Human body is a product of different chemical reactions and processes, but what controls

these reactions?
In 1833, Anselme Payen, he first discovered and isolated diastase (enzyme group that is originally found
in malt), the first enzyme (organic catalyst) to be obtained in concentrated form. In 1878 Wilhelm Kuhne
coined the term ENZYME, which comes from Greek ενζυμον "in leaven", to describe the process. Because
of their discovery, science community made a leap in understanding the vital force that drove the chemical
reactions. Enzymes are substances, proteins and in some cases ribonucleic acid (RNA).

WHAT IS AN ENZYME? ENZYMES ARE CATALYSTS.

Enzymes are protein macromolecules They 1.They act as a catalyst to a chemical or
have a defined amino acid sequence, and are biochemical reaction, with a defined
typically 100-500 amino acids long. They mechanism.
have a defined three-dimensional structure.
2. They increase the speed of that reaction,
typically by 106-1014 times faster than the
rate of the uncatalyzed reaction.
What is Catalysts
3. They are selective for a single substrate.
CATALYST a substance that increases the
4. They speed up rate of reaction by lowering
rate of a chemical reaction without itself
the activation energy (Ea).
undergoing any permanent change.
5. They are stereospecific, meaning the
reaction produces a single product.
ENZYMES ARE "SPECIFIC."
Each type of enzyme typically only reacts
with one or a couple, of substrates. Some
enzymes are more specific than others and
will only accept one particular substrate.
Other enzymes can act on a range of
molecules, as long as they contain the type
of bond or chemical group that the enzyme
targets.

Enzymes are reusable.
Enzymes are not reactants and are not used
up during the reaction. Once an enzyme
binds to a substrate and catalyzes the
reaction, the enzyme is released,
unchanged, and can be used for another
reaction. This means that for each reaction,
there does not need to be a 1:1 ratio
between enzyme and substrate molecules.
Nomenclature
Typically add “-ase” to name of substrate
e.g. lactase breaks down lactose
(dissacharide of glucose and galactose)
ENZYMES BASED UPON THE CLASS
OF ORGANIC CHEMICAL REACTION
CATALYZED:
- catalyze redox
reactions; dehydrogenases, oxidases,
peroxidases, reductases.
Transferases - catalyze group transfer
reactions; often require coenzymes.
Hydrolases - catalyze hydrolysis reactions.
Lyases - lysis of substrate; produce
contains double bond.
Isomerases - catalyze structural changes;
isomerization.
Ligases - ligation or joining of two
substrates with input of energy, usually from
ATP hydrolysis; often called synthetases or
synthases.
ENZYME COMPONENTS
Apoenzyme:
• Is an inactive enzyme, activation of
the enzyme occurs upon binding of
an organic or inorganic cofactor.
• Are enzymes that lack their necessary
cofactor(s) for proper functioning.
• A Protein
Holoenzyme: (Fig. 8.d.)
• Are the active forms of apoenzymes.
(Apoenzyme plus cofactor)
• DNA polymerase and RNA polymerase are
Examples.
Cofactor:
• Mostly metal ions or small organic
molecules, are inorganic and organic
chemicals that assist enzymes during the
catalysis of reactions.
• Nonprotein component (e.g. magnesium,
zinc)
Coenzyme:
• Are non-protein organic molecules that are
mostly derivatives of vitamins soluble in
water by phosphorylation.
• Organic cofactor (Eg: NADH, FADH) Many
enzymes can catalyze a react.
Many enzymes can catalyze a
reaction only if coenzymes, or
cofactors are present.
Terminology:

Catalyst
Activation energy
A substance that speeds up a chemical
reaction without being changed The minimum energy required to start a
chemical reaction

Enzyme
Transition state
A biological catalyst (usually a protein)
The intermediate stage in a reaction in which
the old bonds break and new bonds are
formed.
Substrate
The reactant molecule that an enzyme
works on

Active Site
The part of the enzyme where the substrate
binds.

Enzyme-substrate complex
formed when the substrate molecule
collides with the active site of its enzyme
Endoenzymes(intracellular) / Exoenzymes
(extracellular)
REVIEW: Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
•An oxidation-reduction (redox) reaction
is a type of chemical reaction that involves a
transfer of electrons between two
species. An oxidation-reduction reaction is
any chemical reaction in which the
oxidation number of a molecule, atom, or ion
changes by gaining or losing an
electron. Redox reactions are common and
vital to some of the basic functions of life,
including photosynthesis, respiration,
combustion, and corrosion or rusting.
•Oxidation-reduction reactions are also
called REDOX reactions
• All redox reactions involve the transfer of
electrons from one atom to another
• Spontaneous redox reactions are generally
exothermic, and we can use their released
energy as a source of energy for other
applications.
Simple ways to remember this include the
mnemonic devices
OIL RIG, meaning "oxidation is loss" and
"reduction is gain,"
and LEO says GER, meaning "loss of e- =
oxidation" and "gain of e-= reduced."
There is no net change in the number of
electrons in a redox reaction. Those given off
in the oxidation half reaction are taken up by
another species in the reduction half
reaction.
A good example of a redox reaction
is the thermite reaction, in which iron atoms
in ferric oxide lose (or give up) O atoms to Al
atoms, producing Al2O3.
Fe2O3(s)+2Al(s)→Al2O3(s)+2Fe(l)

SOLID
TAKE NOTE:
Redox reactions are comprised of two parts,
a reduced half and an oxidized half, that
always occur together. The reduced half
gains electrons and the oxidation number
decreases, while the oxidized half loses
electrons and the oxidation number
increases.
 What do you mean by oxidation and reduction ?

Development of oxidation and reduction reaction concept. Reaction of

reduction oxidation based on releasing (losing) and gaining of oxygen
(capturing).
What is an oxidizing and reducing
agent?
• Oxidizing agent: a reagent which
increases the oxidation number of an
element of a given substance. These
reagents are called oxidants. It contains
the element that is reduced.
• Reducing agent: a reagent that lowers
the oxidation number of a given element.
These reagents are also called
reductants. It contains the element that
is oxidized.
2 Na(s) + Cl2(g) -> 2 Na+Cl–(s)
Na is oxidized,
Cl is reduced Na is the reducing agent,
Cl2 is the oxidizing agent
Terminology:
Reactant
Is a substance or compound added to a
system to cause a chemical reaction or
added to test if a reaction occurs. The
terms reactant and reagent are often
used interchangeably—however, a
reactant.
Reagent
Is more specifically a substance
consumed in the course of a chemical
reaction.
REVIEW: Factors Affecting Enzyme
Activity
o Enzyme activity can be affected by
a variety of factors, such as
temperature, pH, concentrations
and inhibitors.
o Enzymes work best within specific
temperature and pH ranges, and
sub-optimal conditions can cause
an enzyme to lose its ability to
bind to a substrate.
Determinants of the Factors
Affecting Enzyme activities
A. Temperature:
Raising temperature generally speeds up
a reaction, and lowering temperature
slows down a reaction. However,
extreme high temperatures can cause an
enzyme to lose its shape (denature) and
stop working. Most enzymes have an
optimum temperature, near normal body
temperature at which they catalyze a
reaction most rapidly.
The enzymatic activity (rate of reaction
catalyzed by the enzyme) increases with
increasing temperature until the enzyme,
a protein, is denatured by heat and
inactivated. At this point, the reaction
rate falls steeply.
B. pH (abbr. power of hydrogen or
potential for hydrogen):
Each enzyme has an optimum pH range.
Changing the pH outside of this range will
slow enzyme activity. Extreme pH values
can cause enzymes to denature. Even
small pH changes can alter the electrical
charges on various chemical groups in
enzyme molecules, thereby altering the
enzyme‘s ability to bind its substrate and
Substrate Concentration
catalyze a reaction. Enzymes catalyze a
reaction most rapidly at an optimum pH, - With increasing concentration of
near neutral. substrate molecules, the rate of
reaction increases until the active
sites on all the enzyme molecules are
filled, at which point the maximum
rate of reaction is reached.

d. Enzyme concentration:
Increasing enzyme concentration will speed
up the reaction, as long as there is substrate
available to bind to. Once all of the substrate
is bound, the reaction will no longer speed
up, since there will be nothing for additional
enzymes to bind to.

The higher the concentration of an enzyme

c. Substrate concentration: the greater should be the initial reaction rate.
This will last as long as substrate present.
Increasing substrate concentration also
increases the rate of reaction to a certain
point. Once all of the enzymes have bound,
any substrate increase will have no effect on
the rate of reaction, as the available enzymes
will be saturated and working at their
maximum rate. At the saturation point, the
reaction will not speed up, no matter how
much additional substrate is added. The
graph of the reaction rate will plateau.
 Noncompetitive inhibitors:
Attach to the enzyme at an allosteric
site, which is a site other than the active
site distort the tertiary protein structure
and alter the shape of the active site.

Feedback inhibition:
Regulates the rate of many metabolic
pathways when an end product of a
pathway accumulates and binds to and
inactivates the first enzyme in the
metabolic pathway. Product (usually
ultimate product) of a pathway controls
the rate of synthesis through inhibition of
an early step (usually the first step).
Conserves material and energy by
preventing accumulation of intermediate.