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Raising a new Generation of Leaders

Heat and Mass Transfer

(PET 316)
Dr. Mrs. D.V. Abraham
Prof. O. D. Orodu

1
 Heat and Mass Transfer

COURSE DETAILS
Course unit: 3
Course code: PET 316
Contact hours per week: 3 (Tuesday: 1-3 pm and Thursday
12 – 1 pm)
Lecturers:
Dr. Damilola V. Abraham
(victoria.aina@covenantuniversity.edu.ng)
Prof. Oyinkepreye D. Orodu
(oyinkepreye.orodu@covenantuniversity.edu.ng)

PET 316– Heat and Mass Transfer–Dr. D. V. Abraham and Prof. O. D. Orodu 2
 Heat and Mass Transfer

OUTLINE
1. Introduction
2. Modes of heat transfer,
a. general heat conduction equation;
b. steady state conduction;
c. unsteady heat transfer by convection, natural and forced,
laminar and turbulent.
3. Heat transfer by radiation,
a. fundamentals of black and gray bodies;
b. combined models of heat transfer;
c. radiation exchange between surfaces.
4. Heat exchangers, conductors and dryers.
5. Mass transfer fundamentals, diffusion and convection mass
transfer.

PET 316– Heat and Mass Transfer–Dr. D. V. Abraham and Prof. O. D. Orodu 3
 Principles of Heat Flow in Fluids

• Heat transfer from a warmer fluid to a cooler fluid, usually

through a solid wall separating the fluids is common in
engineering practice.
• The heat transfer may be “latent heat” accompanying a
phase change such as condensation or vaporization.
• It may be “sensible heat” from the rise and fall in
temperature of a fluid without a phase change.
• All such cases require that heat be transferred by
conduction and convection.

PET 316– Heat and Mass Transfer–Dr. D. V. Abraham and Prof. O. D. Orodu 4
 Countercurrent, Parallel and Cross Flows

• When two fluids enter at different ends of an heat transfer equipment and
pass in opposite directions through the unit, such flow is called “Counter flow
or Countercurrent flow”
• If the two fluids enter at the same end of the heat transfer equipment and flow
in the same direction to the other end, the flow is called “Parallel flow or
Cocurrent flow”.
• If one fluid flows across banks of tubes at right angle to the axis of the tube,
such flow is called “Cross flow”.

PET 316– Heat and Mass Transfer–Dr. D. V. Abraham and Prof. O. D. Orodu 5
 Which is better: Counter Flow or Parallel Flow?

• In a Concurrent design, the temperature of the cold stream

outlet is always lesser than that of the hot stream outlet.
Therefore, the heat transfer is restricted by the cold
stream's outlet temperature.
• On the other hand, in a countercurrent design, the
restriction is relaxed and can exceed. Hence in this design,
the heat transfer is restricted by the cold stream's inlet
temperature.
• Therefore, to achieve greater heat recovery, a
countercurrent design is preferred to that of a Cocurrent
design.

PET 316– Heat and Mass Transfer–Dr. D. V. Abraham and Prof. O. D. Orodu 6
 Introduction

The role of heat transfer is to supplement thermodynamic

analyses, which consider only systems in equilibrium, with
additional laws that allow prediction of time rates of energy
transfer. These supplemental laws are based upon the three
fundamental modes of heat transfer, namely conduction,
convection and radiation.

PET 316– Heat and Mass Transfer–Dr. D. V. Abraham and Prof. O. D. Orodu 7
 CONDUCTION
CONDUCTION
A temperature gradient within a homogeneous substance results in an energy transfer rate
within the medium which can be calculated by
(1)
where
dT/dx is the temperature gradient in the direction
normal to the area A.
The thermal conductivity k is an experimental constant for the medium
involved, and it may depend upon other properties, such as temperature and
pressure. The units of k are W/m.K or Btu/h.ft."F.
The minus sign in Fourier's law, is required by the
second law of thermodynamics: thermal energy transfer
resulting from a thermal gradient must be from a warmer to Fig. 1
a colder region. If the temperature profile within the medium is linear, it is permissible to
replace the temperature Fig. 1 gradient (partial derivative) with
(2)

PET 316– Heat and Mass Transfer–Dr. D. V. Abraham and Prof. O. D. Orodu 8
 CONDUCTION

Such linearity always exists in a homogeneous medium of

fixed k during steady state heat transfer.
Steady state transfer occurs whenever the temperature at
every point within the body, including the surfaces, is
independent of time. If the temperature changes with time,
energy is either being stored in or removed from the body.
This storage rate is
(3)
where the mass m is the product of volume V and density p.

PET 316– Heat and Mass Transfer–Dr. D. V. Abraham and Prof. O. D. Orodu 9
 CONDUCTION

PROBLEM
Determine the steady state rate of heat transfer per unit
area through a 4.0 cm thick homogeneous slab with its two
faces maintained at uniform temperatures of 38oC and 21oC.
The thermal conductivity of the material is 0.19 W/m. K.

PET 316– Heat and Mass Transfer–Dr. D. V. Abraham and Prof. O. D. Orodu 10
 CONVECTION

CONVECTION
Whenever a solid body is exposed to a moving fluid having a temperature different from that of
the body, energy is carried or convected from or to the body by the fluid.
If the upstream temperature of the fluid is T, and the surface temperature of the solid is T,, the
heat transfer per unit time is given by
(4)

which is known as Newton's law of cooling. This equation defines the convective heat transfer
coefficient h as the constant of proportionality relating the heat transfer per unit time and unit
area to the overall temperature difference.
The units of h are W/m2-K or Btu/h.ft2.oF. It is important to keep in mind that the fundamental
energy exchange at a solid-fluid boundary is by conduction, and that this energy is then
convected away by the fluid flow. By comparison of (1) and (4),we obtain, for y = n,

(5)

where the subscript on the temperature gradient indicates evaluation in the fluid at the surface.

PET 316– Heat and Mass Transfer–Dr. D. V. Abraham and Prof. O. D. Orodu 11
 CONVECTION

PROBLEM
The forced convective heat transfer coefficient for a hot fluid
flowing over a cool surface is 225 W/m2.oC for a particular
problem. The fluid temperature upstream of the cool
surface is 120oC, and the surface is held at 10oC. Determine
the heat transfer rate per unit surface area from the fluid to
the surface.

PET 316– Heat and Mass Transfer–Dr. D. V. Abraham and Prof. O. D. Orodu 12
 RADIATION

The third mode of heat transmission is due to electromagnetic wave

propagation, which can occur in a total vacuum as well as in a medium.
Experimental evidence indicates that radiant heat transfer is
proportional to the fourth power of the absolute temperature, whereas
conduction and convection are proportional to a linear temperature
difference. The fundamental Stefan-Boltzmann law is
(6)

where T is the absolute temperature. The constant o is independent of

surface, medium, and temperature; its value is 5.6697 X 10-8 W/m2.K4 or
0.1714 X 10-8Btu/h.ft2-oR4. The ideal emitter, or blackbody, is one which
gives off radiant energy according to (6). All other surfaces emit
somewhat less than this amount, and the thermal emission from many
surfaces (gray bodies) can be well represented by
(7)

where E, the emissivity of the surface, ranges from zero to one.

PET 316– Heat and Mass Transfer–Dr. D. V. Abraham and Prof. O. D. Orodu 13
 RADIATION

PROBLEM
After sunset, radiant energy can be sensed by a person
standing near a brick wall. Such walls frequently have
surface temperatures around 44oC, and typical brick
emissivity values are on the order of 0.92. What would be
the radiant thermal flux per square foot from a brick wall at
this temperature?

PET 316– Heat and Mass Transfer–Dr. D. V. Abraham and Prof. O. D. Orodu 14
Heat conduction Equation

PET 316– Heat and Mass Transfer–Dr. D. V. Abraham and Prof. O. D. Orodu 15
 Heat conduction Equation

Introduction
• Although heat transfer and temperature are closely
related, they are of a different nature.
• Temperature has only magnitude; it is a scalar quantity.
• Heat transfer has direction as well as magnitude; it is a
vector quantity.

PET 316– Heat and Mass Transfer–Dr. D. V. Abraham and Prof. O. D. Orodu 16
 Introduction

• The driving force for any form of heat transfer is the

temperature difference.
• The larger the temperature difference, the larger the rate
of heat transfer.
• Three prime coordinate systems:
• Rectangular (T(x, y, z, t)),
• Cylindrical (T(r, 𝜙, z, t),
• Spherical (T(r, 𝜙, 𝜽, t)).

PET 316– Heat and Mass Transfer–Dr. D. V. Abraham and Prof. O. D. Orodu 17
 Introduction

Classification of conduction heat transfer problems:

• Steady versus transient heat transfer,
• Multidimensional heat transfer,
• Heat generation.

PET 316– Heat and Mass Transfer–Dr. D. V. Abraham and Prof. O. D. Orodu 18
 Steady versus Transient Heat Transfer

• Steady implies no change with time at any point within the

medium.

• Transient implies variation with time or time dependence.

PET 316– Heat and Mass Transfer–Dr. D. V. Abraham and Prof. O. D. Orodu 19
 Multidimensional Heat Transfer

• Heat transfer problems are also classified as being:

• One-dimensional,
• Two dimensional,
• Three-dimensional.
• In the most general case, heat transfer through a medium
is three-dimensional. However, some problems can be
classified as two- or one- dimensional depending on the
relative magnitudes of heat transfer rates in different
directions and level of accuracy desired.

PET 316– Heat and Mass Transfer–Dr. D. V. Abraham and Prof. O. D. Orodu 20
 Multidimensional Heat Transfer

• The rate of heat conduction through a medium in a

specified direction (say, in the x-direction) is expressed by
Fourier’s law of heat conduction for one-dimensional heat
conduction as:
𝒅𝑻
𝑸= −𝒌𝑨 (2.1)
𝒅𝒙

• Heat is conducted in the direction of decreasing

temperature, and thus the temperature gradient is
negative when heat is conducted in the positive x-
direction.

PET 316– Heat and Mass Transfer–Dr. D. V. Abraham and Prof. O. D. Orodu 21
 General Heat Conduction Equation: Cartesian
Coordinates

• General heat conduction equation

• What is the basic form of heat conduction equation?
The basic form of heat conduction equation is obtained by
applying the first law of thermodynamics (principle of
conservation of energy).

Consider a differential element in Cartesian coordinates. The

energy balance for the differential element can be written as
follows:

PET 316– Heat and Mass Transfer–Dr. D. V. Abraham and Prof. O. D. Orodu 22
General Heat Conduction Equation: Cartesian
Coordinates

(2.2)

PET 316– Heat and Mass Transfer–Dr. D. V. Abraham and Prof. O. D. Orodu 23
 General Heat Conduction Equation: Cartesian
Coordinates

The first term in the above equation represents the rate of

heat energy coming into the element at x, y and z planes.
The second term represents the rate of heat energy coming
out of the element at x+dx, y+dy and z+dz planes. The third
term represents the rate of heat generation inside the
element.
Now, what is heat generation?
A medium conducting heat energy may involve the
conversion of mechanical, electrical, nuclear or chemical
energy into heat energy. For example, when a resistance
wire conducts electric current, it converts electrical energy
into heat energy at a rate of I²R, where I is the current and R
is the electrical resistance of the wire.

PET 316– Heat and Mass Transfer–Dr. D. V. Abraham and Prof. O. D. Orodu 24
 General Heat Conduction Equation: Cartesian
Coordinates

Similarly, heat is generated in an exothermic chemical

reaction in a medium. The reaction may also be an
endothermic reaction. In such a case, the heat generation
term will become a negative quantity.
Likewise, nuclear fission process in a nuclear reactor
generates a large amount of heat in fuel elements.
Heat is also generated in a nuclear fusion reaction. For
example, hydrogen atoms get fused into helium making the
sun a large nuclear reactor.
One thing to note is that heat generation is a volumetric
phenomenon. This means that heat generation occurs
throughout the body of the medium. For this reason, the rate
of heat generation in a medium is usually specified per unit
volume, W/m³.

PET 316– Heat and Mass Transfer–Dr. D. V. Abraham and Prof. O. D. Orodu 25
 General Heat Conduction Equation: Cartesian
Coordinates

The rate of heat generation may vary with respect to time as

well as position within the medium. When variation with
respect to position (x,y,z) is known, we can calculate total
rate of heat generation in a medium of volume V by:
(2.3)
If the rate of heat generation is uniform throughout the
medium then the above equation will become:
(2.4)
Now, comes the fourth term. It represents the rate of change
of energy content of the mass contained in the element.

PET 316– Heat and Mass Transfer–Dr. D. V. Abraham and Prof. O. D. Orodu 26
 Derivation of heat conduction equation

In general, the heat conduction through a medium is multi-

dimensional. That is, heat transfer by conduction happens
in all three- x, y and z directions. In some cases, the heat
conduction in one particular direction is much higher than
that in other directions. In such cases, we approximate the
heat transfer problems as being one-dimensional,
neglecting heat conduction in other directions.
Now, we will develop the governing differential equation for
heat conduction. Consider again the differential element of
volume dV = dx*dy*dz in Cartesian coordinate system.
Writing the mathematical form of the energy balance
equation for the element,
(2.5)

PET 316– Heat and Mass Transfer–Dr. D. V. Abraham and Prof. O. D. Orodu 27
 Derivation of heat conduction equation

Rate of heat generation within the element,

(2.6)
The rate of change of energy content of the element:

(2.7)

(2.8)

PET 316– Heat and Mass Transfer–Dr. D. V. Abraham and Prof. O. D. Orodu 28
 Derivation of heat conduction equation

Now
(2.9)

(2.10)

(2.11)

Similarly,
(2.12)

and,
(2.13)

PET 316– Heat and Mass Transfer–Dr. D. V. Abraham and Prof. O. D. Orodu 29
 Derivation of heat conduction equation

Now, plug in the above terms in the energy balance equation

and divide the equation by dx*dy*dz.
We will get:

(2.14)

This is the general heat conduction equation in Cartesian

coordinates.

PET 316– Heat and Mass Transfer–Dr. D. V. Abraham and Prof. O. D. Orodu 30
 Special cases
(a) Steady state
Steady state refers to a stable condition that does not
change over time. Time variation of temperature is zero.
Hence,
(2.15)
(b) Uniform properties
If the material is homogeneous and isentropic, the thermal
conductivity of the material would be constant.
(2.16)

Or,
(2.17)

The above equation is also known as POISSION’s Equation.

PET 316– Heat and Mass Transfer–Dr. D. V. Abraham and Prof. O. D. Orodu 31
 Special cases

c ) No heat generation
When there is no heat generation inside the element, the
differential heat conduction equation will become,
(2.18)
or,
(2.19)
The above equation is also known as LAPLACE Equation.
(d) One dimensional form of equation
If heat conduction in any one direction is in dominance over
heat conduction in other directions,
(2.20)

PET 316– Heat and Mass Transfer–Dr. D. V. Abraham and Prof. O. D. Orodu 32
 Governing law of heat conduction: Fourier’s law

Introduction
What is the statement of Fourier’s law?
The Fourier’s law is the governing law for heat conduction.
It states that the rate of heat conduction through a plane
layer is proportional to the temperature gradient across the
layer and the heat transfer area of the layer.
Basically, it is an empirical relation between the rate of heat
conduction heat transfer and temperature gradient in the
direction of heat flow.

PET 316– Heat and Mass Transfer–Dr. D. V. Abraham and Prof. O. D. Orodu 33
 Governing law of heat conduction: Fourier’s law
What is mathematical form of Fourier’s law?
In mathematical form, Fourier’s law can be written as follows,

Introducing proportionality constant k,

The meaning of terms:

A = cross-sectional area of the layer
L= thickness of the layer
the temperature gradient, which is negative in the direction of heat
transfer
k = thermal conductivity
The negative sign (-) is used to ensure that rate of heat transfer is a positive
quantity in the direction of heat transfer.

PET 316– Heat and Mass Transfer–Dr. D. V. Abraham and Prof. O. D. Orodu 34
 Example: Cylindrical Slab

Consider a copper cylindrical slab of constant cross-

sectional area 1m² and thickness 20 cm. The temperatures
of the left and the right ends of the slab are 150°C and 50°C,
respectively. Determine temperature gradient and rate of
heat transfer. The thermal conductivity of copper is 400
W/m°C.

PET 316– Heat and Mass Transfer–Dr. D. V. Abraham and Prof. O. D. Orodu 35
 Solution

Assumptions involved
The cross-sectional area of the slab is constant.
The slab is homogenous and isentropic.
The Thermal conductivity k of the slab is constant.
Temperature gradient across the layer is given by

PET 316– Heat and Mass Transfer–Dr. D. V. Abraham and Prof. O. D. Orodu 36
 Solution

Since,

the temperature gradient is negative. (Note: temperature

gradient is always negative in the direction of heat transfer.)
Now, how to apply Fourier’s Law?
As we have seen, the mathematical form of Fourier’s law is,

PET 316– Heat and Mass Transfer–Dr. D. V. Abraham and Prof. O. D. Orodu 37