Vitali, L.: Pipe
strength and deformation capacity: a novel FE tool for the numerical lab. In: Proceedings of the
ASME 33rd International Conference on Ocean, Offshore Mechanics and Artic Engineering,
OMAE2014, June 8–13. San Francisco, California, USA (2014)
3. Kyriakides, S., Park, T.D., Netto, T.A.: On the design of integral buckle arrestors for offshore
pipelines. Appl. Ocean Res. 20, 95–104 (1998)
4. Liu, Y., Kyriakides, S., Hallai, J.F.: Reeling of pipe with Lűders bands. Int. J. Solids Struct. 72,
11–25 (2015)
5. Muszynski, L.C.: United States Patent 4,449,852. May 22, 1984. Inventor: Muszynski, L.C.,
Houston, Tex. Assignee: Shell Oil Company, Houston, Tex
6. Toscano, R.G., Mantovano, L.O., Amenta, P.M., Charreau, R.F., Johnson, D.H., Assanelli, A.P.,
Dvorkin, E.N.: Collapse arrestors for deepwater pipelines. Cross over mechanisms. Center for
Industrial Research, TENARIS. Argentina
7. Gong, S., Li, G.: On the prediction of arresting efficiency of integral buckle arrestors for
deepwater pipelines. Int J Steel Struct 17(4), 1443–1458 (2017)
8. Torselletti, E., Vitali, L., Bruschi, R.: Design criteria versus line pipe requirements for offshore
pipeline. Snamprogetti S.p.A., Fano, Italy
9. Ashtiani, H.T.: A glance through—from conceptual design to detail engineering in submarine
pipeline projects. INIOAS. Marine Pipeline Engineering Short course, 12–14 Jan 2014, Teheran,
Iran
Assessment of Operational Degradation
of Pipeline Steel Based on True
Stress–Strain Diagrams
Ihor Dzioba, Olha Zvirko, and Sebastian Lipiec
Abstract The in-service degradation of pipeline steels, affecting performance of

natural gas transportation infrastructure, is now comprehensively investigated with
the usage of various approaches. Steel degradation implies embrittlement and
decreasing the mechanical properties, increasing a failure risk of pipelines. The
mechanical properties of strength and plasticity, which can be changed due to degra-
dation under long-term operation of pipeline steels, are usually evaluated by tension
tests based on the obtained stress–strain diagrams in nominal values, i.e. without
taking into account a change of cross-section of specimen during tension. In this
paper it is proposed to use true stress–strain diagrams for an assessment of in-service
degradation degree of gas pipeline steels. The low-alloyed X52 pipeline steel in
as-received state and after 30 years of operation on the gas transit pipeline was
investigated. The obtained results demonstrating the advantage of a usage of true
stress–strain dependences instead of nominal ones are discussed.
Keywords Pipeline steel · Microstructure · Degradation · True stress–strain

dependences
1 Introduction
In-service degradation of mechanical properties of high-pressure gas transmission

pipeline steels is one of the main reasons that may affect the pipeline integrity [1–5].
The problem is that the characteristics of brittle fracture, namely impact strength
and fracture toughness, are the most intensively decreased among the mechanical
properties of steel during operation. Thus, impact toughness of operated steel reached
I. Dzioba (B) · S. Lipiec

Kielce University of Technology, Kielce, Poland
e-mail: pkmid@tu.kielce.pl
O. Zvirko
Ukraine
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58073-5_14
176 I. Dzioba et al.
the extremely low value of ~30 J/cm2 ; it was decreased 3–5 times in comparison with
that for as-received steel [6]. The resistance to stress corrosion and hydrogen induced
cracking, and corrosion fatigue is significantly reduced as well, especially at the stage
of corrosion crack growth [7–10]. It is very important for pipeline steels, since these
failure mechanisms are acknowledged as the predominant failures in pipeline steels
in wet environments, which causes the rupture of natural gas transit pipelines.
Strength and plasticity characteristics are less sensitive to the in-service degrada-
tion of pipe steels; operational changes in them are lower than that in other mechan-
ical characteristics. The recent trend was to evaluate steel degradation by application
of the mechanical stability concept [11] based on determining degree of embrit-
tlement and residual mechanical stability of operated steel indicating loss of plas-
ticity. In general, a significant decrease in resistance to brittle fracture and corrosion-
mechanical fracture is accompanied by some decrease in plasticity of steel. However,
decreasing basic plasticity characteristics of steel due to long-term service is much
less noticeable than its brittle and corrosion-mechanical fracture resistance. There-
fore, determining plasticity of a metal based on tensile stress–strain diagrams in
nominal values could be insufficient to make a proper decision about the effect of
long-term operation on metal state and its degradation degree.
This article presents a method for assessing the condition of material of a gas
pipeline based on the analysis of stress and strain fields in the local area in front
of the crack tip. The proposed approach is based on the concept of local fracture
criteria. Those criteria assume that the failure process will be initiated when stresses
or strains exceed a critical value in a certain critical area of the material [12, 13].
When the critical stress values are reached and exceeded, the failure involves cleavage
fracture, while, if the critical strains are reached, the mechanism of development and
coalescence of voids is involved in the failure process [14, 15].
To calculate the stress and strain fields in the local most stressed areas it is neces-
sary to know the true stress–strain relationship of the material. Creating such a
relationship is a complex task. Solutions to this problem have been presented in
a number of works in recent years [16–18]. However, still a method is missing
that would unequivocally describe the relationship in a range of large strains of the
material, exceeding of 100% of strain level.
In this article, the authors propose a method to create the true stress–strain rela-
tionship based on the experimental results obtained from tensile tests. Critical values
of stress and strain are proposed to be determined based on metallographic study of
the microstructure of the material of specimens subjected to uniaxial tensile testing.
2 Materials
In this paper low-alloyed API 5L X52 pipeline steel was investigated. API 5L X52
steel was the most common gas pipeline material used for transit of oil and gas
during 1950–1960. The chemical composition of the steel is presented in Table
1. The specimens were cut out from two different pipes: reserved pipe (in the as-
Assessment of Operational Degradation of Pipeline Steel … 177
Table 1 Chemical composition of X52 steel (wt.%)

Steel C Mn Si P S
X52_00 0.23 0.94 0.33 0.006 0.018
X52_30 0.21 0.96 0.41 0.023 0.040
Fig. 1 Ferrite-pearlite microstructure of X52 pipeline steel: a as-received state and b after 30 years
of operation
received state) and pipe after 30 years of operation, marked as X52_00 and X52_30,
respectively.
The microstructure of X52 steel of tested pipes was analysed by the SEM. The
steel had a ferrite-pearlite microstructure (Fig. 1).
3 Basic Mechanical Properties of Tested Steels
Basic mechanical characteristics, namely ultimate strength σ UTS , yield strength σ Y ,

reduction in area (RA) and elongation (Elt ) were determined using uniaxial tension
tests of cylindrical specimens with gauge length of 25 mm and diameter about 5.0 mm.
Testing was performed on specimens cut out from the pipes in longitudinal direction
with the major axis parallel to the rolling direction of the pipe. Tensile testing of
specimens was carried out at ambient temperature according to standard ASTM
[19]. The nominal stress–strain diagrams are presented in Fig. 2.
The mechanical characteristics obtained from uniaxial tensile tests are presented
in Table 2. The data obtained during these tests were used to obtain true stress–strain
diagrams of materials that would be presented below at next section of this chapter.
The standard specimens for impact testing (10 × 10 × 55 mm with V-type notch)
were machined from pipes in longitudinal direction and tested according to ASTM
Standard [20]. Next results were obtained: for unexploited pipeline material CV =
Fig. 2 The stress–strain

diagrams of pipeline steel:
for as-received state and after
30 years of operation
Table 2 The nominal mechanical characteristics of X52 steel

Steel E (GPa) σ YS (MPa) σ UT (MPa) εUTS El t (%) RA (%) Ru (MPa)
X52_00 200 469 542 0.11 25.7 73.3 1473
X52_30 202 484 658 0.14 25.3 79.1 1500
E—Young’s modulus; σ YS —yield strength; σ UTS —ultimate tensile strength; εUTS —strain at
ultimate tensile strength; El t —total elongation; RA—reduction of specimen area; Ru —rupture stress
142 J or KCV = 177 J/cm2 ; for pipeline material after 30 years of service, CV =
52 J or KCV = 65 J/cm2 .
4 Analysis of In-Service Degradation of Pipeline Steel
For pipeline steel after 30 years of operation, compared to the steel in the as-received
state, the level of strength characteristics σ UTS is significantly higher, while the
yield strength σ YS after service does not significantly exceed the corresponding
characteristics for pipeline steel in the initial state (Table 2, Fig. 2). For the plasticity
characteristics, no clear difference was noted for the as-received material of pipeline
and those after 30 years of service. However, impact strength decreased sharply,
about three times decrease of KCV level was noted for operated steel compared to
the initial state. For metal after 30 years of service KCV is equal only to 65 J/cm2 ,
which is too low for this type of steels in as-received state. The obtained results
may indicate that the difference in the level of KCV characteristics for X52_00
and X52_30 steels is caused not only by difference in the microstructure, but by
the in-service degradation of the pipeline metal, as well. Comparable low levels of
impact characteristics of gas pipeline steels after long-term operation have also been
presented in the papers [1, 3, 6].
It should be noted that the service embrittlement of pipeline steel, which is demon-
strated by decrease of the impact fracture characteristic, was not accompanied by the
corresponded change of nominal plasticity characteristics. Accordingly, the nominal
plasticity characteristics are not sensitive to processes of steel embrittlement. There-
fore, a necessity arises to search the characteristics of the material sensitive to opera-
tional embrittlement. For this reason, the approach of the stress and strain analysis in
a most loaded local area using the true stress–strain relationship of material seems to
be a good approach to assess degradation degree. The values obtained in this analysis
may be sensitive to in-service degradation of pipe steel.
5 Technique of True Stress–Strain Diagrams Obtaining
The process of creating the true stress–strain relationship can be divided into several
basic stages: (1) the elastic range; (2) uniform elastic specimen elongation range; (3)
the range of neck formation [18]. At the first and second stage, the gage length of the
specimen elongates evenly over the entire length so, assuming the constant volume
principle, it is not difficult to demonstrate that the true stress and strain values are
calculated from formulas:
σt = σn (1 + εn ), εt = ln(1 + εn ) (1)
In the Eq. (1), σ n and εn are the nominal stress and strain values over the section of
uniform elongation of the specimen, i.e. until neck formation (Fig. 3). At the section
between the corresponding points, σ YS and σ UTS , the stress–strain relationships are
described by a power function: ε = ασ n . The exponent of the selected function is
called the material strengthening factor n. The n values for the materials tested are
given in Table 3.
On the other hand, the description of the stress–strain relationship over the neck
formation section is less precise. The key problem here is to determine the true
critical stress and true critical strain values which correspond to the moment of the
specimen rupture. Various techniques to obtain the true stress–strain relationship have
been proposed. The direct extension (extrapolation) of the power function obtained
for the uniform elongation section is not verified, as the numerical results differ
significantly from the experimental results [21]. Some researchers directly select
that relationship iteratively so that the results of numerical calculations using the
above relationship are as close as possible to the experimental results [22]. In a
number of works, it has been proposed to calculate the stress and strain levels in
the neck considering it as a concentrator with a radius of R [23, 24]. This approach
is only suitable for materials with low plasticity [18]. A more advanced method
Fig. 3 The stress–strain diagrams of pipeline steel: a for as-received state and b after 30 years of
operation
Table 3 The basic values of the true stress–strain dependences for X52 steel
Marks E (GPa) σ YS (MPa) εt_UTS σ t_UTS (MPa) n l0 (µm) lc (µm) εt_c σ t_c (MPa)
X52_00 201 472 0.10 620 10.9 12.65 56.85 3.43 1604
X52_30 203 487/502 0.13 770 5.5 11.67 40.76 2.49 1650
εt_UTS and σ t_UTS are true strain and stress values at ending part of specimen evenly elongation
of obtaining a constitutive relationship for material with the high level of strain in
a neck was proposed by Bai and Wierzbicki [16]. In their method, for the stress–
strain relationship, the triaxiality stress factor and the Lode parameter are also taken
into account. Calibration of this relationship is performed on specimens of various
shapes and concentrators to secure a wide range of their variability. A modification
and supplement of this method, consisting in the introduction of the function, which
describes the material weakness caused by the initiation and development of voids,
was proposed by Neimitz et al. [17, 21]. The research showed that the procedure to
obtain the true stress–strain relationship for materials with a low level of plasticity
can be simplified by limiting the stage of uniform elongation of the sample material
[25].
During the tests performed to determine the nature of the true stress–strain rela-
tionship in the section that corresponds to the neck formation, the rectilinear type
relationship was found the most appropriate [17, 21]. This type of dependence was
also used to obtain the constitutive relationship in this article. To define the linear
relationship, the knowledge of coordinates of at least two points is required. It was
assumed that the coordinates for the first point were equal to those of the last point of
the power relationship describing the uniform specimen elongation during the tests.
For determination of the coordinates of the second point, experimental results taken
from the tested specimen were used. The critical stress is commonly calculated as
the ratio of force to cross-section of the specimen at rupture: σ c = F c /S c .
In order to determine the level of critical strain (at the moment of rupture), metal-
lographic microstructure tests were performed. The microstructure of the material
was compared in a non-deformed and deformed condition in the neck, in close prox-
imity to the place of rupture. The steel microstructure for those two positions is
shown in Figs. 4 for unexploited pipe (a, b) and pipe after 30 years of operation
(c, d), respectively. It can be seen in Fig. 4b, d that the grains of both tested steels
deformed during necking are elongated and their basal planes are oriented parallel
to the tensile direction.
When determining the strains, the average ferrite grain size in the material of the
respective pipe was assumed as the base unit. The strain at the critical moment was
determined as the ratio of the average grain elongation increment (lc – l 0 ) to its base
value in a non-deformed condition (l0 ): εt_c = (l c – l 0 )/l 0 . The strain values determined
on dimensional basis equalled to the average ferrite grain size were assumed as the
true strain values. Adopting the principle of maintenance of a constant volume of the
Fig. 4 Microstructure of X52 steel in as-received state (a, b) and after 30 years of operation (c, d):
a, c undeformed material and b, d deformed in the neck
Fig. 5 The true stress–strain dependence: a the scheme of a dependence and b the dependences
obtained for tested states of X52 steel
ferrite grain, the neck cross-section was calculated directly at the rupture point: Sc
= S 0 /4.43 for specimens of the unexploited steel and Sc = S 0 /3.49—after 30 years
of operation. The true stress–strain relationships obtained in that way are shown in
Fig. 5 and the characteristic values for those relationships are given in Table 3.
According to the data in Table 3 it follows, that in contrast to the nominal plasticity
characteristics, the value εt_c characterizing the true critical strain in the specimen
neck directly near the fracture surface is more sensitive to the impact of operational
degradation of the pipeline steel. For steel in the unexploited state εt_c = 3.43, and
for that after 30 years of operation εt_c = 2.49, which indicates a reduction of about
27%. Consequently, the εt_c plasticity characteristic allows a qualitative assessment
of the operational degradation degree of pipeline steel without the need for impact
fracture or fracture toughness tests.
6 Numerical Modelling and Loading Simulation of a SENB

Specimens
In order to determine the stress and strain fields in the local area of the material
in front of the crack tip, the SENB specimen modelling and load simulation were
carried out using the finite element method. The true stress–strain relationships were
introduced as materials constitutive dependences. For modelling, load simulation,
and calculation of stress and strain fields the ABAQUS program was used.
For numerical calculations, a model of three-point bend specimen SENB (W =
24 mm, S = 96 mm, B = 12 mm, a0 /W = 0.55) was worked out. 1/4 of the SENB
specimen was modelled, due to existing symmetry (Fig. 6). The numerical specimen
model was divided into 21 layers in the thickness direction. The front of the crack
Fig. 6 The schemes of specimen model used in numerical calculation
was modelled as an arc with a radius of 0.012 mm. 8-node, three-dimensional finite
elements were adopted. The size of the elements was reduced in direction to the crack
front. The choice of the finite element size and the division of the specimen into layers
was preceded by preliminary analyses in order to achieve convergent analysis results
with the appropriate quality of the finite element mesh. The definition of boundary
conditions assumed the following: (1) the possibility to move the cracked part of
the XOZ specimen; (2) blocking the possibility of movement of the uncracked part
of the XOZ specimen along the y axis; (3) blocking the possibility of moving the
central plane of the XOY specimen along the z axis; (4) complete blockage of the
lower roller (Fig. 6).
The true stress–strain relationships of X52 pipeline material in different states
defined according to the method described in the previous section were introduced
into the numerical model. The load on the SENB specimen was applied by displace-
ment it at the point of force application. For both materials, the calculation of stress
and strain fields was carried out for the same level of displacement, which was equal
to 1.2 mm. This level of displacement corresponds to the maximum values obtained
in the stress distributions for the as-received pipeline steel.
7 Results of Numerical Calculation of Mechanical State

in Crack Tip for a SENB Specimen
As a result of numerical calculations performed, the stress and strain distributions in

front of the crack tip were obtained for X52 steel of two pipes, the as-received one
and the one after 30 years of operation (Fig. 7).
According to the main criteria of the brittle fracture [12, 13], brittle fracture is
possible in the material if in a certain local area of the material the level of normal
stress to the crack plane exceeds the critical value. A high level of triaxiality stress
factor η is also necessary for realization of brittle fracture [14, 15]. A triaxiality stress
Fig. 7 The results of numerical calculation: stress components distributions for a X52_00 and
b X52_30 steel; c the stress state factor distributions η and d distributions of plastic strain
factor η defined as:
η = σm /σeff (2)
σm = (σ11+ σ22+ σ33 )/3 (3)
1/2
σeff = (3J2 )1/2 = 3/2sij sij = 1/6[(σ11 − σ22 )2 + (σ22 − σ33 )2 + (σ11 − σ33 )2 ]
(4)
where σ m is a middle (hydrostatic) stress, σ eff is an effective stress.

Table 4 The basic characteristic points of stress and strain distributions

Steel σ 22 σ 22 /σ YS η εpl_eff
Max level Distance Max level Distance Max level Distance
(MPa) from crack from crack
tip (mm) tip (mm)
X52_00 1429 0.337 3.02 2.32 0.375 1.31 In front
X52_30 1480 0.206 3.03 2.46 0.273 1.35 In front
Therefore, as presented in the papers [26, 27], an increase in the level of normal
stress, an increase in the value of the triaxiality stress factor, and a decrease in the
distance from the crack tip to the point of occurrence of the maximum normal stresses,
indicate an increase in the susceptibility of the material to cracking according to the
brittle mechanism.
The X52 steel of gas pipeline operated for 30 years shows a higher tendency to
brittle fracture compared to the as-received metal, as that material achieves a higher
level of stress, stress maximum is closer to the crack tip, and the triaxiality stress
factor distributions achieve higher values, as well (Fig. 7, Table 4).
The correctness of the prediction was proven by the results of testing the spec-
imen for impact strength. The impact strength of the pipeline steel after 30 years
of operation was lower compared to the as-received material. The reduction of the
impact characteristic of the material after 30 years of operation was almost threefold.
For the pipeline steel after many years of service, a decrease of about 27% in the true
critical strain was also observed.
Moreover, the increase in the operational brittleness of the investigated steel of
gas pipeline resulted not only from the impact of stress arising from load factors,
but also from the effect of hydrogen absorbed by the metal during electrochemical
corrosion due to interacting with transported hydrocarbons and penetrated through
the pipe wall [28]. Subsequently, a higher level of maximum stress and its location
closer to the crack tip means a higher stress gradient, which is the driving force
behind the hydrogen diffusion process around the crack tip [29]. That in turn leads
to an increase in the concentration of hydrogen to a level at which brittle fracture of
steel caused by hydrogen embrittlement occurs.
8 Closing Remarks
The API 5L X52 pipeline steel in as-received state and after 30 years of service was
studied. The metal in-service embrittlement was evidenced by decreasing impact
strength of the exploited steel up to three times compared with that of the steel in
as-received state. However, the nominal characteristics of plasticity were practically
insensitive to in-service degradation of the metal.
The method of obtaining the true stress–strain relationship was proposed, in which
the average ferrite grain size of the tested material, the API 5L X52 steel, was assumed
as the basis for measurement. The critical level of strain and stress was determined
by measuring the deformed ferrite grains in close proximity to the specimen fracture
plane.
It was shown that the value of the true plastic strain of material εt_c , which,
according to the proposed approach, characterized the real strain of steel directly at
the fracture surface, was sensitive to the service degradation of gas pipelines steel.
For the steel of gas pipeline operated for 30 years, the level εt_c was about 27% lower
than for the as-received one.
The obtained constitutive dependencies of the materials were used to calculate
stress and strain distributions in the numerically modelled SENB specimen. Such
approach allowed the analysis of stress and strain fields in the most stressed area
of materials that can occur in real pipelines directly close to crack-like defects. As
a result of the analysis, it was determined that the pipeline steel after 30 years of
operation is more susceptible to brittle fracture than the steel of the unexploited
pipeline.
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Effect of Impact-Oscillatory Loading
on the Variation of Mechanical Properties
and Crack Resistance of Pipe Steel
Mykola Chausov, Pavlo Maruschak, Andrii Pylypenko,

and Andriy Sorochak
Abstract To study a full range of the mechanical properties on small-sized flat

specimens from the pipe steel, including the characteristics of crack resistance after
the realization of certain loading modes, the authors used the method of complete
stress–strain diagrams. This method was previously substantiated both theoretically
and experimentally by professors A. A. Lebedev and M. G. Chausov for assessing
the fracture kinetics of plastic materials on small specimens subjected to various
types of preliminary loading. The effect of preliminary plastic deformation under
static tension on changes in the crack resistance and mechanical characteristics of
the pipe steel is extreme at a strain level εpl = 6.3%. Test results were compared
at identical levels of the preliminary plastic deformation under static tension and
impact-oscillatory loading at strain levels of 4.5–8.8%. The comparison showed
significant differences in the effect of impact-oscillatory loading on changes in the
mechanical properties and crack resistance of the pipe steel. Nanotechnologies were
used to analyze the original results on the effect of preliminary plastic deformation
under static tension and identical levels of dynamic deformations caused by impact-
oscillatory loading on changes in the mechanical properties and crack resistance of the
17G1S-U pipe steel in the initial state. This was especially noticeable when tungsten
carbide and carbon nanoparticles were used under impact-oscillatory loading. To
confirm the revealed mechanical effects, detailed fractographic studies of specimen
fractures were conducted along with investigations into the surface macrohardness
of the steel.
Keywords Pipe steel · Fracture · Failure analysis · Impact-oscillatory loading
M. Chausov · A. Pylypenko
National University of Life and Environmental Sciences of Ukraine, Kyiv, Ukraine
P. Maruschak (B) · A. Sorochak
Ternopil National Ivan Puluj Technical University, Ternopil, Ukraine
e-mail: maruschak.tu.edu@gmail.com
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58073-5_15
190 M. Chausov et al.
1 Introduction
Pipe steel 17G1S-U is widely used in domestic pipelines [1, 2]. The overstrain of
pipes due to the movement of surrounding soil in shear zones, the excessive bending
of pipes during laying operations, as well as bending of insufficiently fixed sections
of pipelines cause the formation of plastically deformed zones in pipelines, which,
as a rule, turn into crack-like defects. The latter can develop over time and lead
to emergencies. In literature, there are lots of experimental data on the effect of
previous plastic deformation at static tension on changes in the mechanical proper-
ties and crack resistance of materials of different classes. Moreover, the nature of
these changes can differ significantly depending on the original mechanical prop-
erties and structure of materials [3–5]. On the other hand, it should be noted that
plastically deformed zones can also be formed in pipelines due to impact-oscillatory
loading, for example, under hydroshock in pipe systems. As shown by numerous
studies on various materials conducted by the authors, the effect of impact-oscillatory
loading on the mechanical properties of materials and crack resistance under subse-
quent loading requires further study. Under such circumstances, low-cycle (15 …
20 cycles) high-frequency (1 … 2 kHz) loading with a high level of stress ampli-
tude (tens of MPa) can be realized, which usually leads to the formation of specific
dissipative structures in plastic materials, the density of which is less than that of the
base material. The authors call this type of impact-oscillatory loading a Dynamic
Nonequilibrium Process (DNP) [6–9]. Thus, the identical levels of the preliminary
plastic deformation under static tension and impact-oscillatory loading may cause
different effects on changes in the mechanical properties and crack resistance of the
pipe steel under subsequent loading. A clear consequence of significant structural
transformations of materials under impact-oscillatory loading is the appearance of
microextrusions on the specimen surface due to the formation of less dense dissi-
pative structures [9]. This effect indicates changes in the structure and mechanical
properties in the volume and, to a greater extent, in the surface layers of materials.
In addition, a special plastic “wave” was detected, which passed along the surface
of flat specimens during the realization of DNP [10]. The “wave” front moved at
a low speed. For example, for stainless steel 12Kh17, this speed was 0.3–0.7 m/s.
The occurrence of the plastic “wave” under impact-oscillatory loading along with
microextrusions on the specimen surface allows assuming the possibility of signifi-
cant deformations in local points of the surface layers of materials. The authors used
the revealed effects to develop an effective method for the hardening and nanos-
tructuring of the material surface and to obtain a uniformly controlled nanostructure
of the surface layer with an enhanced mechanical strength using impact-oscillatory
loading and nanosolutions of various metals [11, 12].
Effect of Impact-Oscillatory Loading on the Variation … 191
2 Methods of Mechanical and Physical Research
All mechanical tests were performed on a modernized ZD-100Pu testing machine

equipped with two special devices, one of which was for recording complete stress–
strain diagrams, and the other for applying additional impulse loads of varying inten-
sity at any given degree of initial static deformation [13]. Specimens from pipe steel
17G1S-U in the initial state with a thickness of 2.45 mm (Fig. 1) were tested. The
specimens were cut from a pipe with a diameter of 1220 mm and a wall thickness of
8 mm in the longitudinal direction. The corresponding mechanical characteristics of
the steel in the initial state were: σys = 420 MPa, σus = 580 MPa, δ = 23%.
The intensity of impulse introduction of energy into the steel was adjusted by
changing the dynamic strain εimp , which was measured by optical method [7]. The
choice of εimp as a parameter that characterizes the intensity of impulse introduction
of energy into the alloys greatly simplifies the test procedure. Since the modes of
impact-oscillatory loading can be created on hydraulic test machines of different
rigidity, the complex calculations of effect of transfering a certain force directly to
the specimen, depending on the total impulse applied to the mechanical system, were
unnecessary. In addition, such procedure made it possible to evaluate the effect of
intensity of energy impulse introduction on changes in the mechanical properties of
the steel under study, which will be shown later.
The strain measurement base under static tension was 16 mm. Measurements were
made using a standard extensometer. Specimen fractures were studied by electron
scanning microscopy on a REM 106I microscope [14, 15]. Macrohardness of the
surface layers of specimens was measured on the NPO-10 hardness meter using the
Vickers method at a working load of 5 kg. The number of injections made on each
test site from both sides of the test specimen was 30.
It should be noted that in conditions of full-scale fluidity, there are practically no
reliable methods for assessing crack resistance of materials on small-sized specimens.
Therefore, crack resistance of plastically deformed pipe steel 17G1S was measured
by the authors of [16] on beam specimens at 233 K, since room temperature was not
suitable to obtain the flat-deformed state during fracture of specimens. To study the
Fig. 1 Test specimen

full complex of mechanical properties of the plastically deformed pipe steel 17G1S-
U, including the characteristics of crack resistance, a new method to study the fracture
kinetics of materials, the so-called method of complete stress–strain diagrams, was
used at room temperature in this research.
This method was theoretically and experimentally substantiated by professors
Lebedev and Chausov [17]. They were the first to develop a new fracture toughness
criterion Kλ based on the analysis of complete stress–strain diagrams.
√
Kλ = Sk · l p · E, (MPa m), (1)
Here, S k is the real resistance of the torn-off material; i.e., the specimen elongation
at the growth stage of the macrocrack of tearing, normalized to the cross-sectional
area of the standard specimen; E is the Young’s modulus of materials, for steel
17G1S-U it is equal to 2 × 105 MPa.
In the process of construction of a complete stress–strain diagram, the stability of
the material deformation and fracture is ensured at all stages, including the stage of
initiation and propagation of a macrocrack in the material. It is important that when
using the complete stress–strain diagram method, all operations of simple or complex
loading are performed on the same small-sized specimens. In addition, changes in
the mechanical properties of materials, including crack resistance, under subsequent
static tension are evaluated on the same specimens.
When complete stress–strain diagrams of sheet materials are recorded, different
fracture mechanisms are observed, which are associated with the formation of an
internal macrocrack of tearing in the sheet material, its exit to the lateral surfaces of the
sheet material with the formation of a cross-sectional macrocrack, and its subsequent
growth in width [18]. This causes difficulties in identifying the auto-growth of the
macrocrack of tearing.
Therefore, the authors have improved the procedure to study the energy costs
on the crack growth in sheet materials using the method of complete stress–strain
diagrams [8, 11]. The proposed method effectively utilizes the technical possibility of
ensuring the stability of the material fracture micromechanism (I + III). To this aim,
identical central circular holes were drilled in specimens. Due to this, the auto-growth
of the macrocrack by a mixed type of fracture (I + III) is ensured, and the initial
almost straight descending sections are recorded on complete stress–strain diagrams.
In this case, the influence of the preliminary plastic deformation of the pipe steel on
the static crack resistance is assessed with exactly the same mixed type of fracture (I
+ III). Therefore, the proposed method makes it possible to reliably estimate changes
in energy costs for the development of cracks by type (I + III), depending on the
nature of the previous plastic deformation—dynamic or static. Thus, bending of the
straight descending branch of the stress–strain diagram (upwards or downwards) and
the S k value at the macrocrack start allow us to unambiguously judge about changes
in the crack resistance of a particular sheet material at room temperature.
The research technique was as follows. At first, a series of specimens from pipe
steel 17G1S-U were subjected to a gradually increasing pulse loading. After a jump
Table 1 Crack resistance Kλ for steel 17G1S-U subjected to different modes of previous plastic
deformation
√
Designation of the test scheme εpl (%) εimp (%) S k (MPa) l p (mm) K λ MPa m
A 4.5 – 724.18 0.72 322.9
B 6.3 – 622.48 1.53 436.4
C 8.8 – 706.21 0.76 327.6
D – 4.5 856.53 0.97 407.6
E – 6.3 563.64 1.29 381.3
F – 8.8 686.75 0.90 351.6
of dynamic deformation, the specimens were completely unloaded immediately. In

addition, tungsten carbide nanosolution (W–C) and carbon (C) nanosolution were
applied to some specimens in this series prior to the application of additional impulse
loads. For further studies, three increasing degrees of previous dynamic deformation
due to impact-oscillatory loading εimp = 4.5; 6.3; 8.8% were selected. Next, the
specimens of the second series were deformed to the same levels of deformation
by static stretching εpl = 4.5; 6.3; 8.8%. Only such sequence of mechanical tests
guarantees exactly the same values of plastic deformation under dynamic and static
loading. After that, identical holes 1 mm in diameter were drilled in the middle of
the workpiece, and all specimens were reloaded by static tension until fully divided
into parts under conditions of balanced deformation according to loading schemes:
A, B, C, D, E, F, see Table 1.
3 Results of Experimental Studies and Discussion
Figure 2 presents some results of the studies in the diagram coordinates F − l. This
is done to demonstrate the method of parameter definition lp (see Fig. 2d, h). The
unloading was performed on the descending sections of all stress–strain diagrams to
estimate the elastic energy reserve by measuring the specimen strain at the macro-
crack start. This energy is part of the total energy required for the crack propaga-
tion under the full-scale yielding of the specimen material. The results obtained are
shown in Fig. 2. On the left (Fig. 2a–c), the effect of the preliminary plastic defor-
mation under static tension on the mechanical properties and crack resistance of
steel 17G1S-U is generalized. On the right (Fig. 2e–g), the impact of the preliminary
plastic deformation caused by DNP is systematized. The data shown in Fig. 2 were
obtained by repeated static stretching under equilibrium deformation.
The analysis of Fig. 2a–c shows the extreme nature of the effect caused by previous
plastic deformation under static tension on changes in the mechanical properties of
pipe steel upon repeated equilibrium deformation. Structural changes leading to
this are the topic of individual research. In this case, we can only state that strength
properties of the steel are deteriorated significantly at the previous plastic deformation
Fig. 2 Changes in mechanical properties of steel 17G1S-U subjected to different modes of previous
plastic deformation: a–c static tension εpl = 4.5; 6.3; 8.8%; d–f impact-oscillatory loading εimp =
4.5; 6.3; 8.8%; d, h comparative analysis of diagrams
Fig. 3 Variation of Kλ for steel 17G1S-U subjected to different modes of previous plastic
deformation
εpl = 6.3%. At the same time, the plastic properties are improved significantly.
It is noteworthy that strength properties of the steel subjected to previous plastic
deformations εpl = 4.5 and 8.8% remain virtually unchanged. The revealed patterns
of changes in the mechanical properties of the steel directly affected the variation of
crack resistance Kλ . Table 1 presents the relevant data.
The results of comparing the effect of identical previous plastic deformations
under static tension and impact-oscillatory loading without using nanotechnology
are not considered in detail in this research. However, nearly identical patterns (see
the comparison of the curves in Fig. 2e and Table 1) are revealed from the test results.
Impact-oscillatory loading practically does not impair the strength properties of the
steel in the variation range of the previous plastic deformation under study. However,
it reduces the plastic properties and crack resistance of the steel. At the same time,
nano-solutions of tungsten carbide and carbon added to the steel subjected to impact-
oscillatory loading can improve the mechanical properties and crack resistance of
the steel (see the comparison of the curves in Fig. 2d, h and Table 1). It is noteworthy
that the abnormal behavior of steel at εpl = 6.3% was repeated at εimp = 6.3%.
According to the results of Table 1, a graph of Kλ variation for steel 17G1S-U
subjected to different modes of previous plastic deformation is constructed (Fig. 3).
Here, we should pay attention to the fact that crack resistance of steel 17G1S-U has an
extreme character depending on the previous plastic deformation at static tension. A
similar effect was obtained earlier by the authors in assessing crack resistance of pipe
steel 17G1S [16]. However, the maximum on the curve showing the dependence of
K1c on the previous plastic deformation εpl was about 10% in [16]. In the development
of the Kλ parameter, the authors indicated that with an increase in the stiffness of the
stress state at the start of the macrocrack of tearing, the Kλ parameter approaches
the K1c [19, 20]. For engineering calculations of a wide range of plastic materials,
a simple algorithm for estimating the K1c based on the test results of small-sized
specimens was proposed: K1c = α Kλ , where α = 0.23. Using coefficient α, it is
possible to roughly estimate K1c of steel 17G1S-U for all types of previous plastic
deformation considered in this paper, and compare them with the results presented
in [16]. It can be stated that these results are in a good agreement with each other. As
seen from the analysis of Fig. 3, when using nanosolutions of different metals under
Fig. 4 Macrohardness variation of steel 17G1S-U around the central circular hole: a preliminary
plastic deformation under static tension, b under impact-oscillatory loading
impact-oscillatory loading, the characteristics of the crack resistance of steel 17G1S-

U are improved. The authors have previously found similar effects when tungsten
carbide and carbon nanosolutions where added to the high-strength titanium alloy
VT23 subjected to impact-oscillatory loading [11, 12].
To explain the revealed mechanical effects, additional studies of the surface macro-
hardness around the hole are conducted, along with detailed fractographic studies of
specimen fractures.
Figure 4 presents the results of investigations into macrohardness of the surface
layers of steel specimens for all analyzed cases by the same method—15 indentations
on each side of the specimen in the direction of its loading axis. Here, the results
showing the influence of previous plastic deformation under static tension are given
on the left (Fig. 4a), and those showing the influence of previous plastic deformation
under dynamic loading are given on the right (Fig. 4b). Again, one can see the extreme
nature of changes in the mean macrohardness caused by previous plastic deformation
under static tension. Thus, for instance, at εpl = 4.5%, the mean macrohardness of
the surface layers of steel specimens is 175 by Vickers; at εpl = 6.3%—192, and at
εpl = 8.8%—171. A simultaneous decrease in the strength properties of steel at εpl =
6.3% (see Fig. 2b) and a significant strengthening of the surface layers at the same
deformation level (see Fig. 4a) also requires additional physical studies.
Macrohardness measurements of the surface layers of steel 17G1S-U subjected to
the previous dynamic plastic deformation, including by means of nanotechnologies,
are more predictable (Fig. 4b). For example, given the occurrence of microextrusions
on the specimen surface due to the formation of less dense dissipative structures
under impact-oscillatory loading [9], it is easy to explain a decrease in the mean

macrohardness of the surface layers of steel specimens at εimp = 6.3% to 183, as
compared to the mean value of 192 at εpl = 6.3%. Also, considering the results
given in [11, 12], it is possible to explain a significant increase in the macrohardness
of the surface layers of steel specimens when nanosolutions of titanium carbide and
carbon are used under impact-oscillatory loading. In this case, nanostructured surface
layers are formed, which account for such results. Thus, for instance, when using
a titanium carbide nanosolution under static and dynamic strain of 4.5%, the mean
macrohardness of the surface layers of steel specimens increased from 175 to 187.
When using a carbon nanosolution at the static and dynamic strain of 8.8%, the mean
macrohardness of the surface layers of steel specimens increased from 171 to 196.
However, it should be noted that the scatter of macrohardness values under impact-
oscillatory loading, found also with the use of nanotechnologies, is much greater, as
compared to the same levels of the previous plastic deformation under static tension.
This indicates a significant structural change in the steel under impact-oscillatory
loading not only in the volume of the material, but also in its surface layers.
To explain the revealed variation patterns of the parameter Kλ depending on the
different modes of previous plastic deformation, the authors conducted a detailed
fractographic analysis of fractures of steel specimens. Figure 5 presents relevant data.
Here, the authors used a similar technique to compare the experimental data. On the
left, data on the influence of the previous plastic deformation under static tension
are presented, and on the right—under impact-oscillatory loading. In addition, the
results of fractographic analysis into the central zones of tearing are specifically
presented to contrast the revealed difference between the fractures of specimens. It is
found that, regardless of a similar dimple structure formed on all fractures (dimples
have sizes from 2 to 6 μm, and their array on all investigated specimens makes
from 1105 to 1841 dimples within the field of view of researches), significant local
morphological differences between fractures are revealed. In particular, this applies
to the pair of specimens A–D, on which the maximum difference in the Kλ parameter
was revealed. Firstly, local laminations of the fracture surface of specimen A were
found. One of the reasons for this is the accumulation of dislocations generated
under static deformation, which caused delamination at the boundary between ferrite
and pearlite grains, and microcracks formation [15]. On the other hand, dimples on
specimen A are more elongated and less deep, which indicates a much lower energy
intensity of fracture during the growth of a macrocrack [19, 20], as compared to
the pronounced, deep dimple structures on specimen D. In the pair of specimens
B–E, dimple structures are more similar, however, the nature of deep dimples on
specimen B, which are combined into numerous clusters, indicates a much higher
energy intensity of fracture during the growth of a macrocrack. Attention should be
paid to the local surface laminations of specimen E and the presence of relatively
large flat separation zones of fracture, which, first of all, indicate a decrease in the
energy intensity of the specimen fracture with the growth of a macrocrack.
Comparison of fractures of specimens C–F indicates that they have a kind of rotary
mechanisms of fracture, which always leads to a decrease in the energy intensity of
the fracture process [21–23]. However, specimen F has a more pronounced deep
Fig. 5 Fractograms of specimens from steel 17G1S-U: a–c under prior plastic deformation with
static tension, respectively (see Table 1); d–f at similar levels of DNP, see Table 1
Fig. 5 (continued)
dimple structure, which could lead to an increase in the energy intensity of fracture
with the growth of a macrocrack compared to specimen C.
In general, data of fractographic studies qualitatively confirm the results of
mechanical tests on crack resistance of steel 17G1S-U by the method of complete
diagrams after the application of different modes of previous plastic deformation.
4 Conclusion
The efficiency of using the method of complete stress–strain diagrams on small-sized

specimens to estimate changes in the mechanical properties of pipe steel 17G1S-
U, including the characteristics of crack resistance, is shown. The specimens were
subjected to the previous plastic deformation at static tension and similar levels of
the previous plastic deformation at impact-oscillatory loading.
An extreme nature of changes in the mechanical properties of steel 17G1S-U,
including the characteristics of crack resistance, is revealed at the previous plastic
deformation of 6.3%. In particular, the level of previous plastic deformation, both at
static stretching and at impact-oscillatory loading, significantly reduces the strength
properties of steel. However, plastic properties are increased significantly, including

the characteristics of crack resistance.
In general, a negative impact of impact-oscillatory loading on changes in mechan-
ical properties and characteristics of crack resistance of steel 17G1S-U compared to
similar levels of previous plastic deformation due to static tension was revealed. At
the same time, the simultaneous use of nanosolutions of tungsten carbide and carbon
and impact-oscillatory loading at the same levels of previous plastic deformation led
to the improvement of practically all the studied mechanical characteristics of the
steel.
Investigations into the surface layers of steel specimens by the macrohardness
method revealed a similar extreme nature of changes in the microhardness of
specimens subjected to the previous plastic deformation of 6.3%.
Fractographic studies qualitatively confirm the results of mechanical tests on crack
resistance of steel 17G1S-U by the method of complete diagrams after the application
of different modes of previous plastic deformation.
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Prediction of Residual Service Life of Oil
Pipeline Under Non-stationary Oil Flow
Taking into Account Steel Degradation
Oleksandr Andreykiv, Oksana Hembara, Iryna Dolinska,

Yaroslav Sapuzhak, and Nataliya Yadzhak
Abstract Analytical researches of growth of internal surface cracks in oil pipeline

pipe wall under real conditions of operation and determination of its residual service
life were carried out. The analysis of the operating conditions of the pipeline was
carried out during the research. It is believed that the flow of oil is turbulent with
possible hydraulic shocks; produced water is collected at the bottom of the pipe,
which causes corrosion in contact with a crack in the pipe wall. An important point
in these studies is to consider the corrosion-hydrogen degradation of the pipe material
(X60 steel) when calculating its residual life. Such calculations are based on a math-
ematical model of corrosion crack growth in metallic materials under appropriate
loading conditions, in particular time variables (turbulent oil flow with hydraulic
shocks), the action of the corrosive environment (groundwater) and the change in the
characteristics of X60 steel over time as a result of its degradation. It is shown that
the turbulence of the oil flow and the shocks significantly reduce the residual life of
the pipeline. The degradation of its material (X60 steel) over time puts the value of
this resource in the interval between the values of the residual life of the degraded
and not degraded pipe.
Keywords Oil pipeline · Degradation of X60 steel · Residual resource · Soil

corrosion · Laminar oil flow · Turbulent oil flow · Hydraulic shocks ·
Corrosion-mechanical crack
O. Andreykiv (B) · N. Yadzhak

Ivan Franko National University, Lviv, Ukraine
e-mail: andreykiv@ipm.lviv.ua
O. Hembara · I. Dolinska · Y. Sapuzhak
Karpenko Physico-Mechanical Institute of National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, Lviv,
Ukraine
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58073-5_16
204 O. Andreykiv et al.
1 Introduction
The analysis of the causes of the trunk oil pipeline leakage cases allowed us to estab-
lish that the failures are due to breaks in the metal, or in the annular butt seams. Most
pipes ruptures are due to corrosion damage. Accidents are often caused by poor
quality metal, which is characterized by insufficient plasticity, impact strength, low-
quality fused lines, factory seams and especially hydraulic shocks and pipe vibration
due to turbulence in the flow of oil during its intense pumping. Poor quality can be
due also to metal degradation. Therefore, pipeline reliability is currently one of the
most important problems. This task is complicated by the fact that the service life
(especially in Ukraine) of more than 37% of the total length of trunk oil pipelines
(TP) exceeded the length of the term of depreciation of the linear part (33 years), and
38% of oil pipelines already operated between 20 and 33 years. Recently, a series of
experimental studies of pipeline material degradation were held within 30–60 years
of operation and changes in their mechanical characteristics were measured [1, 2]. Oil
pipelines are subjected to dynamic loads throughout their lifetime (pressure ripples
and related vibrations, hydraulic shocks and so on). Dynamic loads occur during
pumping installations, triggering of the locking pipeline fittings, accidentally during
erroneous actions of the personnel, emergency power outages, erroneous triggering
of technological protections, etc. Hydraulic shocks, oscillations and pressure ripples,
increased vibration of pipelines many times increase the speed of internal corrosion
processes, contribute to the accumulation of fatigue microcracks in the metal, espe-
cially in places of stress concentration (welds, scratches, burrs, factory defects, etc.).
This is the main background of emergencies. Several studies are devoted to these
questions, especially those contained in [2–6]. However, there are currently several
unexplored important issues that require the creation of a reliable quantitative theory
of predicting the resource (residual life) of pipelines with cracks in laminar and turbu-
lent oil flows, the effects of corrosive media, shocks and degradation. This work is
dedicated to this issue.
2 Pressure Distribution in the Pipeline Under Operating

Conditions
In order to prevent the pipeline from bursting, the pumping pressure cannot be greater
than the specified operating pressure. Since the pressure fluctuations depend on the
number of stations in the site, the nature of the mode change, and a number of other
parameters, pressure increase at each pumping station may take different values [3,
4]. At start-ups and stops of pumping stations the deviation of pressure can reach up
to 2–3 MPa, at successive pumping of different types of oil—up to 1 MPa; at start
and stop of individual units—0.5–1.0 MPa and as a result of clogging of the pipeline
and formation of air plugs—usually within 0.5 MPa. If this deviation leads to an
increase in operating pressure, then measures must be taken to limit the pressure at
Prediction of Residual Service Life of Oil Pipeline Under … 205
Fig. 1 Pipeline pressure

fluctuation curve for
turbulent oil flow
the outlet of the station. The described pressure fluctuations can lead to an excess
of the outlet operating pressure of 0.2–0.5 MPa. In this case, it is not necessary to
exclude the pump, as this may result in a reduction in the supply of oil through the
pipeline.
Due to the turbulence of the oil flow, to the presence of some pump imbalances and
to fluctuations in the frequency of power supply, the pressure in the pipeline contin-
uously pulses. The curve of pressure fluctuation in a pipeline (diameter 1000 mm) is
shown in Fig. 1. The value of pressure change can be 0.2–0.3 MPa from the average
[3, 4]. If the pump units are started on closed latches, dangerous pressure may occur
when starting the unit. As the unit is started on a closed latch, the pressure it develops
here at zero flow added to the pressure of the previous units can exceed the design
pressure causing a problem for the durability of the pipeline.
At the closing of the latch, there is a sharp increase in pressure, which is determined
by the flow velocity. The resulting pressure wave propagates with the speed of sound.
After approaching the latter, a wave of reduced pressure of the reversed direction
is formed. The pressure increase at the closing of the latch on the pipeline, which
pumps the boiler fuel with a capacity of 7250 m3 /h, is shown in Fig. 2. The latch
closure time with a diameter of 900 mm in this experiment is 10.5 s. From Fig. 1, it
implies that a significant change in pressure begins after closing the latch by 70%.
The wave formed at the close of high pressure reached 4.44 MPa. Due to the increase
in the diameters of the oil pipelines, increasing the pressure and temperature of the
Fig. 2 Pressure increasing

on closing of the pipeline
gate
oil products, the stressed state of the pipe wall has significantly increased. And this
is especially true for longitudinal stresses.
The uneven distribution of soil properties along the pipeline route creates different
conditions for its degradation. Therefore, significant longitudinal stresses ση caused
by changes in the temperature and pressure of petroleum products, which are
determined by the following formula, may occur between the fixed points [5]:
ση = η(T )E − 0.3 pd(D − d)−1 , (1)
Here η is the coefficient of linear expansion of the pipe metal, which is taken
12 · 10−6 1/°; d—inner diameter of the pipe; D—outer diameter of the pipe; p—oil
pressure; E—modulus of elasticity of the metal pipe; T = TM − Te ; TM —pipeline
temperature during installation; Te —temperature of the pipeline during operation.
Stresses ση can increase significantly when settling soil. In field studies of real oil
pipelines, it has been found that ση can exceed 200 MPa.
Thus, based on the analysis of the results of the studies presented in [2–6], it is
possible to adopt the following power scheme of loading of the pipeline wall with
time. The longitudinal stresses ση are determined by the formula (1) and depend on
the variation of ΔT and P in time. Ring stresses σr will change cyclically due to oil
turbulence, pump imbalance, switching or stopping of individual pumps or stations.
3 Determination of the Residual Life of the Oil Pipeline

with Laminar Oil Flow
Consider a underground pipeline of X60 steel with a wall thickness of h = 18.7 mm

subjected to long-term static pressure p = 8 MPa, which is weakened by an external
surface semi-elliptic crack with axis a0 , b0 (Fig. 3). It is believed that the soil envi-
ronment enters the crack, causing corrosion-mechanical propagation. As mentioned
above, as a result of long-term operation under these conditions, the pipe material
degrades over time together with the propagation of corrosion-mechanical cracks [1,
2].
Fig. 3 Scheme of loading of

a pipe with a crack and its
contact with the environment
Table 1 Corrosion-mechanical characteristics of X60 steel

√ √
State of metal K SCC , (MPa m) VSC , (mm/year) K fC , (MPa m) α0 σ0 , (MPa)
Stock pipe 11.5 0.50 105 2 502
Operated pipe 9.2 3.53 91 4 485
The task is to determine the time t = t∗ when the corrosion-mechanical crack

will pass through the walls of the pipe, that is b = h, and depressurization will
occur. According to the results of experimental studies in [7–11], under long-term
static loading and the action of soil corrosion, the corrosion-mechanical crack will
propagate mainly at constant speed VSC in X60 steel. The corrosion-mechanical
characteristics of X60 steel are presented in the Table 1. The table indicates: VSC —
the rate of growth of corrosion-mechanical crack; σ0 —average stress in the area
of fracture near the crack tip; K SCC , K fC , α0 are parameters of kinetic diagram of
corrosion-fatigue crack growth [7].
Based on these data, for an arbitrary time of operation of the X60 steel pipe we can
write the following formula for approximate determination of velocity VSC ≈ VSC (t):
Vsc (t) ≈ 0.10(t + t0 ) + 0.50 (mm/year), (2)
where t0 is the initial time of operation of the pipe until the forecasted life (t∗ ) of
the pipeline.
The above task can be solved based on the previously developed energy approach
[12]. As a result, it will be reduced to the next mathematical problem:

∂ρ ∂ 2ρ
= Vk (t) 1 + ρ −2 2 ,
∂t ∂α
t = 0, ρ(0, α) = ρ0 (α); t = t∗ , ρ(t∗ , π/2) = h. (3)
Here α, ρ—coordinates of the polar system that determine the kinetic system of
contours of corrosion-mechanical crack.
For its approximate solution we proceed as follows. Since the initial crack is of
the semi-elliptic form and the rate of its propagation is constant, it can be assumed
[12] that it will differ little in its distribution from the semi-elliptic. In this regard,
we consider that the crack will have a semi-elliptic configuration in its propagation,
and therefore the solution of Eq. (3) will be reduced to such a system of ordinary
differential equations:
da db
= 0.10(t + t0 ) + 0.50, = 0.10(t + t0 ) + 0.50, (4)
dt dt
t = 0, a(0) = a0 , b(0) = b0 ; t = t∗ , a(t∗ ) = a∗ , b(t∗ ) = h. (5)

Solving the system of differential Eqs. (4) with initial and final conditions (5), we
obtain the following relations:
a(t) = a0 + 0.1(5t + tt0 + 0.5t 2 ),

b(t) = b0 + 0.1(5t + tt0 + 0.5t 2 ). (6)
Substituting the second Eq. (6) into the last relation (5), we obtain
t∗2 + (10 + 2t0 )t∗ − 20(h − b0 ) = 0. (7)
Solving (7), we obtain the formula to determine the residual pipe life:

t∗ = −(5 + t0 ) + (5 + t0 )2 + 20(h − b0 ). (8)
Fig. 4 shows the dependence of the residual durability of the pipe t∗ on the initial
depth of the crack b0 and the initial time of its operation t0 built by the formula (8).
However, Fig. 5 shows a system of kinetic contours for the propagation of a semi-
elliptic crack, starting with the initial a0 = 2 mm, b0 = 1 mm and t0 = 0. In this
Fig. 4 Dependency t∗ ∼ b0
of the residual durability of
the pipe on the initial depth
of the crack b0 and the initial
time of its operation t0 :
1—t0 = 0 ;2—4; 3—8;
4—15; 5—25; 6—35 years
Fig. 5 Growth kinetics of

crack contours at different
times: 1—t = 0; 2—3; 3—6;
4—9; 5—12; 6—14.47 years
case, the construction of a system of such contours is carried out in a time interval
0 ≤ t ≤ t∗ . The value t∗ for this case is determined based on formula (8) and it is
equal to t∗ = 14.47 years.
According to these graphs, the residual durability of the pipe depends largely on
the time t0 of initial operation, and the semi-elliptic contour of the crack eventually
goes to the semicircular.
4 Determination of the Residual Life of the Pipeline

with the Turbulent Flow of Oil, Hydrogenation
and Considering the Degradation of Material
As it is known [1, 2], most of the oil pipelines, which are intensively used, are exposed
to the external corrosive soil environment, especially when the external coating is
broken. Therefore, in many cases, the damage of the oil pipeline begins at the outer
surface of the pipe (see Fig. 3), where surface cracks are generated as a result of
degradation of the material and due to loading. As follows from the results in [3], in
the case of turbulent oil flow, the pipeline is subjected to two-frequency load: high
frequency ω1 = 0.6 s −1 (cycle period T1 ≈ 1.7 s) caused by oil flow turbulence, low
frequency ω2 = 2.1 · 10−6 s −1 (cycle period T2 ≈ 476190 s) caused by oil pumping
stops (due to shutting down pumps, closing latches, etc.). So, N1 oscillations of high
frequency pass in one cycle of low frequency, where
N1 = ω1 /ω2 ≈ 28 · 104 . (9)
Such two-frequency nature of the load must be considered in determining the

residual life of the pipeline; to this purpose, the energy approach described in [12]
is used. The essence of this approach is as follows.
Consider an oil pipeline of radius r = 710 mm and wall thickness
h = 18.7 mm (see Fig. 3) made of X60 steel. It has an internal surface semi-elliptic
crack along which a turbulent oil flows with a pressure P ≈ 4 MPa, which increases
with turbulence. In this case, the change in pressure inside the pipe changes, as stated
above, according to the two-frequency law. The task is to determine the residual life
of the pipe N = N∗ , considering the load, the action of the corrosive medium, the
hydrogenation and degradation of the X60 steel over time.
Diagrams of fatigue crack propagation for the operated and as received/reserved
pipe (see Fig. 6) for X60 steel has a plateau where the crack growth rate V is constant
at variable stress intensity coefficients.
As follows from Fig. 6, the rate of crack growth on the plateau material for the
reserved pipe and 30 years of service pipe will have respectively the following values:
V (0) ≈ 1.4 · 10−7 m/cycle; V (30) ≈ 5.6 · 10−7 m/cycle. (10)

Fig. 6 Effect of operation

on the diagram of fatigue
damage of X60 steel in soil
environment and flood [7, 9]
Since they are slightly different for the operating time of 30 years, the given
rate V (N ) for any operating time in cycles N can be represented approximately as
follows:
V (N ) ≈ 10−7 [1.4 + 0.14(N0 + N )] m/cycle. (11)
In what follows, the problem is solved as discussed in the first section of this
paper. As a result, to determine the residual life of the oil pipeline, considering the
above factors of its operation and the degradation of its material steel X60, we obtain
the following formulas:

N∗ = (10 + N0 )2 + 14.3 · 107 (0.0187 − b0 ) − 10 − N0 cycles,

t∗ = 0.015 (10 + N0 )2 + 14.3 · 107 (0.0187 − b0 ) − 10 − N0 years. (12)
Figure 7 graphically depicts the residual durability of the pipe t∗ from the initial
depth of the crack b0 and the initial time of its operation t0 that were built by formula
(12). As can be seen from the graphs in Fig. 6, the residual durability of the pipe
decreases significantly with an increase in the above factors.
Fig. 7 The dependence of

t∗ ∼ b0 residual lifetime of
the pipe on the initial depth
of the crack b0 and the initial
time of its operation N 0 :
1—N 0 = 0; 2—50; 3—100;
4—150; 5—300; 6—500
5 Estimation of the Residual Life of the Pipe

with the Laminar Flow of Oil and Multiple Hydraulic
Shocks
The long-lasting effect on pipelines of operational loads and the environment, as

well as the degradation over time of their materials, accelerates the development of
the defects in them and their welded seams. All this leads to operational failures of
oil pipelines. Therefore, determining their residual resource, considering their oper-
ational factors and degradation of materials, is essential to prevent their unforeseen
damage and emergencies.
To find the residual durability of the oil pipeline considering the hydraulic shocks
(time before depressurization), we propose a model of development in the pipe wall
of the outer surface semi-elliptic crack with the initial values a0 , b0 . In this case,
according to Fig. 3, we introduce the following notation: r —pipe radius; h—thick-
ness of the pipe wall. We believe that constant pressure p is applied inside the
pipeline, and at some intervals its additional load times the time-amplified, quasi-
dynamic loads (hydraulic shocks) P (Fig. 8). In this case, we assume that n such
additional time-averaged loads pass during the crack growth. The task is to determine
the residual durability of such a pipe taking into account these changes in loads, that
is the time t = t∗ when, as a result of mechanical stresses, degradation of the pipe
material with time and corrosive environment, the corrosion-mechanical crack will
pass through the wall of the pipe causing collapse.
Based on the results of the works, we solve this problem based on the energy
approach outlined in [12] and convert to the following differential equations, initial
and final conditions:
Fig. 8 Scheme of change in

time of loading of the
pipeline

dS ∂ ∂
= − A − Ws − Wp(1) − W p(2) , (13)
dt ∂t ∂S
t = 0, S(0) = S0 ; t = t∗ , S(t∗ ) = S∗ . S∗ = π b (t∗ ) a(t∗ ) , b (t∗ ) = h.

(14)
Here A is the work of external forces; Ws —elastic component of the deformation

energy W ; W p(1) (S)—part of the work of plastic deformation in the zone of fracture
near the contour of the crack, caused by pressure p and depends only on the crack
area S; W p(2) (t)—part of the work of plastic deformation in the area of fracture,
caused by hydro shock amplitude P and depends only on the crack area W p(2) (t);
—the energy of rupture of the pipe wall, which depends on the area of the crack,
the characteristics of the environment and time t.
The solution of the problem (13), (14) is associated with considerable mathemat-
ical difficulties. Therefore, to simplify without losing the necessary precision for
engineering purposes, we apply the method of equivalent areas [12], according to
which the change in the crack area of the considered configuration will be approxi-
mated to that for a semicircular crack of radius of the same initial area. It is considered
that the velocity of propagation of a semicircular crack at all points of its contour
will be the same. Given this, we write the mathematical model (13), (14) as follows:
dρ Vsc (K 2f c − K I2 )
=
(15)
dt n
K 2f c − K I2 − 0.25α0 σ0−1 E −1 (1 − R)4 δ(ρ − ρi ) K I4h − K scc
4
i=1
under initial and final conditions

t = 0, ρ(0) = ρ0 = a0 b0 ; t = t∗ , ρ(t∗ ) = h. (16)
Here E is Young’s module; ρi —radius of the semicircular crack at the time of the
i-th promotion of the crack; δ(ρ − ρi )—Dirac delta function [13]. In this case, the
stress intensity factor K 1 for a semicircular crack in the pipe wall based on article
[12] is written in the form:
√ √
K I = 0.7σ π h f (ε), f (ε) = ε 1 + 0.32ε2 1.04 + 0.23ε2 − 0.11ε4 ;
ε = ρ/ h; ε0 = ρ0 h −1 ; σ = pr h −1 . (17)
The calculation of the residual durability t = t∗ of the pipes taking into account
the corrosion propagation of cracks, material degradation and shocks, will be carried
out for the following geometry of the pipes and the power load: r = 0.71, h = 0.0187
m, p = 9 MPa, P = 12 MPa and mechanical and corrosion characteristics for the
operated pipes are given in the Table 1. Based on these data, we can write the following
approximate ratios of changes in the mechanical and corrosion characteristics of X60
steel over time as a result of its degradation:
√
K SCC (t) ≈ 11.5 − 7.6 · 10−2 (t + t0 ) MPa m,
VSC (t) ≈ 0.50 + 10.1 · 10−2 (t + t0 ) mm/year,
√
K f C (t) ≈ 105 − 46.7 · 10−2 (t + t0 ) MPa m,
α0 (t) ≈ 2 + 6.6 · 10−2 (t + t0 ),
σ0 (t) ≈ 502 − 56.7 · 10−2 (t + t0 ) MPa. (18)
The calculation will be carried out for specific steel pipes of oil pipelines X60.
We turn Eq. (15) to the following form:
V = dρ/dt = VSC [1 − φ(ρ, t)]−1 , (19)

n
φ(ρ, t) = 0.25α0 σ0−1 E −1 (1 − R)4 δ(ρ − ρi ) [K I4h − K scc
4
][K 2f c − K I2 ]−1 ,
i=1
(20)
where values α0 , σ0 , VSC , K SCC , K f C are time dependent t and determined from
(18). To simplify the solution of the problem, we choose the largest value φ(ρ, t) in
time t in this form:

n
max[φ(ρ, t)] = φ1 (ρ) = 33 · 10−10 δ(ρ − ρi ) [K I4h − 7226] [11026 − K I2 ]−1 .
i=1
(21)
Substituting (21) into Eq. (19) instead of a function φ(ρ, t) and integrating it
under initial and final conditions (16) we obtain
t∗2 + 2t∗ (5 + t0 ) − 20φ2 = 0, (22)

n
φ2 = (h − ρ0 ) − 33 · 10−7 [K I4h − 7226] [11026 − K I2 ]−1 . (23)
i=1
From here we find that

t∗ = −(t0 + 5) + (t0 + 5)2 + 20φ2 . (24)
Given that n is large enough, and using the theorem on the mean [13], relation
(23) can be written in the following form:
1
−1
66 · 10−7 n 2.37P 4 r 4 h −2 f 4 (ε) − 7226
φ2 = h(1 − ε0 ) −
dε. (25)
1 − ε0 11026 − 1.54 p 2 r 2 h −1 f 2 (ε)
ε0
We will assume that in the year the pipe is subjected to m hydraulic shocks, and
n is defined so:
n = m · t∗ , (26)
where t∗ —number of years of pipe operation.

Then the residual durability of the pipe, considering hydraulic shocks, we find by
the following formula:

t∗ = −(5 + t0 + m φ3 ) + (5 + t0 + m φ3 )2 + 20(h − ρ0 ),
1
0.0306 f 4 (ε)
φ3 =
dε. (27)
(1 − ε0 ) 3.31 − f 2 (ε)
ε0
Figure 9 shows the dependency of the residual durability t∗ of the plate on the
dimensionless value ε0 of the initial crack size without taking into account (curve
1) (stationary mode of operation) and taking into account (curve 2) the effects of
time-concentrated quasi-dynamic loads (hydraulic shocks) in t0 = 0 was built based
on the relation (27).
In engineering practice, the significant question is how durability of an oil pipeline
depends on the number and intensity of shocks. Based on the proposed mathematical
model (15), (16), it was possible to investigate this.
Fig. 9 Dependency t∗ ∼ ε0
in stationary mode (curve 1)
and for m hydraulic shocks
(curves 2–4): 1-m = 0;
2-m = 95; 3-m = 195;
4-m = 395
6 Summary
We have developed a method to estimate the residual life of pipelines with surface
semi-elliptic cracks for laminar and turbulent oil flows, the action of corrosive
medium, water shocks and consideration of the degradation of their materials with
time. It is shown that the degradation of the pipe material and the shocks significantly
reduce the residual durability of the pipe, compared to laminar flow only.
References
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Application of the Magnetoacoustic
Emission Method for Estimation
of Pipelines Material State
V. Skalskyi, Ye. Pochaps’kyi, O. Stankevych, B. Klym, and N. Melnyk
Abstract The influence of hydrogen factor and residual stresses on the sum of the
magnetoelastic acoustic emission (MAE) signals amplitudes during magnetization
of the oil and gas pipeline material is investigated. The regularities of change of the
MAE signals parameters by the thickness of the pipe wall and around the longitu-
dinal welded joint are established. The largest sum of the MAE signal amplitudes is
recorded in the material from the internal layer of the pipe wall, which is evidently
caused by the presence of hydrogen in the material that under long-term operation
of the pipelines has penetrated into structural defects and facilitates jumping of the
domain walls under samples magnetization. For the longitudinal welding of oil and
gas pipelines, the MAE signals with the largest sum of amplitudes are generated
in the material from the weld zone and the smallest—from the heat-affected zone.
This effect is caused by the peculiarities of the restructure of the material structure
under the influence of high-temperature fields under welding in different parts of the
welded joint. It is found that residual stresses around the welded joints reduce the
intensity of domain wall jumps and cause decrease in the sum of the MAE signals
amplitudes. The use of the obtained research results in the newly developed methods
of non-destructive testing makes it possible to quickly assess the local damage of the
pipes of long-term operation.
Keywords Magnetoacoustic emission · Ferromagnetic materials · Hydrogen ·

Welding joint · Residual stresses
1 Introduction
Pipeline transport is traditionally considered to be the most economically sound and

technologically advanced among other types of transport. In the case of transportation
V. Skalskyi · Ye. Pochaps’kyi · O. Stankevych (B) · B. Klym · N. Melnyk

Ukraine
e-mail: stan_olena@yahoo.com
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58073-5_17
218 V. Skalskyi et al.
of large volumes of products (oil, gas, etc.), it is important to ensure the reliability
of main pipelines to prevent failures and accidents.
The main cause of failures during pipelines operation (according to statistics 80%
of all failures) is corrosion, which is manifested by thinning of the pipe wall, corro-
sion and hydrogen cracking, corrosion-fatigue crack propagation.[1, 2]. A particu-
larly dangerous factor of corrosion-mechanical fracture is the aggressive effect of
hydrogen, which can cause uncontrolled failure of structure in a short period of time
[3–5]. The composition of the transported fluid (oil, gas) and the operating condi-
tions of pipelines suggest the possibility of such hydrogenation and, respectively, the
danger of fracture caused by hydrogen brittleness.
Welded joints (WJ) are the most vulnerable areas in terms of their damage and
fracture, especially in the conditions of metal hydrogenation [6]. The WJ have some
specific features: in particular, structural heterogeneity in the WJ cross-section, accu-
mulation of non-metallic inclusions in the weld metal, residual post-weld stresses,
hot and cold cracks during welding. In the case of long-term operation, these factors
can contribute to the formation of macrocracks and, as a consequence, to material
failure. Therefore, it is important to diagnose timely the state of structural elements
to ensure their fail-safe operation. For this purpose it is necessary to create the up-
to-date methods of monitoring and diagnostics of the state of pipes and individual
units and assemblies of technological equipment of pipelines.
The existing methods of non-destructive testing are mainly focused on finding
defects such as cracks and determining their geometric dimensions. Acoustic
methods, in particular, the acoustic emission method (AE), are the most common
and well developed ones [7]. The AE method traditional implementation requires
the application of additional external mechanical loading applied to the object under
control [8]. Because the level of loading required to start small defects propagation
can significantly exceed the acceptable optimal load modes of the object, the practical
application of the AE diagnosis is limited. The phenomenon of generation of magne-
toacoustic emission (MAE) signals under the influence of an external magnetic field,
which causes the movement of the magnetic domains walls, is an alternative to its
use and local diagnostics of ferromagnetic structural elements and products [9–12].
These processes occur most intensively in the region of the individual defects or
their clusters, where significant mechanical stress gradients are present. In addition,
the numerous factors, in particular residual stresses [13–15], microstructure [16–
18], microhardness [17, 19], heat treatment modes [20], applied stresses and plastic
deformation [21–24], hydrogen [25–28] etc. have a significant influence on the MAE
signals parameters.
The aim of the performed researches is to establish the peculiarities of the MAE
generation by the tube steels of oil and gas pipelines of long-term operation.
Application of the Magnetoacoustic Emission Method … 219
2 Materials and Methods
Materials of the main oil pipelines pipes with a lifetime of 38 years and a gas pipeline
of 39 years were investigated. The oil pipe had an external diameter of 720 mm and a
wall thickness of 10 mm. The chemical composition of steel (wt. %): 0.18C–0.49Si–
0.95Mn–0.035S–0.03P–0.11Cr–0.19Cu. External gas pipe diameter was 1000 mm
and wall thickness – 10 mm. The chemical composition of steel (wt. %): 0.16C–
0.51Si–1.33Mn–0.04S–0.035P–0.32Cr–0.14Cu.
It can be seen from Fig. 1a that the orientation of the metal blanks for specimens
preparation was along the axis of the pipe. The specimens were cut from the bottom
part because it was most exposed to the effect of aggressive environment of the trans-
porting products. To manufacture specimens from the pipe wall it was conventionally
divided on three zones (Fig. 1b): the external layer (1) that was about one third part of
the thickness and included the outer surface of the pipe, the middle layer (2) and the
internal layer (3) that included the inner surface of the pipe. The prismatic specimens
in size 240 × 30 × 2 mm were made from the metal blanks, adhering to such modes
of processing under which minimal cold work and mechanical stresses are formed,
as well as minimal changes in structure and phase state occur.
Figure 2 shows the test chart. The quasi-static magnetization of the samples was
carried out by a sinusoidal current in solenoid 1, having 1500 turns of five-layer
copper wire. The outer diameter of the coil was 35 mm with its length of 94 mm.
The magnetization signal was formed by a magnetoacoustic measuring system and
applied to the solenoid coil. The frequency of the magnetization was 9 Hz.
The MAE was measured using a piezoelectric wide band transducer with the
frequency range from 0.2 to 2.0 MHz. After amplification, the recorded signal was
input to the magnetoacoustic system, which statistically processed a signal, visualized
and stored the results on a personal computer. The induction of magnetic field varied
from 0.21 to 1.03 T (0.21, 0.45, 0.7, 0.9, 1.03 T) and measured with a coil.
Fig. 1 The places of cutting the blanks from the pipe bottom (1) and the welded joint (2) and a
chart of cutting out the experimental specimens of pipes (b) (1–3—internal, middle and external
layers of the pipe wall respectively; 4—places for cutting specimens from the pipe wall; 5—pipe
wall)
Fig. 2 A chart of experimental set-up for magnetization in a solenoid: 1 solenoid; 2 measuring

winding; 3 specimen; 4 MAE measuring transducer; 5 previous amplifier; 6 reference resistor for
measuring magnetization current; 7 MAE device; 8 personal computer
Fig. 3 Places of samples cutting from a pipe fragment with a longitudinal WJ: a 1 base metal, 2
weld metal, b 3 heat-affected zone
The influence of the structure heterogeneity of the WJ pipeline on the parameters

of the MAE signals was studied on the samples of size 240 × 10 × 3 mm, cut
from three main zones (base metal, heat-affected zone, weld) of the longitudinal WJ
(Figs. 1 and 3). They were magnetized using a C-core electromagnet [29] with 1260
coils of copper wire on each leg of the magnetic circuit. The induction amplitude of
the magnetic field in the sample was measured by a coil with an active resistance of
14 .
To estimate the effect of residual stresses in the vicinity of the WJ and the stressed
sections of the ferromagnetic structural elements on the MAE signal parameters, a
pipe section of 1020 mm diameter, 10 mm wall thickness, after 48 years of operation
was investigated. The plate with a longitudinal WJ had dimensions of 300 × 150
× 10 mm (Fig. 4a). Chemical composition of steel (wt. %): 0.18 °C – 0.49Si—
0.95Mn—0.035S—0.03P—0.11Cr—0.19Cu (%). Figure 4b shows the test chart.
To remove the internal stresses, the fragment was annealed for 2 h at T = 550 °C,
after which it was cooled down together with the oven. Heating of the steel to the
selected temperature does not change the microstructure of the material, but at the
same time ensures the removal of residual stresses in it. The MAE measurements
were performed on the plate before and after annealing at different distances from the
middle of the WJ. Figure 4a shows the scale of measurement points on either side of
Fig. 4 General view of the investigated plate with longitudinal WJ (marked by a dashed line)
(a) and structural diagram of magnetization by the electromagnet (b): 1 C-core electromagnet, 2
excitation coil, 3 pipe fragment, 4 weld, 5 acoustic emission converter, 6 measuring coil
the middle of the WJ. The dependence of the MAE signals amplitude on the location
of the C-core electromagnet on the research object before and after annealing was
built using the experimental results.
3.1 Effect of Hydrogen Factor on the MAE Signals Amplitude
It is known that the structure and mechanical characteristics of pipelines steels change
due to their long-time operation under the influence of corrosive environments.
The steels hydrogenation has also a significant effect on their degradation. After
prolonged exploitation of the steel due to the increase of the metal defectiveness, the
intensity of hydrogen retention in traps increases significantly.
To study the influence of hydrogen on the amplitude of the MAE signals, the
microstructure of oil and gas pipeline steels, as well as micro- and macrohardness, and
the peculiarities of MAE generation under magnetization of pipe material samples
from different layers of its wall are analyzed.
Note that the microstructure of the degraded metal consists of ferrite-pearlitic
columnar crystals [27]. Metallographic investigations show that metal is damaged
by a large number of pores of size of 1–3 µm in the pipe wall cross-section (Fig. 5).
The number of pores increases by 10–20% over the thickness of the metal pipe from
the external (Fig. 5a) to the internal (Fig. 5c) layer. Pores, formed under operation
have a spherical shape, typical of defects caused by the presence of gases in the metal
structure.
Figure 6 shows a typical distribution of defects in the pipeline material for each
layer of the gas pipeline pipe wall [27]. The microstructure of metal of the gas pipeline
consists of ferrite and perlite grains (about 65% of ferrite and 35% of perlite) and is
fine-grained. At the same time, there is no striation inherent to the tube steels, which
are produced mainly by the rolling method. Average grain sizes are as follows:
Fig. 5 Distribution of pores in the oil pipeline wall: a external, b middle and c internal
Fig. 6 Typical distribution of technological defects in the pipe wall layers: a phosphide inclusions
in external layer; b defects of forge-rolling in the middle and c in the internal layers
ferrite—30 … 35 µm; perlite—20 … 25 µm. The technological defects caused

by the process of steel production are also found. Figure 6a shows the nonmetallic
phosphide inclusions, formed during final deoxidation of the liquid metal. The cavity
caused by metal shrinkage (Fig. 6b) and a small amount of gas pores caused by the
gas evolution under metal cooling to the solid phase (Fig. 6c) are also recorded.
Figure 7a shows the averaged values of metal microhardness of different layers
by the thickness of the pipe wall for the oil pipeline and Fig. 7b—of the gas pipeline.
According to the results of microhardness studies of the oil pipeline steel, it is found
that its highest value (~200 HV) was recorded in the internal layer, and the lowest
Fig. 7 Microhardness of the metal of different layers by the thickness of the pipe wall: a oil and
b gas pipelines: 1 external, 2 middle, 3 internal layers.
(170 HV)—in the external layer (Fig. 7a). By measuring the macrohardness of the
metal of different layers of the pipe wall of the oil pipeline it is found that the
macrohardness by both Rockwell and Brinell is the same—90 HRB and 187 HB,
respectively.
The internal wall layer had the highest microhardness for the material of the
gas pipeline—185 HV, and the external and middle layers—within 170 … 175 HV
(Fig. 7b). According to the measurements of the metal macrohardness of different
layers of the gas pipeline wall, it was found that samples from the inner layer of
the pipe wall had a somewhat higher macrohardness according to Rockwell and
Brinell—92 … 93 HRB and 192 … 197 HB, respectively, and the samples from the
external and middle layers had the same macrohardness both according to Rockwell
and Brinell—91 HRB and 187 HB, respectively.
According to literature data [30], the impact toughness and hardness of the oil and
gas pipes surface decrease due to their long-term operation, which is a phenomenon
of operational degradation and is explained by the development of scattered damages.
The hardness of the internal surface layers of a non-operated pipe is substantially
higher than that of the external ones. For long-term operation pipes, this difference
remains, though it is significantly reduced. The results obtained in our studies corre-
late well with the literature and indicate, on the one hand, the operational damage
of the metal in the volume of the pipe wall, while the hardness gradient by its
thickness—confirms the negative role of hydrogen in the process of steel degradation.
Figure 8a shows the dependences of the sum of the MAE signals amplitudes versus
the magnetic field induction during magnetization of the oil pipe samples cut out from
the internal, middle and external layers of the wall. We can see that the largest sum
of amplitudes is obtained from the MAE signals generated under magnetization of
samples from the internal layer of the pipe wall and the smallest—from the external
one.
For the magnetic field induction of 0.92 T, the sum of the MAE signals amplitudes
in the internal layer of the wall is greater by 10% than in the external one. This
Fig. 8 Sum of MAE signals amplitudes versus magnetic field induction for the specimens of the
pipe material of the oil (a) and gas (b) pipelines for various layers of the pipe wall: 1 external; 2
middle; 3 internal layer.
phenomenon can be explained by a number of factors. The microstructure of various

layers of the pipe wall is slightly different. In particular, a significant number of pores
were detected in the internal layer of the pipe. It is known that the greater porosity of
the material cause a decrease in the MAE due demagnetizing effect of the pores [31].
Thus the MAE in the internal layer of the pipe wall should have been the smallest. At
the same time, the results of our experiments showed an inverse effect. By comparing
the obtained dependence of the sum of the MAE signals amplitudes with literature
data [27] for the structural steel in as-received stage and after hydrogenation it can
be assumed that the dominant factor of the increase of the sum of the MAE signals
amplitudes in the internal layer of the pipe wall is the presence of some concentration
of adsorbed hydrogen, which facilitates the domain walls jumps in the ferromagnetic
material during magnetization. Since the aggressive medium less affects the external
layer of the pipe wall, the sums of the MAE signals amplitudes in this layer is
smaller than in other layers. Therefore, the damage of ferromagnetic materials can
be estimated by the sum of the MAE signals amplitudes.
Figure 8b shows the dependence of the sum of the MAE signals amplitudes versus
the magnetic field induction under magnetization of the specimens of gas pipeline
from the various layers of the pipe wall. Similar to the previous case, we can see
that the MAE signals generated during magnetization of specimens from the internal
layer of the wall pipe have the greatest sum of the signals amplitudes, while from
the external layer of the wall pipe have—the lowest sum. For the magnetic field
induction of 0.92 T, the sum of the MAE signals amplitudes in the internal layer of
the wall is greater by 37% than in the external one. This effect can be caused by a
significant degradation of the internal layer of the pipe wall metal due to prolonged
contact with the aggressive gas mixture, as well as by the presence of hydrogen in
the metal structure adsorbed from it.
3.2 Estimation of Effect of Residual Stresses of Welded Joints

on the MAE
As noted above, the change in the stress–strain state of the object under study, different
modes of heat treatment, the change in the chemical composition of the metal and its
hardness have an effect on the material magnetic properties. Each of these factors is
present during welding. The presence of different microstructures in all WJ zones and
introduction of additional stresses due to the influence of high temperatures remain
the main problems after WJ crystallization.
To study the effect of residual stresses on the MAE signals amplitude, the metal
microstructure of different WJ zones was investigated, and then the samples were
magnetized using C-core electromagnet.
For example, Fig. 9 shows the microstructure of the different zones of the WJ
metal of gas pipeline.
Fig. 9 Microstructure of the gas pipe WJ metal: a base metal, b heat-affected zone, c weld (×125).
We can see that the structure of the weld metal is characterized by greater disper-
sion (Fig. 9c) when compared with the base metal (Fig. 9a), which is characterized
by a certain banding due to rolling. In the heat-affected zone, the area of overheating
with coarse-grained ferrite-pearlite structure and existing Widmanstatten ferrite is
the main area (Fig. 9b).
It is known that increasing grain size leads to a decrease in the MAE activity [32],
on the other hand [33–35] no-180° domain walls, which are the main source of MAE,
are located along the grain boundaries. Therefore, in the absence of other factors in
the metal structure with a higher degree of dispersion, and due to a greater overall
length of the boundaries, the activity of MAE signals generation increases and, as a
result, their sum of amplitudes increases too.
Figure 10 shows the dependence of the sum of the MAE signals amplitudes versus
the magnetic field induction for the specimens from different zones of the pipe WJ
of the oil and gas pipelines.
We can see that the increase of magnetic field induction leads to the increase of the
sum of MAE signals amplitudes in all samples. In the case of constant magnetic field
Fig. 10 Sum of MAE signals amplitudes versus magnetic field induction for the specimens from
different zones of the pipe WJ of the oil (a) and gas (b) pipelines (1 base metal, 2 heat-affected
zone, 3 weld)
Fig. 11 Sum of MAE

signals amplitudes versus
location of the C-core
electromagnet on the pipe
fragment before (curve 1)
and after (curve 2) annealing
induction, the highest magnitudes of the amplitude sums are obtained from the MAE
signals generated during magnetization of the weld metal samples (Fig. 10a and b,
curve 1) and the lowest during magnetization of the samples from the heat-affected
zone (Fig. 10a and b, curve 2). The obtained results agree well with the results of
study of the microstructure of different WJ zones.
Using the experimental results obtained on the pipe fragment with the longitudinal
WJ, the dependences of the sum of the MAE signals amplitudes versus the location of
the C-core electromagnet on the object was constructed (Fig. 11). We can see that both
before and after annealing with the increase of the distance of the MAE measurement
point from the middle of the WJ on both sides, the sum of the MAE signals amplitudes
increases, which is associated with a decrease in the metal structure dispersion with
the distance from the weld.
It is established that the sum of the MAE signals amplitudes in the WJ of the plate
before annealing (Fig. 11, curve 1) is smaller than in the annealed state (Fig. 11,
curve 2). It is known that domain walls can jump due to their separation from the
fixation centers if the values of the externally applied fields exceed the critical values
of the fixation field. Obviously, the residual stresses after welding contribute to the
creation of additional fixation centers of walls, which decreases the intensity of their
jumps, and therefore leads to a decrease in the sum of the MAE signals amplitudes.
4 Conclusions
These researches made it possible to establish the peculiarities of the MAE generation
of pipe steels of oil and gas pipelines of long-term operation. It was found that:
• the dominant factor of the increase of the MAE signals generation activity in the
oil and gas pipeline steels is the presence of hydrogen in their structure, which,
during long-term operation, has deeply penetrated into the defects (traps), thus
facilitating the jumping of the domain walls during material magnetization;
• the difference in the MAE activity in different layers of the pipe wall prove the
different degree of their defectiveness and, consequently, the different degree of
hydrogenation;
• the highest values of the sum of the MAE signals amplitudes are recorded for
the weld material, which is caused by the greatest dispersion of its structure,
compared to other welded joint zones;
• the sum of the MAE signals amplitudes increases with increasing distance from
the weld, what is associated with a decrease in the dispersion of the metal structure
with the growing distance from the welded joint;
• residual stresses decrease the intensity of domains walls jumps and cause a
decrease in the sum of the MAE signals amplitudes, which is obviously caused
by the creation of additional fixation centers of domains walls.
The obtained investigation results confirm the possibility of the effective use of the
MAE method to estimate the damage of steels of long-term operation, and thus for the
diagnostics of the volume damage of structural elements made of such ferromagnetic
materials.
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of the in-service degradation of welded joints of oil mains. Mater. Sci. 51(2), 165–171 (2015).
7. Nazarchuk, Z., Skalskyi, V., Serhiyenko, O.: Acoustic emission. Methodology and Application.
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of internal defects in composite materials. Mater. Sci. 37(1), 106–117 (2001)
9. Shibata, M., Ono, K.: Magnetomechanical acoustic emission—a new method of nondestructive
stress measurement. NDT Int. 14(5), 227–234 (1981)
10. Jiles, D.C.: Review of magnetic methods for nondestructive evaluation. NDT Int. 21(5), 311–
319 (1988)
11. Buttle, D.J., Yakubovies, J.P., Briggs, J.A.D.: Magnetoacoustic and Barkhauzen emission from
domain. Wall interaction with precipitates in Incoloy 904. Philosop. Mag. A. 55(6), 735–756
(1987).
12. Butt1e, D.J., Scruby, C.B., Yakubovics, J.P., Briggs, J.A.D.: Magnetoacoustic and Barkhauzen
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1487–1492 (1988)
22. Piotrowski, L., Chmielewski, M., Augustyniak, B.: The influence of elastic deformation on
the properties of the magnetoacoustic emission (MAE) signal for GO electrical steel. J. Magn.
Magn. Mater. 324(16), 2496–2500 (2012)
23. Piotrowski, L., Augustyniak, B., Chmielewski, M., Kowalewski, Z.: Possibility of application of
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method of magnetoelastic acoustic emission for the analysis of the technical state of 19G steel
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Corrosion-Mechanical Failure of Pipe
Steels in Hydrogen Sulfide Environments
Myroslav Khoma, Vasyl Vynar, Maryan Chuchman, and Chrystyna Vasyliv
Abstract The relationship between the hydrogenating of steels 20, 30CrMo and
17Mn1Si and their resistance to corrosion-fatigue fracture under static and cyclic
loads in NACE solution has been investigated. It was found that the volume of
adsorbed hydrogen does not determine the corrosion cracking resistance of steels.
Steels 20 and 17Mn1Si absorb about the same amount of hydrogen under static
loads, however their corrosion cracking resistance is different. The threshold tension
for 20 steel is less than for 17Mn1Si steel. Corrosion fatigue resistance of 20 steel
under cyclic loads is higher than of 17Mn1Si. Absorption of hydrogen by steels
increases under the action of tensile static stresses and decreases at the symmetric
cyclic loading. The threshold tension for 30CrMo steel at static stresses is high
enough (440 MPa, σth /σ0.2 = 0.8), but threshold average tension does not reach at
cyclic asymmetric stresses with amplitudes σa = 0.2σ0.2 and samples fail before
720 h. It indicates a higher sensitivity of this steel to the action of cyclic asymmetric
stresses compared to 20 and 17Mn1Si steel. Reducing of resistance to corrosion-
fatigue fracture of 30CrMo steel under asymmetric cyclic loads correlates with the
change in the hydrogenating nature of environment. Corrosion-mechanical failure of
steel 20 occurs mainly as a result of hydrogen embrittlement, and the failure of steel
17Mn1Si caused by the simultaneous action of corrosion and hydrogen factors.
Keywords Hydrogen sulfide stress corrosion cracking · Corrosion fatigue ·

Hydrogen sulfide environment · Pipe steel · Hydrogen embrittlement · Absorption
1 Introduction
The protection of pipe steels against failure caused by hydrogen sulfide is the
topical problem in oil and gas industry. The hydrogen sulfide in environments
M. Khoma · V. Vynar · M. Chuchman · C. Vasyliv (B)

Karpenko Physico-Mechanical Institute of National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, Lviv,
Ukraine
e-mail: chrystyna.vasyliv@gmail.com
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58073-5_18
232 M. Khoma et al.
accelerates corrosion of steel, promotes its localization and intensifies absorption

and diffusion of hydrogen. It can cause hydrogen embrittlement of loaded metal
elements and their accelerated fracture as a result of hydrogen-induced cracking
(HIC) and hydrogen sulfide stress corrosion cracking (SSCC) [1–7]. Hydrogen
sulfide significantly reduced fracture resistance of steels under cyclic loading [7–10].
In general, hydrogenation of steel in hydrogen sulfide environments is related
with the rate of cathodic process of hydrogen release and its retarding stage nature.
Hydrogen can be absorbed on the metal surface only in the form of atoms. Further,
adsorbed atoms can diffuse into metal. It causes the appearance of internal stresses
and embrittlement of metal [3–6]. Hydrogenation of metal depends on the stability
of adsorbed hydrogen and is determined by many conditions: environment compo-
sition, metal nature, formation of insoluble corrosion products on the surface etc.
High diffusion mobility, insignificant dissolution and great damaging action are
unique features of hydrogen behavior in iron and steel [3–6]. It is considered that
hydrogen in the metal exists in two kinds: diffusion-moving hydrogen (activation
energy ≈12.6 kJ/mol) and residual hydrogen (activation energy (≈37 … 42 kJ/mol)
[3]. Diffusion-moving hydrogen can be released from the metal at a temperature
of 200 °C, and residual hydrogen—at 800 °C. Diffusion-moving hydrogen has a
considerable damaging effect in metals and causes initiation and propagation of
microcracks. Residual hydrogen is less active [3–6]. Investigations on the influence
of diffusion-moving and residual hydrogen in metals on the structure and properties
have not been completed [3–5].
The relationship between the hydrogenating of steels 20, 30CrMo and 17Mn1Si
and their resistance to corrosion-fatigue fracture under static and cyclic loads in
hydrogen sulfide environment has been investigated in this work.
2 Experimental Program
Pipe steels 20, 17Mn1Si and 30CrMo were tested (Table 1).
The resistance of steel to stress corrosion cracking under static loads was deter-
minated according to the requirements of the standards of NACE TM0177-90 [11].
Corrosive environment was a standard aqueous NACE solution (mass.%: 5% NaCl
+ 0.5% CH3 COOH + H2 S(saturated) , pH 3… 4, 20 ± 3ºC). During an experiment H2 S
was bubbled through solution with speed ~0.2 ml/min.
Cylinder specimens with diameter 6.4 mm were placed in a cell with solution and
loaded by permanent static tension. Threshold tension σth (criterion of steel resistance
to SSCC) was estimated in the 720 h test.
The combined effect of static and cyclic stresses on steels durability was studied.
Asymmetric cyclic loads (R = σmax /σmin > 0) with a frequency of 0.5 Hz and tension
amplitudes σa = 0.2 σ0.2 were applied. Duration of test—720 h.
Resistance of steels to low-cycle fatigue during symmetrical cyclic stresses was
studied on round specimens with a diameter of the working part of 5 mm. Duration
of test—was 200,000 cycles, loading frequency 1 Hz.
Table 1 Chemical composition of steels (mass.%). (Fe-bal.)
Steel C Si Mn Ni S P Cr V N Al Cu As Mo
20 0.17–0.24 0.17–0.37 0.35–0.65 < 0.3 < 0.04 < 0.035 < 0.25 – – – < 0.3 < 0.08 -
17Mn1Si 0.15–0.2 0.4–0.6 1.15–1.6 < 0.3 < 0.035 < 0.03 < 0.3 < 0.12 < 0.008 0.02– < 0.3 < 0.08 –
0.05
30CrMo 0.26–0.33 0.17–0.37 0.4–0.7 < 0,3 < 0.025 < 0.025 0.8–1.1 – – – < 0.3 0.1–0.25
Corrosion-Mechanical Failure of Pipe Steels in Hydrogen …
233
234 M. Khoma et al.
Concentration of hydrogen in steels was determined by the vacuum extraction

method [2, 6]. Samples were heated in vacuum and the volume of hydrogen desorbed
from the metal was measured at 200 °C (CH200 ) and 800 °C (CH800 ). Liquid differential
pressure gauge was used, which was filled by dibutyl phthalate. Diffusion-moving
hydrogen desorbs at 200 °C and residual hydrogen—at 800 °C. The volume of
desorbed hydrogen from 1 dm2 of surface was presented in cm3 /dm2 .
Metallographic investigations were performed using scanning electron micro-
scope EVO 40XVP with a system of microanalysis on energy-dispersive X-ray
spectrometer INCA ENERGY 350.
3 Experimental Results and Discussion
Steel 20 is sensitive to stress corrosion cracking in NACE solution: threshold tension

is σth = 175 MPa (σth /σ0.2 = 0.6) and reduces 1.2 times under the influence of cyclic
asymmetric tension with amplitudes σa = 0.2σ0.2 .
The threshold tension of steel 17Mn1Si at static stresses is 295 MPa (σth /σ0.2 =
0.7) and decrease to 160 MPa at cyclic asymmetric load.
The threshold tension of 30CrMo steel at static stresses is high enough (440 MPa,
σth /σ0.2 = 0.8), but average threshold tension have not been reached at cyclic asym-
metric load with amplitudes σa = 0.2σ0.2 and samples failed before 720 h. It indicates
a higher sensitivity of this steel to the action of cyclic asymmetric stresses compared
to 20 and 17Mn1Si steel.
It was found that high resistance of steels to hydrogen sulfide stress corrosion
cracking does not guarantee the same resistance to stress-corrosion fatigue under
symmetrical cyclic stresses. In the last case, the corrosion fatigue limit (σ-1c ) for
steel 20 in the NACE solution reduces by ~1.4 times compared to the test on air
(σ-1 ), and for 30CrMo and 17Mn1Si steels—by ~2.7 and 2.5 times (Table 2).
It is believed that the absorption of hydrogen is the main factor contributing to the
reduction of steels resistance and to its brittleness in hydrogen sulfide environment
[1–5]. Therefore, the effect of different stresses on the hydrogenation of steels was
investigated. The vacuum extraction of samples at temperatures of 200° and 800°
was used.
Table 2 Corrosion-mechanical properties of steels

Steel σth a , MPa σth /σ0,2 σR , MPa σ-1 , MPa σ-1c , MPa σ-1 /σ-1c
Steel 20 175 0.60 140 300 210 1.4
17Mn1Si 295 0.70 160 320 130 2.5
30CrMo 440 0.8 – 320 120 2.7
aσ
th threshold tension at corrosion cracking; σ 0,2 yield limit; σ R threshold average tension at
asymmetrical stress; σ -1 low cycle fatigue limit; σ -1c low cycle corrosion fatigue limit
Corrosion-Mechanical Failure of Pipe Steels in Hydrogen … 235
20 and 30CrMo Steels in the Unloaded State Absorbs ~24 cm3 /dm2 of Hydrogen,
and 17Mn1Si Steel ~16.62 cm3 /dm2 .
All tested steels absorbed more hydrogen under static and cyclic loads, than
unloaded samples, which were in the same environment.
Additional asymmetric cyclic stress into the direction of static tension slightly
reduces the volume of absorbed hydrogen in 20 and 17Mn1Si steels and increases
it by a third in 30CrMo steel. Application of cyclic symmetric loads significantly
decreases the volume of hydrogen (Figs. 1, 2 and 3). Therefore, tensile loads increase
the amount of absorbed hydrogen..
Steel 20 and 17Mn1Si under static loads absorbed about the same amount of
hydrogen, but their corrosion cracking resistance in NACE solution is different.
Therefore, the amount of absorbed hydrogen is not a criterion for estimation the
resistance of steel to corrosion cracking or the corrosion fatigue resistance.
The most sensitive parameter of the steels hydrogenating is the ratio CH200 /CH800
(volume of extracted hydrogen at temperatures of 200 and 800 °C). The CH200 is
more than CH800 for both loaded and unloaded 20 and 17Mn1Si steels. However,
the ratios CH200 /CH800 for loaded and unloaded 30CrMo steel are different: absorbed
hydrogen is mostly diffusion-mobile in unloaded samples, but it is mostly residual
in samples under stress: CH800 increases almost 7 times under asymmetrical cyclic
loads.
Fig. 1 The influence of mechanical stress on the steel 20 hydrogenation at different tensions:
a static; b cyclic asymmetric; c cyclic symmetric
Fig. 2 The influence of mechanical stress on the steel 17Mn1Si hydrogenation at different tensions:
236 M. Khoma et al.
Fig. 3 The influence of mechanical stress on the steel 30CrMo hydrogenation at different tensions:
This means, that tensile stresses change the hydrogenation nature of the 30CrMo
steel. Taking into account that fracture resistance of 30CrMo steel reduces under the
influence of asymmetric cyclic stresses, it can be argued that the change in the nature
of hydrogenating correlates with the reduction of corrosion-fracture resistance.
Microstructure of steel 20 consists of ferrite and local inclusions of perlite globular
grains (Fig. 4a). Single defects appear in metal under the influence of static stress.
(Fig. 4b). It causes propagation of cracks along of applied tensures and multi-blade
breaking (Fig. 4c). Local corrosion-mechanical damages and cracks nucleation are
not registered on the surface. Therefore, hydrogen cracking can be considered as a
main factor of steel 20 failure under the static load in NACE solution.
Metallographic studies of steel 20 showed a slight increase of cracking under
asymmetric cyclic stresses. (Fig. 4d). Surface corrosion-mechanical damages were
not detected.
Several cracks without significant etching of the surface appears on steel 20 at
symmetrical cyclic stresses (Fig. 4e). There are hydrogen cracks, which stopped due
to the corrosion etching of their peaks. Therefore, hydrogen can be considered the
dominant factor in the steel damage. No stratification inside of metal is observed.
The structure of 17Mn1Si steel is a heterogeneous striped ferrite-pearlite (Fig. 5a).
Under the static stresses local surface damages were observed, which initiated the
Fig. 4 Microstructure of steel 20: initial (a); after destruction in NACE solution under the influence
of static stress (b, c); asymmetrical cyclic stress (d); symmetrical cyclic stress (e)
Fig. 5 Microstructure of steel 17Mn1Si: initial (a); after destruction in NACE solution under the
influence of static stress (b); asymmetrical cyclic stress (c); symmetrical cyclic stress (d), × 100
corrosion cracking (Fig. 5b). Therefore, the main destroying factors of the ferrite-
pearlite steel 17Mn1Si in hydrogen-sulfide environment are simultaneous hydrogen
charge and local corrosion of the stressed metal, which cause the emergence and
propagation of many cracks.
Significant increase in the hydrogen cracking was detected in near-surface layer
of 17Mn1Si steel under the influence of asymmetric cyclic stresses. Obviously, in
this case the volume of hydrogen in the internal micro cavities is more than at static
stresses. Corrosion-mechanical damages were also detected on the surface. It was
found, that cracks are generated on the surface damages and propagated into internal
layers of metal. When cracks reach sections of steel with layering, they stop, which
promotes their branching (Fig. 5d).
Under the influence of symmetrical cyclic stresses, a large amount of local
corrosion-mechanical damage is observed on the 17Mn1Si steel surface. Cracks
originates on the surface damages and propagates into internal layers of metal. There
is also a small amount of hydrogen seams in metal (Fig. 5e).
The microstructure of 30CrMo steel is a fine-dyspersated sorbite with single
globular nonmetallic inclusions (Fig. 6a, b). Corrosion damage and hydrogen delam-
ination of 30CrMo steel are not observed after static and cyclic loading tests. The
Fig. 6 The microstructure of 30CrMo steel in initial state (a, b) and after loading tests (c)
238 M. Khoma et al.
corrosion is uniform (Fig. 6c). It can be associated with a low concentration of sulfur
in metal (0.008% mass). The failure of this steel in hydrogen sulfide NACE solution
occurs in one crack. Obviously, it is a result of hydrogen embrittlement.
Therefore, stress corrosion cracking of steels 20 and 30CrMo in NACE hydrogen
sulfide environment is mainly the result of hydrogen embrittlement, and steels
17Mn1Si fails in the result of simultaneous action of corrosion and hydrogen
embrittlement.
1. It was found that the volume of absorbed hydrogen cannot be the criterium to
estimate the resistance of steel to stress corrosion cracking or low-cycle corro-
sion fatigue in NACE solution. The volume of absorbed hydrogen is almost the
same for 20 and 17Mn1Si steels under static loads, and their resistance to stress
corrosion cracking is different. The threshold stress for 20 steel is 175 MPa (σth
/σ0,2 = 0.6) and for 17 Mn1Si steel—295 MPa (σth /σ0,2 = 0.76).
2. Tensile deformation increases the absorption of hydrogen in 20CrMo, 17Mn1Si
and 30CrMo steels in NACE solution. Simultaneous action of asymmetric cyclic
and static loads slightly reduces the volume of absorbed hydrogen in 20 and
17Mn1Si steels.
3. Reducing of resistance to corrosion-fatigue fracture of 30CrMo steel under
asymmetric cyclic loads correlates with the change in the hydrogenating nature.
Volume of residual hydrogen under asymmetrical cyclic loads increases almost
7 times.
4. Stress corrosion cracking of 20 and 30CrMo steels in NACE hydrogen sulfide
environment is mainly the result of hydrogen embrittlement, and 17Mn1Si steel
fails as a consequence of corrosion and hydrogen embrittlement.
References
1. Nogueira, R.P., Roche, V., Berthomé, G., Chauveau, E., Estevez, R., Mantel, M.: Sulfide stress
corrosion study of a super martensitic stainless steel in H2 S sour environments: metallic sulfides
formation and hydrogen embrittlement. Appl. Surf. Sci. 394, 132–141 (2017)
2. Loto, C.A.: Stress corrosion cracking: characteristics, mechanisms and experimental study. Int.
J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 93, 3567–3582 (2017)
3. Zhang, T.C., Jiang, X.X., Li, S.Z.: Hydrogen-induced embrittlement wear of a high-strength,
low-alloy steel in an acidic environment. Corrosion 53, 200–205 (1997)
4. Gabetta, G., Cioffi, P., Bruschib, R.: Engineering thoughts on Hydrogen Embrittlement.
Procedia Structural Integrity 9, 250–256 (2018)
5. Hirth J.P.: Effects of hydrogen on the properties of iron and steel. Metall. Mater. Trans. A 11A,
861–891(1980)
6. Das, G.S.: Influence of Hydrogen Sulfide on CO2 Corrosion in Pipeline Steel. Int. J. Eng. Res.
Technol. (IJERT) 3(4), 2224–2228 (2014)
7. Khoma, M.S., Chuchman, M.R., Ivashkiv, V.R., Sysyn, H.M.: The influence of cyclic loading
on fracture resistance of pipe steels and their weld joints in hydrogen sulphide environments.
Mater. Sci. 49, 334–340 (2013)
8. Beidokhti, B., Dolati, A., Koukabi, A.: Effects of alloying elements and microstructure on
the susceptibility of the welded HSLA steel to hydrogen-induced cracking and sulfide stress
cracking. Mater. Sci. Eng., A 507(1), 167–173 (2009)
9. Khoma, M.S., Ivashkiv, V.R., Chuchman, M.R., Vasyliv, Ch.B., Ratska, N.B., Datsko, B.M.:
Corrosion cracking of ferrite-pearlitic steels of different structure in the hydrogen sulfide
environment under static load. Procedia Structural Integrity 13, 2184–2189 (2018)
10. Khoma M.S.: Influence of Static and Cyclic Tensions on Corrosion—Mechanical Destruction
of Steels in Hydrogen Sulfide Environments, Proceedings of the NATO Advanced Research
Workshop «The Black Sea: Strategy for Addressing its Energy Resource Development and
Hydrogen Energy Problems, pp. 343–350 Batumi, Georgia (2012)
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Determination of Preconditions Leading
to Critical Stresses in Pipeline During
Lowering
Yurii Melnychenko, Lubomyr Poberezhny, Volodymyr Hrudz,

Vasyl Zapukhliak, Ihor Chudyk, and Taras Dodyk
Abstract The problem of changing the spatial position of pipelines at different

stages of their life cycle is described. The stages and conditions of pipeline construc-
tion or operation as well as different modes of technological equipment operation
mainly effect on it. In various applied researches of these processes, an attention is
mainly paid to recommendations on how to achieve the optimal mode of bending
the pipeline. However, in the practice of pipelines construction and operation, the
optimal load mode of equipment rarely becomes the subject of interest. In the
first place becomes the issue of ensuring the load regime within the permissible
limits. To define them a finite-element model of a hypothetical pipeline was created.
After defining loads and impacts occurring within the typical pipeline construction
sequences as well as under pipelines operation appropriate pipeline deformations
were obtained. The processes of pipeline constructing both onshore and offshore (so
called S-method) was taken into account. It is shown that the range of permissible
pipeline displacements during pipeline lowering on the seabed is an order of magni-
tude lower than the one on land. It was found that bending stresses in the pipeline
are mainly determined by the angle of inclination of the stinger and the axial tension
force of the pipeline laying ship. Concerning onshore pipeline construction process
they are determined by the position of the first pipelaying crane (so called side boom)
from the laying side. Dependence of critical values of process managing parameters
from the pipe laying conditions was obtained.
Keywords Pipeline · Installation · Lowering · Stress · Offshore · S-method · On

land
Y. Melnychenko (B) · L. Poberezhny · V. Hrudz · V. Zapukhliak · I. Chudyk

Ivano-Frankivsk National Technical University of Oil and Gas, Ivano-Frankivsk, Ukraine
e-mail: ymelnychenko@nung.edu.ua
T. Dodyk
JSC Ukrtransnafta, Brody, Ukraine
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58073-5_19
242 Y. Melnychenko et al.
1 Introduction
The process of laying main pipelines is carried out in substantially the same algorithm
of action. The construction process differs in that the installation of the pipeline itself
occurs remotely from the place of its operation. Different technologies have been
put into practice for placing in the design position [1, 2], each of which involves
separation in time and space of welding and assembly work. In this case, depending
on the direction of movement of the fully welded pipeline in space, the laying work
can be divided as such that involves the movement of the pipeline relative to its
design position: in the radial, axial and radial-axial directions.
Installation of the pipeline in its design position by moving the latter in the axial
direction is usually applied at the pipeline crossings due to natural and artificial
obstacles. The transverse bend of the pipeline is determined by the geometric profile
of the prepared trench or well and the integrity of the pipeline during the laying
process is determined by the amount of longitudinal force under which the pipeline is
pulled. These loads are, as a rule, clearly regulated by the technological requirements
for the execution of the work and also easily controlled, as they are mainly determined
by the pulling force of the winches or jack mechanisms.
If the pipeline is placed in the design position, it is extremely difficult to check
or control the position of the pipeline in the process of displacement, as well as
the stresses that occur in the pipeline wall in the process of such displacement.
Therefore, the entire process must be clearly planned and calculated before carrying
out the work.
Today there is on the market a wide range of software for modeling of stress–strain
state of pipelines. Their calculator is based on the numerical solution of the equation
of the balance of forces and moments of an integral elastic-curved beam, which in
its simplest form has the form [3, 4]
d2 y
dx2
M(x) = E I 2 3/2 ; (1)
1 + ddyx
⎧ ⎫
⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎨ d2 y ⎪
⎬
d2 y dx2
q(x) = EI 2 3/2 ⎪ , (2)
2
dx ⎪ ⎪ ⎪
⎪
⎩ 1 + dx
dy ⎪
⎭
where x, y—longitudinal and radial coordinates; M(x)—integral bending moment in

the pipeline cross section with x coordinate; q(x)—relative weight of the pipeline in
the cross section with x coordinate; E—Young modulus; I—mass moment of Inertia
of pipe cross section.
If the residual axial force appears in the pipeline as well as the additional
concentrated forces, then Eq. (2) becomes the following: [4]
Determination of Preconditions Leading to Critical Stresses … 243
⎧ ⎫
⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪
⎪ ⎪
d2 y ⎨ ⎬
2
d y
dx2 d2 y
q(x) = EI
2 3/2 ⎪ + N (x) , (3)
dx2 ⎪
⎪ ⎪ dx2
⎪
⎩ 1 + dx
dy ⎪
⎭
where N(x)—axial force in the pipe body.

However, other auxiliary load-holding or hoisting devices, such as pontoons
or anti-personnel inserts during the laying of offshore pipelines, or pipe-layers,
cleaning, heating, priming or insulating machines, etc., are used during the laying
of the pipeline from the berm trench. Under these conditions, the pipeline will be
represented by a non-integral multi-span beam, which is a statically indeterminate
mechanical system and a three-moment equation system must be used to reveal its
static uncertainty [3, 4]. Given the presence of concentrated forces in the pipeline
for the construction of the equations of three moments, it is necessary to apply the
universal equation of the elastically-curved beam of the form [5].
Formula (law of change) of beam deflection in section with coordinate x and angle
of rotation of pipeline section is as follows
M(x − a)2 F(x − b)3 q(z − d)4 q(z − c)4

y(x) = y(0) + θ (0) · x + + + − ;
2E I 6E I 24E I 24E I
(4)
dy(x) M(x − a) F(x − b)2 q(z − d)3 q(z − c)3

θ (x) = = θ (0) + + + − ,
dx EI 2E I 6E I 6E I
(5)
where a and b are the abscissas of the points of application of the concentrated
moment M and the concentrated force P, respectively; c and d are the coordinates
of the beginning and end of a section loaded with distributed load (Fig. 1).
Considering the nonlinearity of this equation, its integration is carried out by
approximate methods, and in practice, using CAE software systems based on the
implementation of the solution of the nonlinear equation of the elastically curved
beam by the finite element method [6].
Fig. 1 The structure of the

schematic elastic-curved
beam
There are both universal calculative systems and highly specialized tools available
on the market to simulate the widest possible range of probable loads and impacts
on the laying process. On the one hand, universal systems require the construction
of primitive elements of the pipeline manually, in addition, the correctness and opti-
mization of the design scheme of the pipeline model in the software complex and
how to use them must be optimized by the criteria of sufficient accuracy- ease of
model construction and speed of calculation [7, 8]. However, universal engineering
computing complexes are less costly to research, because the market for providing
services using these products is much wider [9, 10].
The stress state of the pipeline during its laying in a trench on land, on the sea
or river bottom has been studied in sufficient detail and described in the reference
and regulatory literature [11, 12]. In those cases, the pipeline loads are considered
to be nominal and any deviations thereof are taken into account by safety factors.
The stress state of the pipeline influence significantly on a safe serviceability due to
possible intensification of corrosion, hydrogenation and degradation of pipeline steel,
which may cause many issues during long-term operation [13–16]. At the same time,
the methodology of predicting the pipelines behavior when it is laid in the trench
is not unified. Thus, individual situations of the pipeline construction process that
have a direct impact on the stress–strain state of the pipeline are simulated being
based on subjective approaches and assumptions. Therefore, using 3-D simulation
of laying of the pipeline calibration process of the safety factors has been provided
to reach the increase of pipe lay reliability [17, 18]. The influence of sea waves and
sea currents [19], pipe-laying vessels oscillations [20] on stresses appearing in the
pipelines, the interaction of the pipeline and the bottom soil when laying the pipeline
to the seabed [21] were analyzed and classified. The design of the stinger is a subject
of research by many researchers [22]. The process of laying a pipeline in a trench
on land is characterized by ambiguity regarding the methods of implementation and
quality control of laying works [23, 24]. Both processes have common features, and
therefore, common approaches of predicting their behavior can be applied to them.
Thus, it is important to choose the optimal load configuration scheme provided
in the model to provide sufficient accuracy and robustness without the involvement
of specialized software systems, that is using universal CAE-systems.
2 Research Methodology
Trends in oil and gas production are such that the main undeveloped, and therefore
not provided by pipeline transportation of oil and gas fields are located mainly on
the offshore and offshore shelf. Given the potential volume of work, the methods of
constructing main pipelines are generally divided into two main groups: the construc-
tion of pipelines on land and at sea. Both groups of methods involve to a certain extent
a change in the stress state of the pipeline in the process of its laying.
With regard to offshore pipelines, the following technologies are used for their
laying [8, 11, 12]: S—laying; J—laying; Pipelaying by reel ship; Pipeline installation
by tow or pull method.
The latter two methods are limited in use, in particular pipeline reeling is effective
for laying pipelines with DN 400 and smaller, and a towing technique is effective for
laying coastal pipelines of small length.
The S-pipeline laying method is more productive than the J-method and there-
fore desirable for use. The limits of expediency of its application are determined
depending on the depth of the reservoir and on the diameter of the pipeline [1].
However, this classification is rather limited and does not take into account all the
factors that determine the stress–strain state of the pipeline during its laying. There-
fore, in the conditions of pipelines construction especially large diameter, the poten-
tial stress state of the pipeline is subject to detailed forecasting by its modeling. The
S-method pipeline laying process is governed by the following factors [17, 22]:
– the wall thickness of the pipeline;
– traction effort of the pipe-laying vessel;
– geometric dimensions of the stinger;
– the design of the roller supports of the stinger and the range of distances between
them.
The following factors influence the laying process:
– dynamic influence of oscillation of a vessel-pipe-layer due to sea waves;
– marine currents;
– the composition of the seafloor to which the pipeline is laid.
The influence of each of the above factors has been studied in detail in numerous
researches. In continuation of the conducted research, it is proposed to determine the
spatial position of the pipeline by the results of three-dimensional modeling of the
process of its laying S-method.
To solve this problem, we formulate a number of assumptions.
We believe that the configuration was chosen for the sake of minimizing stresses
in the pipeline wall during the laying process at the stage of construction of the
pipeline vessel. In this case, the radius of elastic bending on the stinger meets the
requirements given in [17, 25], that is, determined by the dependence
ED
Rcur v = , (6)
2σ y f D
where σ y —minimum yield stress; D—pipe outer diameter; f D —design factor,

usually f D = 0.85.
The design of the stinger implies the bend of the pipeline on the stinger with radius
R = 200D (external pipeline). Such consideration is applied on the basis of an analysis
of the technical characteristics of the largest Pioneer Spirit and Solitaire pipe-laying
vessels. According to the specifications of the vessels, the radius of curvature of the
Fig. 2 Three-dimensional model of the pipeline during its laying on the seabed using the S-method
Stingers, which they are equipped with, is approximately 150 m. This confirms the
permissibility of bending a 200 DN thick-walled marine pipeline.
The load diagram of the three-dimensional model of the pipeline in the process
of its construction is shown in Fig. 2.
To verify the constructed three-dimensional model, a calculation was made during
the laying of the marine pipeline according to the initial data given [3], namely:
diameter; all other fixed and adjustable parameters.
It is proposed to create a three-dimensional pipeline model on the stinger during

the laying period in the advanced CAE-system Ansys Structural. The problem with
this model is the complexity of solving contact problems in that kind of software.
To enable such analysis, the displacement of sagging part of the pipeline must be
limited by the configuration of temporary acting local supports, which are available
in Ansys Structural toolbar. In quality of those, so called, conservative supports it is
proposed to use the point displacements of the pipe body. It is suggested to select
the application points on the lower part of the pipeline. Figure 3 shows a three-
dimensional model of the interaction of the pipeline with the environment, namely
the stinger (Fig. 3a) and the seabed (Fig. 3b).
As can be seen in Fig. 4a the stinger supports must be introduced by radially
motional springs allowing the axial motion of laid pipeline. Those supports were
developed combining the available tools of the software.
To set acceptable ranges of work of pipe-laying equipment it is necessary to
set which parameters are considered unchanged and what—parameters of influence
(regulation). In doing so, the invariable parameters must reflect the worst conditions
of the pipeline assembly process.
Regarding the laying of offshore pipelines invariable we suggest to establish:
– radius of curvature of the stinger;
– the wall thickness of the pipeline;
Fig. 3 Modeling of pipeline contact with environment: a with soil on the seabed; b with stringer
supports
– weight of the linear meter of the weighted pipeline in case of positive buoyancy
of the latter.
The parameters of influence should be considered the following:
– depth of pipeline laying;
– pulling force of the pipeline on the pipeline vessel;
– the angle of inclination of the end of the stinger to the horizon (vertical);
– reaction of soil support during contact with the bottom of the trench;
– distance between the roller supports of the Stinger;
– the force of elasticity in the radial direction on the rollers of the Stinger.
Consider laying a pipeline with a diameter of 820 mm and 426 mm, wall thickness
respectively 29 and 16 mm. The wall thickness value of the smaller pipeline was
Fig. 4 Pipeline maximum stress distribution during pipeline laying process: a for pipelines with
DN = 400 mm; b for pipelines with DN = 200 mm
chosen from the point of ensuring the appearance of the same stress values in the pipe
body of both compared pipelines when they are loaded with the same value of internal
pressure. The estimated model of the pipeline in the process of its construction is
shown in Fig. 2. The stress state of pipelines was calculated during their laying by
the S-method to a depth of 200, 350 and 500 m. For these depths, the dependence
of bending stresses in the lower part (sag bend) of the pipeline on the tension force
created by a pipe-laying vessel was studied. Under the criterion of the admissibility
of stresses in the wall of the pipeline it is figuratively selected yield strength of steel.
Normally this criterion is calculated in the way of ensuring the strength of the pipeline
from local or collapse buckling under the hydrostatic outer pressure [7, 8]. In the
initial moment of modelling time the sagged part of the pipeline should be laid on
the seabed and fixed, Fig. 3a.
Simulation has been conducted as follows. By increasing the axial force applied
to the sagging end of the pipeline starting from zero up to the maximum possible
Fig. 5 Scheme of pipeline loading during its laying on land on a bottom of the trench
value that is equivalent to applying the pulling force of the pipe-laying vessel to
the pipeline end on sea surface we obtain a tendency of change of the maximum
stress in the pipe body along the laid pipeline section during the whole simulation
process, Fig. 4. The maximum and minimum permissible values of the longitudinal
tension force of the pipeline correspond to those values for which, in accordance
with Fig. 4, maximum bending stresses occur on the sagging section of the pipeline,
not exceeding the selected criterion for the strength of the pipeline, in our case, the
yield strength of steel of the pipe. The pipeline maximum stress distribution during
pipeline laying process is built for both analyzed pipeline sizes: Fig. 4a—for DN
400 mm pipeline and Fig. 4b—for the one with DN = 200 mm.
As can be seen from the graph, with an increase in depth, the allowable range
of pipeline tension forces decreases. Furthermore, the range even more rapidly
decreases with decreasing of pipeline diameter. This approves the significance of
providing the accurate substantial analysis before designing the offshore pipeline
installation process.
The onshore pipeline lay scheme utilizing of 4 pipe-lay cranes in conjunction with
construction machines mounted on the pipeline is simulated in CAE system using
similar methodology using input data from [18], Fig. 5.
Verification of the deformation of the pipeline during its loading is shown in Fig. 7.
When laying a pipeline on land, a typical violation of the laying technology is the
deviation of the spatial position of the pipeline after false actions of pipe-lay crane
engine-driver. In order to evaluate the potential risks of the occurrence of extreme
conditions of the pipeline caused by an abnormal change in the spatial position of
the pipeline, a number of calculations were performed with a change in the height
of the carrying of the pipeline by individual pipe layers (Fig. 6). The corresponding
changes in maximum values of stresses are shown in Fig. 7.
There can be seen that in case of releasing the pipeline by the first crane from the
side of the trench the equivalent stress reaches the minimum yield stress value for
given steel. Meanwhile the reaction force appearing on each crane can significantly
increase in those cases. The outcomes of the last scenarios are constituted by carrying
capacity of the cranes.
Fig. 6 Comparison of simulation results of the pipeline laying process with reference data on each
pipe-lay crane: a force reaction; b equivalent stress (von-Mises)
Fig. 7 Change in time of equivalent stress in pipeline body after an abnormal change in the spatial
position of the pipeline: a sudden release of the pipeline by crane 1; b sudden elevation of the
pipeline by crane 1 on 1 m higher; c sudden release of the pipeline by crane 2; b sudden elevation
of the pipeline by crane 2 on 1 m higher
4 Conclusions
1. Before laying pipelines, at the design stage, to determine the ranges of permissible
values of managing parameters and to optimize the pipe laying process model,
calculations should be carried out.
2. For marine pipelines, the axial tension force the pipe laying vessel creates, is the
main managing parameter. It is established that for the pipeline with diameter
DN 400 is laid on the depth down to 500 m, the range of permissible tension force
considers to be from 20 kN up to 100 kN, meanwhile for 200 m depth such range
is equal from 0 kN up to 250 kN. For the pipelines of DN 200 the value of the
range of permissible tension force for the 500 m depth of pipeline lay becomes
ten times narrower.
3. Main managing parameters composing the stress–strain state of the pipeline when
it is laid into the trench consider the height of pipeline holding by each of pipe-
lay cranes and distances between them. As the simulation results show for the
pipelines with DN 1000 critical stress appears only in case of sudden releasing
the pipeline by the first pipe-lay crane counting from the side of the trench. In
other cases of sudden releasing or holding up of the pipeline no critical stresses
arising in pipeline body were observed.
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Degradation Assessment and Failure Prevention of Pipeline Systems

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Degradation Assessment and Failure Prevention of Pipeline Systems

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Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/15087

ISSN 2366-2557 ISSN 2366-2565 (electronic)

Pipelines represent an extremely safe way to transport hydrocarbons across the

Milano, Italy Gabriella Bolzon

The VERNE System for Underwater Test of Pipeline Integrity . . . . . . . 115

Abstract Strategic infrastructures made of pipelines transporting hydrocarbons

Keywords Pipelines · Failure prevention · Structural diagnosis · Non destructive

Strategic infrastructures made of pipelines transporting hydrocarbons across the

in parameter identification procedures based on either semi-empirical formulae [23,

2 Indentation-Based Structural Diagnosis Tool

The alteration of the mechanical properties induced by the bulk degradation of

2.1 Damage Detection

Diffuse damage processes produce variations on the main characteristics of metals.

verified on different types of pipeline steels, tested in laboratory in as-received status

2.2 Damage Quantification

Fig. 2 The validated material calibration procedure illustrated in [26]

experimental and computing procedures partly proposed and developed in different

Fig. 3 a Finite element

A realistic simulation of the indentation processes is performed by finite element

2.3 Sampling Size

Fig. 4 Experimental and

investigations. In particular, a fairly good correspondence was found between the

This contribution provides an overview on procedures at present available for the

Abstract Long-term operation of structural steels causes an essential decrease of

Keywords Steels · Degradation · Damaging · Hydrogen · Fracture

operating conditions. Apart from the mechanical properties, corrosion resistance,

2 General Regularities of In-Service Degradation of Long

2.1 Strength, Plasticity and Brittle Fracture Resistance

Impact toughness KCV, and fracture toughness determined by J-integral show

2.2 Stress Corrosion Cracking of Operated Pipeline Steels

Table 2 Mechanical properties of studied pipeline steels

2.3 Regularities of Corrosion Fatigue Crack Growth in Steels

Fig. 2 Effect of corrosion

3 Role of Hydrogen in In-Bulk Service Degradation

Table 3 Concentration of hydrogen CH in API X52 5L pipeline steel measured by desorption at

Table 4 Concentration of hydrogen CH measured by extraction, and impact toughness of pipeline

Table 5 Mechanical properties of the 17H1S pipeline steel

which in turn results in a drastic decrease of resistance to brittle fracture of pipeline

4 Stages of Operational Degradation of Pipeline Steels

Figure 3 illustrates two stages of operational degradation of structural steels on the

Fig. 3 Scheme of the

5 Accelerated Method of Steel Degradation

As shown above, hydrogenation of metal during corrosion process, together with

Table 7 Results of SCC tests of investigated steels after in-laboratory degradation

Fig. 5 Effect of corrosive

Long-term operation in general has a negative effect on the mechanical properties of

Olha Zvirko and Oleksandr Tsyrulnyk

Keywords Pipeline steel · Hydrogen degradation · Brittle fracture · Prediction

O. Zvirko (B) · O. Tsyrulnyk

Natural gas transmission pipelines are important components of worldwide energy

2.2 Impact Testing

2.3 Electrochemical Investigations

Electrochemical tests were carried out using a potentiodynamic method in order to

Table 1 Chemical composition of NS4 test solution

where K is the Stern-Geary coefficient:

3 Deterioration of Brittle Fracture Resistance of Pipeline

Mechanical properties of pipeline steels deteriorate during long-term operation.

Fig. 1 Relative changes in

Table 2 Fracture toughness √

In-service degradation of ferrite-pearlite pipeline steels implies a number of features

4 Susceptibility of Pipeline Steels to Corrosion Degradation

Considering susceptibility of pipeline steels to in-service corrosion degradation as

dA/dt = dW/dt + d/dt. (7)

dρ/dt = ∂/∂t/[γC − γt − ∂ W p(2) /∂ρ], (11)