What is quicksand ?

Darrel G. F. Long, a sedimentologist at the department of earth sciences at Laurentian

University in Sudbury, Ontario, explains.

Quicksand is a mixture of sand and water, or sand and air, that looks solid, but becomes
unstable when disturbed by any additional stress. In normal sand, grains are packed tightly
together to form a rigid mass, with about 25 to 30 percent of the space (voids) between the
grains filled with air or water. Because many sand grains are elongate rather than spherical,
loose packing of the grains can produce sand in which voids make up 30 to 70 percent of the
mass. This arrangement is similar to a house of cards in that the space between the cards is
significantly greater than the space occupied by the cards. The sand collapses, or becomes
'quick,' when additional force from loading, vibration or the upward migration of water
overcomes the friction holding the grains together.

Most quicksand occurs in settings where there are natural springs, either at the base of alluvial
fans (cone-shaped bodies of sand and gravel formed by rivers flowing from mountains), along
riverbanks or on beaches at low tide. In such cases, the loose packing is maintained by the
upward movement of water. Quicksand does occur in deserts, but only very rarely: where
loosely packed sands occur, such as on the down-wind sides of dunes, the amount of sinking
is limited to a few centimeters, because once the air in the voids is expelled the grains are too
densely packed to allow further compaction.

Quicksand is a colloid hydrogel consisting of fine granular material (such as sand or silt),clay,
and water.
Quicksand forms in saturated loose sand when the sand is suddenly agitated. When water in
the sand cannot escape, it creates liquefied soil that loses strength and cannot support weight.
Quicksand can be formed in standing water or in upwards flowing water (as from anartesian
spring). In the case of upwards flowing water, seepage forces oppose the force of gravity and
suspend the soil particles.
The saturated sediment may appear quite solid until a sudden change in pressure or shock
initiates liquefaction. This causes the sand to form a suspension and lose strength. The
cushioning of water gives quicksand, and other liquefied sediments, a spongy, fluidlike texture.
Objects in liquefied sand sink to the level at which the weight of the object is equal to the
weight of the displaced soil/water mix and the submerged object floats due to its buoyancy.
Liquefaction is a special case of quicksand. In this case, sudden earthquake forces
immediately increases the pore pressure of shallow groundwater. The saturated liquefied soil
loses strength, causing buildings or other objects on that surface to sink or fall over.

Properties
Quicksand is a non-Newtonian fluid: when undisturbed, it often appears to be solid ("gel" form),
but a minor (less than 1%) change in the stress on the quicksand will cause a sudden
decrease in its viscosity ("sol" form). After an initial disturbance — such as a person attempting
to walk on it — the water and sand in the quicksand separate and dense regions of
sand sediment form; it is because of the formation of these high volume fraction regions that
the viscosity of the quicksand seems to increase suddenly. Someone stepping on it will start to
sink. To move within the quicksand, a person or object must apply sufficient pressure on the
compacted sand to re-introduce enough water to liquefy it. The forces required to do this are
quite large: to remove a foot from quicksand at a speed of .01 m/s would require the same
amount of force as "that needed to lift a medium-sized car." [1]
Because of the higher density of the quicksand, it would be impossible for a human or animal
to completely sink in the quicksand, though natural hazards present around the quicksand
would lead people to believe that quicksand is dangerous. In actuality the quicksand is
harmless on its own, but because it greatly impedes human locomotion, the quicksand would
allow harsher elements likesolar radiation, dehydration, hypothermia or tides to harm a trapped
person.
The way to escape is to wiggle the legs as slowly as possible in order to reduce viscosity, to try
spreading the arms and legs far apart and lying supine to increase the body's surface area,
which should allow one to float.
 How Quicksand Works

With quicksand, the more you struggle in it the faster you will sink. If you just relax, your body
will float in it because your body is less dense than the quicksand.

How many times have you watched a movie where the hero is sucked down into a pit of
quicksand, only to be saved at the last minute by grabbing a nearby tree branch and pulling
himself out?

If you believed what you saw in movies, you might think that quicksand is a living creature that
can suck you down into a bottomless pit, never to be heard from again. But no -- the actual
properties of quicksand are not quite those portrayed in the movies.
Quicksand is not quite the fearsome force of nature that you sometimes see on the big screen.
In fact, the treacherous grit is rarely deeper than a few feet.

It can occur almost anywhere if the right conditions are present. Quicksand is basically just
ordinary sand that has been so saturated with water that the friction between sand particles is
reduced. The resulting sand is a mushy mixture of sand and water that can no longer support
any weight.

If you step into quicksand, it won't suck you down. However, your movements will cause you to
dig yourself deeper into it. In this article, you will learn just how quicksand forms, where it's
found and how you can escape its clutches if you find yourself hip-deep in it.
Prevalence
Quicksand may be found inland (on riverbanks, near lakes, or in marshes), or near the coast

In fiction

People falling into (and, unrealistically, being submerged in) quicksand or a similar substance
is a trope of adventure fiction, notably movies. According to Slate, this gimmick had its heyday
in the 1960s, when almost 3% of all films showed someone sinking in mud, sand, or clay, but it
has since fallen out of use
 Dry quicksand
Dry quicksand is loose sand whose bulk density is reduced by blowing air through it and
which yields easily to weight or pressure. It acts similarly to normal quicksand, but it does not
contain any water and does not operate on the same principle. Dry quicksand is an example of
a granular material.
Historically, the existence of dry quicksand was doubted, and the reports of humans and
complete caravans being lost in dry quicksand were considered to be folklore. In 2004, it was
created in the laboratory[1], but it is still not clear what its actual prevalence in nature is.

Scientific research
Writing in Nature, physicist Detlef Lohse and coworkers of University of
Twente in Enschede, Netherlands allowed air to flow through very fine sand (typical grain
diameter was about 40 micrometers) in a container with a perforated base. They then turned
the air stream off before the start of the experiment and allowed the sand to settle: the packing
fraction of this sand was only 41% (compared to 55–60% for untreated sand). [1]
Lohse found that a weighted table tennis ball (radius 2 cm, mass 133 g), when released from
just above the surface of the sand, would sink to about five diameters. Lohse also observed a
"straight jet of sand [shooting] violently into the air after about 100 ms". Objects are known to
make a splash when they hit sand, but this type of jet had never been described before.
Lohse concluded that

In nature, dry quicksands may evolve from the sedimentation of very fine sand after it
has been blown into the air and, if large enough, might be a threat to humans. Indeed,
reports that travellers and whole vehicles have been swallowed instantly may even turn
out to be credible in the light of our results.
During the planning of the Project Apollo moon missions, dry quicksand on the moon was
considered as a potential danger to the missions. The successful landings of the
unmanned Surveyor probes a few years earlier and their observations of a solid, rocky
surface largely discounted this possibility, however. The large plates at the end of legs of
 the Apollo Lunar Module were designed to reduce this danger, but the astronauts did not
encounter dry quicksand.

DunesٍSand The

In Physical Geology , a dune is a hill of sand built either by wind or water flow. Dunes occur in
different forms and sizes, formed by interaction with the flow of air or water. Most kinds of
dunes are longer on the windward side where the sand is pushed up the dune and have a
shorter "slip face" in the lee of the wind. The valley or trough between dunes is called
a slack. A "dune field" is an area covered by extensive sand dunes. Large dune fields are
known as ergs. Some coastal areas have one or more sets of dunes running parallel to the
shoreline directly inland from the beach. In most cases the dunes are important in protecting
the land against potential ravages by storm waves from the sea. Although the most widely
distributed dunes are those associated with coastal regions, the largest complexes of dunes
are found inland in dry regions and associated with ancient lake or sea beds.

Dunes also form under the action of water flow (alluvial processes), and on sand
or gravel beds of rivers, estuaries and the sea-bed.
The modern word "dune" came into English from French circa 1790. In ancient times, words
cognate to "dune" probably had the meaning of a built-up hill or citadel fortification.
Migration
One slip after another for thousands of times over years and the dune will seem to be moving.
Ghoroud motion is called migration and they normally move of course along with the direction
of the prevalent wind.

When the tiny particles of sand jumps over the windward face, this motion is called saltation (word of
French origins). Saltation is one of the major factors of ghoroud migration and is studied as part of
grains-flow mechanics to be able to see how (under known wind and particles nature) dunes can move
and how fast. This is important for countries that has migrating ghoroud near its towns/villages or their
agricultural fields and threatening to cover it all if it changes its direction of migration. Another good
reason why those who believe in Zarzora oasis in Egypt think that it was covered by ghoroud and should
appear again someday with all its wealth. The migration is part of what is called Eolian geology. In
English, 'eolian' means the part of geology that study how air shapes sand

Rrisks Of Sand Dunes ;-

1- help in the expansion of desertification

2- had been destroyed industrial and residential areas and eliminate them from
existence

3- may result in the closure of roads and railways

4- may cause bridging canals and rivers.. etc

Sand dunes covered vast areas of the world which pose a significant risk in the North African
region to spread around the cities, villages and roads, farms, water sources and irrigation and
pasture. Despite the efforts being made to reduce the driven but studies suggest that the
random movement of dunes is continuing.

Most Arab countries face severe problems caused by sand dune encroachment, which is the
last stages of desertification threatens the transfer of agricultural land and natural grasslands
and the economic and social structures in the Arab world.

Factors have helped the harsh climate as well as human assault on the vegetation either over-
grazing and either cut down trees for fuel to the formation of large tracts of barren land.

And to increase desertification man tried in various ways long ago resistant sand Elan potential
was limited, which led him often to territorial forced migration and leaving the sand.

The climatic factors most important environmental factors that affect the ecosystem and make
it eco-system sensor is stable and that most of the sand dunes located in areas dominated by
the desert climate is characterized by the length of drought and scarcity of rain or the lack of
high temperatures in summer and high winds and continuity throughout the year.

The All studies that have been the bulk of the sand dunes in the world is found in areas
similarities dry and dry and very dry and the estimated area of these regions by about 47.7
million km 2 of which 22.4 million km 2 located in dry areas 0.6640000 km 2 areas severe
drought and the rest in semi dry.

Given the vast areas covered by the sand dunes in the world is clear to us the dimensions of
the problem sand dune stabilization, especially if we take into account that the large sand dune
areas, especially in the deserts of North Africa close to places of natural resources and human
activity.

Action must therefore be taken to stop the advance of the dunes on agricultural land and
facilities and cities located in these areas and illustrated here the importance of the installation
of sand dunes where crept addition stop to their impact on the land and soil and water
conservation and improve the climate.

It is interesting to note some ancient Arab city covered by the sand, for example, the city of
"answer" capital Ahsa days Prophet peace be upon him and the city "Hnqty" in Mauritania also
buried sand also a lot of eyes water like "Planet" Um Saeed, Saudi Arabia . As well as the Iram
of the Pillars which Antmrt under sand as a result of the sandstorm as unusual that brought
them.
 The Methods used to Reduce the Risks of Sand Dunes
There are many other methods used for this purpose. These include the following

* Work to wind things such as bumpers trees

* Plant Dune himself appointed to install

* Cover dunes by tar or bitumen. Etc.

Despite the suffering of the people due to the sand dunes, but it has some benefits.

Dunes benefits: -
* Sand used in the construction process
* are stores of groundwater
* are a store of metals
**
Recent studies in the field of treatment Tabieiy
That walking barefoot on the sand a day
And for 15 minutes

Activates the body's natural capacity

And increasing influence whether the rain-drenched sands
The study also reported that rainwater and sand
Help to unload negative electrical charges influence
The body, leading to stability in the mood
And regularity in biological processes.

How do sand dunes work?

Sand dunes are always changing as they erode and build-up in cycles. Vegetation plays
a critical role in the natural cycles of dune erosion and recovery that occurs on
beaches.
Settled weather
…Sand builds up on the beach and dunes.
During a storm
Waves erode the beach and dune, leaving a steep dune face. A bar is created as eroded
sand settles offshore in the surf zone.

After the storm

Sand is transported back onshore and rebuilds the beach. Dune vegetation grows
seaward down the eroded dune face.

Conservation
Dune habitats provide niches for highly specialised plants and animals, including
numerous rare species and some endangered species. Due to widespread human population
expansion, dunes face destruction through land development and recreational usages, as well
as alteration to prevent the encroachment of sand onto inhabited areas. Some countries,
notably the United States, Australia,Canada, New Zealand, the United Kingdom,
and Netherlands, have developed significant programs of dune protection through the use
ofsand dune stabilization. In the U.K., a Biodiversity Action Plan has been developed to assess
dunes loss and to prevent future dunes destruction.
 Aeolian dune shapes

Crescentic :
"Crescent-shaped mounds are generally wider than they are long. The slipfaces are on the
concave sides of the dunes. These dunes form under winds that blow consistently from one
direction, and they also are known asbarchans, or transverse dunes. Some types of crescentic
dunes move more quickly over desert surfaces than any other type of dune. A group of dunes
moved more than 100 metres per year between 1954 and 1959 in the China'sNingxia
Province, and similar speeds have been recorded in the Western Desert of Egypt. The largest
crescentic dunes on Earth, with mean crest-to-crest widths of more than 3 kilometres, are in
China's Taklamakan Desert."
Linear
Straight or slightly sinuous sand ridges typically much longer than they are wide are known as
linear dunes. They may be more than 160 kilometres (100 miles) long. Some linear dunes
merge to form Y-shaped compound dunes. Many form in bidirectional wind regimes. The long
axes of these dunes extend in the resultant direction of sand movement.
Linear loess hills known as pahas are superficially similar. These hills appear to have been
formed during the last ice age underpermafrost conditions dominated by
sparse tundra vegetation.

Star
Radially symmetrical, star dunes are pyramidal sand mounds with slipfaces on three or more
arms that radiate from the high center of the mound. They tend to accumulate in areas with
multidirectional wind regimes. Star dunes grow upward rather than laterally. They dominate
the Grand Erg Oriental of the Sahara. In other deserts, they occur around the margins of
the sand seas, particularly near topographic barriers. In the southeast Badain Jaran Desert of
China, the star dunes are up to 500 metres tall and may be the tallest dunes on Earth.
Dome
Oval or circular mounds that generally lack a slipface, dome dunes are rare, and these occur
at the far upwind margins of sand seas.
Parabolic
U-shaped mounds of sand with convex noses trailed by elongated arms are parabolic dunes.
These dunes are formed from blowout dunes where the erosion of vegetated sand leads to a
U-shaped depression. The elongated arms are held in place by vegetation; the largest arm
known on Earth reaches 12 km. Sometimes these dunes are called U-shaped, blowout, or
hairpin dunes, and they are well known in coastal deserts. Unlike crescent shaped dunes, their
crests point upwind. The bulk of the sand in the dune migrates forward.
In plan view, these are U-shaped or V-shaped mounds of well-sorted, very fine to medium
sand with elongated arms that extend upwind behind the central part of the dune. There are
slip faces that often occur on the outer side of the nose and on the outer slopes of the arms.
These dunes often occur in semiarid areas where the precipitation is retained in the lower
parts of the dune and underlying soils. Parabolic dunes are dependent on the vegetation that
covers them—grasses,shrubs,and trees, which help anchor the trailing arms. In inland deserts,
parabolic dunes commonly originate and extend downwind from blowouts in sand sheets only
partly anchored by vegetation. They can also originate from beach sands and extend inland
into vegetated areas in coastal zones and on shores of large lakes.
Most parabolic dunes do not reach heights higher than a few tens of metres except at their
nose, where vegetation stops or slows the advance of accumulating sand.
Simple parabolic dunes have only one set of arms that trail upwind, behind the leading nose.
Compound parabolic dunes are coalesced features with several sets of trailing arms. Complex
parabolic dunes include subsidiary superposed or coalesced forms, usually of barchanoid or
linear shapes.
Parabolic dunes, like crescent dunes, occur in areas where very strong winds are mostly
unidirectional. Although these dunes are found in areas now characterized by variable wind
speeds, the effective winds associated with the growth and migration of both the parabolic and
crescent dunes probably are the most consistent in wind direction.
The grain size for these well-sorted, very fine to medium sands is about 0.06 to 0.5 mm.
Parabolic dunes have loose sand and steep slopes only on their outer flanks. The inner slopes
are mostly well packed and anchored by vegetation, as are the corridors between individual
dunes. Because all dune arms are oriented in the same direction, and, the inter-dune corridors
are generally swept clear of loose sand, the corridors can usually be traversed in between the
trailing arms of the dune. However to cross straight over the dune by going over the trailing
arms, can be very difficult. Also, traversing the nose is very difficult as well because the nose is
usually made up of loose sand without much if any vegetation.
Longitudinal (Seif) dunes
Longitudinal dunes (also called Seif dunes, after the Arabic word for "sword"), elongate parallel
to the prevailing wind, possibly caused by a larger dune having its smaller sides blown away.
Seif dunes are sharp-crested and are common in the Sahara. They range up to 300 m (980 ft)
in height and 300 km (190 mi) in length. In the southern third of the Arabian Peninsula, a vast
erg called the Rub' al Khali or the Empty Quarter, contains seif dunes that stretch for almost
200 km and reach heights of over 300 m.
Seif dunes are thought to develop from barchans if a change of the usual wind direction
occurs. The new wind direction will lead to the development of a new wing and the over
development of one of the original wings. If the prevailing wind then becomes dominant for a
lengthy period of time the dune will revert to its barchan form, with one exaggerated wing.
Should the strong wind then return the exaggerated wing will further extend so that eventually
it will be supplied with sand when the prevailing wind returns. The wing will continue to grow
under both wind conditions, thus producing a seif dune. On a seif dune the slip face develops
on the side facing away from the strong wind, while the slip face of a barchan faces the
direction of movement. In the sheltered troughs between highly developed seif dunes barchans
may be formed because the wind is unidirectional.
A transverse dune is perpendicular to the prevailing wind, probably caused by a steady build-
up of sand on an already existing minuscule mound
Reversing dunes
Occurring wherever winds periodically reverse direction, reversing dunes are varieties of any
of the above shapes. These dunes typically have major and minor slipfaces oriented in
opposite directions. All these dune shapes may occur in three forms: simple, compound, and
complex. Simple dunes are basic forms with a minimum number of slipfaces that define the
geometric type. Compound dunes are large dunes on which smaller dunes of similar type and
slipface orientation are superimposed, and complex dunes are combinations of two or more
dune types. A crescentic dune with a star dune superimposed on its crest is the most common
complex dune. Simple dunes represent a wind regime that has not changed in intensity or
direction since the formation of the dune, while compound and complex dunes suggest that the
intensity and direction of the wind has changed

.
 : Dune types
Sub-aqueous dunes
Sub-aqueous (underwater) dunes (also known in geology as megaripples) form on a bed of
sand or gravel under the actions of water flow. They are ubiquitous in natural channels such as
rivers and estuaries, and also form in engineered canals and pipelines. Dunes move
downstream as the upstream
slope is eroded and the sediment deposited on the downstream or lee slope in
typical bedform construction.[3]
These dunes most often form as a continuous 'train' of dunes, showing remarkable similarity
in wavelength and height.
Dunes on the bed of a channel significantly increase flow resistance, their presence and
growth playing a major part in river flooding.
Lithified dunes
A lithified (consolidated) sand dune is a type of sandstone that is formed when a marine or
aeolian sand dune becomes compacted and hardened. Once in this form, water passing
through the rock can carry and deposit minerals, which can alter the color of the rock. Cross-
bedded layers of stacks of lithified dunes can produce the cross-hatching patterns, such as
those seen in the Zion National Park in the western United States.
A slang term that is used in the Southwestern States (of the U.S.A.) for those consolidated and
hardened sand dunes is "slickrock", a name that was introduced by pioneers of the Old West
because their steel-rimmed wagon wheels could not gain traction on the rock.
Coastal dunes

Dunes form where constructive waves encourage the accumulation of sand, and where
prevailing onshore winds blow this sand inland. There need to be obstacles—for example,
vegetation, pebbles and so on—to trap the moving sand grains. As the sand grains get trapped
they start to accumulate, starting dune formation. The wind then starts to affect the mound of
sand by eroding sand particles from the windward side and depositing them on the leeward
side. Gradually this action causes the dune to “migrate” inland, as it does so it accumulates
more and more sand. Dunes provide privacy and shelter from the wind.

Ecological succession on coastal dunes

As a dune forms, plant successionoccurs. The conditions on an embryo dune are harsh,
with salt spray from the sea carried on strong winds. The dune is well drained and often dry,
and composed of calcium carbonate from seashells. Rotting seaweed, brought in by storm
waves adds nutrients to allow pioneer species to colonize the dune. These pioneer species
are marram grass, sea wort grass and other sea grasses in the United Kingdom. These plants
are well adapted to the harsh conditions of the foredune typically having deep roots which
reach the water table, root nodules that produce nitrogencompounds, and protected stoma,
reducing transpiration. Also, the deep roots bind the sand together, and the dune grows into
a foredune as more sand is blown over the grasses. The grasses add nitrogen to the soil,
meaning other, less hardy plants can then colonize the dunes. Typically these
are heather, heaths and gorses. These too are adapted to the low soil water content and have
small, prickly leaves which reduce transpiration. Heather adds humus to the soil and is usually
replaced by coniferous trees, which can tolerate low soil pH, caused by the accumulation and
decomposition of organic matter with nitrate leaching. [4] Coniferous forests and heathland are
commonclimax communities for sand dune systems.
Young dunes are called yellow dunes and dunes which have high humus content are
called grey dunes. Leaching occurs on the dunes, washing humus into the slacks, and the
slacks may be much more developed than the exposed tops of the dunes. It is usually in the
slacks that more rare species are developed and there is a tendency for the dune slacks soil to
be waterlogged and where only marsh plants can survive. These plants would include:
creeping willow, cotton grass, yellow ins, reeds, and rushes. As for the species, there is a
tendency for natterjack toads to breed here.

World's highest dunes

Height from Height from
Dune Base Sea Level Location Notes
feet/metres feet/metres

Sechura Desert, Nazca, Peru 14.868°S Highest in the

Cerro Blanco ~3860/1176 ~6791/2,080
74.838°W world

World's tallest
stationary
Badain Jaran Badain Jaran Desert, Alashan Plain, Inner
~1640/500 ~6640/2,020 dunes and
Dunes Mongolia, Gobi Desert, China
highest in
Asia[8]
 Near World
the hottest
Rig-e Yalan Dune ~1542/470 ~3117/950 Lut Desert, Kerman, Iran place
(Gandom
Beryan)

Average Highest Isaouane-n-Tifernine Sand Sea, Algerian Highest in

1,526/465? ~6,500/~1,980?
Area Dunes Sahara Africa

according to
the Namibian
Sossusvlei Dunes, Namib Desert, Ministry of
Big Daddy/Dune 7
1,256/383 ~1,870/570 Namibia / Near Walvis Bay Namib Desert, Environment &
(Big Mama?)[9]
Namibia Tourism the
highest dune
in the world

Highest in
Mount Tempest ~920/280 ~920/280 Moreton Island, Brisbane, Australia
Australia

Great Sand Dunes National Park and Highest in

Star Dune >750/230 ~8,950/2,730
Preserve, Colorado, USA North America

Highest in
Dune of Pyla ~345/105 ~699/130 Bay of Arcachon, Aquitaine, France
Europe

Dunhuang Oasis, Taklamakan Desert,

Ming-Sha Dunes ? 5,660/1,725
Gansu, China

Highest in
Chile, second
Medanoso Dune ~1805/550 ~5446/1660 Atacama Desert, Chile
Highest in the
World

.Why Building On Sand Dunes Is Not A Good Idea

It is very important that any one who has bought or is considering purchasing a lot on a sand
dune, is made aware of the risks, problems, and dangers associated with building on it.

Sand dune systems are nature's buffer strip between the sea and land, and they are vital as a
defense mechanism against the erosional actions of the sea, and the inland drifting of sand
caused by wind erosion. Human interference with sand dunes by the removal of vegetation and
the construction of roads and houses can have a substantial effect on dunal stability. Besides
decimating a habitat full of native plants and soon to be homeless creatures, here are other
major existing risks:

1. Stability Risk - A result of the mobile nature of sand, which makes up the sand dune. The
removal of vegetation, coupled with exposure to the wind, can lead to excelerated erosion of the
sand dune, and undermine the foundations of a building. Once this action commences, it is
nearly impossible to stabilize the situation to prevent the possible collapse of a building.
Vegetation plays a vital role in keeping sand dunes stable by holding the sand together and
shielding it from the wind.

2. Locational Risk - Close proximity of sand dunes to the sea creates immediate risks in
storm situations. Whether or not a sand dune is stable, it is possible on some exposed beaches
for storm waves to attack the dunes and transport the sand out to sea. This has occurred here
in years past. These situations are mostly beyond human control, and houses nearest the
frontal dunes are most at risk. You will be living in a high natural risk area which may be
affected by wave or wind erosion resulting in the loss of property and/or buildings. The local
infrastructure does not support high density for this area with any of its services.

3. Legal Risks - There are currently numerous legal proceedings going on with Profepa
(Mexico's environmental agency) where significant fines are levied for a developer not
following environmental restrictions when building. The fines and orders to comply after the
fact are quite common in these situations and the owners inherit responsibility for this. In
some instances the owner and builder are forced to remove the building and restore the habitat
completely at their expense.

4. Social - The local community opposes the destruction of the dunes by constructing
houses. For years now, the community of Todos Santos has posted signs on our beaches
warning potential buyers of these risks, and that we do not want building on our dunes. Yet, in
spite of these efforts to educate potential buyers and to build public awareness, two homes
have been constructed and a third is going up in 2011. Perhaps it could be stated in a more
positive way... that these efforts have actually not been for naught, since ONLY two houses
have been completed, and nobody is buying them. Pity the innocent people from afar who
think they are actually able to buy a piece of paradise on a beautiful, pristine beach in Mexico!
What a shock to learn, too late perhaps, they were duped, and when something sounds too
good to be true, it usually is.
A word to the wise buyer: Please evaluate the possible loss or damage you will inevitably
sustain before purchasing or building on a dunes lot. There are so many other beautiful
properties available for sale in Todos Santos, where you can safely build your dream home and
enjoy becoming a welcomed member of our community.

Why protect our sand dunes?

Protect the dunes and they'll protect us

Beaches and sand dunes are the narrow but precious bands of sand that lie between the land
and the sea.
Sand dunes are natural habitats for many native species and, in their natural state, they
protect land and property from erosion, storms, cyclones and tsunamis.
But many of our dunes are under threat, which creates instability, increased erosion and loss
of native plant and animal life.
Large areas of Northland's coastal dunes have been modified for residential development and
farmland. This has led to changes in dune stability, often resulting in vegetation loss and wind
erosion.
Our dunes are also under pressure as the population grows. Wheels, feet and animals destroy
dune vegetation. Even small losses in dune vegetation can lead to significant wind erosion.
The good news is that we can all play a part in caring for and protecting Northland's valuable
dunes.
Driving or riding on dunes destroys plants and causes erosion.

Dune restoration
Dunes can be replanted to encourage natural processes, if there's enough space between the
beach and buildings or roads.
Replanting can also re-establish important native plants that have become critically rare in
some areas – like spinifex and pingao – and restore the natural character and values of an
area.
Keep in mind that some areas are naturally unstable and are valued environments just as they
are. Before you commit to a project that's trying to address dune stability, take a stroll along
the beach and think about the natural coastal processes that are at work.
Northland CoastCare groups carry out dune restoration projects to protect and
enhance native vegetation and replant it where necessary.

Ripple marks

In geology, ripple marks are sedimentary structures (i.e. bedforms of the lower flow regime)
and indicate agitation by water (current or waves) or wind.

Defining ripple cross-laminae and asymmetric ripples

 Current ripple marks, unidirectional ripples, or asymmetrical ripple marks are
asymmetrical in profile, with a gentle up-current slope and a steeper down-current
slope. The down-current slope is the angle of repose, which depends on the shape of
 the sediment. These commonly form in fluvial and aeolian depositional environments,
and are a signifier of the lower part of the Lower Flow Regime.

Ripple cross-laminae forms when deposition takes place during migration of
current or wave ripples. A series of cross-laminae are produced by superimposing
migrating ripples. The ripples form lateral to one another, such that the crests of
vertically succeeding laminae are out of phase and appear to be advancing upslope.
This process results in cross-bedded units that have the general appearance of
waves in outcrop sections cut normal to the wave crests. In sections with other
orientations, the laminae may appear horizontal or trough-shaped, depending upon
the orientation and the shape of the ripples. Ripple cross-laminae will always have a
steeper dip downstream, and will always be perpendicular to paleoflow meaning the
orientation of the ripples will be in a direction that is ninety degrees to the direction
that current if flowing.[1]Scientists suggest current drag, or the slowing of current
velocity, during deposition is believed to be responsible for ripple cross-laminae. [2]

Types ;

Straight

Straight ripples generate cross-laminae that all dip in the same

direction, and lay in the same plane. These forms of ripples
are constructed by unidirectional flow of the current.

Sinuous
Sinuous ripples generate cross-laminae that are curvy. They
show a pattern of curving up and down as shown in picture.
Sinuous ripples produce trough cross lamination. All laminae
formed under this type of ripple dip at an angle to the flow as
well as downstream. These are also formed by unidirectional
flow of current.

Catenary
Catenary ripples generate cross-laminae that are curvy but
have a unidirectional swoop. They show a pattern similar to
what a repeated "W" would look like. Like the sinuous ripples,
this form of ripple is created by unidirectional flow with the dip
at an angle to the flow as well as downstream.
 Linguoid ripples have lee slope surfaces that are curved
Linguoid / Lunate
generating a laminae similar to caternary and sinuous ripples.
Linguoid ripples generate an angle to the flow as well as
downstream. Linguoid ripples have a random shape rather
than a "W" shape, as described in the catenary description.
Lunate ripples, meaning crescent shaped ripples, are exactly
like linguoid ripples except that thestoss sides are curved
rather than the lee slope. All other features are the same.

Size (scale)

Size Description

Very small cross-lamination means that the ripple height is roughly one
Very small
centimeter. It is lenticular, wavy and flaser lamination.

Small cross-bedding are ripples set at a height less than ten

centimeters, while the thickness is only a few milimeters. Some ripples
Small
that may fit this category are wind ripples, wave ripples, and current
ripples.

Medium cross-lamination are ripples with a height greater than ten

centimeters, and less than one meter in thickness. Some ripples that
Medium
may fit this category would be current-formed sandwaves, and storm-
generated hummocky cross stratification.

Large Large cross-bedding are ripples with a height greater than one meter,
 and a thickness equivalent to one meter or greater. Some ripples that
may fit this category would be high energy river-bed bars, sand waves,
epsilon cross-bedding and Gilbert-type cross-bedding.

Wave-formed ripple marks

 Also called bidirectional ripples, or symmetrical ripple marks have a symmetrical,
almost sinusoidal profile; they indicate an environment with weak currents where water
motion is dominated by wave oscillations.

 In most present-day streams, ripples will not form in sediment larger than coarse sand.
Therefore, the stream beds of sand-bed streams are dominated by current ripples, while
gravel-bed streams do not contain bedforms. The internal structure of ripples is a base of
fine sand with coarse grains deposited on top since the size distribution of sand grains
correlates to the size of the ripples. This occurs because the fine grains continue to move
while the coarse grains accumulate and provide a protective barrier.

Ripple marks formed by aeolian processes

Normal ripples
Or impact ripples occur in the lower part of the lower flow regime sands with grain sizes
between 0.3-2.5 mm and normal ripples form wavelengths of 7-14 cm Normal ripples
have straight or slightly sinuous crests approximately transverse to the direction of the
wind.
Megaripples
Occur in the upper part of the lower flow regime where sand with bimodal particle size
distribution forms unusually long wavelengths of 1-25 m where the wind is not strong
enough to move the larger particles but strong enough to move the smaller grains
bysaltation.
Fluid drag ripples
Or aerodynamic ripples are formed with fine, well-sorted grain particles accompanied
by high velocity winds which result in long, flat ripples. The flat ripples are formed by
long saltation paths taken by grains in suspension and grains on the ground surface.
Definitions
 Crest and trough

Crest
The point on a wave with the maximum value or height. It is the location at the peak of
the wave cycle as shown in picture to the right.
Trough
The opposite of a crest, so the minimum value or height in a wave. It is the location at
the very lowest point of a wave cycle also shown in picture to right.
Lee
The lee side has a steeper slope than the stoss. The lee is always on the back side of
the ripple, which is also on the opposite side of where the current flow meets the ripple.
The current flows down the lee side.
Stoss
The stoss is the side of a wave or ripple that has a gentle slope versus a steeper slope.
Current always flows up the stoss side and down the lee side. This can be used to
determine current flow during the time of ripple formation.

Desetification The
Desertification
is a type of land degradation in which a relatively dry land region becomes increasingly arid,
typically losing its bodies of water as well as vegetation and wildlife. It is caused by a variety of
factors, such as climate changeand human activities. Desertification is a significant global
ecological and environmental problem.
Definitions
Considerable controversy exists over the proper definition of the term "desertification" for
which Helmut Geist (2005) has identified more than 100 formal definitions. The most widely
accepted of these is that of thePrinceton University Dictionary which defines it as "the process
of fertile land transforming into desert typically as a result of deforestation, drought or
improper/inappropriate agriculture"The earliest known discussion of the topic arose soon after
the French colonization of West Africa, when the Comité d'Etudes commissioned a study
on desséchement progressif to explore the prehistoric expansion of the Sahara Desert
 Desertification Areas Map World
History
The world's great deserts have been formed by natural processes interacting over long
intervals of time. During most of these times, deserts have grown and shrunk independent of
human activities. Paleodeserts are large sand seas now inactive because they are stabilized
by vegetation, some extending beyond the present margins of core deserts, such as
the Sahara, the largest hot desert.

Desertification has played a significant role in human history, contributing to the collapse of
several large empires, such as Carthage, Greece, and the Roman Empire, as well as causing
displacement of local populations. Also it is caused by over farming .
Areas affected
Drylands occupy approximately 40–41% of Earth’s land area and are home to more than 2
billion people.[11] It has been estimated that some 10–20% of drylands are already degraded,
the total area affected by desertification being between 6 and 12 million square kilometres, that
about 1–6% of the inhabitants of drylands live in desertified areas, and that a billion people are
under threat from further desertification.
The Sahara is currently expanding south at a rate of up to 48 kilometers per year

Stages
As the desertification takes place, the landscape progresses through different stages and
continuously transforms in appearance. The desertification generally creates increasingly
larger empty spaces over a large strip of land, a phenomenon known as "tiger fur pattern". A
mathematical model has been made of it by Sjors van der Stelt. [15] Besides explaining the
process of desertification, the model is also useful for developing methods to combat it (see
also: Alternative stable state).

Causes
Dryland ecosystems are already very fragile, and can rarely sustain the increased pressures
that result from intense population growth. Many of these areas are inappropriately opened to
[
.development, when they cannot sustain human settlements
The most common cause of desertification is the over cultivation of desert lands.Over-
cultivation causes the nutrients in the soil to be depleted faster than they are restored.
Improper irrigation practices result in salinated soils, and depletion of aquifers.
Vegetation plays a major role in determining the biological composition of the soil. Studies
have shown that, in many environments, the rate of erosion and runoff decreases
exponentially with increased vegetation cover.Overgrazing removes this vegetation causing
erosion and loss of topsoil

Poverty
At least 90% of the inhabitants of drylands live in developing nations, where they also suffer
from poor economic and social conditions. This situation is exacerbated by land degradation
because of the reduction in productivity, the precariousness of living conditions and the
difficulty of access to resources and opportunities.
A downward spiral is created in many underdeveloped countries by overgrazing, land
exhaustion and overdrafting of groundwater in many of the marginally productive world regions
due to overpopulation pressures to exploit marginal drylands for farming. Decision-makers are
understandably averse to invest in arid zones with low potential. This absence of investment
contributes to the marginalisation of these zones. When unfavourable agro-climatic conditions
are combined with an absence of infrastructure and access to markets, as well as poorly
adapted production techniques and an underfed and undereducated population, most such
zones are excluded from development.
Desertification often causes rural lands to become unable to support the same sized
populations that previously lived there. This results in mass migrations out of rural areas and
into urban areas, particularly in Africa. These migrations into the cities, often cause large
numbers of unemployed people who end up living in slums

Countermeasures and prevention

Techniques exist for mitigating or reversing the effects of desertification, however there are
numerous barriers to their implementation. One of these is that the costs of adopting
sustainable agricultural practices sometimes exceed the benefits for individual farmers, even
while they are socially and environmentally beneficial. [citation needed]Another issue is a lack of
political will, and lack of funding to support land reclamationand anti-desertification programs.[2
Desertification is recognized as a major threat to biodiversity. Some countries have
developed Biodiversity Action Plans to counter its effects, particularly in relation to the
protection of endangered flora and fauna.
Reforestation gets at one of the root causes of desertification and isn't just a treatment of the
symptoms. Environmental organizations[ work in places where deforestation and desertification
are contributing to extreme poverty. There they focus primarily on educating the local
population about the dangers of deforestation and sometimes employ them to grow seedlings,
which they transfer to severely deforested areas during the rainy season.
Techniques focus on two aspects: provisioning of water, and fixation and hyper-
fertilizing soil.

Fixating the soil is often done through the use of shelter belts, woodlots andwindbreaks.
Windbreaks are made from trees and bushes and are used to reduce
soilerosion and evapotranspiration. They were widely encouraged by development agencies
from the middle of the 1980s in the Sahel area of Africa.

Some soils (for example, clay), due to lack of water can become consolidated rather than
porous (as in the case of sandy soils). Some techniques as zaï or tillage are then used to still
allow the planting of crops.

Enriching of the soil and restoration of its fertility is often done by plants. Of these,
theLeguminous plants which extract nitrogen from the air and fixes it in the soil, and food
crops/trees as grains, barley, beans and datesare the most important. Sand fences can also
be used to control drifting of soil and sand erosion.

As there are many different types of deserts, there are also different types of desert
reclamation methodologies. An example for this is the salt-flats in the Rub' al Khali desert
in Saudi-Arabia. These salt-flats are one of the most promising desert areas for seawater
agriculture and could be revitalized without the use of freshwater or much energy.

Farmer Managed Natural Regeneration (FMNR) is another technique that has produced
successful results for desert reclamation. Since 1980, this method to reforest degraded
landscape has been applied with some success in Niger. This simple and low-cost method has
enabled farmers to regenerate some 30,000 square kilometers in Niger. The process involves
enabling native sprouting tree growth through selective pruning of shrub shoots. The residue
from pruned tress can be used to provide mulching for fields thus increasing soil water
retention and reducing evaporation. Additionally, properly spaced and pruned trees can
increase crop yields. The Humbo Assisted Regeneration Project which uses FMNR techniques
in Ethiopia has received money from The World Bank’s BioCarbon Fund, which supports
projects that sequester or conserve carbon in forests or agricultural ecosystems.
 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

With sincere respect and appreciation

Under the supervision of
Prof. Dr. Hani Ahmed Mostafa
Department of Geology, Faculty of Science Menoufia University

:Searching and preparation

Mahmoud Salah Al Anani & Zakaria Mamdouh ElDesoki

Department of Geology, Faculty of Science Menoufia University

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