World

 Literature  Periods  
 
Early  Periods  of  Literature  
These  periods  are  spans  of  time  in  which  literature  shared  intellectual,  linguistic,  religious,  
and  artistic  influences.  In  the  Western  tradition,  the  early  periods  of  literary  history  are  
roughly  as  follows  below:  
 
A.  THE  CLASSICAL  PERIOD  (1200  BCE  -­  455  CE)  
1. HOMERIC  or  HEROIC  PERIOD  (1200-­‐800  BCE)    
Greek  legends  are  passed  along  orally,  including  Homer's  The  Iliad  and  The  Odyssey.  This  is  
a  chaotic  period  of  warrior-­‐prince  wandering  sea-­‐traders,  and  fierce  pirates.  
2. CLASSICAL  GREEK  PERIOD  (800-­‐200  BCE)    
Greek  writers  and  philosophers  such  as  Gorgias,  Aesop.  Plato,  Socrates,  Aristotle,  Euripides,  
and  Sophocles.  The  fifth  century  (499-­‐400  BCE)  in  particular  is  renowned  as  The  Golden  
Age  of  Greece.  This  is  the  sophisticated  period  of  the  polis,  or  individual  City-­‐State,  and  early  
democracy.  Some  of  the  world's  finest  art,  poetry,  drama,  architecture,  and  philosophy  
originate  in  Athens.    
3. CLASSICAL  ROMAN  PERIOD  (200  BCE-­‐455  CE)    
Greece's  culture  gives  way  to  Roman  power  when  Rome  conquers  Greece  in  146  CE.  The  
Roman  Republic  was  traditionally  founded  in  509  BCE,  but  it  is  limited  in  size  until  later.  
Playwrights  of  this  time  include  Plautus  and  Terence.  After  nearly  500  years  as  a  Republic,  
Rome  slides  into  dictatorship  under  Julius  Caesar  and  finally  into  a  monarchial  empire  
under  Caesar  Augustus  in  27  CE.  This  later  period  is  known  as  the  Roman  Imperial  period.  
Roman  writers  include  Ovid,  Horace,  and  Virgil.  Roman  philosophers  include  Marcus  
Aurelius  and  Lucretius.  Roman  rhetoricians  include  Cicero  and  Quintilian.  
4. PATRISTIC  PERIOD  (c.  70  CE-­‐455  CE)  Early  Christian  writings  appear  such  as  Saint  Augustine,  
Tertullian,  Saint  Cyprian,  Saint  Ambrose  and  Saint  Jerome.  This  is  the  period  in  which  Saint  
Jerome  first  compiles  the  Bible,  when  Christianity  spread  across  Europe,  and  the  Roman  
Empire  suffered  its  dying  convulsions.  In  this  period,  barbarians  attack  Rome  in  410  CE  and  
the  city  finally  falls  to  them  completely  in  455  CE.  
 
B.  THE  MEDIEVAL  PERIOD  (455  CE-­1485  CE)    
1. THE  OLD  ENGLISH  (ANGLO-­SAXON)  PERIOD  (428-­‐1066)  The  so-­‐called  "Dark  Ages"  (455  CE  -­‐
799  CE)  occur  when  Rome  falls  and  barbarian  tribes  move  into  Europe.  Franks,  Ostrogoths,  
Lombards,  and  Goths  settle  in  the  ruins  of  Europe  and  the  Angles,  Saxons,  and  Jutes  migrate  
to  Britain,  displacing  native  Celts  into  Scotland,  Ireland,  and  Wales.  Early  Old  English  poems  
such  as  Beowulf,  The  Wanderer,  and  The  Seafarer  originate  sometime  late  in  the  Anglo-­‐
Saxon  period.  The  Carolingian  Renaissance  (800-­‐  850  CE)  emerges  in  Europe.  In  central  
Europe,  texts  include  early  medieval  grammars,  encyclopedias,  etc.  In  northern  Europe,  this  
time  period  marks  the  setting  of  Viking  sagas.    
 
2. THE  MIDDLE  ENGLISH  PERIOD  (c.  1066-­‐1450  CE)  In  1066,  Norman  French  armies  invade  and  
conquer  England  under  William  I.  This  marks  the  end  of  the  Anglo-­‐  Saxon  hierarchy  and  the  
emergence  of  the  Twelfth  Century  Renaissance  (c.  1100-­‐1200  CE).  French  chivalric  
romances-­‐-­‐such  as  works  by  Chretien  de  Troyes-­‐-­‐and  French  fables-­‐-­‐such  as  the  works  of  
Marie  de  France  and  Jeun  de  Meun-­‐-­‐spread  in  popularity.  Abelard  and  other  humanists  
produce  great  scholastic  and  theological  works.  

Adapted  from  https://sites.google.com/site/zeebsenglisheducation/literaryperiods  and    http://staff.gps.edu/gaither/literary_movements.htm  

 LATE  OR  "HIGH"  MEDIEVAL  PERIOD  (c.  1200-­‐1485  CE):  This  often  tumultuous  period  is  
marked  by  the  Middle  English  writings  of  Geoffrey  Chaucer,  the  "Gawain"  or  "Pearl"  Poet,  
the  Wakefield  Master,  and  William  Langland.  Other  writers  include  Italian  and  French  
authors  like  Boccaccio,  Petrarch,  Dante,  and  Christine  de  Pisan.    
 
C.  THE  RENAISSANCE  AND  REFORMATION  (c.  1485-­1660  CE)    
The  Renaissance  takes  place  in  the  late  15th,  16th,  and  early  17th  century  in  Britain,  but  
somewhat  earlier  in  Italy  and  the  southern  Europe,  somewhat  later  in  northern  Europe.  
1. EARLY  TUDOR  PERIOD  (1485-­‐1558):  The  War  of  the  Roses  ends  in  England  with  Henry  Tudor  
(Henry  VII)  claiming  the  throne.  Martin  Luther's  split  with  Rome  marks  the  emergence  of  
Protestantism,  followed  by  Henry  VIII's  Anglican  schism,  which  creates  the  first  Protestant  
church  in  England.  Edmond  Spencer  is  a  sample  poet.    
2. ELIZABETHAN  PERIOD  (1558-­‐1603):  Queen  Elizabeth  saves  England  from  both  Spanish  
invasion  and  internal  squabbles  at  home.  Her  reign  is  marked  by  the  early  works  of  
Shakespeare,  Marlowe,  Kydd,  and  Sidney.  
3. JACOBEAN  PERIOD  (1603-­‐1625):  Shakespeare's  later  work,  Aemilia  Lanyer,  Ben  Jonson,  and  
John  Donne.  
4. CAROLINE  AGE  (1625-­‐1649):  John  Milton,  George  Herbert,  Robert  Herrick,  the  "Sons  of  Ben"  
and  others  write  during  the  reign  of  Charles  I  and  his  Cavaliers  (The  Cavalier  Poets).    
5. COMMONWEALTH  PERIOD  OR  PURITAN  INTERREGNUM  (1649-­‐1660):  Under  Cromwell's  Puritan  
dictatorship,  John  Milton  continues  to  write,  but  we  also  find  writers  like  Andrew  Marvell  
and  Sir  Thomas  Browne.    
 
 
Later  Periods  of  Literature  
These  periods  are  spans  of  time  in  which  literature  shared  intellectual,  linguistic,  religious,  
and  artistic  influences.  In  the  Western  tradition,  the  later  periods  of  literary  history  are  
roughly  as  follows  below:    
 
D.  THE  ENLIGHTENMENT  (NEOCLASSICAL)  PERIOD  (C.  1660-­1790)  
"Neoclassical"  refers  to  the  increased  influence  of  Classical  literature  upon  these  centuries.  
The  Neoclassical  Period  is  also  called  the  "Enlightenment"  due  to  the  increased  reverence  
for  logic  and  disdain  for  superstition.  The  period  is  marked  by  the  rise  of  Deism,  intellectual  
backlash  against  earlier  Puritanism,  and  America's  revolution  against  England.    
1. RESTORATION  PERIOD  (c.  1660-­‐1700):  This  period  marks  the  British  king's  restoration  to  the  
throne  after  a  long  period  of  Puritan  domination  in  England.  Its  symptoms  include  the  
dominance  of  French  and  Classical  influences  on  poetry  and  drama.  Sample  writers  include  
John  Dryden,  John  Lock,  Sir  William  Temple,  and  Samuel  Pepys,  and  Aphra  Behn  in  England.  
Abroad,  representative  authors  include  Jean  Racine  and  Molière.    
2. THE  AUGUSTAN  AGE  (c.  1700-­‐1750):  This  period  is  marked  by  the  imitation  of  Virgil  and  
Horace's  literature  in  English  letters.  The  principal  English  writers  include  Addison,  Steele,  
Swift,  and  Alexander  Pope.  Abroad,  Voltaire  is  the  dominant  French  writer.    
3. THE  AGE  OF  JOHNSON  (c.  1750-­‐1790):  This  period  marks  the  transition  toward  the  upcoming  
Romanticism  though  the  period  is  still  largely  Neoclassical.  Major  writers  include  Dr.  
Samuel  Johnson,  Boswell,  and  Edward  Gibbon  who  represent  the  Neoclassical  tendencies,  
while  writers  like  Robert  Burns,  Thomas  Gray,  Cowper,  and  Crabbe  show  movement  away  
from  the  Neoclassical  ideal.    In  America,  this  period  is  called  the  Colonial  Period.  It  includes  
colonial  and  revolutionary  writers  like  Ben  Franklin,  Thomas  Jefferson,  and  Thomas  Paine.    

Adapted  from  https://sites.google.com/site/zeebsenglisheducation/literaryperiods  and    http://staff.gps.edu/gaither/literary_movements.htm  

  
E.  ROMANTIC  PERIOD  (c.  1790-­1830)    
Romantic  poets  write  about  nature,  imagination,  and  individuality  in  England.  Some  
Romantics  include  Coleridge,  Blake,  Keats,  and  Shelley  in  Britain  and  Johann  von  Goethe  in  
Germany.    In  America,  this  period  is  called  the  Transcendental  Period.  Transcendentalists  
include  Emerson  and  Thoreau.    Gothic  writings,  (c.  1790-­‐1890)  overlap  with  the  Romantic  
and  Victorian  periods.  Writers  of  Gothic  novels  (the  precursor  to  horror  novels)  include  
Mary  Shelley,  Radcliffe,  Monk  Lewis,  and  Victorians  like  Bram  Stoker  in  Britain.  In  America,  
Gothic  writers  include  Poe  and  Hawthorne.    
 
F.  VICTORIAN  PERIOD  And  The  19th  Century  (c.  1832-­1901)    
Writing  during  the  period  of  Queen  Victoria's  reign  includes  sentimental  novels.  British  
writers  include  Elizabeth  Browning,  Alfred  Lord  Tennyson,  Matthew  Arnold,  Robert  
Browning,  Charles  Dickens,  the  Brontë  sisters,  and  Jane  Austen.  Pre-­‐  Raphaelites,  like  the  
Rossettis  and  William  Morris,  idealize  and  long  for  the  morality  of  the  medieval  world.    
The  end  of  the  Victorian  Period  is  marked  by  intellectual  movements  of  Asceticism  and  "the  
Decadence"  in  the  writings  of  Walter  Pater  and  Oscar  Wilde.    In  America,  Naturalist  writers  
like  Stephen  Crane  flourish,  as  do  early  free  verse  poets  like  Walt  Whitman  and  Emily  
Dickinson.    
 
G.  MODERN  PERIOD  (c.  1914-­1945)  
 In  Britain,  modernist  writers  include  W.  B.  Yeats,  Seamus  Heaney,  Dylan  Thomas,  W.  H.  
Auden,  Virginia  Woolf,  and  Wilfred  Owen.  In  America,  the  modernist  period  includes  
Robert  Frost  and  Flannery  O'Connor  as  well  as  the  famous  writers  of  The  Lost  Generation  
(also  called  the  writers  of  The  Jazz  Age,  1914-­‐1929)  such  as  Hemingway,  Steinbeck,  
Fitzgerald,  and  Faulkner.  "The  Harlem  Renaissance"  marks  the  rise  of  black  writers  such  as  
Baldwin  and  Ellison.  Realism  is  the  dominant  fashion,  but  the  disillusionment  with  the  
World  Wars  lead  to  new  experimentation.    
 
H.  POSTMODERN  PERIOD  (c.  1945  onward)    
T.  S.  Eliot,  Morrison,  Shaw,  Beckett,  Stoppard,  Fowles,  Calvino,  Ginsberg,  Pynchon,  and  
other  modern  writers,  poets,  and  playwrights  experiment  with  metafiction  and  fragmented  
poetry.  Multiculturalism  leads  to  increasing  canonization  of  non-­‐Caucasian  writers  such  as  
Langston  Hughes,  Sandra  Cisneros,  and  Zora  Neal  Hurston.  Magic  Realists  such  as  Gabriel  
García  Márquez,  Luis  Borges,  Alejo  Carpentier,  Günter  Grass,  and  Salman  Rushdie  flourish  
with  surrealistic  writings  embroidered  in  the  conventions  of  realism.    

Adapted  from  https://sites.google.com/site/zeebsenglisheducation/literaryperiods  and    http://staff.gps.edu/gaither/literary_movements.htm  

 American  Literature  Periods  
 
A.  NATIVE  AMERICAN  
Much  of  the  literature  of  this  period  is  mythological.  Most  of  Native  American  myths  were  
written  long  before  Europeans  settled  in  North  America.  Like  most  cultural  myths,  these  
myths  examine  the  creation,  the  nature  of  gods,  and  the  natural  world.  Non-­‐mythological  
writings  of  Native  Americans  often  examine  the  relationship  between  Native  American  
society  and  early  European  settlers  and,  later,  the  effect  of  United  States’  political  policies  
on  Native  American  culture.  N.  Scott  Momaday,  Leslie  Silko,  and  Louis  Erdrich  are  all  
contemporary  Native  American  writers  that  utilize  Native  American  themes  and  
experiences  in  their  work.    
 
B.  PURITAIN  (1472-­1750)  
Most  of  this  is  histories,  journals,  personal  poems,  sermons,  and  diaries.    The  literature  is  
either  utilitarian,  very  personal,  or  religious:  it  focused  on  daily  life,  settlement,  moral  
attitudes,  and  the  authority  of  the  Bible  and  the  Church.    We  call  it  Puritan  because  the  
majority  of  the  writers  during  this  period  were  strongly  influenced  by  Puritan  ideals  and  
values,  especially  the  concept  of  predestination  and  sin.  “Puritan”  began  as  an  insult  by  
traditional  Anglicans  to  those  who  criticized  or  wished  to  "purify"  the  Church  of  England.  
Jonathan  Edwards,  William  Bradford,  and  Ann  Bradstreet  are  authors  of  this  period.  This  
period  still  influences  American  concepts  about  God,  money,  and  America  as  the  “promised  
land.”  
 
C.  ENLIGHTENMENT/REVOLUTIONARY  (1750-­1800)  
Called  the  Enlightenment  period  due  to  the  influence  of  science  and  logic,  this  period  is  
marked  in  US  literature  by  political  writings  and  diverged  from  the  religious  focus  of  the  
Puritain  era.  Genres  included  political  documents,  speeches,  and  letters.  There  is  a  lack  of  
emphasis  and  dependence  on  the  Bible  and  more  use  of  common  sense  (logic)  and  science.    
Writings  expanded  the  truths  found  in  the  Bible  and  did  not  necessarily  divorce  from  the  
idea  of  God  and  spirituality.  The  writings  were  often  meant  to  explore  the  ideas  of  liberty,  
patriotism,  government,  nationalism,  and  American  character.  Benjamin  Franklin,  Thomas  
Jefferson,  Patrick  Henry,  and  Thomas  Paine  are  all  examples  of  authors  of  this  period.  The  
notions  of  liberty,  freedom,  independence,  and  rights  that  were  discussed  and  debated  at  
this  time  are  still  part  of  the  American  culture  and  political  system.    
     
D.  ROMANTICISM  (1800-­1840)  
Romanticism  is  a  literary  and  artistic  movement  of  the  nineteenth  century  that  arose  in  
reaction  against  eighteenth-­‐century  Neoclassicism  and  the  political  focus  of  the  
Enlightenment.  Placing  a  premium  on  fancy,  imagination,  emotion,  nature,  individuality,  
human  intuition,  and  exotica,  it  moved  from  personal  and  political  documents  to  
entertaining  ones,  which  gave  rise  to  short  stories,  poetry,  and  novels.    Purely  American  
topics  were  introduced  such  as  frontier  life,  manifest  destiny,  and  individualism.  Romantic  
elements  can  be  found  in  the  works  of  American  writers  as  diverse  as  Cooper,  Poe,  
Thoreau,  Emerson,  Dickinson,  Hawthorne,  and  Melville.    Romanticism  is  particularly  
evident  in  the  works  of  the  New  England  Transcendentalists.    

Adapted  from  https://sites.google.com/site/zeebsenglisheducation/literaryperiods  and    http://staff.gps.edu/gaither/literary_movements.htm  

 1. TRANSCENDENTALISM    (1840-­‐1855):  Transcendentalism  is  an  American  literary  and  
philosophical  movement  of  the  nineteenth  century.    The  Transcendentalists,  who  
were  based  in  New  England,  believed  that  intuition  and  the  individual  conscience  
“transcend”  experience  and  thus  are  better  guides  to  truth  than  are  the  senses  and  
logical  reason.    Influenced  by  Romanticism,  the  Transcendentalists  respect  the  
individual  spirit  and  the  natural  world,  believing  that  divinity  is  present  
everywhere,  in  nature  and  in  each  person.    The  Transcendentalists  include  Ralph  
Waldo  Emerson,  Henry  David  Thoreau,  Bronson  Alcott,  W.H.  Channing,  Margaret  
Fuller,  and  Elizabeth  Peabody.    The  anti-­‐Transcendentalist  (Hawthorne  and  
Melville)  rebelled  against  the  philosophy  that  man  is  basically  good.    A  third  group,  
the  Fireside  poets,  wrote  about  more  practical  aspects  of  life  such  as  dying  and  
patriotism.    
2. GOTHIC:  Writers  like  Poe  and  Hawthorne  responded  to  the  optimistic  vision  of  the  
romantics  with  a  darker  vision.    The  industrial  revolution  brought  ideas  that  the  
"old  ways"  of  doing  things  are  now  irrelevant  and  out  of  this  came  the  exploration  
of  the  supernatural,  being  at  the  mercy  of  forces  beyond  human  control,  and  the  
nature  of  good  and  evil.  It  is  out  of  the  gothic  writers  that  the  contemporary  genre  
of  horror  springs.  
     
F.  REALISM  (1865-­1915)  
Realism  is  the  presentation  in  art  of  the  details  of  actual  life.    Realism  began  during  the  
nineteenth  century  and  stressed  the  actual  as  opposed  to  the  imagined  or  the  fanciful.  The  
Realists  tried  to  write  truthfully  and  objectively  about  ordinary  characters  in  ordinary  
situations.    They  reacted  against  Romanticism,  rejecting  heroic,  adventurous,  unusual,  or  
unfamiliar  subjects.    American  realism  grew  from  the  work  of  local-­‐color  writers  such  as  
Bret  Harte  and  Sarah  Orne  Jewett  and  is  evident  in  the  writings  of  major  figures  such  as  
Mark  Twain  and  Henry  James.    
1. NATURALISM:  An  outgrowth  of  Realism,  Naturalism  is  a  literary  movement  among  
novelists  at  the  end  of  the  nineteenth  century  and  during  the  early  decades  of  the  
twentieth  century.    The  Naturalists  tended  to  view  people  as  hapless  victims  of  
immutable  natural  laws  and  the  effects  of  heredity  and  environment  on  people  
helpless  to  change  their  situations.    Early  exponents  of  Naturalism  include  Stephen  
Crane,  Jack  London,  and  Theodore  Dreiser.    
2. REGIONALISM:  Another  outgrowth  of  Realism,  Regionalism  in  literature  is  the  
tendency  among  certain  authors  to  write  about  specific  geographical  areas.    
Regional  writers  like  Willa  Cather  and  William  Faulkner,  present  the  distinct  culture  
of  an  area,  including  its  speech,  customs,  beliefs,  and  history.    Local-­‐color  writing  
may  be  considered  a  type  of  Regionalism,  but  Regionalists,  like  the  southern  writers  
of  the  1920’s,  usually  go  beyond  mere  presentation  of  cultural  idiosyncrasies  and  
attempt,  instead,  a  sophisticated  sociological  or  anthropological  treatment  of  the  
culture  of  a  region.    
     
G.  MODERN  (1915-­‐1946)  
The  authors  during  this  period  raised  all  the  great  questions  of  life,  but  offered  no  answers.  
Because  Modernism  came  about  during  an  age  of  disillusionment,  confusion,  and  major  
societal  change,  this  period  reacted  to  two  world  wars,  the  Great  Depression,  and  African  

Adapted  from  https://sites.google.com/site/zeebsenglisheducation/literaryperiods  and    http://staff.gps.edu/gaither/literary_movements.htm  

American  and  Women  suffrage.  Writers  often  examined  self-­‐definition  and  new  
opportunity.  In  addition,  because  of  the  emancipation  of  slaves  in  the  late  19th  century  and  
the  adoption  of  the  14th  and  15th  amendments,  race  became  a  more  pronounced  aspect  of  
literature:  prejudice  and  stereotypes  were  often  explored,  even  if  only  with  a  minor  
character.  Also,  because  of  the  women’s  suffrage  movement  and  the  adoption  of  the  19th  
amendment,  gender  roles  were  often  explored.  Faulkner,  Steinbeck,  Fitzgerald,  
Hemingway,  and  Frost  are  all  examples.      
1. IMAGISM  (1912-­1927)  Imagism  was  a  literary  movement  that  flourished  between  
1912  and  1927.    Led  by  Ezra  Pound  and  Amy  Lowell,  the  Imagist  poets  rejected  
nineteenth-­‐century  poetic  forms  and  language.    Instead,  they  wrote  short  poems  
that  used  ordinary  language  and  free  verse  to  create  sharp,  exact,  concentrated  
pictures.    
2. HARLEM  RENAISSANCE.  Part  of  the  Modern  Age,  The  Harlem  Renaissance,  which  
occurred  during  the  1920’s,  was  a  time  of  African  American  artistic  creativity  
centered  in  Harlem,  in  New  York  City.    Writers  of  the  Harlem  Renaissance  include  
Countee  Cullen,  Claude  McKay,  Jean  Toomer,  Langston  Hughes,  and  Arna  Bontemps.    
     
H.  CONTEMPORARY  (1946-­present)  
No  clear  philosophy  identifies  the  present  span  of  literature,  but  like  the  Modernist  
movement,  often  explores  personal  experience  and  social  change.  Writers  like  J.D.  Salinger,  
Beat  Poet  Jack  Kerouac,  John  Updike,  Flannery  O’Connor,  Sylvia  Plath,  and  Kurt  Vonnegut,  
Jr.  represent  the  span  of  contemporary  styles  and  works.  
1. POST-­‐MODERNISM:  Writers  of  post-­‐modernism  often  utilize  absurd  plots,  lyrical  style,  
elaborate  symbolism,  and  narrative  digression  or  fragmentation.  Notable  Post-­‐
modern  writers  include  Toni  Morrison,  Thomas  Pynchon,  Cormac  McCarthy,  
 

Adapted  from  https://sites.google.com/site/zeebsenglisheducation/literaryperiods  and    http://staff.gps.edu/gaither/literary_movements.htm