POWDER

TECHNOLOGY
ELSEVIER Powder Technology 89 ( 1996 ) 45 56

A rate dependent model for turbulent flows of dilute and dense two phase
solid-liquid mixtures
Sameer Abu-Zaid, Goodarz Ahmadi
Department of Mechanical and Aeronautic~d Engineering. Clarkson University, Potsdam, NY 13699-5725. USA

Received 17 April 1995: revised 5 March 1996

Abstract

The thermodynamically consistent rate dependent model for turbulent flow of dense two phase solid-liquid mixtures derived previously is
extended to cover the entire range of solids volume fraction. The modifications needed for the phasic viscosity, as well as the particulate
energy dissipation rate, are included. It is shown that the model contains the existing kinetic models for rapid granular flows and dilute
turbulent two phase flows as special limiting cases, The model is then used to study the problem of simple shear flow of a two phase solid-
liquid mixture. The phasic shear and normal stresses, normal stress differences, fluctuation kinetic energy, production, dissipation and
interaction energy supply are evaluated and discussed. The predicted stresses are compared with experimental data and good agreement is
observed.

Keywords." Turbulent flow: Two phase mixture: Solid liquid phase: Energy dissipation rate; Granular flow

1. Introduction In this work, the equations governing the phasic motions

of two phase mixtures are briefly reviewed and the thermo-
dynamically consistent constitutive equations are described.
A wide range of industrial applications and natural phe-
The required modifications for particulate and fluid viscosi-
nomena involve the flow of dilute and dense two phase solid-
ties and fluctuations energy dissipation rates for extension of
liquid mixtures. Typical examples include coal slurry
the model to low concentration flows are discussed. The spe-
transport in pipelines, fluidized beds combustors and sedi-
cial case of simple shear flow of two phase solid-liquid
ment transports in rivers.
mixtures is studied in detail. Variations of shear and normal
Experimental investigations of dense two phase solid-liq-
stresses with solids volume fraction under a variety of con-
uid mixtures are relatively scarce. The pioneering work is
ditions are studied and the results are compared with the
due to Bagnold [1] who measured the particulate phasic
experimental data of B agnold [ 1 ] and Hanes and Inman [ 3].
stresses in a mixture of neutrally buoyant wax beads in water.
It is shown that the model naturally leads to the expected
More recently, Savage and McKeown J2] and Hanes and
normal stress differences. Variations of phasic fluctuation
Inman [ 3 ] carried out a series of experiments on dense solid-
kinetic energy, fluctuation energy production and dissipation,
liquid mixtures using a simple shear flow apparatus. In these
as well as interaction energy supply with solids volume
studies, variations of shear and normal stresses with solid fraction are also studied and discussed.
volume fraction and shear rates were measured. However, no
data on normal stress differences and phasic fluctuation
kinetic energies have been reported.
A number of turbulence models for two phase solid-liquid
mixtures were proposed in the past. Most of these works were
2. Basic equations
limited to dilute mixtures. Recent attempts in this direction
have been reported in Refs. [4-10]. Recently, others [ 11-
15] have developed thermodynamically consistent models The equations governing the transport of mass, momentum
for multiphase turbulent flows. The applicability of these and fluctuation energy for non-reacting two phase mixtures
models to flows of dense two phase solid-liquid mixtures was with incompressible fluid and particulate constituents are
also demonstrated in these studies. given [11] as
0032-5910/96/$15.00 ~C 1996 Elsevier Science S A All rights reserved
P//S0032 5910t96)03152 X
46 5" A h u Zaid, G. A h m a d i / P o w d e r 7 ) c h n o l o g y 89 (1996) 45 56

Conservation of mass where d~ is the deviatoric part of the deformation rate tensor,
O / D t stands for the Jaumann derivative, /,f a n d / z ~' are the
at + ~ x ( u"z,<')
; =0 (l) coefficients of mean viscosity, pff and/.t '*Tare the coefficients
of turbulence (eddy) v i s c o s i t y , f T a n d p ~x are the fluctuation
Ou t O pressures. T f and T" are fluctuation time scales and a,/3 and
,,';:', > : 0 (2> ~"are some material parameters.
The constitutive equations for the interaction momentum
Balance o f linear momentum supply terms are given by

pa.<'~7=~,> .s, +~+°t"+kl

dz'~ )<'t" .... " =" %
(3) P -Do(vi-t',), Do(c i - F I) (12)
where D{~ is the momentum exchange coefficient. Thermo-
dF', 1 I I
at-J~~ {tlJ'''rt - I dynamically consistent constitutive equations for fluctuation
pl>"' -g[ = p , v . f , + - ;%
7"+ 7%
~ + P , (4)
energy supply terms may be developed. These are given by

Balance of fluctuation kinetic energy =2Do(ok -k ), f I l -2Do(k

O()Vs - k 1) (13)

dk" where c is related to the ratio of the particle relaxation time

P°U --~-t= ' ; ' "-;" p ' + K ; ; - P ° t ' < d ~-Po~' s (5) to the Lagrangian time macroscale. Derivations of these equa-
tions are described in the Appendix. A more general expres-
I I d/~ ci -,I ~ - + sion for the fluid phase fluctuation energy supply term that
P°U -d- t = t ; ' ~ i i -- u, Pi Kjj-Pl)Uid+ D o' F 'S( (0)
accounts for the turbulence generation due to the mean par-
title-fluid slip velocity was suggested by Abu-Zaid and
The saturation condition requires that
Ahmadi [13]. Here, however, the simpler form given by
~,'*+ p~= 1 (7) Eq. (13) is used.
Constitutive equations for the fluctuation energzflfluxes
In these equations, t, is thc volume fraction, Po is the material
K,<' and K,,f density-velocity correlations viw, and v{" and
density, F is the mass weighted average velocity, k is the
dissipation rates d" and g were described by Ahmadi and Ma
fluctuation kinetic energy per unit mass, f is the body force
[ 16]. With these, Eqs. ( 1 ) - ( 1 3 ) form the governing phasic
per unit mass, e is the dissipation rate per unit mass, ~/' is the
equations for two phase mixtures.
density-velocity correlation,/7 is the mean pressure, Ks is the
fluctuation energy flux vector, fi, is the interaction momentum
supply and s is the interaction fluctuation energy supply.
3. M a t e r i a l p a r a m e t e r s and pressures
Superscripts oe and f denote quantities associated with partic-
ulate and fluid phases, respectively. In Eqs. (3) and (4), tll
Material parameters associated with different constitutive
is the mean particulate stress tensor. ~ is the combined par-
equations and expressions for various phasic pressures for a
ticulate fluctuation and collisional stress tensor, t-l) is the vis-
solid-liquid two phase mixture with uniform size spherical
cous part of the fluid stress tensor, and t ~,~is the turbulent part
particles are discussed in this section. In this case, the tur-
of the fluid stress tensor.
bulence (eddy) viscosities are given by
The thermodynamically consistent stress conductive equa-
tions as derived by Abu-Zaid and Ahmadi [ 131 are: ].ztT= C.C**,plluf(ki)2/~. ,U.<,T= C < , . ~ , p S u , d ( k , ) 1 / 2

to--p 8v Zla a,, (8) (14)

-- ca, (tT O ¢~lSaD tg< ¢~ e~ ,~ ~ 2 whcrc

I-U= p fi,+,./x aij + C pou k ( Y )
C<'= 0.0853(3.2 + 12.18v<'x),C ~'= 0.09
[ <, [~) ~<,D 2~,T<,~<iD~<tI2'.~<d)
× [ a Dtd,J + s - '~1~ <'*~ '~,)
C <~:¢ _
1 +(TL/<)(1 - u ~'l u r e ) 3,
(9) 1
C l* = (15)
I + ( ¢'ITL)( V<'Ivm) 3
t- i,j = --fi~,8,/+')./x ~'~l>
a,/ ( 10 )
In these equations, d is the particle diameter, r = is the particle
relaxation time scale, TL is the Lagrangian time macroscale,
t utT = p l T ~ J u ~- ~ / . t a ,) - I - / ~ I T T I _ ¢k a , ~ a. X is the radial distribution function and Um= 0.64356 is the
limiting solids volume fraction for continuous shearing.
Note that the coefficient of viscosity for the particulate
\3 tk-~i~',) d,,da~ (11) phase as given by Eq. ( 14 ) is a modified version of the earlier
work of Ahmadi and Ma [ 11 ] in that it includes only the
 S Abu-Zaid, (;. A h m a d t / P o w d e r l'echnoloK'; 89 (1996) 45-56 47

collisional contribution. The kinetic contribution which was the particle diameter. The non-collisional dissipation rate
derived for granular particles in a vacuum is expected to be becomes quite small as the solid volume fraction approaches
negligible due to the presence of the liquid phase. Coefficient the maximum packing limit. Furthermore, for very small par-
C"* is also introduced here to account for the reduction of ticles, the collisional contributions to the particulate energy
collisional effects as particle relaxation time becomes small. dissipation rate becomes negligible and e '~ is dominated by
A similar dependence of effective viscosity on particle relax- the non-collisional energy dissipation.
ation time was suggested earlier by Chen and Wood [ 7 ]. Stress constitutive equations given by Eqs. (9) and ( 11 )
The crowding effect of particles exhibits itself through the involve the fluctuation time scales of particulate and fluid
radial distribution function X. For spherical particles, Ma and phases. These are given by
Ahmadi [ 17] suggested
k+' 1 kf
T....... Tr=-= l (23)
1 + 2.5 u'~ + 4.59( u"): +4.52( ~'(')" e<, a,,(k~)l/2 ' @ at(U) '':
X= [ 1 - ( /,"+~/ e r a ) 3 1 0 6 7 N (16)
where the expressions for the dissipation rates as given by
which is in agreement with the exact virial expansion up to Eq. (20) are used. For spherical particles+ the values of par-
the ( ~,,~)3 term. ameters ad', ]3 ~ and ~'<+as suggested by Abu-Zaid and Ahmadi
The drag coefficient for spherical particles is given by [ 13 ] are given as
18/x~iv" [1 +0.1 (Res) u?S] 1
D~- d~ (1 --U"/Um) 25 ..... 17) ~t~=-( I - r2) ::5
2
where the particle Reynolds number is defined as 3 I[d'~l~
/ 3 " = ~ ( 1 -r2} 2~', ~'"=48('*" (24)
t,l;a I ,rl - <'I
Rea = Ul; 18 >
where
and/-*I; is the cocflicient of viscosity of the fluid phase, The d "+'= c<C"'+/'X( 1 - d ) ,
effects of solids volume fraction and particle Reynolds num-
ber on the drag coefficient are included in Eq. (17). C " " = 0 . 0 8 5 3 [ (Xu +') ~ + 3 . 2 + 12.18u~'X] (25)
The coefficient c in Eq. (13). the Lagrangian time scale Similarly, the coefficients o?, fit and (t are given by [ 18,19]
TL and the particle relaxation time r '~ are given by
I/3'1:
1 k' O ....L cr'=0.93, /T=0.54, (1= (26)
C= l +,r,,/T L, Tj.=0.16577, r"- DI; (19) 48

For the phasic coefficients of mean viscosity, the following

where D[; is given in Eq. ( 17 ). Note that c approaches unity
expressions may be considered:
for very small particles and/or as the solids volume fraction
approaches u,,,. u /xo
#~ = / x '+ = (27)
The dissipation rates may be expressed as __ ~, ] l~,133) ( ] __ 1jRI ) . . . .

e~=a"(k")~/:, e~ = at(,('~) ~': 20) These coefficients of mean viscosity resemble those sug-
with gested by Ishii and Mishima [20] and are consistent with
Einstein's equation for the effective viscosity of dilute
1 - r 2 C fD suspensions.
a"=C~'* ~ , , p " ~ ' - - j - + ~ , a'=C'D/ A ' 21)
The expression for the mean particulate pressure as derived
by Ahmadi I21 ] is given as
where r is the coeflicient of restitution, % = 3 . 9 1 and
C ~° = 0.165 are constants. The length macroscales of partic- p-~ = p-~ + p , l~
( ( ~, , _ ~ ,-'+
,)2 (28)
ulate and fluid turbulence, A ++and A ~, are given by
where the parameter ~ is given by
A " = C:~d / i t = C!,L(I P")
- - - (22) 3 L'"
C <~*' l-' m)
4( 1 - p,,)2 (29)
Here L is the characteristic length scale of the flow and C,~
and C'a are numerical constants. Values of C+[ =0.25 and Note that Eq. (28) is also consistent with the proposal of
C ~ = 0 . 1 0 are used in the subsequent studies. In Eqs. (20) McTigue et al. [ 22 ].
and (21), it is assumed that the particulate phase dissipation The fluctuation pressures in fluid and particulate phases
rate consists of two parts, collisional and non-collisional. At are given as [ 11 ]
low concentrations, where the collisional energy dissipation
is negligible, the particle dissipates energy in a manner similar P'~ = 201,
't
~/k' (30)
to that of the fluid phase with a length scale proportional to
48 S Abu-Z2#d, G. Ahmadi / Powder Technology 89 (1996) 45 56

and
r?t = - - p " T - - c ~ * ( & ) 2 ~ 2 + 52 (38)
p~T = p o p k (l +4t," X) +~ (1 - - r 2 ) (31)
_v++c°.p,>
(a~) °2 \ - ~ - T 2e"]52
] (39)
The particulate fluctuation pressure as given by Eq. (31)
includes both the kinetic and collisional effects.
¢~'.3 = --P+'T+c'~*(a,,,)2 6 Y- (40)

~72 =/x~r(1 4 (a,~)2~;UO,

~ k ~ --~
52) ~, (41)
4. Simple shear flows
and
In this section, simple shear flows of a two phase mixture
in the state of turbulent motion are considered. Let ~(y) and /'?.+--#~'5, (42)
t/"(y) denote the x-components of fluid and particle veloci-
Similarly, the non-trivial components of the fluid stress
ties, respectively. In the absence of body force and for steady
become
flows, the non-trivial components of the momentum equa-
tions as given by Eqs. (3) and (4) simplify to oz* ,/3"~ .?
t+~ = - p'T - O.545C'* p{W"~7 (-~ ± + y (43)
d[ bt, .i )dt~ "] d[ T ''2 (dz+i:~'i']
+ "+"+ j
131,1 fit

+ D[~((i + - a " ) =0 ( 32 )

and t!~r = _ per + 0.545C'* p l w ' ~ ~fl'- r+ (45)

d [ ir d a t ] d F T 12[d4'\31
L("'+*+ ] . ["'+"c'T[7} [
¢ 52).
(a,.)2k,,7 -/ (46)
+Dg(a"-a') =0 (33)
and
Eqs. (32) and (33) accept a simple shear flow solution of
the form (47)

tit = a " = u ( y) (34) Eqs. ( 38 ) -(40) and (43) -( 45 ) clearly show the anisotropy
of the particulate and the fluid normal stresses.
with For the case of a simple rapid shear flow, the total stresses
are the sum of the phasic stresses, that is:
du
= 5'= constant 35 I % = ~,,
A~jff-t,j,v (48)

where 5' is a constant shear rate. Here, for rapid shearing flow conditions, the collisional and
Using Eqs. (34) and (35), the evolution equations for the turbulence stresses dominate and, hence #,,<<pfc and
fluctuation energies as given by Eqs. (5) and (6) become /x,.<<pfr. Therefore, the effects of /x'~ and /xr may be
neglected.

C
"*-"
C Po
"v~'Ck~)1/2d52[1+ 4(a,)ek,,CU,j
--~+52 * ]
The corresponding total first and second normal stress dif-
ferences ¢h~and 4& may then be evaluated. These are
= p{{u¢+d'( k " ) 3 / 2 - 2D{{( ck I - k " ) 36) gh = re++- rtt = [C~*fi~k~(7~)z~'++tx'VTf~r]52 (49)

/112 ~ T3 t -- T22
0.545C*Plw'(k')~/2A~/2[l+ 4(a--~ktj~'~Y
]

= pl)p'a*(k~) ~/e - 2D~(k '~ - k ~) 37 ) -[ ' t 'I,T-T/ u ~7--21]r (50)

where Eqs. (9). (11), (20) and (23) are used. Eqs. 36)
and (37) now form two coupled equations for determining
k '~ and k f.
For the case of a simple shear flow, the expressions for the
non-zero components of the particulate stresses become
Eqs. (49) and (50) clearly show that the first normal stress
difference is always positive while th2 could change sign. The
positivity of ¢)1 is in contrast with the behaviour of polymeric
fluids, but is a well-documented fact for inertia driven single
and two phase flows.
 S Abu-Zaid, G. Ahma&/Po wde; Tech,,u.,logy 89 (1996) 45-56 49

5. Non-dimensional equations 6. Limiting cases

Introducing the non-dimensional particulate fluctuation In this section, different limiting cases of the model are
energy k ~*, the fluctuation energy ratio ~L the density ratio discussed. While particular attention is given to the special
So and the particle Reynolds number Rea defined as case of simple shear flows, most results are applicable to
general flows.
k '~ k' S p[ { Red_Pl¢124/
k'~* = d25'2' [] = k--~' ° - pl;' /xl; (51) For the limit of small size particles, the production and
dissipation terms in the particulate phase energy equation as
Eqs. (36) and (37) may be restated in a non-dimensional given by Eq. (36) become negligible. It then follows that
form as
k" = ckt (60)
oe
where c is given by Eq. (19). Using Eq. (60) in Eq. (14),
the expression for particulate viscosity becomes
36v ~'
+(c[~-l)(k"*) I/2 -0 (52) i~uT = CO.~,~p~u,,,d( ckt)1/2 (61)
( 1 - u'~/um)es""'Red
where
C'*[ ~l 1
0.545-~g-[l+4~af.)gk~,,i)-a'*,~k~*]v' (53) T°
C "* - (62)
TL( 1 -- p'~/pm) 3
f t - 1 , . /2 36u'~
~-~77~(k )' i l 7----,2s, =0 (53) Using Eq. (20) in Eq. (14), the turbulent viscosity of the
- v°'/urn) " '~Re.
fluid phase may be restated as
where i.zrr = c f * C*a p ro( 1 - ~,o,) ( kr) i /Z / a j (63)
a '~*=a'd, a j*=atd, d*=d/A 1 (54)
The ratio of the turbulent viscosities is now given by
are dimensionless. When the particle Reynolds number, the
density ratio and the solid volume fraction are specified, Eqs. = d* (64)
(68) and (69) form a set of two non-linear algebraic equa- i~ T 1-v"(I+r~/TL)I/2C f* C ~f
tions for determining the dimensionless particulate fluctua- where Eqs. ( 61 ) and (63) are used. Thus, for small particles,
tion energy and the fluctuation energy ratio. the fluctuation kinetic energy equation for the particulate
The non-dimensionalized components of the stress tensor phase reduces to Eq. (60) and the fluctuation viscosities of
are defined as the particulate and fluid phases are given by Eqs. (61) and
(63), respectively.
-7,: (55)
As the solids volume fraction becomes small, the phasic
¢ ~J fi S~ d 2
fluctuation energy Eqs. (36) and (37) reduce to
where
fi= p,'~u'~ + pl;(1 - ~,~') (56) kt.= 0.545 1 + 4(ar)akJ j,
is the density of the mixture. The non-dimensional first and
In this case
second normal stress differences are given as
c"* = :/TL, &=0.27, c"* = 1, A t.= CfAL (66)
I//? = r~2 - - ~'~11 (57)
and and Eq. (64) reduces to
,r e*
I't~'v 3S°u'~ - - d * C fD (67)
tx'w - ( 1 + r=/TL) 1/2 TL
Using Eq. (19), the ratio of the particle relaxation time to
the fluid turbulent Lagrangian time scale may be evaluated. Eq. (67) for the viscosity ratio shows a trend of variation
Restated in terms of non-dimensional parameters, the result with ,r~/TL which is similar to the equation suggested by
is given by Chen and Wood [7]. However, Eq. (67) is more general in
that it includes the effects of the solid volume fraction and
r'~/Tt = 0 . 3 3 7 ( 1 - u°'/ Um)25~''ReaS<clt*(k"*fl) 1'2 (59)
the physical properties of particles. Accordingly, an increase
where the dimensionless groups are defined in Eqs. (51 ) and in solid volume fraction, particle diameter and density ratio
(54). leads to an increase in turbulent viscosity of the particulate
Numerical solutions of Eqs. (52) and (53) and the vari- phase.
ations of non-dimensional stress are described in the subse- For dilute mixtures, the collisional part of the solid phase
quent sections. pressure becomes negligible and Eq. (31 ) reduces to
50 S Abu-Zaid. G, Ahmadi I Powder Technology 89 (1996) 45 56
2 The limiting cases presented show that accounting for non-
p,T = ~p;;t,"k"
which is the kinetic part of the particulate fluctuation pressure.
Furthermore. the coefficients of the mean viscosity of the
fluid and particulate phases are given by
Clearly, the effective viscosity/Z + / z '~ reduces to the famous
expression for the viscosity of a dilute suspension as derived
by Einstein [ 23].
For the limit of a highly dilute flow (i.e., u " = O ) , the
particulate stresses vanish and the components of the fluid
stress tensor are given by Eqs. ( 4 3 ) - ( 4 7 ) with
c'*=l, A'=C',L,
The model in this case reduces to the anisotropic k-e model
developed by Ahmadi and Chowdhury [11] lor turbulent
flow of a single phase fluid.
For larger particles with r" >> TL and an intermediate solid
volume fraction, from Eqs. (15) and (22) it follows that
C"* = l, C t* Tj. ,,'V' = C'~d
r"( S'/ u,,,)-"
Using Eq. (71 ), the phasic turbulent viscosities are given by
Eq. (14) become
= k')
• I~''t = C~p~'"d(k")t,':
( ~,"/~,,,,)3r'W
The ratio of the phasic turbulent viscosities is then given by
/,rr i Z i~-'~, TI. \t-~nJ ~ ~'~(] at*
Here, Eqs. (36) and (37) must be solved simultaneously for
determining k" and U. Eq. (73) shows that the fluctuation
viscosity of the particulate phase is generally much higher
than that of the liquid phase unless ~," is very small. The
particulate stresses, in this case, resemble that developed tor
rapid granular flows [16,24]. The present model, however,
includes the effects of interstitial fluid stresses.
For a dense mixture with relatively large particles, as the
solids volume fraction increases towards the maximum pack-
ing limit, Eqs. (15) and ( 2 2 ) l e a d t o
C"*=1, C I*=1, A"=CI~d
and A r and T ~ become small. The fluid fluctuation energy
equation as given by Eq. (37) reduces to
k r = k '~
and the phasic turbulent viscosities are given by Eq. (72). In
this case, the fluid phasic stress becomes negligible and the
particulate stresses as given by Eqs. ( 3 8 ) - ( 4 2 ) are consistent
with the results of Ahmadi and Abu-Zaid [16] for rapid
granular flows.
( 68 )
collisional particulate phase energy dissipation and variations
of phasic viscosities with particle relaxation time improves
the domain of applicability of the model. Comparisons of the
model predictions with experimental data are discussed in
the subsequent section.
(69) 7. Results and discussion
In this section, the predictions of the present model for
shear and normal stresses are compared with the experimental
data of Bagnold [ 1 ] and Hanes and Inman [ 3 ]. For different
values of parameters, the resulting phasic fluctuation energies
are evaluated and the corresponding stresses generated under
rapid shearing conditions are discussed.
(70) Bagnold [ 1 ] performed an extensive experimental study
of stresses generated by rapid shearing of a wax beads-water
mixture in a cylindrical simple shear flow device. The gap
width between the cylinder was 1.08 cm and the wax particles
had a diameter of 1.32 mm. The experiment was conducted
for different values of shear rates ranging from 7 to 240 s 1
and a wide range of solid volume fraction. The data of Bag-
( 71 ) nold[ 1 ] for particulate stresses are reproduced in Fig. 1 and
Fig. 2. The predictions of the present model for the non-
dimensional phasic and total shear and normal stresses are
shown in these figures for comparison. A coefficient of res-
titution of r = 0.2 as suggested by Bagnold [ 1 ] for wax beads
in water and an average value of 120 s ~ for shear rate are
(72)
used in the analysis. It is observed that the agreement between
the predicted and experimentally measured particulate
stresses is very good. Fig. 1 and Fig. 2 also show that the
contribution of the fluid phase to the total stress is very high
(73) at a low solid volume fraction and becomes negligible for
u'*>_ 0.35. In contrast, the solid phase contribution to the total
stress is dominant at high solid volume fractions but becomes
negligible for t ,~ _.<0.15.
Variations of non-dimensional total shear and normal
stresses for a 1.1 mm diameter glass beads-water mixture
with solid volume fraction as predicted by the present model
10 2 0 Bognold (1954)
, Total Stress 0
Porticulate Stress
. . . . . .
- - - Fluid Stress
t
0 *
(74)
10
(75)
o.oo 0.40 o.~o oAo o.4o' o.go o.~o o.~o
SOLID VOLUME FRACTION
Fig. 1. Variations of non-dimensional shear stress with solid volume fraction.
Comparison with the experimental data of Bagnold [ 1] for 1.32 mm wax
beads in water.
 3 Atm-/aid, (; Ahmadt /Powder Technolog> 89 (1996) 45 56 51

lC z= 10
O Bognold (1954) I 0 H o n e s e n d Inman
- - rotel S t r e s s - - Totel S t r e s s
...... Particulate Stress ...... Pdrtlculate Stress
-- Fluid S t r e s s
10 --- Fluid S t r e s s 0 /
lO

¢ .-'"

//
." [
/" i
10 ~ I ,
O.OO O,10 O.½0 0.30 0.-40 O.5O O.60 0.70 1°~.oo o.Io o.~o 0.;0 o~o o.go o.go 0.70
SOLID V O L U M E FRACTION SOLID VOLUME FRACTION

Fig. 2. Variations of non-dimensional normal stress with solid volume frac- Fig. 4. Variations of non-dhnensional normal stress with solid volume frac-

tion. Comparison with the experimental data of Bagnold [ I } for 1.32 m m tion. Comparison with the expemnental data of Hanes and lmnan [ 3 ] ('or
wax beads in water 1.1 m m glass beads in water.

lO=. 6.0
0 Hones ond Inrnon - - SO = 1.00
- - Total Stress \ ...... So = 2.48
...... Porticulote Stress
--- Fluid S t r e s s

~'4.0
lO
L,J e

?, z
2.0

ft.
.'-.\
0.0 "- i i- " r I I I
10 -~ "'"" ~
o.oo o30 o.~o o.~o o.~o o.so o.~o 0.7o 0,00 0.10 0.20 0.30
SOLID VOLUME FRACTION
0,4-0 0.50 0.60 0.70
SOLID VOLUME FRACTION
Fig. 3. Variations of non-dimensional shear stress with solid volume fraction. Fig 5. Variations of non-dimensional first normal stress difference with
Comparison with the experimental data of Hanes and lnman [ 3 ] for 1.1 m m solid volume fraction for different density ratios.
glass beads in water
3.0
- - So = 1.00
. . . . . . So = 2.48
are shown in Fig. 3 and Fig. 4. The experimental data of --- So = 2 0 0 0
Hanes and l n m a n [ 3 ] for total stress components are repro-
duced in these figures for comparison. The width of the exper-
imental shear cell was 1.6 cm and the shear rate was in the ~ 2.0

range 35-264 s ~ for conditions of rapid shearing. Here, a

value of 200 s ~ for the shear rate, So = 2.48 and a restitution
0
coefficient of r = 0.55 are used in the analysis. Fig. 3 and Fig. z 1.0

4 show that the stress components as predicted by the present o

model are in good agreement with the experimental data of
Hanes and Inman [ 3 ] . It is also observed that for ~,">_ 0.25
the fluid phasic stresses are negligible and the particulate
stresses are dominant. For u~'_< 0.15, however, the stresses
generated are mainly due to the fluid phase.
Predictions of the present model for the non-dimensional
first and second total normal stress differences are shown in
Fig. 5 and Fig. 6 for different density ratios. These figures
show that the first normal stress difference is larger than the
second, and they both decease rapidly with solid volume
fraction. Furthermore, the non-dimensional normal stress dif-
ferences decrease as density ratio increases. Unfortunately,
no experimental data for normal stress differences are avail-
able tbr comparison. However, Ahmadi and Abu-Zaid [161
and Abu-Zaid and Ahmadi [25] showed that the predicted
bq
0.0
o.0o o.~0 0.2o' 030 o.,~0 0.50' 0.8o' 0.70
SOLID VOLUME FRACTION
Fig. 6. Variations of non dimensional second normal stress difference with
solid volume fraction for different density ratios
normal stress differences of the present model for the limit
of granular flows are in good agreement with the digital
simulation data of Walton and Braun [ 26] and Campbell and
Gong [ 27 ].
For 1.1 m m glass beads in water, variations of non-dimen-
sional particulate and fluid fluctuation kinetic energies with
solids volume fraction for different values of density ratio So
are shown in Fig. 7 and Fig. 8. It is observed that the fluctu-
ation kinetic energy of the particulate phase remains nearly
52 S. Abu-Zaid, G Ahmadt / Powde~ Techmdog~' 89 (1996) 45-56

0.5 5.0
...... So = 2,48 Total Energy Production
OC" - - So = 1 . 0 0 ...... Solid Phase Energy Production
LO --- Fluid Phase Energy Production
5 4.0
0.4

z
§s
530
0..3

2.0

5
D 0.2
c)
F-- 1.0
(3.

0.1 o.0 ............... - " " = ' ~ .......

o.oo o.~o o.:~o o..~o o.~.o o.~o o./,o o.7o o.oo o.~o o.~o 030 o.~o o.~o o.~o 0.70
SOLID VOLUME FRACTION SOLID VOLUME FRACTION
Fig. 7. Variations of non-dimensional particulate fluctuation kinetic energy Fig. 9. Variations of non-dimensional fluctuation energy production with
with solid volume fraction for glass beads and two different density ratios solid volume fraction for 1. I m m particles and So = 2.48.

1 O.O 0.8
- - Production
0.7 ...... Dissipation
- - So = 1.00 --- Source
8.0 ....... So = 2.48
0.6

~ 0.5
m
. 0.4

o 0.3
~ 4.0
'"', /
c~ 0.2
/
ff 2.0 0.1

O.O

O.O -01
o.oo 0.40 o.~o 030 0.40 o.go o.go 0.70 o.oo o30 o.:~o O..~o o.J.o o.~o o.~o o.70
SOLID VOLUME FRACTION SOLID VOLUME FRACTION

Fig. 8. Variations of non-dimensional fluid fluctuation kinetic energy with Fig. 10. Variations of non-dimensional fluctuation energy production,dis-
solid volume fraction for glass beads and two different density ratios, sipation and source terms of the fluid phase with solid volume fraction for
1.32 m m particles and So = 1.0.

constant as u ~ increases. However, k ~* decreases sharply with

0.20
solid volume fraction and becomes equal to k'~* for u '~> 0.4.
- - So=l.OO d=1.32mrn
These variations are consistent with the limiting conditions ...... So=2.48 d=l.10mm
l
described earlier. Figs. 7 and 8 show that as the density ratio
increases, the non-dimensional particulate fluctuation kinetic ~
(z 010 ~./,/
energy increases slightly. In contrast, k f* decreases slightly
as the density ratio increases.
The non-dimensional total as well as phasic fluctuation
O.0O ," ' " "
energy productions for the 1.1 mm glass beads-water mixture
are shown in Fig. 9. It is observed that the fluid phase domi-
"N ..-'"
nates the fluctuation energy production at low concentration,
while the solid phase contribution becomes dominant at high -0.10
o.oo o.lo o.~o o.~o o.lO O.gO O.gO 0.7O
solid volume fractions. SOLID VOLUME FRACTION
Fig. 11. Variations of non-dimensional fluctuation energy source of the fluid
Variations of fluctuation energy production, dissipation
phase with solid volume fraction for So = 1.0 and 1.32 m m wax beads and
and energy supply of the fluid phase for a mixture of water So = 2.48 and 1.1 m m glass beads.
and neutrally buoyant 1.32 mm wax particles are shown in
Fig. 10. It is observed that, for u~<0.35, the fluctuation tuation energy is being transferred to the fluid phase and is
energy production is larger than the dissipation rate and the being dissipated by fluid turbulence.
fluid fluctuation energy supply is negative. Thus, in this For mixtures of water with 1.32 mm wax and 1.1 mm glass
range, fluctuation energy is being transferred away from the beads, Fig. l 1 shows variations of fluctuation energy supply
fluid phase. For large solid volume fractions, however, the of the fluid phase with u '~. It is observed that the fluctuation
fluid fluctuation energy production becomes small and the energy supply changes sign at a solid volume fraction of about
fluid energy dissipation is roughly balanced by the (positive) 0.3~0.4. For small ~,'~, the fluid interaction energy supply is
interaction fluctuation energy supply. That is, particulate flue- negative. This indicates that the fluctuation energy is being
 S. Abu-Zaid, G. Ahmadi / Powder Technology 89 (1996) 45-56 53

transferred away from the fluid phase. The process is reversed
at higher solid volume fractions and the fluid phase receives
energy from the particulate phase. Fig. 1 l also shows that the
fluid phasic fluctuation energy supply for the wax bead par-
ticles is slightly higher than that of the glass bead particles.
For 0.11 mm diameter glass beads-water mixtures, the
phasic particulate and fluid energy budgets are shown in
Fig. 12 and 13. For u"<0.45, Fig. 12 clearly shows that the
fluctuation energy production by the particulate phase is neg-
ligibly small and the energy dissipation rate is nearly balanced
by the energy supply. For ~,~> 0.5, however, the collision
mechanism takes over and the particulate fluctuation energy
production increases rapidly with ~,% In this range, the par-
ticulate fluctuation energy supply becomes negative which
indicates loss of phasic fluctuation energy. Fig. 13 shows that
the fluid phase energy production is generally higher than its
dissipation. The fluid interaction energy supply is negative
and fluctuation energy is being transferred from the fluid
phase to the particulate phase. Hence, for small size particles,
the fluid phase dominates the fluctuation energy production
for almost the entire range of solids volume fraction except
for the highly dense mixtures.
Variations of the phasic energy supplies for 0.11 mm glass
beads-water mixtures with u '~ are shown in Fig. 14. This
40.0
- - Production
. . . . . . Dissipation
.... Source
30.0
k Solid Phase Energy Source
\
20.0 \
\\
figure clearly shows that, for u"< 0.5, fluctuation energy is
being transferred from the fluid phase to the particulate phase.
The transported energy is quite large at small solid volume
fraction and decreases with ~,% At high solid volume fractions
the process is reversed and the particulate phase loses energy
through the interaction effects. As noted in the Appendix,
interaction energy supplies include the interaction energy
dissipation. Thus, they are not equal in magnitude and oppo-
site in sign and their net sum is always negative. These qual-
itative variations are clearly observed in Fig. 14.
To study the effect of particle diameter on stresses,
mixtures of water and glass bead particles are considered.
Eqs. (52) and (53) are solved for several values o f d a n d u '~
and the corresponding phasic and total shear stresses are
evaluated. Eqs. (41), (46) and (48) and an average value
of 3~= 200 s--~ are used in these analyses. The resulting
stresses are shown in Fig. 15-17. Fig. 16 shows that as the
particle diameter increases, the phasic particulate shear stress
increases rapidly. Fig. 17 indicates that shear stress of the
fluid phase does not vary with particle size. The total shear
stresses shown in Fig. 15 have a minimum at some interme-
diate value of u". It is also observed that the total shear stress
increases significantly with d for large values of u '~. However,
it is not affected by changes in d at small solid volume
fractions.
50.0
....... Fluid Phase Energy Source
30.0

10.0 uJ~ 10.O

~ O.D
~_ ,
-I0.0

-10.0 "
-30.0 ,""
-20.0 /
o.oo o.1o o.~o o.~o o.4o' 0.5o' 0.40 0.7o ,,
SOLID VOLUME FRACTION -50.0 ~
Fig. 12. Variations of non-dimensional fluctuation energy production, dis- o.oo o.1o 0.20 0.30 o.;,o o.~o o.oo 0.70
SOLID VOLUME FRACTION
sipation and source terms of the particulatephase with solid volume fraction
Fig. 14. Variations of non-dimensional phasic fluctuation energy source with
for 0.11 mm particles and S~= 2.48.
solid volume fraction for O.l l m m glass particles and S o = 2 . 4 8 .

90.0 - - Production 10'

. . . . . . . Dissipation ~. . . . . . . . d=1,10 ¢Ttm ,/" /
--- Source ~ _ .... d=0.55 mm ,'" //
70.0 "~.-- d=O.11 i m m / ' ' I

50.0

r 30.0

: 10.0
N lO

-30.0
/
t
-5o.o ~,
o.oo o.1o o.~o 0.30 o.;,o o.~o 0.40 0.70
SOLID VOLUME FRACTION 1
o.oo o.~o olo oJo o.~o o.go o.~o 0.70
Fig. 13. Variations of non-dimensional fluctuation energy production, dis- SOLID VOLUME FRACTION
sipation and source terms of the fluid phase with solid volume fraction for Fig. 15. Variations of dimensional total shear stress with solid volume frac-
O. 11 m m particles and So = 2.48. tion for different values of particle diameter.
54 S Abu-Zatd, (i. A h m a d i / P o w d e r 7 e c h m d o g y b~9 (I 996) 4 5 - 5 6

10 8. Conclusions
...... d=l,10 mm ,"" /

,"

The earlier thermodynamically consistent model for dense

[~ ,,
two phase mixtures is extended to cover the moderate range
V, lO of solid volume fraction. The phasic turbulent viscosities are
modified to account for dependence on particle relaxation
time. The models for interaction energy supplies are exam-
,/ ined carefully. Based on micro-mechanical analysis, an
improved expression for the fluid interaction energy supply
is derived. Different limiting cases are discussed and it is
1 shown that the model contains the earlier models for dilute
o.oo o.~o o.~o oJo o.~o o.go o.~o 0.70
SOLID VOLUME FRACTION two phase flows and rapid flow of granular materials as spe-
Fig. 16. Variations of dimensional particulate shear stresses with solid vol
cial limiting cases. The model is then used to analyze the
ume fraction for different values of particle diameter.
problem of simple shear flow of dilute and dense two phase
solid-liquid mixtures. Variations of shear and normal
lO
stresses, fluctuation kinetic energy, fluctuation energy pro-
...... d = 1 . 1 0 m m
~.~ ~ ---- d:0:55 m m duction, dissipation rate and interaction energy supply for
different phases with solid volume fraction are studied. Based
on the presented results, the following conclusions may be
drawn:
~10 1. The predicted shear and normal stresses for turbulent sim-
ple shear flows are in good agreement with the available
experimental data for the entire range of solid volume
fractions.
2. The model has the capability of predicting the expected
1
normal stress differences.
o.oo 0.io 030 0.~,0 o.4.o O.gO 0.4o 0.70 3. The anisotropy in the normal stress components decreases
SOLID VOLUME FRACTION
Fig. 17 Variations of dimensional fluid shear stress with solid volume as solid volume fraction increases and decreases with
fraction for different values of particle diameter. increase in density ratio.
4. For a density ratio So>_ 1, the fluid fluctuation kinetic
10 energy per unit mass is, generally, higher than that of the
Present Model ,~ \ ,,j" particulate phase.
-- Thomas (1965"~ " ~ ' , /~
--- Einstein (1906} ~ \ \ , , ~ \ ....... 5. The particulate phase dominatcs fluctuation energy pro-
," ×, duction for high solid volume fractions while the fluid
o phase is the dominating phase at low concentrations.
6. The model is applicable to mixtures with a particle size in
N 10
the range of 100/,tm to a few millimeters.
The model presented is suitable for analyzing mixtures at
moderate concentrations. The material parameters are eval-
uated for spherical particles with diameters of about 1 mm.
The extension of the model to small size particles of the order
t of a few micrometers requires the revaluation of material
o.oo o.Io o.~o oJo o.~o o.;o o.& 0.70
SOLID VOLUME FRACTION coefficients.
Fig. 18. Variations of effective viscosity with solid volume fraction
Cmnparison with different models.

In the absence of a fluctuation field, variation of the non-

dimensional effective viscosity of the mixture, (/.t *+/x") / Acknowledgements
/xll, with u" as given by Eq. (27) is shown in Fig. 18 by, the
solid line. The model of Einstein [ 23 ] for a dilute suspension, The support of this work by the US Department of Energy
the experimental data collected by Thomas [28] and his (University Coal Research Program, PETC) under Grant
suggested empirical equation are also shown in this figure for DE-FG22-94PC94213 is gratefully acknowledged. Thanks
comparison. It is observed that Eq. (27) is in reasonable are also given to Cornell University for the use of their super-
agreement with that of Thomas and the experimental data. computer facilities.
 S. Abu /aid. (7. Ahmadi / Powder l?chnoloKv 89 (1996)45 56 55

Appendix A. Fluctuation energy sources where R, ~ is the autocorrelation function of the fluid velocity
defined as
The phasic fluctuation energy supplies defined by Ahmadi
a n d M a [ l l ] are RI)(~-) = t,l"(t + ~ ' ( t ) (At0)

pou s - u o t z ~ t,,-z,~ v~ ) (AI) For

and RI)(O) = ~ exp(-IOI/TL) (All)

f
pous-Do(z
1 I" (r
i z,--'tr, P-'i ) (A2) where TL is the fluid turbulent macroscale, Eq. (A9) leads to

where t,t, and c / " are the fluctuation velocities of the partic- ~=~(l-c) (AI2)
ulate and fluid phases, and a bar stands for the expected value. Using Eqs. ( A I 2 ) and (A5) if follows that
Here it is assumed that the solids volume fraction does not
vary appreciably and the differences between mass weighted td'~"s' = 2 D ~ ( k ~ - k ' ) (AI3)
and regular fluctuating velocities are ignored.
which is an explicit expression for the fluid interaction energy
For a dilute suspension, an expression R)r the fluctuation
supply.
energy supply of the particulate phase was derived by Ahmadi
Suppose that the particles are made to fluctuate by some
and Ma [11]"
external means in a motionless fluid, Eq. ( A I 3 ) implies that
pc~u'~s ~ = 2D~{( c U - k ~) ( A3 ) at the equilibrium condition, k ~ = k ~ will be reached. Eq.
(A3), on the other hand, indicates that when particles
where c is given by Eq. ( 19).From Eqs. ( A I ) and (A2) it
encounter a fluid turbulence, they could acquire a fluctuating
follows that
energy of k '~ = ckq Thus, the large and heavy particles fluc-
p o t ' S~ ' ±
. . .p.o. .v. . . .~ -- _ D'~(),f -t'~') 2 (A4) tuate less than the light and smaller ones.
It should be pointed out that Eqs. (A3) and (AI 3) are also
Using Eq. (A3), Eq. (A4) may be restated as
thermodynamically consistent. For an isothermal mixture, the
entropy inequality imposes the following restriction on the
pl)ulst=2D~{ U ~ - c k t - w; (A51
interaction energy supply terms [ 11 ]:
, ! • I)
where a, = ~ - t,, is the difference in fluctuating v eloci- (plluts t + p~u'~s~) >_0 (A14)
ties. In the earlier work of Ahmadi and Ma [ 111 g',,t2 was where it is assumed that thermal coldness is much less than
neglected and #~Wts~= - p ~ , " s " was used. It was also sug-
that of turbulence.
gested that this additional loss of energy be accounted for as Substituting for the interaction energy supply terms from
part of the dissipation rates. In this Appendix, derivation of
Eqs. (A3) and (A13) into Eq. ( A I 4 ) , it follows that
an explicit expression for ~w ~-is attempted.
The equation of motion of a single particle in a turbulent
flow field written in terms of relative velocity is given by
(1 - c ) k ' = ('r~/TL)k.'.>O
1 +'r"/TL-
(A15)

dw ' 1 dv I' w h i c h indicates that the entropy inequality is always satisfied.

dt ~-~ t~'~- dt ( A6 )

where only the Stokes drag force is considered. The solution

to this equation is given as References

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" =-
~4~ z,t,'(t)+~l
T~ i e x p [ - ( t - O l / ~ - ~ ] r l ' ( O ) dO (A7) [2] S.B. Savage and S. McKeown, J. Fluid Mech., 127 (1983) 453.
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[9] M. Sommerfeld, A. Ando and D. Wennerberg, J. Fluid Eng., 114
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